Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used in Xalpatlahuac,
Guerrero, México
María del Carmen Juárez-Vázquez a,n, Candy Carranza-Álvarez b,
Angel Josabad Alonso-Castro c, Violeta F. González-Alcaraz a, Eliseo Bravo-Acevedo a, Felipe
Jair Chamarro-Tinajero b, Eloy Solano a
a
Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F., Mexico
Unidad Académica Multidisciplinaria de la Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
c
Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F., Mexico
b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 9 February 2013
Received in revised form
22 April 2013
Accepted 25 April 2013
Available online 9 May 2013
Ethnopharmacological importance: Medicinal plants have been used for centuries for the empirical
treatment of many diseases. This study documented the use of plant species in traditional medicine in
the municipality of Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, México.
Materials and methods: Direct interviews were performed with inhabitants from Xalpatlahuac. The
interviews were analyzed with two quantitative tools: (a) the informant consensus factor (ICF) that
estimates the level of agreement about which medicinal plants may be used for each category and (b) the
relative importance (RI) that determines the extent of potential utilization of each species.
Results: A total of 67 plant species with medicinal purposes, belonging to 36 families and used to treat 55
illnesses and 3 cultural filiations were reported by interviewees.
Nineteen mixtures with medicinal plants were reported by the interviewers. Mentha piperita was the
most used plant for combinations (4 mixtures). The results of the ICF showed that diseases of the
respiratory and digestive systems had the greatest agreement. The most versatile species according to
their RI are Marrubium vulgare, Mimosa albida and Psidium guajava..
Conclusion: This study demonstrates that plant species play an important role in healing practices and
magical–religious rituals among inhabitants from Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico. Furthermore, pharmacological, phytochemical and toxicological studies with medicinal flora, including mixtures, are
required for the experimental validation of their traditional uses.
& 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Medicinal flora
Relative importance
Informant consensus factor
Ethnopharmacological field study
Traditional medicine
1. Introduction
Mexico has one of the greatest biodiversities in the world and a
vast variety of traditional knowledge which should be preserved
and validated scientifically. The Mexican herbolary contains various native plants as well as many other introduced plants from
diverse parts of the world. Mexican medicinal plants have been
used for centuries for the empirical treatment of many diseases
and magical–religious practices.
In Mexico there are approximately 62 different ethnic groups,
each with its own culture, dialect and medicinal herbal repertoire
(Aguilar, 1994). The Aztecs, one of the most important MesoAmerican civilizations in pre Hispanic times in Mexico, were from the
ethnic group Nahua. Currently, the Nahuas are considered the
n
Correspondence to: Batalla 5 de mayo s/n esquina Fuente de Loredo, Colonia
Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, 09230 Distrito Federal, Mexico. Tel.: +52 57736330.
E-mail addresses: carmenjuarezv@gmail.com,
Carypuma@gmail.com (M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez).
0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.04.048
largest indigenous group in Mexico with 2.5 million of population,
distributed in the center and southern of Mexico, mainly in the
states of Mexico, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Morelos, Puebla, Hidalgo,
Michoacán, Tlaxcala and Guerrero (INEGI, 2004).
According to the Aztecs, a disease is the result of the lost in the
equilibrium between the interaction of body and the cosmos and
therefore treatments for diseases were directed toward restoring
this order (Guerra, 1966). The Aztecs used herbs if the ailment was
of minor importance. Nevertheless, if the disease was acute and
dangerous, it was considered that the patient had committed a
terrible sin. There was a close relationship between a god and a
specific type of disease as far as cause and treatment were
concerned. For instance, Tlaloc, the god of waters, was responsible
for rheumatic ailments, the gout and syndromes related to dampness and cold (Guerra, 1966). The efficacy of medicinal herbolary
practices was tested by the Spaniards and many remedies were
quickly diffused to Europe and became common in the European
pharmacopoeia of the late 16th and subsequent centuries. In
addition the Aztec civilization recorded the use of medicinal plants
522
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
in “codices”, catalogs that indicated the drawing and use of diverse
plant species.
On the other hand, interdisciplinary research on ethnobotany
requires the collaboration between botanists, phytochemists, ethnologists, pharmacologists, ecologists and physicians (Frei et al.,
1998). However, there are few ethnobotanical studies in Mexico
which have been carried out using quantitative tools. This ethnobotanical study regarding the use of medicinal plants was carried
out in the municipality of Xalpatlahuac (Guerrero, Mexico), which
is a part of the region called La Montaña. This area is located in the
northeastern of the state of Guerrero, and includes 19 from the 81
municipalities of the state of Guerrero where almost 80% of
population belongs to ethnic group Nahua (Enciclopedia
Guerrerense, 2012). In our knowledge, this is the first report
regarding the use of medicinal plants, using quantitative tools, in
the state of Guerrero, Mexico.
