Part of Speech Overview
In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have
distinctive meanings. Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into
several types or parts of speech. This article will offer definitions and examples for the 8
major parts of speech in English
grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition,
and interjection.
1. Noun
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things, animals,
places, ideas, or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of speech, which is
why they are the first ones taught to students in primary school.
Examples:






Tom Hanks is very versatile.
The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.
Dogs can be extremely cute.
In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it names an
animal.
It is my birthday.
The word “birthday” is a noun which refers to an event.
There are different types of nouns namely:







Proper– proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to specific names
of persons, places, or things.
Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones
Common– common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just
generic names of persons, things, or places.
Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series
Concrete– this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five
senses.
Examples: folder, sand, board
Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t
perceive through your five senses.




Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery
Count– it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
Examples: kitten, video, ball
Mass– this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called noncountable nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them.
 Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
 Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
 Collective– refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
 Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of
lions)
This great list of nouns can help you explore more nouns.
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Some
examples of pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentences:



Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to stop.
The largest slice is mine.
We are number one.
The italicized words in the sentences above are the pronouns in the sentence.
3. Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can specify
the quality, the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.
Use this link to get a list of adjectives.
Sample Sentences:






The carvings are intricate.
The italicized word describes the appearance of the noun “carvings.”
I have two hamsters.
The italicized word “two,” is an adjective which describes the number of the noun
“hamsters.”
Wow! That doughnut is huge!
The italicized word is an adjective which describes the size of the noun “doughnut.”
4. Verb
This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would not
exist. Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or state of
being of the subject in a sentence.
Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were
Sample Sentences:




As usual, the Storm troopers missed their shot.
The italicized word expresses the action of the subject “Storm troopers.”
They are always prepared in emergencies.
The verb “are” refers to the state of being of the pronoun “they,” which is the
subject in the sentence.
5. Adverb
Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that
adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.
The different types of adverbs are:












Adverb of Manner– this refers to how something happens or how an action is
done.
Example: Annie danced gracefully.
The word “gracefully” tells how Annie danced.
Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
Example: She came yesterday.
The italicized word tells when she “came.”
Adverb of Place– this tells something about “where” something happens or
”where” something is done.
Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!
The adverb “everywhere” tells where I “looked.”
Adverb of Degree– this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing
happens or is done.
Example: The child is very talented.
The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”
6. Preposition
This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.
Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since
Sample Sentences:




Micah is hiding under the bed.
The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “under the bed,” and
tells where Micah is hiding.
During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.
The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “during the game,”
and tells when the audience cheered.
7. Conjunction
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Sample Sentences:


This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.
Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s
instructions.
 Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to audition.
The italicized words in the sentences above are some examples of conjunctions.
8. Interjection
This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are
commonly used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation
point.
Examples of Interjections:
Sample Sentences:
 Ouch! That must have hurt.
 Hurray, we won!
 Hey! I said enough!
The bold words attached to the main sentences above are some examples of
interjections.
Final Thoughts
You must familiarize yourself with the different parts of speech discussed in this article
because they are among the most fundamental concepts that you will encounter
throughout your study of grammar. An in-depth knowledge of this topic will not only
make you a better writer, but an effective communicator as well.
Nouns
What is a Noun?
Of all the parts of speech, nouns are perhaps the most important. A noun is a word that
identifies a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what makes a
noun a noun, and we’ll provide some noun examples, along with some advice for using nouns in
your sentences.
Identifying a Noun
A noun is a part of speech that denotes a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. The English
word noun has its roots in the Latin word nomen, which means “name.” Every language has
words that are nouns. As you read the following explanations, think about some words that
might fit into each category.

Person – A term for a person, whether proper name, gender, title, or class, is a noun.

Animal – A term for an animal, whether proper name, species, gender, or class is a noun.

Place – A term for a place, whether proper name, physical location, or general locale is a noun.

Thing – A term for a thing, whether it exists now, will exist, or existed in the past is a noun.

Idea – A term for an idea, be it a real, workable idea or a fantasy that might never come to
fruition is a noun.
Noun Examples
When we first start to learn the parts of speech, trying to identify different words can seem like a
challenge. This process gets easier with practice. Here are some noun examples to help you
get started. The nouns in each sentence have been italicized.

Person – He is the person to see.

Person – John started to run.

Person – Plato was an influential Greek philosopher.

Person – Sharon admires her grandfather.

Person – My mother looks a lot like my grandmother, and I look very much like them.

Animal – The dog barked at the cat.

Animal – Elephants never forget.

Animal – Sophie is my favorite horse.

Place – The restaurant is open.

Place – Let’s go to the beach.

Place – Look over there.

Place – Come here.

Place – Harvard and Yale are two famous universities.

Place – Look! There’s the Eiffel Tower.

Thing – Throw the ball.

Thing – Please close the door and lock it.

Thing – Use words properly to be understood.

Thing – The lamp sits on a table next to the sofa.

Thing – Money doesn’t grow on trees.

Idea – Follow the rules.

Idea – The theory of relativity is an important concept.

Idea – Love is a wonderful emotion.
How Nouns Function
Nouns have several important functions. While it’s impossible to list them all here, we’ll go over
the most important jobs nouns are tasked with.

Nouns are subjects. Every sentence has a subject, which is a noun that tells us what that
sentence is all about. John swung the baseball bat.

Nouns are direct objects. These nouns receive action from verbs. John swung the baseball
bat.

Nouns are indirect objects. These nouns receive the direct object. Brad threw John the ball.

Nouns are objects of prepositions. These nouns follow the prepositions in prepositional
phrases. John swung the baseball bat at Greg.

Nouns are predicate nominatives. These nouns follow linking verbs and rename the subject.
John is a baseball player.

Nouns are object complements. These nouns complete the direct object. They named their
dog Max.
This is just the beginning. Be sure to dig deeper and explore more for additional information
about nouns and even more noun examples.
The Functions of Nouns and Noun Phrases in English
Nouns and noun phrases perform ten main grammatical functions in the English language. The following article lists the
ten functions and provides examples to illustrate their use.

Nouns and Noun Phrases
Nouns in English are traditionally described as naming "persons, places, things, and
ideas." Pronouns are a subcategory of nouns. Noun phrases are formed by a noun or pronoun and any
modifiers, complements, or determiners including adjectives, determiners, prepositional phrases,
noun clauses, and verb phrases.
Nouns and noun phrases perform ten grammatical functions in the English language. The ten
functions are:
1. Subject
2. Subject complement
3. Direct object
4. Object complement
5. Indirect object
6. Prepositional complement
7. Noun phrase modifier
8. Determinative
9. Appositive
10. Adverbial
The following sections discuss the ten functions and include examples to illustrate use.

Subject
Nouns and noun phrases first function as the subject of clauses. A subject is a word, phrase, or clause
which performs the action of or acts upon the verb. Clauses contain both a subject and a predicate.
The following italicized noun phrases are examples of subjects:
 The puppy has chewed on the bone.
 Weeds are taking over the garden.
 You and I hike in the park.
Although other grammatical forms can function as the subject of clauses, nouns and noun phrases
most frequently perform the function.
Subject Complement
Nouns and noun phrases secondly function as subject complements. A subject complement is a word,
phrase, or clause that follows a copular verb and describes the subject. Copular verbs are also called
linking and state-of-being verbs and include verbs like be, become, and seem. The following
italicized noun phrases are examples of subject complements:
 The man was a nurse.
 Our dog is a Shih Tzu.
 Her mother will become the school librarian.
Direct Object
Nouns and noun phrases can also function as direct objects. A direct object is a word, phrase, or
clause that follows a transitive verb and answers the question "who?" or "what?" receives the action
of the verb. The following italicized noun phrases are examples of direct objects:



Herbivores eat plants.
The child finally swallowed the sour-tasting medication.
Your boyfriend just kissed the girl in the ostentatious hat.
Object Complement
Similarly to subject complements, nouns and noun phrases can function as object complements. An
object complement is a word, phrase, or clause that directly follows and describes the direct object.
The following italicized noun phrases are examples of object complements:



The Provost named my supervisor the new Dean.
We elected you team leader.
Your cousins named their daughter Rainbow!
Indirect Object
Nouns and noun phrases can also function as indirect objects. An indirect object is a word, phrase, or
clause that follows a intransitive verb and answers the question "to or for whom?" or "to or for what"
is the action of the verb performed. The following italicized noun phrases are examples of indirect
objects:



Our groomer gave the dog a bath.
My professor loaned me a book.
The groom bought his new bride a wedding present.
Prepositional Complement
Nouns and noun phrases function as prepositional complements. A prepositional complement is a
word, phrase, or clause that directly follows the preposition in a prepositional phrase. Prepositional
complements are also called complements of prepositions and objects of prepositions. The following
italicized noun phrases are examples of prepositional complements:
 That little boy gave his toy to his baby brother.
 The mother warned her children not to go into the woods.
 During his vacation, the man decided to move to the Tropics.
Noun Phrase Modifier
Although adjectives are traditionally defined as words that describe nouns, nouns and noun phrases
can function as noun phrase modifiers. A noun phrase modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that
describes another noun or noun phrase. The following italicized noun phrases are examples of noun
phrase modifiers:
 The bedroom walls are all oak panels.
 Books are repaired in the Conservation Lab.
 Mylar encapsulation is a technique for protecting brittle paper.
Determinatives
Like other determiners, nouns and noun phrases can also function as determinatives. A determinative
is a noun or noun phrase plus the possessive cleric (apostrophe s or s apostrophe) that indicates
possession of or some other relationship to another noun or noun phrase. The following italicized
noun phrases are examples of determinatives:
 The cat is eating the dog's food.
 My parents' house is in the same part of town as mine.
 Why did your mother-in-law's cat run away?
Nouns and noun phrases functioning as determinatives can simultaneously function as subject
complements. The following italicized noun phrases are examples of bother determinatives and
subject complements:



This bowl is the dog's.
The two parking lots north of town are the university's.
Those books by the door are the library's.
Appositive
Nouns and noun phrases also function as appositives. An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause that
modifies or explains another noun or noun phrase. The following italicized noun phrases are
examples of appositives:



Eagle-Eye Cherry, the musician, is an individual, not a group.
Your aunt Lily is an eccentric lady.
John Smith, the colonial captain, founded Jamestown in 1607.
Adverbial
Finally, nouns and noun phrases can function as adverbials. An adverbial is a word, phrase, or clause
that describes an entire clause by providing information such as time, place, manner, condition,
reason, or purpose. Adverbials answers such questions as "when?" "where?" "why?" and "how?" The
following italicized noun phrases are examples of adverbials:



Today I need to go to bed early.
I get to sleep in late Sunday morning.
The puppy ran home.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called
a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that its relative clause
modifies. Here is an example:

The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.
In the above example, "who":

relates to "The person", which "who phoned me last night" modifies

introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"
There are five basic relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is
for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for things and people
only in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence
and do not simply add extra information).**
Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference
between male and female.
*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.
**Some people claim that we should not use "that" for people but must use
"who/whom". There is no good reason for such a claim; there is a long
history of "that" for people in defining relative clauses from Chaucer,
Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of The Bible to Fowler's and
Churchill.
Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses:
defining relative
clauses
example sentences
S=subject, O=object, P=possessive
S - The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.
- The person that phoned me last night is my teacher.
O
P
non-defining
relative clauses
S
O
notes
"that" is preferable
- The car which hit me was yellow.
- The car that hit me was yellow.
- The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher.
- The people who I phoned last night are my teachers.
- The person that I phoned last night is my teacher.
- The person I phoned last night is my teacher.
"that" is preferable
- The car which I drive is old.
- The car that I drive is old.
- The car I drive is old.
- The student whose phone just rang should stand up.
- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra.
- The police are looking for the car whose driver was
masked.
- The police are looking for the car of which the driver
was masked.
- Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher.
- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.
- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.
- Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher.
- Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, is my teacher.
"that" is preferable to "which"
"whom" is correct but formal
relative pronoun is optional
relative pronoun is optional
"whose" can be used with things
"of which" is also possible
"whom" is correct but formal
"who" is common in spoken English
and informal written English
P
- The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly
caught fire.
- My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.
- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the
accident, was completely destroyed.
- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the
accident, was completely destroyed.
"whose" can be used with things
"of which" is also possible
Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

near in distance or time (this, these)

far in distance or time (that, those)
near •
far ⇒
singular ☺
this
that
plural ☺☺☺
these
those
Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an
illustration:

This tastes good.









