1
What are the effects of surfactant secretion in the lungs?
Decreased alveolar surface tension, increased compliance, and decreased
work of inspiration
2
Name five important molecules produced by the lungs.
Surfactant, prostaglandins, histamine, angiotensin-converting enzyme, and
kallikrein
3
In addition to inactivating bradykinin, what other reaction
does angiotensin-converting enzyme catalyze?
The conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II
4
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors increase
bradykinin, which leads to which two common adverse
effects?
Cough and angioedema
5
A deficiency of surfactant leads to what neonatal
condition?
Respiratory distress syndrome
6
Give the equation for calculating collapsing pressure.
Collapsing pressure = 2 × tension / radius
7
What is the effect of histamine on the airways in the lung?
Increases bronchoconstriction
8
In the lung, _____ (angiotensin-converting
enzyme/kallikrein) inactivates bradykinin, _____
(angiotensin-converting enzyme/kallikrein) activates
bradykinin.
Angiotensive converting enzyme; kallikrein
9
What is the term for the volume of air in the lungs after
maximal expiration?
Residual volume
10
What is the term for the volume of air that can still be
breathed out after normal expiration?
Expiratory reserve volume
11
What is the term for the volume of air that moves into the
lungs with each quiet inspiration?
Tidal volume
12
How much is the typical tidal volume?
500 mL
13
What is the term for the volume of air in excess of tidal
volume that moves into the lung on maximum inspiration?
Inspiratory reserve volume
14
What is the term for the maximum volume of air that can
be inhaled and exhaled?
Vital capacity
15
Vital capacity equals the sum of what three lung volumes?
Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume
16
The residual volume plus the expiratory reserve volume
equals what?
The functional reserve capacity
17
Describe the functional reserve capacity.
The volume left in the lungs after normal expiration
18
The inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume
equals what?
Inspiratory capacity
19
The inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume plus
the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume
equals what?
Total lung capacity
20
What is the term for the lung volume that includes all
capacity except the residual volume?
Vital capacity
21
Which lung volume cannot be measured on spirometry:
inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory
reserve volume, or residual volume?
Residual volume
22
What is the formula for calculating dead space volume
given an arterial blood gas and a measurement of exhaled
carbon dioxide?
Dead space volume = tidal volume × [(partial arterial pressure of carbon
dioxide - partial expiratory pressure of carbon dioxide) / partial arterial
pressure of carbon dioxide]
23
Physiological dead space includes the anatomical dead
space of the _____ (conducting/respiratory) airways plus the
functional dead space in _____ (alveoli/bronchioles).
Conducting; alveoli
24
Which section of the healthy lung contributes more to
functional dead space: the apex or the base?
The apex
25
Describe the natural tendency of movement of the lung and
chest wall.
The lungs tend to collapse inward and chest wall springs outward
26
At the point of functional residual capacity (i.e., at the end
of a normal expiration), what is the value of the air
pressure within the lungs?
At functional residual capacity, the pressure within the lungs is equal to
atmospheric pressure
27
What balances the inward elastic pull of the lung at the
point of functional residual capacity (i.e. at the end of a
normal expiration)?
The outward pull of the chest wall
28
How many polypeptide subunits make up hemoglobin?
Four
29
Adult hemoglobin is formed from two _____ subunits and
two _____ subunits.
α; β
30
What are the two conformational forms of hemoglobin?
Relaxed and taut
31
Which form of hemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen,
relaxed or taut?
Taut
32
Which form of hemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen,
relaxed or taut?
Relaxed
33
Fetal hemoglobin is composed of two ____ subunits and two
____ subunits.
α; γ
34
Does hemoglobin have positive or negative cooperativity
with respect to oxygen binding and affinity?
Positive; the more oxygen molecules bind, the more affinity hemoglobin has
for additional oxygen molecules
35
Does fetal hemoglobin have a higher or lower affinity for
oxygen compared with adult hemoglobin?