Fig. 1. Map of the study area, municipality of Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study site
The municipality of Xalpatlahuac is located at 17º 26′ 37″ and
171 31′ 31″ north latitude and 981 26′ 37″ and 981 39′ 50″ west
longitude (Fig. 1). The autochthonous languages are nahuatl and
mixteco. The name of Xalpatlahuac comes from nahuatl and
means “in the wide sand”. The main economical activities are
agriculture and animal breeding (Enciclopedia Guerrerense, 2012).
The weather is semiwarm with an annual mean temperature
between 18 and 22 ºC and an annual mean precipitation of
900 mm. The predominant vegetation is tropical deciduous forest.
The fauna in the region is mainly composed by rabbit, scorpion,
hare, iguana, coyote, vulture, bobcat and deer (Enciclopedia
Guerrerense, 2012).
Xalpatlahuac consists of 15 towns, encompasses an area of
393.6 km2, which represents 0.25% of total area in the state, and
has a total population of 12 615 inhabitants, of which 78.5% belong
to the ethnic group Nahua (Enciclopedia Guerrerense, 2012).
Moreover, 55.9% of population corresponds to the age group of
20 years or younger. However, indigenous people from Xalpatlahuac live under extreme poverty conditions.
2.2. Data collection
Direct interviews with general population from Xalpatlahuac,
Tlapa, Tlacomulco, Tlayecac, Tepetlatipa, Tepec, Santa Cruz, San
Miguel, San Marcos, San Andres and Ixotitla and, towns of
Xalpatlahuac, were performed from December 2011 to May 2012.
A total of 118 inhabitants, 29 men and 89 women, in an age group
between 12 and 95 years, were interviewed individually. The
informants were chosen randomly. Before beginning the interviews, the consent of each inhabitant to reveal information was
obtained. Interviews were conducted through a semi-structured
questionnaire. The questions were about the common and local
name of the plant used, medicinal use of plant species, preparation, and the plant parts used. Specimens were identified and
deposited at Herbario of Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza,
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México (FEZA). The botanical
correct names were corroborated at Missouri Botanical GardenTropicos (2010) and International Plant Names Index (2008).
2.3. Data analysis
The diseases treated with medicinal flora from Xalpatlahuac
were grouped into 13 categories based on the classification used
by the International Classification of Diseases used by the World
Health Organization (ICD, 2007). The relative importance (RI) of
the species cited was calculated (adapted from Bennett and
Prance, 2000) according to the following formula:
RI ¼ NCS þ NP;
NCS ¼
NCSS
;
NSCSV
NP ¼ NPS=NPSV
NCS is the number of body systems, which is obtained dividing
NCSS, the number of body systems treated by a given species, by
NSCSV, the total number of body systems treated by the most
versatile species. NP is the number of pharmacological properties,
which is obtained by dividing NPS, the number of properties
attributed to a species, by NPSV, the total number of properties
attributed to the most versatile species. The result can have a
maximum value of 2, indicating the most versatile species.
The informant consensus factor (ICF), adapted by Heinrich et al.
(1998), estimates the level of agreement between interviewees
about which plants to use for each category, and was calculated as
follows:
ICF ¼
nur nt
nur−1
where nur is the number of citations of the medicinal plant in each
category and nt is the number of citations of the uses given to the
plant in each category. The result of this factor ranges from 0 to 1,
where a value close to 1 indicates a well-defined selection
criterion in the community and/or if that information is exchanged
between informants, whereas a low value indicates that plant
species are chosen randomly, or that informants do not exchange
information about their use.
3. Results
3.1. Use of medicinal flora
A total of 67 plant species with medicinal purposes, belonging
to 36 families were reported by interviewees. Six medicinal plants
can only be found in Mexico: Gnaphalium oxyphyllum, Lippia
berlandieri, Salvia leucantha, Hechtia podantha, Ceanothus coeruleus
and Casimiroa edulis. The medicinal plants were reported to treat
55 illnesses and 3 cultural filiations (Table 1). The most common
families are: Asteraceae (10 plants), Fabaceae (8 plants), Lamiaceae
(5 plants) and Rutaceae (4 plants) (Table 1). None of the medicinal
flora mentioned by the informants are endangered species. The
most commonly mentioned species were Chenopodium ambrosioides (n¼ 53), Mentha piperita (n ¼45), Ruta chalepensis (n¼ 30),
Matricaria recutita (n ¼29) and Psidium guajava (n¼ 24) (Table 1).