Have you seen this?
These are bad times.
Do you like these?
That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
This is heavier than that.
These are bigger
than those.
Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They
are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a
demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.


That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)
Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use
them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:


This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?
That sounds like John.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them
depending on:
number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)
person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person
(eg: he)
 gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
 case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are
talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost
always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I
almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another
person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so
on.


Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:
number person gender
singular
1st
2nd
3rd
plural
1st
2nd
3rd
personal pronouns
subject
object
male/ female
I
me
male/ female
you
you
male
he
him
female
she
her
neuter
it
it
male/ female
we
us
male/ female
you
you
male/ female/ neuter they
them
Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the
second an object pronoun):

I like coffee. / John helped me.

Do you like coffee? / John loves you.

He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him?

She is clever. / Does Mary know her?

It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it?

We went home. / Anthony drove us.

Do you need a table for three? / Did John and Mary beat you at
doubles?

They played doubles. / John and Mary beat them.
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.
However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal
as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet.
Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are
often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some
examples:

This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsatian.

The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.

My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.

Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.
For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she.
There are several solutions to this:

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.

If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.

If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
We often use it to introduce a remark:

It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.

It is important to dress well.

It's difficult to find a job.

Is it normal to see them together?

It didn't take long to walk here.
We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and
distance:

It's raining.

It will probably be hot tomorrow.

Is it nine o'clock yet?

It's 50 kilometers from here to Cambridge.
Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or
thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and
sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:

number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)

person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person
(eg: his)

gender: male (his), female (hers)
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences.
Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

be subject or object

refer to a singular or plural antecedent
number person gender (of "owner")
singular 1st
male/ female
2nd
male/ female
3rd
male
female
plural
1st
male/ female
2nd
male/ female
3rd
male/ female/ neuter
possessive pronouns
mine
yours
his
hers
ours
yours
theirs

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't
find yours. (object = your key)

My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)

John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)

John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)

Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)

Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)

Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)

I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden)

These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject =
Their children)

John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)
Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their's
Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an
interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:

There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.

This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?
Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun
represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question
about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).
subject object
person
who
whom
thing
what
person/ thing
which
person
whose
Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the
verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal,
spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or
even write): "Who did you see?"
Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase
that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.
question
Who told you?
Whom did you tell?
What's happened?
What do you want?
Which came first?
Which will the doctor see first?
answer
John told me.
I told Mary.
An accident's happened.
I want coffee.
The Porsche 911 came first.
The doctor will see the patient in
blue first.
John's (car) hasn't arrived.
There's one car missing. Whose hasn’t
arrived?
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you I found John's (keys).
find?
subject
object
subject
object
subject
object
subject
object
Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from
some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When
we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise.
Look at these examples:

Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?

Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?

They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?
Reflexive Pronouns
reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the
sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves"
(plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:
reflexive pronoun
singular
myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
plural
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Look at these examples:
non-reflexive
the underlined words are
NOT the same person/thing
John saw me.
Why does he blame you?
David sent him a copy.
David sent her a copy.
My dog hurt the cat.
We blame you.
Can you help my children?
They cannot look after the
babies.
REFLEXIVE pronouns
the underlined words are the
SAME person/thing
I saw myself in the mirror.
Why do you blame yourself?
John sent himself a copy.
Mary sent herself a copy.
My dog hurt itself.
We blame ourselves.
Can you help yourselves?
They cannot look
after themselves.
Intensive pronouns
Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive
pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:

I made it myself. OR I myself made it.

Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?

The President himself promised to stop the war.

She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.

The exam itself wasn't difficult, but the exam room was horrible.

Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.

You yourselves asked us to do it.

They recommend this book even though they themselves had never
read it. OR They recommend this book even though they had never
read it themselves.
Reciprocal Pronouns
reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual
action
We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in
the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is
talking to A. So we say:

A and B are talking to each other.
The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I
give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the
cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:


each other
one another
When we use these reciprocal pronouns:


there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we
cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it)
they must be doing the same thing
Look at these examples:









John and Mary love each other.
Peter and David hate each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
Both teams played hard against each other.
We gave each other gifts.
Why don't you believe each other?
They can't see each other.
The gangsters were fighting one another.
The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.
You probably noticed that each other is used in more examples above
than one another. That's because in general we use one another (which
sounds a little formal) less often than we use each other. Also, some people
say that we should use one another only for three or more people or
things, but there is no real justification for this.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are:

all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each,
everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one,
several, some, somebody/someone
Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech.
Look at "another" in the following sentences:

He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)

I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)
Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of
them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most
common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular,
plural or singular/plural.
Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal
pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:

Each of the players has a doctor.

I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.
Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:

Many have expressed their views.
s
i
n
g
u
l
a
r
p
l
u
r
a
l
s
i
n
g
u
l
a
r
pronoun
another
anybody/ anyone
anything
meaning
an additional or different person or thing
no matter what person
no matter what thing
each
either
enough
everybody/
everyone
everything
every one of two or more people or things, seen separately
one or the other of two people or things
as much or as many as needed
all people
less
little
much
neither
nobody/ no-one
nothing
one
a smaller amount
a small amount
a large amount
not one and not the other of two people or things
no person
no single thing, not anything
an unidentified person
other
somebody/
someone
something
you
both
few
fewer
many
others
several
they
all
a different person or thing from one already mentioned
an unspecified or unknown person
an unspecified or unknown thing
an unidentified person (informal)
two people or things, seen together
a small number of people or things
a reduced number of people or things
a large number of people or things
other people; not us
more than two but not many
people in general (informal)
the whole quantity of something or of some things or people
Listen! I just heard something! What could it be?
And you can see why.
John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good.
Few have ever disobeyed him and lived.
Fewer are smoking these days.
Many have come already.
I'm sure that others have tried before us.
They all complained and several left the meeting.
They say that vegetables are good for you.
All is forgiven.
All have arrived.
any
no matter how much or how many
more
most
a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or
things
the majority; nearly all
none
not any; no person or persons
some
an unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number of
people or things
of the type already mentioned
Is any left?
Are any coming?
There is more over there.
More are coming.
Most is lost.
Most have refused.
They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap?
I invited five friends but none have come.*
Here is some.
Some have arrived.
He was a foreigner and he felt that he was treated as such.
all things
/
p
l
u
r
a
l
such
example
That ice-cream was good. Can I have another?
Can anyone answer this question?
The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last
two hours.
Each has his own thoughts.
Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me.
Enough is enough.
We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived.
They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the
earthquake.
"Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe)
Little is known about his early life.
Much has happened since we met.
I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me.
I phoned many times but nobody answered.
If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing.
Can one smoke here? | All the students arrived but no one is
missing.
One was tall and the other was short.
Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.
* Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb, even
when talking about countable nouns (eg five friends). They argue that
"none" means "no one", and "one" is obviously singular. They say that "I
invited five friends but none has come" is correct and "I invited five friends
but none have come" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is
little to support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years with
both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context and the emphasis
required.
That's Not My Job!
This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and
Nobody.
What is an Adjective?
adjective (noun): a part-of-speech that modifies or describes a noun or a
pronoun
An adjective is one of the eight parts of speech.
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or
"modifies" a noun (The big dog was hungry). In these examples, the
adjective is in bold and the noun that it modifies is in italics.
An adjective often comes BEFORE a noun:



a green car
a dark sky
an interesting story
And sometimes an adjective comes AFTER a verb:



My car is green.
The sky became dark.
His story seemed interesting.
But adjectives can also modify pronouns (She is beautiful). Look at these
examples:



They were empty.
I thought it seemed strange.
Those are not expensive.
Note that we can often use two or more adjectives together
(a beautiful youngFrench lady / it is black and white).
The adjective is the enemy of the noun
This is sometimes said because, very often, if we use the precise noun we
don't need an adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large, impressive
house" (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).
Adjective Form
Some adjectives have particular endings, for example:





-able/-ible: washable, credible
-ish/-like: childish, childlike
-ful/-less: careful, careless
-ous: dangerous, harmonious
-y: dirty, pretty
However, many adjectives have no obvious form.
Comparative, Superlative
Most adjectives can be comparative or superlative, for example:



big, bigger, biggest
good, better, best
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they
are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and
different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the
differences.
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not
three or more things).
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective
"big":
A1 A2
A1 is bigger than A2.
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
There are two ways to make or to "form" a comparative adjective:
 short adjectives: add "-er"
 long adjectives: use "more"
Short adjectives: add -er
examples
1-syllable adjectives
old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y
happy, easy
RULE: add "-er"
old → older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r
late → later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the
big → bigger
last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i
happy →
happier
Long adjectives: use more
examples
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables
expensive, intellectual
RULE: use "more"
modern → more modern
expensive → more expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use "-er" OR "more":
quiet → quieter/more quiet
clever → cleverer/more clever
narrow → narrower/more narrow
simple → simpler/more simple
Exception: The following adjectives have irregular forms:
good → better
well (healthy) → better
bad → worse
far → farther/further
Use of Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or
1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
Look at these examples:
 John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.
 America is big. But Russia is bigger.
 I want to have a more powerful computer.
 Is French more difficult than English?
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as
shown in the table below:
Diameter (km)
Earth
12,760
Mars
6,790
Mars is smaller than Earth.
Distance from Sun (million km)
Length of day (hours)
150
24
228
25
Mars is more distant from the Sun.
A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth.
Moons
Surface temperature (degrees Celcius)
1
22
2
-23
Mars has more moons than Earth.
Mars is colder than Earth.
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not
three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of
things.
 Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still
comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality.
We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing
in a group of things.
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things
(not two things).
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective
"big":
A B C
A is the biggest.
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative
adjective:
 short adjectives: add "-est"
 long adjectives: use "most"
We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y
RULE: add "-est"
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double
the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables
RULE: use "most"
old, fast
happy, easy
old → the oldest
late → the latest
big → the biggest
happy → the
happiest
modern, pleasant
expensive, intellectual
modern → the most modern
expensive → the most expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use "-est" OR "most":
quiet → the quietest/most quiet
clever → the cleverest/most clever
narrow → the narrowest/most narrow
simple → the simplest/most simple
Exception: The following adjectives have irregular forms:
 good → the best
 bad → the worst
 far → the farthest/furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives
We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or
more things. Look at these examples:
 John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.
 Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the
biggest.
 Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use
superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:
Diameter (km)
Distance from Sun (million
km)
Length of day (hours)
Moons
Surface temp. (degrees
Celsius)
Earth Mars Jupiter
12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
150
228
778
Jupiter is the most distant from the
Sun.
24
25
10
Jupiter has the shortest day.
1
2
16
Jupiter has the most moons.
22
-23
-150
Jupiter is the coldest.
When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":
England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)
My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous)
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. Adjective Before Noun
2. Adjective After Verb
adj.
before
noun
1 I have a big
dog.
2
Snow is
Adjective Before Noun
adj.
after
verb
white.
We often use more than one adjective before the noun:
 I like big black dogs.
 She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. First of all, the general order is:
opinion, fact
"Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely trueabout
something.
 a lovely new dress (not a new lovely dress)
 a boring French film (not a French boring film)
2. The "normal" order for fact adjectives is
size, shape, age, colour / origin / material / purpose
 a small 18th-century French coffee table
 a rectangular black wooden box
3. Determiners usually come first, even though some grammarians regard them
as fact adjectives:
 articles (a, the)
 possessives (my, your...)
 demonstratives (this, that...)
 quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
 numbers (one, two, three)
Note that when we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":
 Many newspapers are black and white.
 She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
Here are some examples of adjective order:
adjectives
head
noun
determiner opinion
fact adjectives
adjectives
other
size, shape, age, origin
material purpose*
colour
two
ugly
black
guard
dogs
a
wellChinese
artist
known
a
your
a
some
a
this
an
my
a
small, 18thcentury
new
pink and green
black
big black and
white
fabulous
lovely
French
Thai
Spanish
cheap
wonderful
old
new
15th-century
silk
leather
plastic
wooden
Arabic
coffee
table
sports
car
dress
boots
dog
riding
rain
fishing
tennis
coat
boat
racket
poem
*often a noun used as an adjective
Not all grammarians agree about the exact order of adjectives, and the detailed
rules are complicated. The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of
adjectives. These rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the
order for emphasis. Consider the following conversations:
Conversation 1
A "I want to buy a round table."
B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"
Conversation 2
A "I want to buy an old table".
B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"
Adjective After Verb
An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look,
seem, smell, sound
Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always
refers to and qualifies the subject of the clause, not the verb.
Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective
 Ram is English.
 Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
 Is it getting dark?
 The examination did not seem difficult.
 Your friend looks nice.
 This towel feels damp.
 That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
 Dinner smells good tonight.
 This milk tastes sour.
 It smells bad.
These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not
"dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in
one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at
him | he got the money). The above examples do not include all stative verbs.
Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the adjective can
qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.
What is a Verb?
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a
one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word
sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs
give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight,
do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of
state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey
state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the
subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs
are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

action (Ram plays football.)

state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can
have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example,
the verb to work has five forms:

to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have
thirty or more forms for a single verb.
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:

I can.

People must.

The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you?
Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning
on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but
they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs.
They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore
incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only
about 15 helping verbs.
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the
grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We
usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has
the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide
them into two basic groups:
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as
helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs.
We use them in the following cases:
be

to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)

to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
have

to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

to make negatives (I do not like you.)

to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)

to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)

to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than
she does.)
do
Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)
We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some
way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main
verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:

can, could

may, might

will, would,

shall, should

must

ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:

I can't speak Chinese.

John may arrive late.

Would you like a cup of coffee?

You should see a doctor.

I really must go now.
Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)
The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like
modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:

need, dare, used to
Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".
Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are
thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An
intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak,
can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:
transitive:



I saw an elephant.
We are watching TV.
He speaks English.
intransitive:



He has arrived.
John goes to school.
She speaks fast.
Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what
is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to
a different state or place (→). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all
intransitive verbs are linking verbs).





Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)
Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
The sky became dark. (the sky → dark)
The bread has gone bad. (bread → bad)
Dynamic and stative verbs
Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with
continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are
called "stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though some
of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).
dynamic verbs (examples):

hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):






be
like, love, prefer, wish
impress, please, surprise
hear, see, sound
belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
appear, resemble, seem
Regular and irregular verbs
This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference
between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their
past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and
past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense
ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by
heart.
regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle


look, looked, looked
work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle



buy, bought, bought
cut, cut, cut
do, did, done
Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.
One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are irregular
and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large group of irregular verbs.
Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be irregular,
transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive and stative.
Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb sing can be: sing,
sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 5 forms. Not many, considering that
some languages (French, for example) have more than 30 forms for an individual
verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make
the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb be, English main
verbs have only 3, 4 or 5 forms. Be has 8 forms. Helping verbs have even fewer
forms as most of them never change.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping verbs followed by
a quiz to check your understanding.
Forms of Main Verbs
Main verbs (except the verb "be") have 3, 4 or 5 forms. The verb "be" has 8 forms.
In the table below, the # column shows the actual number of forms for the given
verb.
We use these forms to make all the tenses and other verb structures, in all moods,
aspects and voices.
base past
past
present
3rd person singular present
#
V1
simple
participle
participle
simple
V2
V3
reg.
work worked
working
works
4
irreg. cut
cutting
cuts
3
make made
making
makes
4
sing
sang
sung
singing
sings
5
have had
having
has
4
do
did
done
doing
does
5
base past
past
present
present simple
#
simple
participle
participle
(3 forms)
(2 forms)
be
was
been
being
am
8
were
are
is
In the above examples:
 cut has 3 forms: cut, cutting, cuts
 work has 4 forms: work, worked, working, works
 sing has 5 forms: sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
 be has 8 forms: be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
Note that in dictionaries the headword for any given verb entry is always in the
base form.
Infinitive
There are two possibilities for the infinitive:
1. base form (the "bare infinitive")
2. to + base form (the "to-infinitive")
For example, sing and to sing are both infinitives. As they are identical in form to
the base form, and "to" is not part of the verb, we do not list the infinitive as a
separate form.
Note that the "to" is NOT a preposition. It is an "infinity marker" or "particle".
At school, students often learn by heart the base, past simple and past
participle (sometimes called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3) for
irregular verbs. They may spend many hours chanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went,
gone; have, had, had; etc. They do not learn these for regular verbs for one very
simple reason - the past simple and past participle are always the same: they are
formed by adding "-ed" to the base.
They do not learn the present participle and 3rd person singular present
simple for regular or irregular verbs for another very simple reason - they never
change. The present participle is always made by adding "-ing" to the base, and the
3rd person singular present simple is always made by adding "s" to the
base(though there are some variations in spelling).
Note that "have", "do" and "be" also function as helping or auxiliary verbs, with
exactly the same forms.
Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Base - Infinitive
 She helped him work on his homework.
 We heard them sing their national anthem.
 I want to have a drink.
 To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
 Work well!
 Make this.
 Have a nice day.
 Be quiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
 I work in London.
 You sing well.
 They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
 I can work tomorrow.
 You must sing louder.
 They might do it.
 You could be right.
Past simple
 I worked yesterday.
 She cut his hair last week.
 They had a good time.
 They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
 I have worked here for five years.
 He needs a folder made of plastic.
 It is done like this.
 I have never been so happy.
Present participle
 I am working.
 Singing well is not easy.
 Having finished, he went home.
 You are being silly!
3rd person singular present simple
 He works in London.
 She sings well.
 She has a lot of money.
 It is Vietnamese.
Forms of Helping Verbs
We use helping verbs (auxiliary verbs) with main verbs. The tables on this page
show the forms of all helping verbs.
There are 2 groups of helping verbs:
1. Primary helping verbs
We use primary helping verbs to change the tense or voice of the main verb, and
to make questions and negatives. There are only three primary helping
verbs: do, have, be. These verbs can also function as main verbs. When we use
them as helping verbs, here are the forms that we use:
base 3rd person singular present simple past simple
do
does
did
have has
had
base present simple
past simple present participle past participle
(3 forms)
(2 forms)
be
am
was
being
been
are
were
is
Look at these example sentences using primary helping verbs with main verbs:
 Do you like him?
 He does go home sometimes.
 I did not see her.
 They have finished their homework.
 Has he arrived yet?
 John had not called for three weeks.
 They will be eating when we arrive.
 I am feeling sick.
 Are you working at the moment?
 Jo is not watching TV.
 Tara was cooking when I phoned.
 Were you expecting me?
 My car is being repaired.
 I have been working all day.
2. Modal helping verbs
We use modal helping verbs to change the "mood" of the main verb. As you see,
modal verbs have only one form each. They never change.
invariable
modal verbs
can
could
may
might
will
would
shall
should
must
ought to
semi-modal verbs need
dare
used to
We use the word "form" to mean the "shape" or "writing" of the actual verb itself.
Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make
the tenses and other verb structures, but they are not the same thing.
What is Tense?
tense (noun): a verb-based method used to indicate the time, and sometimes the
continuation or completeness, of an action or state in relation to the time of
speaking. ORIGIN Latin tempus "time"
The concept of tense in English is a method that we use to refer to time - past,
present and future. Many languages use tense to talk about time. Other languages
have no concept of tense at all, but of course they can still talk about time, using
different methods.
So, we talk about time in English with tense. But, and this is a very big but:
we can also talk about time without using tense (for example, going to is a
special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense)
 one tense does not always talk about one time (for example, we can use the
present tense, or even the past tense, to talk about the future - see tense
and time for more about this)
Note that many grammarians take the view that there are only two tenses in
English: present tense and past tense. That is because we make those two tenses
with the verb alone - he walks, he walked. They do not consider that he will
walk, he is walking or he has walked (for example) are tenses because they are not
formed solely from the verb "walk". For English learners, most EFL teachers and
books treat all these constructions as tenses. On these pages we do the same.