Higher; as a result, fetal blood can draw oxygen across the placenta
36
Does fetal hemoglobin have a higher or lower affinity for
2,3-biphosphoglycerate compared with adult hemoglobin
and what is the result?
Lower; increased affinity for oxygen
37
An increase in which five factors will favor the taut form of
hemoglobin over the relaxed form and decrease affinity for
oxygen?
Chloride, hydron, carbon dioxide, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate, and
temperature
38
Which form of hemoglobin will lead to decreased oxygen
unloading?
The relaxed form (remember: "When you're Relaxed, you do your job better
[carry oxygen]")
39
With respect to cooperativity and affinity for oxygen, what
are the differences between hemoglobin and myoglobin?
Myoglobin has high affinity for oxygen but does not display cooperativity of
oxygen binding because it has only a single subunit
40
Does hemoglobin contain iron in the oxidized state or in
the reduced state; Fe2+ or Fe3+; ferric iron or ferrous iron?
The reduced state; Fe2+; ferrous iron
41
Does methemoglobin contain iron in the oxidized state or
the reduced state; Fe2+ or Fe3+; ferric iron or ferrous iron?
The oxidized state; Fe3+; ferric iron
42
Hemoglobin contains _____ (ferric/ferrous) iron, whereas
methemoglobin contains _____ (ferric/ferrous) iron.
Ferrous; ferric
43
What are the mechanisms of action of nitrites and
thiosulfate in the treatment of cyanide poisoning?
Nitrites oxidize the iron in hemoglobin to form methemoglobin;
methemoglobin then binds to cyanide ions, which in turn allows cytochrome
oxidase to function; after administering nitrites, thiosulfate is used to bind
to the cyanide-methemoglobin complexes, to form thiocyanate, which is
renally excreted
44
When another molecule, such as CO, binds to hemoglobin
in place of oxygen, what are the systemic effects?
This leads to tissue hypoxia from decreased oxygen saturation and
decreased oxygen content in the blood
45
Which has a higher affinity for oxygen, hemoglobin or
methemoglobin?
Hemoglobin
46
What is the treatment for toxic levels of methemoglobin?
Methylene blue (remember: METHemoglobinemia can be treated with
METHylene blue)
47
Which has a higher affinity for cyanide, hemoglobin or
methemoglobin?
Methemoglobin
48
What is the name of a form of hemoglobin in which carbon
monoxide is bound instead of oxygen?
Carboxyhemoglobin
49
In treating cyanide poisoning, ______ is the compound used
to bind cyanide, forming _____ which is a renally excretable
compound.
Thiosulfate; thiocyanate
50
What is the treatment for cyanide poisoning?
Nitrites, and subsequently thiosulfate
51
Does carbon monoxide or oxygen have a greater affinity
for hemoglobin?
Carbon monoxide has 200 times the affinity of oxygen
52
What is the shape of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve?
Sigmoidal
53
When the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to
the right, what happens to the affinity of hemoglobin for
oxygen?
A right shift decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
54
When the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to
the right, what happens to the P50?
A right shift increases the P50, indicating that higher oxygen pressure is
required to saturate hemoglobin
55
A shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the
right facilitates what process in tissue?
The unloading of oxygen to tissue
56
When the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to
the left, what happens to the affinity of hemoglobin for
oxygen?
A left shift increases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
57
When the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to
the left, what happens to the P50?
A left shift decreases the P50; hemoglobin is saturated at lower pressures of
oxygen
58
A decrease in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide causes
a _____ (left/right) shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation curve.
Left
59
A decrease in temperature causes a _____ (left/right) shift in
the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Left
60
A decrease in pH causes a _____ (left/right) shift in the
oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Right
61
A decrease in 2,3-diphosphoglycerate causes a _____
(left/right) shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve.
Left
62
The oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve for fetal
hemoglobin is shifted in what direction?
Left; fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin
63
An increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
causes a _____ (left/right) shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation curve.