The most frequently used parts are leaves (41 plants), whole plant
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
523
Table 1
Plant species used for medicinal purposes in Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, México.
Relative
Number
importance
of
mentions
Family
Scientific name Voucher
Geographical coordinates
Common name
[Nahuatl name]
Part used
Preparation/
Application
Ailment/ Symptoms
Acanthaceae
Justicia spicigera Schltdl. FEZA 7292
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Mangifera indica L. FEZA 7251
N17127.765′W98136.342′
Schinus molle L. FEZA 7283
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Muicle [Muictli]
Leaves
Chicken pox, Wounds
1
0.73
Mango [Manilatzapotl]
Leaves
Infusion/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Cough
3
0.36
Pirul [peloncuáhuitl]
Leaves
Cough Fever
12
0.73
Hinojo [Diojo xuitl]
Whole
plant
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Cough, Stomachache,
Bronchitis
Cough, To keep away from
bad spirits
Hemorrhoids, Toothache
4
0.9
8
0.73
4
0.73
Anacardiaceae
Apiaceae
Apocynaceae
Arecaceae
Asteraceae
Foeniculum vulgare (L.) Mill FEZA 7311
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Nerium oleander L. FEZA 7298 N17128′
11″W98136′22″
Thevetia thevetioides (Kunth.) K.
Schum FEZA 12387 N17128.089′
W98136.874'
Cocos nucifera L. FEZA 7304 N17128′
11″W98136′22″
Archibaccharis hieraciifolia Heering
FEZA 7728 N17128.194′W98136.781′
Artemisia ludoviciana subsp mexicana
(Willd. ex Spreng.) D.D. Keck FEZA
7313 N17127.765′W98136.342′
Laurel [–]
Calaverita [Yoyotli]
Flower
Fruit
Maceration/
Topical
Coco [Cocotl]
Shell
Infusion/Oral
Diarrhea, Vermifuge
2
0.73
Atlina [Caxancapaxtli]
Leaves
Infusion/Bath
3
0.73
Estafiate [Iztauhyaitl]
Whole
plant
Tincture/
Topical
Maceration/
Topical
Maceration/
Inhalation
Postpartum, Prevent
swelling
Antibiotic, Antiseptic,
Stomachache, To keep away
from bad spirits, Colic
7
1.63
1
0.36
Cough, Fever, Hemorrhoids, 5
Urinary infection
Conjuntivitis, Headache,
29
Stomachache
1.46
Santa María
Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.)
[Caltemesha]
Bernh. FEZA 7309 N17128′11″W98136′
22″
Gnaphalium oxyphyllum DC. FEZA
Gordolobo [Gordolobo]
12384 N17127.765′W98136.342′
Matricaria recutita L. FEZA 7306
Manzanilla [–]
N17128′11″W98136′22″‘
Senecio sp.FEZA 7263 N17127.003′
W98138.104′
Azumiate [Axochitl]
Tagetes erecta L. FEZA 7273
Cempazúchitl
N17128.089′W98136.874′
[Cempoalxóchitl]
Tagetes lucida Cav. FEZA 7723 N17128′ Flor de perico [Yauhtli]
11″W98136′22″
Bignoniaceae
Bromeliaceae
Tagetes micrantha Cav. FEZA 7310
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Tithonia tubiformis (Jacq.) Cass. FEZA
12389 N17128.089′W98136.874′
Parmentiera edulis Raf. FEZA 7316
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth FEZA
12393 N17128.089′W98136.874′
Hechtia podantha Mez FEZA 7271
N17127.975′W98136.094′
Buddlejaceae
Buddleja americana L. FEZA 7265
N17127.290′W98138.070'
Cannabaceae
Cannabis sativa L. FEZA 7303 N17128′
11″W98136′22″
Caprifoliaceae
Sambucus mexicana C. Presl ex DC.