We cannot talk of tenses without considering two components of many English
tenses: time and aspect. In simple terms...
Time expresses:



past - before now
present - now, or any time that includes now
future - after now
Aspect can be:


progressive - uncompleted action
perfective - completed action or state
The following table shows how these components work together to create some
basic tenses.
time
simple (no aspect)
past
present
future
sang
sings
will sing
aspect progressive was singing is singing will be singing
perfective
had sung
has sung
will have sung
(Some say that simple tenses have "simple aspect", but strictly speaking simple
tenses are simply unmarked for aspect.)
The progressive aspect produces progressive or "continuous" tenses: past
continuous, present continuous, future continuous.
The perfective aspect produces perfect tenses: past perfect, present perfect, future
perfect.
And the two aspects can be combined to produce perfect continuous tenses: past
perfect continuous, present perfect continuous, future perfect continuous.
The above is a summary of the concept of tense in English. There are other factors,
including voice and mood, that allow us to create more than the twelve tenses
referred to on this page. We deal with those under the English tense
system and tenses.
English Tense System
In some languages, verb tenses are not very important or do not even exist. In
English, the concept of tense is very important.
On these pages we look at how to avoid confusing tense with time, and the
structure of the 12 basic tenses, with examples using a regular verb, an irregular
verb and the verb "be".
Tense and Time
Don't confuse the name of a tense with time!
It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to
talk about time.
For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
 I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
 If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)
More about Tense and Time →
Basic Tenses
12 tenses in active voice + 12 in passive = 24
For past and present, there are 2 non-complex tenses + 6 complex tenses (using
auxiliary or helping verbs).
To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using the modal auxiliary
verbs will/shall).
This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice.
Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice.
See charts and examples for Basic Tenses →
Basic Tenses with Regular Verbs
The usual structure of basic tenses with regular verbs is:
+ positive subject + auxiliary + main verb
- negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb
? question auxiliary + subject + main verb
And here are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base V1 past V2 past participle V3 present participle -ing
work
worked
worked
working
See charts and examples for Basic Tenses with Regular Verbs →
Basic Tenses with Irregular Verbs
The usual structure of basic tenses with irregular verbs is essentially the sameas
for regular verbs:
+ positive subject + auxiliary + main verb
- negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb
? question auxiliary + subject + main verb
Here are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base V1 past V2 past participle V3 present participle -ing
sing
sang
sung
singing
See charts and examples for Basic Tenses with Irregular Verbs →
Basic Tenses with be
The verb be is always different! The usual structure of basic tenses with the
irregular verb be is:
+ positive subject + auxiliary + main verb be
- negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb be
? question auxiliary + subject + main verb be
But for simple past and simple present tenses, the structures are not the same.
In fact, they are even easier. There is no auxiliary verb. Here are the structures:
+ positive subject + main verb be
- negative subject + main verb be + not
? question main verb be + subject
And here are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:
base past simple past participle present participle -ing present simple
be
was, were
been
being
am, are, is
Basic Tenses with be
This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb be, including the following
structures:
 affirmative or positive (+)
 negative (-)
 interrogative or question (?)
The basic structures are:
+ positive subject + auxiliary + main verb be
- negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb be
? question auxiliary + subject + main verb be
But for simple past and simple present tenses, the structures are not the same.
In fact, they are even easier. There is no auxiliary verb. Here are the structures:
+ positive subject + main verb be
- negative subject + main verb be + not
? question main verb be + subject
Here are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:
base past simple past participle present participle -ing present simple
be
was, were
been
being
am, are, is
And here is the result:
12 tenses (be)
past
present
future
SIMPLE
+ I was
I am
I will be
present simple or past
- I was not
I am not
I will not be
simple
? Was I?
Am I?
Will I be?
except future
will + be
CONTINUOUS
+ I was being
I am being
I will be being
be + being
- I was notbeing
I am notbeing
I will not be being
? Was I being?
Am I being?
Will I be being?
PERFECT
+ I had been
I have been
I will have been
have + been
- I had notbeen
I have notbeen
I will not have been
? Had I been?
Have I been?
Will I have been?
CONTINUOUS PERFECT
have been + being
+ I had been being
- I had notbeen
being
? Had I been being?
I have been being
I have notbeen
being
Have I been being?
I will have been being
I will not have been
being
Will I have been being?
In the following table, we see be conjugated in all persons in the affirmative for 12
basic tenses:
SIMPLE
past
present
future
singular
I
was
am
will be
you
were
are
will be
he/she/it
was
is
will be
plural
we
were
are
will be
you
were
are
will be
they
were
are
will be
PERFECT
past
present
future
singular
I
had been
have been
will have been
you
had been
have been
will have been
he/she/it
had been
has been
will have been
plural
we
had been
have been
will have been
you
had been
have been
will have been
they
had been
have been
will have been
CONTINUOUS
past
present
future
singular
I
was being
am being
will be being
you
were being
are being
will be being
he/she/it
was being
is being
will be being
plural
we
were being
are being
will be being
you
were being
are being
will be being
they
were being
are being
will be being
CONTINUOUS PERFECT past
present
future
singular
I
had been being have been being will have been being
you
had been being have been being will have been being
he/she/it
had been being has been being
will have been being
plural
we
had been being have been being will have been being
you
had been being have been being will have been being
they
had been being have been being will have been being
Basic Tenses
For past and present, there are 2 non-complex tenses + 6 complex tenses (using
auxiliary or helping verbs).
To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using the modal auxiliary
verbs will/shall).
This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice.
Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice (though 4 are rarely used).
So now we have 24 tenses, as you see in the table below:
24 tenses
past
present
future
active
non-complex
past simple
present simple
future simple
tenses
complex tenses
past perfect
present perfect
future perfect
past continuous
present continuous
future continuous
past perfect
present perfect
future perfect
continuous
continuous
continuous
passive
past simple
present simple
future simple
past perfect
present perfect
future perfect
past continuous
present continuous
future continuous
past perfect
present perfect
future perfect
continuous
continuous
continuous
The basic structure of a positive or affirmative sentence
subject + auxiliary + main verb
The following table shows the 12 active tenses for the
affirmative or positive:
12 active tenses
structure
past
(work)
auxiliary main verb
simple normal
I worked
intensive
do
base
I did work
continuous
be
present
I was working
participle -ing
perfect
have
past participle
I had worked
continuous perfect
have
been
present
participle -ing
I had been
working
is:
regular verb work in the
present
future
I work
I do work
I am working
I will work
I have worked
I will have
worked
I will have been
working
I have been
working
I will be working
Notes: An auxiliary verb is actually used in all tenses. In the present simple and
past simple tenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but
it does exist for intensification. It is also of course always used in forming questions
and negatives.
Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal
auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The
examples are included here for convenience and comparison.
Tense and Time
It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.
For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
 I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
 If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)
The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about different times.
TENSE
TIME
past time
present simple
continuous
perfect
perfect
continuous
past
simple
continuous
perfect
perfect
continuous
future
simple
continuous
perfect
perfect
continuous
present time
future time
I want a coffee.
I leavetomorrow.
She likes coffee.
I am havingdinner.
I am takingmy exam next
month.
They are living in London.
I have finished.
I have seenET.
I have been
playingtennis.
We have been working for four hours.
I finished one hour
If she lovedyou now,
ago.
she would marry you.
I was working at 2am
this morning.
I had not eaten for 24
hours.
We had been
If I had been
working for 3 hours. working now, I would
have missed you.
Hold on. I'll doit now.
If you cametomorrow, you
would see her.
If I had been
workingtomorrow, I could not
have agreed.
I'll see you tomorrow.
I will be working at 9pm
tonight.
I will have finished by 9pm
tonight.
We will have been married for ten years next month.
They may be tired when you
arrive because they will have
been working.
In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four hours.
Basic Tenses with Regular Verbs
This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work, including the
following structures:
 affirmative or positive (+)
 negative (-)
 interrogative or question (?)
The basic structures are:
+ positive subject + auxiliary + main verb
- negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb
? question auxiliary + subject + main verb
Here are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base V1 past V2 past participle V3 present participle -ing
work
worked
worked
working
And here is the result:
12 tenses (work)
past
SIMPLE
+ I did work
do + base
I worked
except future:
- I did not work
will + base
? Did I work?
CONTINUOUS
+ I was working
be + ing
- I was notworking
? Was I working?
PERFECT
+ I had worked
have + past participle - I had notworked
? Had I worked?
CONTINUOUS
+ I had been working
PERFECT
- I had not been
have been + ing
working
? Had I been working?
present
I do work
I work
I do not work
Do I work?
I am working
I am notworking
Am I working?
I have worked
I have notworked
Have I worked?
I have been working
I have not been
working
Have I been working?
future
I will work
I will not work
Will I work?
I will be working
I will not be working
Will I be working?
I will have worked
I will not have worked
Will I have worked?
I will have been working
I will not have been
working
Will I have been working?
Basic Tenses with Irregular Verbs
The basic structure of tenses for regular verbs and irregular verbs is exactly the
same (except the verb be). The only difference is that with regular verbs the past
and past participle are always the same (worked, worked), while with irregular
verbs the past and past participle are not always the same (sang, sung). But the
structure is the same! It will help you a great deal to really understand that.
This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing, including the
following structures:



affirmative or positive (+)
negative (-)
interrogative or question (?)
The basic structures are:
+ positive
subject + auxiliary + main verb
-
negative subject + auxiliary + not + main verb
?
question auxiliary + subject + main verb
Here are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base V1 past V2 past participle V3 present participle -ing
sing
sang
sung
singing
And here is the result:
12 tenses (sing)
SIMPLE
do + base
except future:
will + base
CONTINUOUS
be + ing
PERFECT
have + past participle
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + ing
past
present
future
+ I did sing
I sang
I do sing
I sing
I will sing
-
I did not sing
I do not sing
I will not sing
?
Did I sing?
Do I sing?
Will I sing?
+ I was singing
I am singing
I will be singing
-
I was notsinging
I am notsinging
I will not be singing
?
Was I singing?
Am I singing?
Will I be singing?
+ I had sung
I have sung
I will have sung
-
I had not sung
I have not sung
I will not have sung
?
Had I sung?
Have I sung?
Will I have sung?
+ I had been singing
I have been singing
I will have been singing
-
I had not been
singing
I have not been
singing
I will not have been
singing
?
Had I been singing?
Have I been singing?
Will I have been singing?
going to
I am going to buy a new car.
Going to is not a tense. It is a special structure that we use to talk about the future.
The structure of going to is:
subject + be + going + to-infinitive
The verb be is conjugated. Look at these examples:
subject be
not going to-infinitive
I
am
going
to buy
a new car.
I
'm
going
to go
swimming.
He
is
not
going
to take
the exam.
It
is
n't
going
to rain.
Are
you
going
to paint
the house?
How do we use going to?
going to for intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We
have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:



Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche.
We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision
was made before speaking.
going to for prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is
based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are
some examples:



The sky is very black. It's going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss your train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged car)
gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.
Note that we can also use going to with be in other tenses, for example:


I was going to tell him but I forgot.
I had been going to fix the car for ages.
for and since for Time
We lived there for five years.
He has been away since Tuesday.
We often use for and since when talking about time.
for + period: a "period" is a duration of time - five minutes, two weeks, six
years. For means "from the beginning of the period to the end of the period".
since + point: a "point" is a precise moment in time - 9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now".
Look at these examples:
for
since
a period
a point
from start to end from then to now
>===<
x===>|
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
since
since
since
since
since
since
since
20 minutes
three days
6 months
4 years
2 centuries
a long time
ever
all tenses
9am
Monday
January
1997
1500
I left school
the beginning of time
perfect tenses
for
For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:






They study for two hours every day.
They are studying for three hours today.
He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.
He has been living in Paris for three months.
I worked at that bank for five years.
Will the universe continue for ever?
We do not use for with "all day", "all the time":

I was there all day. (not for all day)
since
Since is normally used with perfect tenses:



He has been here since 9am.
He has been working since he arrived.
I had lived in New York since my childhood.
We also use since in the structure "It is [period] since":
It was a year since I had seen her.
How long is it since you got married?
Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time. Here are
some examples:






This is for you.
Is this the train for London?
Since you ask, I'll say yes.
Since he didn't study, he didn't pass the exam.
Subjunctive
She insists that he come.
The English subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form that expresses
something desired or imagined.
We use the subjunctive mainly when talking about events that are not certain to
happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that
somebody:



wants to happen
anticipates will happen
imagines happening
Base Subjunctive
Form of base subjunctive
The form of the base subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs and all persons,
the form is the base of the verb, for example: be, have, do, go, sing, work
The base subjunctive does not use any other forms (goes, sings, works).
This table shows the base subjunctive in all persons, using the verbs be, work
and sing as examples:
base-subjunctive
be
work
sing
I
be
work
sing
you
be
work
sing
he, she, it be
work
sing
we
be
work
sing
you
be
work
sing
they
be
work
sing
Note that the subjunctive does not change at all according to person (I, you, he
etc).
Use of base subjunctive
In certain that clauses
The base subjunctive is typically used in that clauses after two structures:
1. suggest-verb (or noun) + that


advise, ask, command, demand, desire, insist, order, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest
command, demand, order, proposal, recommendation, request, suggestion
2. advisable/anxious-adjective + that


advisable, best, crucial, desirable, essential, imperative, important,
necessary, unthinkable, urgent, vital
adamant, anxious, determined, eager, keen
Look at these sentences which include examples of the above:
main clause
suggest-verb
that clause
with subjunctive
He
that you
suggests
be
present at the meeting.
The board recommend that he
join the company.
He
requested
that the car park not be locked at night.
main clause
that clause
suggest-noun
with subjunctive
They made a
suggestion that we
be
early.
He made a
proposal
The president has issued an order
main clause
advisable-adjective
that the company
buy
more land.
that the secretary resign next month.
that clause
with subjunctive
It is
advisable that she
rest
It was
essential
advance rapidly.
After the landing, it will be vital
that the army
that every soldier not use
main clause
anxious-adjective
that clause
with subjunctive
Tara is
anxious
that you
They are
keen
that he
We were determined that it
return
not be
soon.
hurt.
remain secret.
for a week.
a radio.
Notice above↑:
 the position of not when creating negation
 that the main clause can be in any tense
Look at some more examples, which include that clauses in negative and
continuous form:
The judges order that he stay the execution.
We have made a request that we not be disturbed.
It is important that a car be waiting when we arrive.
The manager was eager that his visitor see the new building.
The board of directors recommended that he not be dismissed.
Have you seen my suggestion that work hours be reduced?
The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in
British English, where should structures are often used:








It was essential that we should vote the following day.
He requested that the car park should not be locked at night.
be after if
We sometimes use subjunctive be after if/whether, though this is rather formal,
especially in British English:
If that
be (not) the case,
I intend to report the matter.
Whether he be
prepared or not,
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.William Shakespeare
Fixed expressions
Note the following fixed expressions with the subjunctive:






Bless you!
God bless America!
God save the Queen.
Long live the President!
Heaven forbid!
Heaven help us!
were-Subjunctive
Form of were-subjunctive
were-subjunctive
be
I
were
you
were
he, she, it were
we
were
you
were
they
were
Note that the subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).
Use of were-subjunctive
In the following examples, you can see that we sometimes use the weresubjunctive (instead of was) after:




if
as if
wish
suppose
Note that in these cases were is always correct, but was is possible in informal
language:
Formal with were
Informal with was
I would go if I were younger.
I would go if I was younger.
If he were not so mean, he would buy
one.
If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one.
I'd tell her if I were you.
We do not normally say "if I was you" even in
colloquial language.
It's not as if I were ugly.
It's not as if I was ugly.
She acts as if she were the Queen.
She acts as if she was the Queen.
I wish I weren't so slow!
I wish I wasn't so slow!
I wish the computer wereworking.
I wish the computer was working.
Suppose she were here. What would you
say?
Suppose she was here. What would you say?
If I Were a Rich ManFiddler on the Roof
If I were a boyBeyoncé
If I were a carpenter
And you were a lady,
Would you marry me anyway?
Would you have my baby?Tim Hardin
Strange as it may seem, although the words hope and wish seem to be similar, we
do not use the subjunctive with hope. Correct sentences with hopewould be, for
example:


I hope that this computer works.
I hope that this computer is working.
Passive Voice
Everybody drinks water.
Water is drunk by everybody.
"Voice" is a grammatical category that applies to verbs. Voice in English expresses
the relationship of the subject to the action. Voice has two values:


active: the subject does the action
passive: the subject receives the action
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Hamlet
was written by Shakespeare.
The active voice is the "normal" voice - the one that we use most of the time. In
the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
active subject verb object
→
Cats
eat
mice.
The passive voice is less common. In the passive voice, the subject receives the
action of the verb:
passive subject verb
object
←
Mice
are eaten by cats.
See how the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject
active
verb
Everybody drinks
passive Water
object
water.
is drunk by everybody.
Active Voice
Cats eat mice.
The active voice is the "normal" voice of an English sentence. Intransitive verbs
(verbs with no direct object) are always in the active voice. Transitive verbs are
usually in the active voice:
subject verb
Johnny
laughed.
Anton
got up
late.
People
drink
water.
In the active voice, the subject is the person or thing responsible for the action of
the verb.
All tenses are possible in the active voice, as well as all sentence types, positive,
negative or question.
Use of active
The active voice is the "default" voice in English. All intransitive verbs can only be in
the active voice, and all transitive verbs usually are active voice - unless we
deliberately make them passive.
In spoken English, we almost always use active voice. It is the natural choice, more
precise and generally shorter.
In written English, active voice is usually easier and more interesting for the reader.
Passive voice can sound dull and bureaucratic, and is typical of official writing. In
the interests of "plain English" that the average person can understand, many
governments now encourage civil servants to write in the active voice.
The active voice is:



direct and specific
uses fewer words - always a good thing
dynamic
Except on occasions when the passive voice is actually useful, the active voice is
the voice of choice.
Passive Voice
Mice are eaten by cats.
Although the passive voice is less common than the active voice, there are several
good reasons to sometimes use the passive. On this page we look at how to
construct the passive voice and when and why to use it.
How do we make the passive?
The basic structure of a passive clause is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
+ by + agent
be
past participle
optional
The auxiliary be is conjugated in all tenses. The main verb is always the past
participle. The agent is the original "doer" of the action.
Look at some examples:
subject auxiliary verb be main verb
by
past participle
I
am
employed
by
You
will be
woken
at 6.
It
will have been
finished
by then.
We
have been
notified
You
are being
transferred
They
will be
paid.
by
Apple.
Head Office.
next week.
Notice above↑:



auxiliary be can be conjugated for all persons and tenses
main verb is invariable: past participle
if there is an agent (Apple, Head Office), it is introduced by by
Agentless passive
The subject of an active sentence "does" the action. In a passive sentence, we
express the doer (or agent) through a by phrase (the long passive) or, very often,
we remove it completely (the short passive). In the following example, the agent is
"the Allies":
active
The Allies firebombed Dresden.
passive long
Dresden was firebombed by the Allies.
short Dresden was firebombed.
The short passive is also known as the "agentless passive". Soon you will see how
useful it can be.
Negatives and questions
The table below shows examples of the passive with negative sentences, question
sentences and negative-question sentences:
-
subject
auxiliary verb
be
You
are
They
?
Are
they
Has
your wallet
-? Is
will never be
been
he
Will
they
Haven't they
main verb
past participle
not paid
employed
by us.
cleaned
regularly?
stolen?
not notified
not
be
dismissed?
been
forgotten?
Notice above↑:


to watch YouTube.
position of auxiliary be or first auxiliary for questions
possible positions of not, n't, never to create negation
immediately?
Use of the passive
When and why do we use passive voice?
There are several times when the passive voice is useful, and usually the decision
has to do with the "doer" (agent) or the "receiver" of the action. For example, we
use the passive when:
1. we want to emphasize the receiver of the action:

President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
cf: Lee Harvey Oswald killed President Kennedy.
2. we don't know who did the action (the agent):

My wallet has been stolen.
cf: Somebody has stolen my wallet.
3. we think the agent is not important or interesting:

Our house is being painted.
cf: XYZ Company is painting our house.
4. the agent is obvious:

I am paid weekly.
cf: My company pays me weekly.
5. we are making general statements or announcements:

Passengers are reminded to fasten their seatbelts.
cf: The Captain reminds passengers to fasten their seatbelts.
6. the agent is everyone:

The emergency services can be called by dialling 999.
cf: The public can call the emergency services by dialling 999.
7. we are writing formal or scientific texts:

Potassium was added and mixed in. The solution was heated to 80°C and
then allowed to cool.
cf: The technician added potassium and mixed it in. The technician heated
the solution to 80°C and then allowed it to cool.
8. we want to avoid responsibility for our own actions (typically found in
government reports):
Mistakes were made and unfortunately never rectified.
cf: The Prime Minister made mistakes and unfortunately never rectified them.
Look at this sentence:

He was killed with a gun.
Normally we use by to introduce the agent. But the gun is not the original doer of
the action. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody witha gun. In the
active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun.Somebody is the agent.
The gun is the instrument.