FEZA 7278 N17128.194′W98136.781′
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L. FEZA 7274
N17128.089′W98136.874′
Chenopodioideae
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. FEZA
7284 N17127.813′W98136.306′
Commelinaceae Commelina coelestis Willd. FEZA 7305
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita pepo L. FEZA 7290 N17128′
11″O98136′22″
Equisetaceae
Equisetum myriochaetum Schltdl. &
Cham. FEZA 7253 N17127.316′
W98138.105′
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex
Klotzsch FEZA 7725 N17128′11″
W98136′22″
Burn plant
Anis [–]
Mirasol [Acahuali]
Cuajilote [Cuaxilotl/
Kuajilote]
Tronadora/Flor de arco
[Nixtamalxochitl]
Whole
plant
Leaves
Flower
Leaves
Whole
plant
Leaves
Whole
plant
Flower
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Flower
Whole
plant
Whole
plant
Leaves
Infusion/
Inhalation
Burn plant/
Inhalation
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
To keep away from bad
spirits
1.1
Maceration/
Topical
Evil eye, Rash, To keep away
from bad spirits
6
0.9
Infusion/Oral
Cough, Stomachache,
Diarrhea, Gallstone
Stomachache, Dizziness,
Skin infections, To keep
away from bad spirits
11
1.26
8
1.1
Stomachache, Colic
2
0.73
Rheumatism, Stomachache
2
0.73
5
1.1
4
0.36
Infusion/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/Oral
Tlasolmic [Tlaxomic]
Leaves
Whole
plant
Flower
Fruit
Leaves
Kidney infection, Cancer,
Diabetes
Diabetes
Infusion/ Oral
Dysentery
1
0.36
Salve real [Zayoliscan]
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Stomachache, Weakness
4
0.73
Marihuana [Macutzin]
Leaves
Rheumatism
4
0.36
Flor de sauco [Xometl]
Leaves
1.1
Leaves
Smallpox, Skin infections
Wounds
Scorpion sting, Diarrhea
7
Papaya [Pitzahuac]
3
0.73
Epazote [Epazotl]
Leaves
Tincture/
Topical
Infusion/
Topical
Maceration/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
1.63
Hierva de Pollo [–]
Leaves
Calabaza [Ayotli]
Seed
Abdominal pain, Cough, Flu, 53
Stomachache Vermifuge
Hemorrhage, Inflammation, 8
Wounds, Dysentery, Colic
Oral herpes, Vermifuge
3
Cola de caballo [–]
Whole
plant
Noche buena/Flor de
pascua [Custicpascua
xochitl/ Pascuaxochitl]
Whole
plant
Leaves
Poultice/
Topical
Toasted/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Urinary tract infection,
Rash, To keep away from
bad spirits
Cough, Flu, vaginal
hemorrhage
1.43
0.53
9
1.1
4
0.9
524
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
Table 1 (continued )
Family
Fabaceae
Geraniaceae
Labiatae
Lamiaceae
Myrtaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Onagraceae
Papaveraceae
Passifloraceae
Piperaceae
Common name
[Nahuatl name]
Part used
Preparation/
Application
Ailment/ Symptoms
Ricinus communis L. FEZA 12391
N17127.995′W98136.946′
Higuerilla [Xepowiwtl]
Leaves
Fever, Gallstone
8
0.73
Bark
Infusion/
Topical
Maceration/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Cough, Stomachache
3
0.73
Bark Fruit
Infusion/ Oral
4
1.1
Whole
plant
Whole
plant
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Stomachache, Teeth
cleaning, Dysentery
Diarrhea
1
0.36
Maceration/
Oral
Infusion/Oral
Diabetes, Kidney infection
4
0.73
Gastritis, Cancer, Diabetes,
Diarrhea, Wounds
13
1.83
Bark
Infusion/Oral
1.26
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Antiseptic, Diarrhea,
10
Dysentery, Stomachache
Stomachache, Eye infection
6
Whole
plant
Leaves
Maceration/
Topical
Infusion/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Acacia acapulcensis Kunth FEZA 7269
Tepehuaje/Tehuaje
N17127.566′W98137.633′
[Tehuaxi]
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. FEZA
Huizache [Huechachin]
12388 N17127.070′W98138.096′
Erythrina sp. FEZA 7264 N17127.019′
Tzojantli [Tzompantl]
W98138.107′
Medicago sativa L. FEZA 7308 N17128′
Alfalfa [–]
11″W98136′22″
Mimosa albida Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Uña de gato [pinahuitz]
Willd FEZA 7287 N17127.813′
W98136.306′
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Huamuchil
FEZA 7255 N17127.092′W98138.107′
[Coamochitl]
Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Mezquite [Mizquitl]
Willd.) M.C. Johnst. FEZA 7279
N17128.194′W98136.781′
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link FEZA
Frijolillo [ higiacxihuitl ]
12385 N17127.765′W98136.342′
Pelargonium zonale (L.) L´Hér FEZA
Malva [Tlalalatl]
7293 N17128′11″W98136′22″
Mentha piperita L. FEZA 7726 N17128′
Hierba Buena
11″W98136′22″
[kallowena]
Ocimum basilicum L. FEZA 7296
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Rosmarinus officinalis L. FEZA 7295
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Salvia leucantha Cav. FEZA 7724
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Vitex mollis Kunth FEZA 7280
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Psidium guajava L. FEZA 12386
N17127.765′W98136.342′
Albahacar [Albaka]
Leaves
Infusion/ Oral
Romero [Romeru]
Whole
plant
Leaves
Burn plant/
Inhalation
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Flower
Bark
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/Oral
Flower
Latex
Fruit
Maceration/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Whole
plant
Leaves
Whole
plant
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/Oral
Leaves
Granada [–]
Charín [Tatanatzin]
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. FEZA
7288 N17127.813′W98136.306′
Oenothera rosea L′ Hér. ex Aiton FEZA
7727 N17128′11″W98136′22″
Argemone mexicana L. FEZA 7285
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Passiflora edulis Sims FEZA 7281
N17127.813′W98136.306'
Piper auritum Kunth FEZA 7302
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Salvia morada
[Tochimixochitl]
Coyotomate
[Cuahuilotl]
Guayabo [Xalxócotl]
Bugambilia [–]
Hierba del golpe
[Cupachocotl]
Chicale [Chicalotl]
Maracuya [–]
Hierba santa [Acuyo
xuitl]
0.73
Vaginal infection
4
0.36
Rheumatism, Headache,
Diarrhea, Dizziness,
Stomachache Vermifuge
Gallstone, Hair loss,
Headache, Measles,
Stomachache, Urinary tract
infection
Cough, Stomachache
45
1.6
15
2.0
3
0.73
Cough, Diarrhea, To keep
away from bad spirits
Stomachache, Weakness,
Mal aire
Cough, Scorpion sting
8
1.1
5
1.1
6
0.73
24
Cough, Diarrhea,
Stomachache, Vomit, Fever,
Flu
Asthma, Cough, Flu
18
Wounds, Diarrhea
1.8
0.7
3
0.73
Eye infection, Skin infection 8
Cough, Wounds
Headache, Hypertension,
6
Stomachache
Cough, Headache,
16
Stomachache, Diarrhea
1.46
1.46
0.73
Infusion/Oral
Intoxication, Stomachache
4
0.73
Fruit
Infusion/Oral
Diarrhea, Headache,
8
0.73
Whole
plant
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Diarrhea, Wounds
5
0.73
Infusion/Oral
Parturition
3
0.36
Leaves
Infusion/Oral
Diarrhea, Cough, Flu
11
0.9
Naranja [Chilcoztic]
Shell Fruit
Infusion/Oral
Cough, Stomachache
4
0.73
Ruda [Temalacatl]
Whole
plant
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/
Topical
1.43
Hierba de Pollo [–]
Leaves
30
Gallstone, Evil eye,
Headache, Stomachache, To
keep away from bad spirits
4
Zapote blanco
[Chipizapotl]
Limón [Limoon]
Fever, Stomachache,
Urinary tract infection
1.1
3
Espinosilla
[huitzitziquitl]
Verdolaga [Mixquilit]
Sapindaceae
3
Fever, Flu
Loeselia mexicana Lam. (Brand) FEZA
7312 N17127.765′W98136.342′
Portulaca oleracea L. FEZA 7300
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Punica granatum L. FEZA 7249
N17127.765′W98136.342′
Ceanothus coeruleus Lag. FEZA 7729
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex. FEZA
7272 N17127.995′W98136.946′
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck FEZA 7294
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck FEZA 7315
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Ruta chalepensis L. FEZA 7307 N17128′
11″W98136′22″
Rutaceae
Hear Loss, Fever
1.1
Polemoniaceae
Infusion/Oral
0.73
8
Cabello de Elote [Tlaoli]
Rhamnaceae
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/
Topical
Marrubio
[Tzopiloshihuitl]
Zea mays L. FEZA 7257 N17127.092′
W98138.107′
Punicaceae
Leaves
Whole
plant
Leaves
Whole
plant
Marrubium vulgare L. FEZA 7314
N17127.765′W98136.342′
Poaceae
Portulacaceae
Relative
Number
importance
of
mentions
Scientific name Voucher
Geographical coordinates
0.9
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
525
Table 1 (continued )
Family
Solanaceae
Verbenaceae
Scientific name Voucher
Geographical coordinates
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. FEZA
12390 N17127.813′W98136.306′
Cestrum nocturnum L. FEZA 7297
N17128′11″W98136′22″
Nicotiana glauca Graham FEZA 12392