The get-passive
Although we normally construct the passive with be + past participle, it is also
possible (in informal language) to use get + past participle. So if France beat
England at football, we could turn this to passive and say "England were beaten by
France" (be-passive) or "England got beaten by France" (get-passive). And we
might also add: "But France will get thrashed by Russia."
For formal English and exams you should use the be-passive, but in informal
language people sometimes use the get-passive.
Forms of passive
The passive voice is not a tense itself. But for transitive verbs each tense, as well
as other verb forms such as infinitives and participles, can be produced in the
passive voice. Some of the more complicated tenses (mostly perfect continuous)
are rarely used in the passive, but they are possible.
Here are some examples of the passive voice with many of the possible forms using
the verb sing:
infinitive
to be sung
perfect infinitive
to have been sung
participle
sung
perfect participle having been sung
gerund
being sung
Simple
Continuous
Perfect
Present am, are, is sung am, are, is being sung have, has been sung
Past
was, were sung
was, were being sung
had been sung
Future
will be sung
will be being sung
will have been sung
Active and Passive Examples
The table below shows example sentences in active and passive voice for the basic
tenses as well as various other verb forms, including infinitives and participles.
active
passive
Present Simple
How does one pronounce his
name?
How is his name pronounced?
Present
Continuous
Ati's helping Tara.
Tara's being helped by Ati.
Present
Perfect
Kid has served dinner.
Dinner has been served.
Present
Perfect
Continuous
The police have been
watching that house for
weeks.
That house has been being
watched for weeks.
Past Simple
They didn't fix my phone
yesterday.
My phone wasn't fixedyesterday.
Past
Continuous
They were interrogating him
when I called.
He was being interrogatedwhen
I called.
Past Perfect
I wondered why
they hadn't invited me.
I wondered why I hadn't been
invited.
Past Perfect
Continuous
She wasn't sure how long
they'd been following her.
She wasn't sure how long she'd
been being followed.*
Future Simple
They will hang him at dawn.
He will be hanged at dawn.
Future
Continuous
They won't be questioninghim
when you get there.
He won't be being
questionedwhen you get there.
Future Perfect
They will have repaired your
car by 7pm.
Your car will have been
repaired by 7pm.
Future Perfect
They'll have been treatingher
She'll have been being
Continuous
for exactly three months
tomorrow.
treatedfor exactly three months
tomorrow.*
infinitive
I dont want anyone to
disturbme.
I don't want to be disturbed.
perfectinfitive
They seem to have taken it.
It seems to have been taken.
participle
I saw the cat eating it.
I saw it being eaten by the cat.
perfect
participle
Having finished my work, I
went home.
My work having been finished, I
went home.
gerund
I insisted on them payingme.
I insisted on being paid.
going to
Is he going to sing Thriller at
the party?
Is Thriller going to be sung at
the party?
used to
Ram used to take care
ofeverything.
Everything used to be taken
care of by Ram.
can
They can question him for six
hours.
He can be questioned for six
hours.
could
It could have badly hurt you.
You could have been badly hurt.
may
The papers say they
may release him.
The papers say he may be
released.
might
Somebody might buy it.
It might be bought.
must
Passengers must wear seat
belts.
Seat belts must be worn.
should
You should have told me.
I should have been told.
ought to
They ought to forgive him.
He ought to be forgiven.
*possible but rather awkward and therefore rare
be used to vs. used to do
I am used to animals.
I used to smoke.
These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different.
be used to
I am used to getting up early.
be used to something
be used to doing something
be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to loud noise", it
is like saying "I am accustomed to loud noise. It doesn't bother me."
Do not confuse be used to with with the special structure used to do. They have
different meanings.
Structure of be used to
The structure of be used to is:
subject + main verb + used to + object
be
More about be used to
used to do
He used to work.
We say used to do when talking about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a
tense. It is a special structure. We use the structure used to do for the past only.
If I say "I used to smoke" it is like saying "I smoked in the past but I don't smoke
now."
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have
different meanings.
Structure of used to do
The structure of used to do is:
subject + main verb + to-infinitive
use


used to do
I used to work.
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It
is a special structure. We use the structure used to do for the past only.
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have
different meanings.
Structure of used to do
The structure of used to do is:
subject + main verb + to-infinitive
use
Look at the structure again with positive, negative and question sentences:
subject auxiliary not main verb infinitive
did
use
+ I
-
I
did
? Did
you
Used or use?
n't
used
to like him.
use
to work.
use
to drink?

when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)

when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)
Use of used to do
We use the used to do structure to talk about:


an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
a situation that was true in the past
past
present
I used to smoke.
Look at these examples.
past
present
She used to work in a shop.
Now she works in a bank.
He used to watch a lot of TV.
Now he doesn't watch much TV.
They used to be married.
Now they are divorced.
There used to be a cinema here. Now there is a supermarket here.
I didn't use to go swimming.
Did you use to smoke?
Now I go swimming.
Future Time
The future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not know
the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the present. But we
can never be 100% certain about the future. In English there are several structures
and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually the degree of certainty about the
future that decides our choice of structure or tense.
In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the
future, followed by a summary and then a quiz to check your understanding.
Although we often talk about "future tense", technically there are no future tense in
English - only different ways of talking about the future, using special constructions,
other tenses or modal verbs.
will
One of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for example: I
will call you tonight. We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically
there are no future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal
auxiliary verb.
Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future.
No plan
We use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before we
speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
 Hold on. I'll get a pen.
 We will see what we can do to help you.
 Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision was
made at the time of speaking.
We often use will with the verb think:
 I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
 I think I'll have a holiday next year.
 I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm
plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
 It will rain tomorrow.
 People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
 Who do you think will get the job?
be
The verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan, and we
are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at these examples:
 I will be in London tomorrow.
 There will be 50 people at the party.
 The meeting will be at 9.30 am.
The verb be is always exceptional!
going to
Intention
We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do
something before we speak. We have already made a decision before
speaking. Look at these examples:
 I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
 We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
 When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision
was made before we spoke.
Prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is
based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are some
examples:
 The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
 It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
 I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car) gives us
a good idea of what is going to happen.
 We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain
tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)
 We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence: "It's going
to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it doesn't rain I'll be very
surprised.)
Play going to games
Present Continuous for Plan
We often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of course, we
normally use the present continuous to talk about action happening in the present,
but if we add a future word, we can use it to talk about the future. (By "future
word" we mean words or expressions like tomorrow, next week, in June. The future
word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.)
Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and a plan
(present continuous). In this case, it doesn't matter which we use.
 We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow.
 We're painting the bedroom tomorrow.
We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak. Look at
these examples:
 Mary is taking her music exam next year.
 They can't play tennis with you tomorrow. They're working.
 We're going to the theatre on Friday.
Play Present Continuous for Future games
Present Simple for Schedule
When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time for a
plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We usually also
use a future phrase (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at 6.30pm, next
week.
Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example:
 be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return
Look at these sentences:
 The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight.
 John starts work next week.
 Tomorrow is Thursday.
Present Simple for Future games
Future Time: Summary
When we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in English,
because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple fact. When we
speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how we "see" the future,
even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly expresses what we believe
to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of something happening or whether
we have already decided to do it.
This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not
exactbecause language is not a science, and there are many variables. This table
should help you to think about the "concept" of the future in English. This concept
does not exist in all languages, but it is rather important in English.
% probability (before speaking) of
event happening
0%
structure
used for
will
no plan
70%
going to
90%
present
continuous
present simple
99.999%
example
Don't get up. I'll answer the
phone.
intention We're going to watch TV
tonight.
plan
I'm taking my exam in June.
schedule
My plane takes off at 6.00am
tomorrow.
Infinitive or -ing?
Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:
to-infinitive form - to do, to sing
or in its:
-ing form - doing, singing
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct:
 I dislike to work late.
 I dislike working late.
Which one?!
Use infinitive...
after adjectives, for example:
 disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
This includes "too + adjective" and "adjective + enough". Look at these example
sentences:
 I was happy to help them.
 She will be delighted to see you.
 The water was too cold to swim in.
 Is your coffee too hot to drink?
 He was strong enough to lift it.
 She is rich enough to buy two.
after certain verbs, for example:
 forget, help, learn, teach, train
 choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like
 agree, encourage, pretend, promise
 allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
Look at these example sentences:
 I forgot to close the window.
 Mary needs to leave early.
 Why are they encouraged to learn English?
 We can't afford to take a long holiday.
Use -ing...
when the word is the subject of a clause:
 Swimming is good exercise.
 Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
after a preposition:
 I look forward to meeting you.
 They left without saying goodbye.
after certain verbs:
 avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
Look at these example sentences:
 I dislike getting up early.
 Would you mind opening the window?
Some verbs can be followed by the infinitive or -ing form without a big change in
meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
 It started to rain / It started raining
 I like to play tennis / I like playing tennis
Continuous Tenses and Meaning
continuous tense: any tense, past, present or future, formed with the auxiliary
verb be and a main verb in -ing form (for example: he is speaking, they have been
working)
There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous (or progressive)
tenses. And there are other verbs that have one meaning with simple tenses and a
different meaning with continuous tenses.
Non-continuous Verbs
Non-continuous verbs are verbs that we do not normally use with continuous
tenses. These "stative" verbs are about state, not action, and they cannot express
the continuous or progressive aspect. Here are some of the most common noncontinuous verbs:





feeling: hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
senses: appear, feel, hear, see, seem, smell, sound, taste
communication: agree, deny, disagree, mean, promise, satisfy, surprise
thinking: believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember,
understand
other states: be, belong, concern, depend, involve, matter, need, owe,
own, possess
Look at these example sentences, right and wrong:
I want a coffee.
not I am wanting a coffee.
I don't believe you are right.
not I am not believing you are right.
Does this pen belong to you? not Is this pen belonging to you?
It seemed wrong.
not It was seeming wrong.
I don't hear anything.
not I am not hearing anything.
Notice that we often use can + see/hear:
I can see someone in the distance. not I am seeing someone in the distance.
I can't hear you very well. not I am not hearing you very well.
With verbs that we cannot use in continuous tenses, there is no real action or
activity. Compare hear and listen. The verb "hear" means "receive sound in your
ears". There is no action or activity by you. We cannot use hear with continuous
tenses. But listen means "try to hear". You make an effort to hear. There is a kind
of action or activity. We can use listen with continuous tenses.