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Solanum erianthum D. Don. FEZA 7286
N17127.813′W98136.306′
Lippia berlandieri Schauer FEZA 7266
N17127.260′W981.056′
Verbena carolina L. FEZA 7261
N17126.995′W98138.101′
Verbena menthifolia Benth. FEZA
12383 N17126.995′W98138.101′
Common name
[Nahuatl name]
Part used
Huele de noche [–]
Leaves
Tabaco
Nenestlichihuitl]
Leaves
Cajancli/Casancli
[kajanki/kaxajqui]
Orégano silvestre/
Orégano de campo [–]
Verbena [ndinich]
Stem
Verbena [ndinich]
Whole
plant
Whole
plant Root
Whole
plant Root
Preparation/
Application
Ailment/ Symptoms
Poultice/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Wounds, Hematoma,
Inflammation
Skin infections, Headache
Infusion/
Topical
Maceration/
Topical
Infusion/Oral
Infusion/Bath
Infusion/Oral
Relative
Number
importance
of
mentions
6
0.73
Headache, Fever, Wounds,
Rheumatism
7
1.26
Postpartum
5
0.36
Menstrual cramps,
Stomachache
Fever, Vomit, Diarrhea
3
0.73
7
0.9
Fever
2
0.36
Infusion/Oral
Shampoo
Infusion/
OralShampoo
Table 2
Combinations of plant species used for medicinal purposes in Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico.
Plant species and part used
Plant species and part used
Mentha piperita leaves
Mentha piperita whole plant
Mentha piperita leaves
Mentha piperita leaves
Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves
Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves
Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves
Buddleja americana leaves
Buddleja americana leaves
Buddleja americana leaves
Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves
Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves
Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves
Archibaccharis hieraciifolia leaves
Nerium oleander leaves
Nerium oleander leaves
Tagetes erecta flower
Marrubium vulgare whole plant
Passiflora edulis fruit
Artemisia ludoviciana subsp mexicana whole plant
Ruta chalepensis whole plant
Foeniculum vulgare whole plant
Psidium guajava leaves
Ruta chalepensis whole plant
Piper auritum leaves
Matricaria recutita whole plant
Marrubium vulgare whole plant
Ceanothus coeruleus whole plant
Tagetes lucida whole plant
Zea mays leaves
Psidium guajava leaves
Sambucus mexicana leaves
Solanum erianthum stem
Tagetes lucida whole plant
Rosmarinus officinalis whole plant
Citrus sinensis fruit
Sambucus mexicana leaves
Citrus limon leaves
(25 plants), flowers (5 plants), fruits (5 plant) and others (Table 1).
The results indicated that 88% of plant species are reported to cure
more than one ailment and most of the folk remedies are
administrated in the form of infusions (Table 1). Medicinal plants
are commonly used for the treatment of stomachache (n ¼19),
cough (n¼ 15) and diarrhea (n¼ 14) (Table 1).
Eight medicinal plants are also used for magical purposes: Salvia
leucantha, Nerium oleander Artemisia ludoviciana subsp mexicana,
Tagetes lucida, Rosmarinus officinalis and others are used for magical
purposes (Table 1). For instance, Salvia leucantha leaves are used to
cure “mal aire”, a local term which corresponds to spirits of people
who died in a violent manner who attack passersby.
The prescription of medicinal plants is done by local healers
called “chamanes”. Most of informants reported that traditional
knowledge was formally transferred along the family line and
mainly through sons. The informants get most of the plant species
from wild (48%), cultivated (36%), from markets or given by a
relative (16%). Even in the presence of some clinics, 75% of the
interviewed people prefer to use medicinal plants instead of
medications. The lack of economical resources is the main reason
to use medicinal flora. Approximately, 43% of informants combine
Plant species and part used
Matricaria recutita whole plant
Citrus limon leaves
Tecoma stans leaves
Ailment/Symptoms
Mentions
Diarrhea
Rheumatism
Bronchitis, cough
Stomachache
Gallstone
Cough
Stomachache vermifuge
Stomachache, gallstone
Diarrea
Skin infections
Flu
Cough
Asthma
Postpartum
Cough
To keep away from bad spirits
Stomachache
Smallpox
Hypertension
21
21
2
24
30
7
48
12
4
3
1
4
7
3
8
2
9
5
3
medicinal plants with medication and 67% of these informants do
not inform to their physician about this combination.
Some side effects of medicinal plants were reported by the
informants: Passiflora edulis and Casimiroa edulis induces sleepiness, each, whereas Marrubium vulgare causes vomiting and
headache, and Argemone mexicana induces burning eyes.
The results indicated that medicinal plants are prescribed in
combination (Table 2). Nineteen mixtures with medicinal plants
were reported by the informants. Most combinations are composed of two medicinal plants. Mentha piperita was the most used
plant for combinations (4 mixtures), followed by Chenopodium
ambrosioides, Buddleja americana and Bougainvillea spectabilis (3
mixtures each). Medicinal plants are combined because people
believe that the mixture might potentiate the pharmacological
effects of plants. Most of the mixtures of medicinal plants are used
to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems (6 plants each).
3.2. Relative importance
Five plants were found to be highly versatile in terms of their
uses: Marrubium vulgare (RI¼2.0) Mimosa albida, (RI¼1.83),
526
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
Psidium guajava (RI¼ 1.80), Artemisia ludoviciana subsp. mexicana
(RI¼ 1.63) and Chenopodium ambrosioides (RI¼1.63) (Table 1).
3.3. Informant consensus factor
The results showed that diseases of the respiratory system
(ICF¼ 0.92), diseases of the digestive system (ICF ¼0.91), and
certain infectious and parasitic diseases (ICF¼ 0.89) had the highest ICF values (Table 3).
4. Discussion
Studies regarding the medicinal plant use by current indigenous populations will upgrade traditional medicine and plant use,
as well as the integration of modern and traditional medicine.
However, it is necessary to formulate policies for biodiversity
conservation, sustainable management and community development. This study records traditional knowledge of medicinal
plants used in Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico and demonstrates
the importance of local biodiversity.
The interviews carried out in this study were performed with
general population. The results indicated that inhabitants from
Xalpatlahuac preserve the traditional knowledge in the use of
medicinal plants. Most of the population in Xaltlapahuac is
younger than 20 years. Younger informants know much less about
the medicinal uses of plants than older people. This is a common
trend in Mexico (Estrada et al., 2007).
This survey also indicated that some people combine medicinal
plants with medications. This is also a common tendency in
Mexico (Estrada et al., 2007). This might be dangerous considering
the lack of information regarding the interaction of components in
plant extracts and medications. Selection of the most important
taxa is a prerequisite for initiating ethnopharmacological, phytochemical and toxicological studies. The high relative importance
values obtained with Marrubium vulgare, Mimosa albida, Psidium
guajava, Artemisia ludoviciana subsp. mexicana and Chenopodium
ambrosioides indicate that these species present many pharmacological properties as well as they have the highest absolute
number of uses. Thus, the importance of a species increases if it
is used to treat more diseases. The most commonly mentioned
species were Chenopodium ambrosioides, Mentha piperita, Ruta
chalepensis, Matricaria recutita and Psidium guajava and the most
common families were Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and
Rutaceae. This finding is in agreement with our previous report
(Josabad Alonso-Castro et al., 2012) and other studies were carried
out in Mexico (Frei et al., 1998; Estrada et al., 2007). In conclusion,
the plant species and members of the families cited above are
commonly used in the Mexican traditional medicine.
In this study, Marrubium vulgare, Mentha piperita, Ruta chalapensis and Matricaria recutita, native from Europe and/or Asia,
were recorded with high RI and high number of citations. This
might be because since colonial times these medicinal plants were
introduced in Mexico and their use was popularized due its
effectiveness, adaptation and growth to diverse climate conditions
(Lozoya, 1984). Furthermore, at the time of the conquest in Mexico
these medicinal plants were most commonly used in Europe
(Leonti et al., 2010).
This survey indicated that the main way to obtain the medicinal
flora is from the wild. This indicates that the practitioners depend
on the wild source or the natural environment rather than home
gardens to obtain the medicinal plants. These results are in
accordance with other ethnobotanical studies in Mexico (Canales
et al., 2005; Josabad Alonso-Castro et al., 2012) and other countries
(Otero et al., 2000; Ballabh et al., 2008). The main reasons to use
medicinal plants are cultural factors, the high cost of some
medications and lack of medical facilities. This study is in accordance with other reports (Estrada et al., 2007; Josabad AlonsoCastro et al., 2012). Medicinal plants from Xalpatlahuac are also
used for magical–religious purposes. This is a common trend in
Mexican traditional medicine (Frei et al., 1998; Josabad AlonsoCastro et al., 2012).