Dual Meaning Verbs
Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we cannot use a
continuous tense. For the other sense we can use any tense.
For example, the verb think has two different meanings:
1. to believe, to have an opinion
I think red is a sexy colour.
2. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In
sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called "dynamic".
When we use the stative sense, we cannot use a continuous tense. When we use
the dynamic sense, we can use any tense, depending on the situation.
Look at the examples in the table below:
Stative sense
Dynamic sense
- no real action - a kind of action
must use:
can use:
If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is there
any real action or activity?"
be and Continuous Tenses
The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb
(Marie is French). On this page we look at be as a main verb.
Usually we do not use main verb be with continuous tenses. For example, we say:



London is the capital of the UK. not London is being the capital of the UK.
Is she beautiful? not Is she being beautiful?
Were you late? not Were you being late?
Sometimes, however, we can use main verb be with a continuous tense. This is
when the real sense of be is "act" or "behave". Also, the action is temporary.
Compare the examples in the table below:
be as main verb
simple tense
continuous tense
Mary is a careful person. (Mary is
always careful - it's her nature.)
John is being careful. (John is acting carefully
now, but maybe he is not always careful - we
don't know.)
Is he always so stupid? (Is that his
personality?)
They were being really stupid. (They were
behaving really stupidly at that moment.)
Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is
not Andrew's character to be
selfish.)
Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he acting
so selfishly at the moment?)
Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being sick":
She is sick (= she is not well)
She is being sick (= she is vomiting)
Here is main verb be conjugated in the Present Continuous tense:
I am being
You are being
He, she, it is being
We are being
They are being


Subject-Verb Agreement
agreement (noun): in language, the form of one word being decided by
the form of another word. Also known as "concord"
In a sentence, the verb must agree in number with the subject. If the subject is
singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural.
For example:
subject verb
singular He
is
Thai.
plural
are
Thai.
They
In the very simple example above↑ it is clear that the subject He is singular and the
subject They is plural. And it is clear that the verb agrees in each case. But in some
sentences, it is not always so easy. The guidelines below will help you decide how
to make a verb agree with its subject.
Compound subjects
A compound subject has two or more simple subjects, usually joined by and or or.
and
If the compound subject is made from simple subjects joined by and, use a plural
verb:
He and his daughter are Chinese.
Jack and Jill go up the hill.
Phrases such as together with, as well as, accompanied by and including are not
the same as and. They do not make compound subjects. The verb must still agree
with the simple subject:




John, as well as his wife, is coming to the party.
Visitors, including government employees, have to register.
or
If the compound subject is made from simple subjects joined by or or nor, use a
singular verb:


The girl or the boy is going to help.
Neither he nor his sister is at home.
Midsentence words
Don't be confused by words that come between the simple subject and the verb.
The verb must agree with the simple subject, not with any words between them:



One of my friends is coming.
My teacher, who has six brothers, has no sisters.
All the cars owned by the Russian man are leading.
Singular/plural nouns
A few nouns can be used only as singular or as plural.
Always singular
Some nouns are always singular, even though they end in -s and look plural. They
must take a singular verb, for example: economics, maths, physics,
gymnastics, aerobics, news


Maths was my worst subject at school.
The news is not good.
Always plural
Some nouns have only plural form and always take a plural verb, for
example: glasses, scissors, trousers, shorts, belongings, goods


My new sunglasses are missing.
The goods have already been shipped.
Inverted subjects
Normal word order in English is subject-verb-object (SVO). Sometimes, however,
the subject and verb are exchanged or inverted (VSO). This typically happens in
questions and there is/are sentences. Be careful to identify the real subject.



Where are the girls playing tennis?
Here are my keys.
There is a car outside.
More about subject-verb agreement with there is, there are
Collective nouns
Collective nouns are words that refer to a group of people, such as: team,
committee, family, company. Generally, we treat collective nouns as singular to
emphasize the single group, or plural to emphasize its individual members. (Note
that some writers of American English routinely treat collective nouns as singular.)


The committee was set up in 1910.
The committee are eating sandwiches for lunch.
More about subject-verb agreement with collective nouns
Indefinite pronouns
Singular
Some indefinite pronouns are always singular and need a singular verb, for
example: anyone, anything, everyone, no-one, someone


Is anybody listening?
When I call, nobody answers.
Plural
Some indefinite pronouns are always plural and need a plural verb, for
example: both, few, many, others, several


I invited Kid and Nid and both want to come.
Many have already left.
Singular or plural
Some indefinite pronouns can be singular when referring to an uncountable subject
and plural referring to a countable subject, for example: all, any, more, most, none,
some


All is forgiven. All have arrived.
Here is some. Some are leaving.
More about plural and singular indefinite pronouns
Fractions
Fractions (¾), percentages (%) and other parts of a whole follow normal
countable/uncountable rules.
Countable nouns



Three-quarters of the building was destroyed.
Seventy-five percent of the buildings were destroyed.
Some of the boys have left.
Uncountable nouns (always singular)


Half of the wine comes from France.
Some of the wine is bad.
-ing Form
We make the -ing form by adding -ing to the base verb and adjusting the spelling
as necessary:
 work → working
 sit → sitting
 smoke → smoking
We use the -ing form in various ways as shown below.
-ing Form for Continuous Tenses
The -ing form is used in past, present and future continuous tenses, for example:
 Anthony was fishing.
 The boys have been playing tennis.
 We will be working when you arrive.
-ing Form as Subject, Object or Complement
We can use the -ing form as the subject, object or complement of a clause, for
example:
 Smoking costs a lot of money.
 I don't like writing.
 My favourite occupation is reading.
Sometimes the -ing form can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole
expression [-ing + object] can be the subject, object or complement of a clause or
sentence.
 [Smoking cigarettes] costs a lot of money.
 I don't like [writing letters] and I hate [reading emails].
 My favourite occupation is [reading detective stories].
-ing Form with Adjectives and Determiners
 pointless questioning
 a settling of debts
 the making of this film
 his drinking of alcohol
Note that when we use the -ing form with an adjective or determiner, it does not
usually take a direct object. Compare these sentences:
 Making this film was expensive.
 The making of this film was expensive.
not The making this film
-ing Form after Preposition
If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be in -ing form. It is impossible
to use an infinitive after a preposition. So, for example, we say:
 I will call you after arriving at the office.
not I will call after to arrive at the office.
 Please have a drink before leaving.
 I am looking forward to meeting you.
 Do you object to working late?
 Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
-ing Form after Certain Verbs
We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the toinfinitive form, for example:
 I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in -ing form, for example:
 I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a
verb in -ing form:
 admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest,
dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up,
can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone,
practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand
Look at these examples:
 She will consider having a holiday.
not She will consider to have a holiday.
 Do you feel like going out?
 I can't help falling in love with you.
 I can't stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form OR the to-infinitive form without a big
change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
 I like to play tennis. / I like playing tennis.
 It started to rain. / It started raining.
-ing Form in Passive Sense
We often use the -ing form after the verbs need, require and want.
In this case, the -ing form has a passive sense.
Look at these example sentences. Notice that this construction can be in any tense:
 I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
 I sent it back to the shop because it needed fixing. (needed to be fixed)
 This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
 The contract will require signing tomorrow. (will need to be signed)
 The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)
 Your hair's wanted cutting for weeks. (has needed to be cut)
Note that the expression "something wants doing" is used more in British English
than in American English.
What is an Adverb?
adverb (noun): a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb,
expressing manner, place, time or degree; a word that can modify a phrase, clause
or sentence
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies"
a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in boldand
the verb that it modifies is in italics.

John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)

Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)

Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even
other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:

Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
- That was extremely kind of you.

Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
- He drives extremely fast.
Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.

Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.
Adverb Form
We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:
 quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)
 careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)
 beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)
There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:
adjective ending do this
adjective
adverb
most adjectives add -ly
quick
quickly
nice
nicely
sole
solely
careful
carefully
-able or -ible
change -e to -y
regrettable regrettably
horrible
horribly
-y
change -y to -ily
happy
happily
-ic
change -ic to -ically economic
economically
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The following -ly words, for example,
are all adjectives:
 friendly, lovely, lonely, neighborly
And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:
 well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
Note that the form of an adverb can also change to make it comparative or
superlative.
Kinds of Adverbs
Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They
answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.
 He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)
 They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)
 James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)
We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative
or state verbs.
 He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.
 She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the
question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.
 Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)
 They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)
 Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs
of Time mainly modify verbs.
They can answer the question "when?":
 He came yesterday. (When did he come?)
 I want it now. (When do I want it?)
Or they can answer the question "how often?" (frequency):
 They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the
newspaper?)
 We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They
answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can
modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.
 She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)


Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is
Mary?)
He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How
dangerously did he drive?)
Adverb Position
When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the
sentence or clause:
1. FRONT - before subject
Now
I will read a book.
2. MID - between subject + verb I
often
read books.
3. END - after verb/object
I readbooks carefully.
When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of
the word that it modifies, for example:
adverb adjective
She gave him a really
dirty
look.
adverb adverb
We
quite
often
study English.
The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place,
time, degree). The following table gives you some guidelines for placement based
on the kind of adverb.
kind of adverb
mainly modifies
sentence
usual position
adverb
manner
verbs
She spoke gently.
END
place
verbs
He lived
here.
END
time definite
verbs
I'll do it
today.
END
frequency
We
often
go to Paris. MID
degree
verbs, adj. and adv. I
nearly died.
MID
It was
terribly funny.
before adj.
He works really
fast.
before adv.
Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many exceptions.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency are adverbs of time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How
often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:
a. daily, weekly, yearly
b. often, sometimes, rarely
You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly
how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give
us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b)
describe indefinite frequency.
We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the
sentence.
Adverbs of Definite Frequency
Examples:



hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
every second, once a minute, twice a year
once, twice, once or twice, three times
Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position.
Look at these examples:



Most companies pay taxes yearly.
The manager checks the toilets every hour.
The directors meet weekly to review progress.
Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go
at the FRONT, for example:

Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency
Look at these examples of adverbs of indefinite frequency:
100% always, constantly
usually, normally
frequently, regularly
often
50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely, infrequently
seldom
hardly ever
0%
never
Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the
main verb (except the main verb "to be"):



We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that.
She is always late.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a
sentence:


Sometimes they come and stay with us.
I play tennis occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):


We see them rarely.
John eats meat very seldom.
Adverbs of Manner List
This is an alphabetical list of common single-word manner adverbs.
Adverbs of manner mainly modify verbs and tell us the way in which something happens.
They form the largest group of adverbs. We make most of them simply by adding -ly to their corresponding
adjective. This is an alphabetical list of 130 common single-word adverbs of manner. Adverbs of manner that do
not end in -ly are shown in bold.
accidentally
happily
sadly
angrily
hard
safely
anxiously
hastily
selfishly
awkwardly
healthily
sensibly
badly
honestly
seriously
beautifully
hungrily
sharply
blindly
hurriedly
shyly
boldly
inadequately
silently
bravely
ingeniously
sleepily
brightly
innocently
slowly
busily
inquisitively
smoothly
calmly
irritably
so
carefully
joyously
softly
carelessly
justly
solemnly
cautiously
kindly
speedily
cheerfully
lazily
stealthily
clearly
loosely
sternly
closely
loudly
straight
correctly
madly
stupidly
courageously
mortally
successfully
cruelly
mysteriously
suddenly
daringly
neatly
suspiciously
deliberately
nervously
swiftly
doubtfully
noisily
tenderly
eagerly
obediently
tensely
easily
openly
thoughtfully
elegantly
painfully
tightly
enormously
patiently
truthfully
enthusiastically
perfectly
unexpectedly
equally
politely
victoriously
eventually
poorly
violently
exactly
powerfully
vivaciously
faithfully
promptly
warmly
fast
punctually
weakly
fatally
quickly
wearily
fiercely
quietly
well
fondly
rapidly
wildly
wisely
foolishly
rarely
fortunately
really
frankly
recklessly
frantically
regularly
generously
reluctantly
gently
repeatedly
gladly
rightfully
gracefully
roughly
greedily
rudely
Adverbs of Place List
This is an alphabetical list of common single-word place adverbs.
Adverbs of place mainly modify verbs and tell us where something happens.
about
above
abroad
anywhere
away
back
backwards (also backward)
behind
below
down
downstairs
east (etc)
elsewhere
far
here
in
indoors
inside
near
nearby
off
on
out
outside
over
there
towards
under
up
upstairs
where
Common suffixes

-wards or -ward (backwards, downwards, eastward, forwards, homewards,
upwards) - these normally express movement in the specified direction

-where (anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere)
Note that some adverbs can also be prepositions.