A bibliographic investigation was carried out, by consulting
peer-reviewed articles in the databases SCOPUS, Web of Science,
SCIELO, Medigraphic, Medline and Google scholar. The results
indicated that only 6 plants with medicinal properties had not
been pharmacologically studied: Archibaccharis hieraciifolia, Tithonia tubiformis, Hechtia podantha, Acacia acapulcensis, Mimosa
albida, Verbena menthifolia. Scientific validation with these medicinal plants should be performed.
It is important to mention that not all medicinal plants, even to
their natural origin, are safe and some are even highly toxic. In this
study we mentioned some side effects caused by medicinal plants
from Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico. Therefore, toxicological
studies are necessary in order to provide information about the
secure medicinal use of plants. If the compounds of a medicinal
plant are known, it would be easier to predict which plant extract
might induce toxic effects (Rodriguez-Fragoso et al., 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the chemical composition of
medicinal plants. Furthermore, some medicinal plants such as
Ruta chalapensis is reported to present abortifacient effects Therefore, more regulations about the use of these plants should be
done. It has been suggested that medicinal plants that contain
unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids are associated with embryotoxic or fetotoxic effects (Rodriguez-Fragoso et al., 2008).
Table 3
Informant consensus factor.
Category
Uses
Taxons
ICF
Certain infectious and parasitic diseases
Diseases of the circulatory system
Diseases of the digestive system
Diseases of the genitourinary system
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue
Diseases of the eye
Diseases of the respiratory system
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues
Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases
Injuries, poisoning and other consequences of external causes
Neoplasms
Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Undefined illnesses
203
15
325
37
208
8
202
18
14
48
3
7
30
24
3
31
7
29
3
18
5
4
11
2
3
8
0.89
0.86
0.91
0.83
0.86
0.71
0.92
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.50
0.67
0.76
M.d.C. Juárez-Vázquez et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 521–527
The combination of medicinal plants is a common practice in
the traditional medicines from Mexico and other countries (Frei
et al., 1998; Otero et al., 2000; Estrada et al., 2007; Ballabh et al.,
2008; Volpato et al., 2009; Mati and de Boer, 2011; Odhiambo
et al., 2011; York et al., 2011; Josabad Alonso-Castro et al., 2012). In
this study, most of the mixtures of medicinal plants are used to
treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems. This is also a
common trend in traditional medicines from Mexico and other
countries (Rigat et al., 2007; Volpato et al., 2009; Josabad AlonsoCastro et al., 2012). However, it is necessary to carry out pharmacological and toxicological studies with mixtures of plants.
Respiratory and gastrointestinal problems are the most common diseases in the municipality of Xalpatlahuac (Enciclopedia
Guerrerense, 2012). The informant consensus factor indicated that
medicinal plants are used mainly for the treatment of diseases
related in the categories of the respiratory and digestive systems.
Therefore, there is a consensus about the plants to treat these
ailments and the epidemiological information. Thus, the local
population has implemented the use of medicinal plants to treat
the most frequent diseases.
Also, herbal remedies are commonly used in Mexico for
primary health care, including gastrointestinal and respiratory
illnesses (Taddei-Bringas et al., 1999). Similar results have been
obtained in ethnobotanical studies carried out in Mexico and other
countries (Frei et al., 1998; Estrada et al., 2007; Odhiambo et al.,
2011; Josabad Alonso-Castro et al., 2012). The high values of ICF for
the categories of gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases indicate
that informants show high knowledge and coherence about
medicinal plants uses.
In summary, this study demonstrates that plant species play an
important role in healing practices and magical–religious rituals
among inhabitants from Xalpatlahuac, Guerrero, Mexico. The
traditional use of medicinal plant recorded in this study will lead
to subsequent phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological
studies that might contribute for obtaining phytomedicines and
new active compounds. The results here shown reinforce the
importance of traditional knowledge in this area.
Acknowledgments
We thank the members of Grupo de Acción Revolucionario for
their participation in this study. Thanks to Mr. Procuro Luna for his
assistance in the collection of plant species. Thanks to Gustavo
Cruz Garcia-Salazar for providing the map.
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