She was waiting with a red scarf on. (adverb)

She put the red scarf on the table. (preposition)
Adverbs of Time List
This is a list of common single-word time adverbs.
Adverbs of time mainly modify verbs and tell us when something happens.
points of time (definite)

now

then

today

tomorrow

tonight

yesterday
frequency (definite)

annually

daily

fortnightly

hourly

monthly

nightly

quarterly

weekly

yearly
The word bimonthly is ambiguous and best avoided. Bimonthly can mean
"twice a month" or "every two months". The same is true
of biyearly and biannually.
frequency (indefinite)
relationships in time
(indefinite)

always

constantly

already

ever

before

frequently

early

generally

earlier

infrequently

eventually

never

finally

normally

first

occasionally

formerly

often

just

rarely

last

regularly

late

seldom

later

sometimes

lately

regularly

next

usually

previously

recently

since

soon

still

yet
Adverbs of Degree List
This is an alphabetical list of common single-word degree adverbs.
Adverbs of degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, and tell us the
extent to which something happens.
much
almost
nearly
absolutely
perfectly
awfully*
positively
badly*
practically
barely
pretty*
completely
purely
decidedly
quite
deeply
rather
enough
really
enormously
scarcely
entirely
simply
extremely
so
fairly
somewhat
far
strongly
fully
terribly*
greatly
thoroughly
hardly
too
highly
totally
how
utterly
incredibly
very
indeed
virtually
intensely
well
just
least
*informal
less
little
lots
most
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word like and, but, although, because. Conjunctions have an important
function because they join other words and phrases together. Without conjunctions, we could
only make very, very simple sentences. See also What is a Conjunction?
Introduction to Conjunctions
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.
1. What do Conjunctions Do?
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically
equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause,
for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.
Here are some example conjunctions:
Coordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
although, because, since, unless
2. What do Conjunctions Look Like?
Conjunctions have three basic formats:
a. single word
for example: and, but, because, although
b. compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
c. correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that
3. Where do Conjunctions Go?

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.
Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent
clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the
elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:
+
There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are all short words of only two or three
letters:

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in
square brackets [ ]:

I like [tea] and [coffee].

[Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a
comma before the conjunction:

I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.
However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

She is kind so she helps people.
When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.

He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an
easy way to remember them - their initials spell "FANBOYS", like this:
F
A
N
B
O
Y
S
for
and
nor
but
or
yet
so
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent)
clause:
+
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while
Look at this example:
main or
independent clause
subordinate or
dependent clause
Ram went swimming although
it was raining.
subordinating
conjunction
A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone.
Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand?
Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody
says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."
A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It
"introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can come after or before a
main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:
+
Ram went swimming although it was raining.
+
Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.
What is a Preposition?
preposition (noun): a part-of-speech usually coming BEFORE a noun phrase and
connecting it to another part of the sentence
A preposition is one of the nine parts of speech.
The name preposition (pre + position) means "place BEFORE".
A prepositiontypically comes BEFORE another word—usually a noun phrase. It
tells us about the relationship between the noun phrase and another part of the
sentence. Some very common prepositions are: in, of, on, for, with, at, by
Look at these example sentences:

The book is on the round table. (relationship in space)

We will meet in November. (relationship in time)

I sent the information by email. (relationship of method)
Several other relationships are expressed by prepositions. In addition, more
metaphorical ideas can be expressed such as: in love, beyond doubt, under
investigation
If a preposition does not come BEFORE another word, it is still closely linked to
another word:

Who did you talk to?

To whom did you talk?

I talked to Jane.
Form
Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are single words,
but some are two- or three-word phrases:

one-word prepositions (before, into, on)

complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of)
When we say that a preposition comes before a noun phrase, we include:

noun phrase (the tall man)

noun (rice)

pronoun (them)

gerund (verb in -ing form: fishing)
For a full list of prepositions plus examples and quizzes, you may like this PDF ebook, English
Prepositions List by EnglishClub founder Josef Essberger.

94 one-word prepositions and 56 complex prepositions

400 example sentences

200 quiz questions, with answers

illustrated

immediate download to your computer

read on your computer or print out on paper

runs on Windows, Mac, Linux, iOS and Android
Preposition List
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when
you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are
important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other
individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most
frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common oneword prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning.
Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage. You can also see
the long preposition list (with examples) in our vocabulary section.
























aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
anti
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
























considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
for
from
in
inside
into
like
minus
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past






















per
plus
regarding
round
save
since
than
through
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without
Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule
has no exceptions.
Rule: A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
 noun (dog, money, love)
 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
 pronoun (you, him, us)
 noun group (my first job)
 gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a
verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is the preposition "to" followed by a
verb? That should be impossible, according to the rule that you have just read.
 I would like to go now.
 She used to smoke.
See answer
Here are some examples:
subject + verb preposition "noun"
note
The food is
on
the table.
noun
She lives
in
Japan.
proper noun
Tara is looking for
you.
pronoun
The letter is
under
your blue book. noun group
Pascal is used to
English people.
She isn't used to
working.
gerund
I ate
before
coming.
Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of place describe the position of a person or thing in relation to
another person or thing.
Look at this picture:
Now look at these example sentences based on the prepositions in the picture:
There is a cup on the table.
The helicopter hovered above the house.
The police placed a sheet over the body.
He stood in front of the door and rang the bell.
Ram sat beside Tara.
A small stream runs below that bridge.
He put the key under the doormat.
He put his hands behind his back.
Prepositions of Time - at, in, on
We use:
 at for a PRECISE TIME
 in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
 on for DAYS and DATES
at
in
PRECISE
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG
TIME
PERIODS
at 3 o'clock
in May
at 10.30am
in summer
at noon
in the summer
at dinnertime
in 1990
at bedtime
in the 1990s
at sunrise
in the next century
at sunset
at the
moment
in the Ice Age
in the past/future
Look at these examples:
 I have a meeting at 9am.
 The shop closes at midnight.
 Jane went home at lunchtime.
 In England, it often snows in December.
 Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
 There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
 Do you work on Mondays?
 Her birthday is on 20 November.
 Where will you be on New Year's Day?
on
DAYS and DATES
on Sunday
on Tuesdays
on 6 March
on 25 Dec. 2010
on Christmas Day
on Independence
Day
on my birthday
on New Year's Eve
8 Ways to Use the Preposition “by”
The word “by” is very common in English. It can be used in lots of different
situations and contexts. It is mostly used as a preposition but it can also in fact be
used as an adverb. In this article, I explain the common uses of “by” as a
preposition.
“by” + place
The meaning is: beside, at the side of, next to, close to
examples:

The house is by a river.

David lives by a train station.

I would love to live in a house by the sea.
“by” + method of transport
This structure describes how you travel somewhere.
by + train
car
boat
plane
taxi
bus
coach
examples:

David went to Manchester by train.

I go to work by car.

My parents often go to France by boat.

Our children have never travelled by plane before.
“by” + method of communication
This structure describes how you communicate with someone.
by + telephone
post
email
fax
examples:

I spoke to her by telephone.

I will send you the invoice by post.

Please confirm the order by email.
“by” + method of payment
This structure describes how you pay for something.
by + credit card
cheque
examples:

We paid for the computer by cheque.

Can I pay by credit card?
Note that we do not use “by” for cash payments. We use the preposition “in”:

David paid in cash for the newspaper.
It is also possible to omit the preposition completely, particularly in spoken English:

David paid cash for the newspaper.
“by” and the passive
In the passive voice, “by” indicates WHO is doing the action.
First, let’s look at a sentence using the active voice:

David is cleaning the kitchen.
In the above sentence, “David” is the person doing the action. When we convert
this sentence to the passive voice, we say:

The kitchen is being cleaned by David.
Here are some more examples. These are in the past tense:

Sarah wrote the book. (active)
The book was written by Sarah. (passive)

Our school organised the concert. (active)
The concert was organised by our school. (passive)
“by” + reflexive pronoun
by + myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
This structure means to do something alone.
examples:

I enjoy reading by myself.

Sarah is studying by herself.

Let’s do something by ourselves.

My parents often go on holiday by themselves.
“by” + -ING verb
This structure describes how to do something. It gives us more information about
how to achieve a particular result.
example:

You can turn on the radio by pressing that button.
question:
How can I turn on the radio?
answer:
by pressing the button
The phrase “pressing the button” describes how to do something (how to turn on
the radio).
“by” + time expression
The meaning of this structure is: not later than; before or at a particular time
We use this structure for deadlines. A deadline is the time before which something
must be done.
examples:

Guests must vacate their hotel rooms by 11 am.

Please send us the payment by tomorrow.

Students must enrol by the end of June.
As a follow up to our recent blog post about prepositions in time, place, and
location, we wanted to dive in to the confusing world of prepositions as they
relate to transportation. Have you noticed that in English you say “get in the
car” but you would say “get on the train”? Both are describing being inside, so
why don’t they both use in?
Things you get on: train, plane, bus, boat
When talking about commercial or public transportation, such as a train or
plane, use the preposition on.
The passengers are on the plane.
We need to get on this bus.
Manuel is waiting for us on the boat.
Things you get in: taxi, car, truck
When it comes to personal modes of transportation, such as a taxi or a car,
use the preposition in.
She got in the taxi.
I am already in the car.
The boxes are loaded in the van.
As a general rule, you can choose a preposition based on the public/private
modes of transportation, but (as any English learner knows) there are
exceptions to every rule! Are there other prepositions that you struggle with?
Interjections
Hi! That's an interjection. :-)
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations
like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite
often, usually more in speaking than in writing.
When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical
connection to the sentence.
An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
Here is a list of interjections with implied meanings and example sentences.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are
extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say,
or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to
recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
What is an Interjection?
interjection (noun): a part-of-speech that expresses emotion
An interjection is one of the 9 parts of speech.
An interjection is a short word or phrase that shows emotion. It often stands alone,
unconnected to a sentence.
Typical interjections are:

Ah! Er. Hey. Ouch! Umm.

My God! Bloody hell!
And here are some interjections in context:

Hey! Don't be so lazy!

Well, let's think about it.

Ouch! That hurts!

Lima is the capital of...er...Peru.
Interjections are not normally used in formal writing, but they are common in
speech (and therefore informal and fiction writing), where they show emotions such
as anger, surprise and interest as well as convey hesitation.