Right
64
An increase in temperature causes a _____ (left/right) shift
in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Right
65
An increase in pH causes a ______ (left/right) shift in the
oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Left
66
High altitude induces what change in the oxygenhemoglobin dissociation curve?
A right shift
67
An increase in 2,3-diphosphoglycerate causes a _____
(left/right) shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve.
Right
68
In the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, what values
are represented by the x and y axes?
The partial pressure of oxygen represents the x axis, while hemoglobin
saturation represents the y-axis
69
Hemoglobin can bind four oxygen molecules and has a
higher affinity for each subsequent oxygen molecule
bound. What is the term for this phenomenon?
Positive cooperativity
70
An increase in the amounts of which six factors causes a
right shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?
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CO2, hydrogen ions (therefore acidity), altitude, 2,3-DPG, metabolic needs
(eg, exercise), and temperature (remember: CADET face right: CO2,
Acid/Altitude, DPG [2,3-DPG], Exercise, Temperature)
71
Normally, pulmonary circulation is a _____ (high/low)
resistance, _____ (high/low) compliance system.
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Low; high
72
Within the lungs, a decrease in the partial pressure of
oxygen in arterial blood causes what process to occur
within the vasculature in the area?
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Hypoxic vasoconstriction; in the rest of the body hypoxia causes
vasodilation
73
Within the lungs, hypoxic vasoconstriction serves what
physiologic function?
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It shifts blood away from the poorly ventilated regions of the lung to the
well-ventilated regions of the lung
74
Under normal, healthy conditions, is oxygen a perfusionlimited gas or a diffusion-limited gas?
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Perfusion-limited gas
75
Is carbon dioxide a perfusion-limited gas or a diffusionlimited gas?
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Perfusion-limited gas
76
Is nitrous oxide a perfusion-limited gas or a diffusionlimited gas?
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Perfusion-limited gas
77
Is carbon monoxide a perfusion-limited gas or a diffusionlimited gas?
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Diffusion-limited gas
78
Under conditions of strenuous exercise, is oxygen a
perfusion-limited gas or a diffusion-limited gas?
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Diffusion-limited gas
79
Under perfusion-limited conditions, where along the length
of the pulmonary capillary do the partial pressures of a gas
equilibrate?
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Early; gas exchange is not limited by its ability to cross the membrane, only
by the supply of blood
80
Under perfusion-limited conditions, how can gas exchange
be increased?
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By increasing blood flow
81
Under what three conditions is oxygen a diffusion-limited
gas?
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Exercise, emphysema, and fibrosis
82
Under diffusion-limited conditions, where along the length
of the pulmonary capillary does the gas equilibrate?
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It does not equilibrate; the characteristics of the gas cause it to diffuse
slowly across the alveolar membrane
83
What are the cardiac complications of pulmonary
hypertension?
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Cor pulmonale and right ventricular failure
84
What are three signs of right ventricular heart failure due
to cor pulmonale?
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Jugular venous distention, edema, and hepatomegaly
85
What is the equation for diffusion of a gas across a
membrane?
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Vgas = A/T × Dk(P1 - P2), where A = area, T = thickness, and Dk(P1 - P2) =
difference in partial pressures
86
In the equation for gas diffusion, which variable is affected
by emphysema and how?
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Area of membranes available for gas transfer is decreased in emphysema,
causing a decrease in diffusion
87
In the equation for gas diffusion, which variable is affected
by pulmonary fibrosis and how?
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Thickness of the membrane is increased in pulmonary fibrosis, causing a
decrease in diffusion
88
What is normal pulmonary arterial pressure?
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10-14 mm Hg
89
What pulmonary artery pressures define pulmonary
hypertension?
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25 mm Hg or greater during rest and >35 mm Hg during exercise
90
Primary pulmonary hypertension is caused by what?
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An inactivating mutation in the BMPR2 gene, which normally functions to
inhibit vascular smooth muscle proliferation
91
What is the prognosis for a patient diagnosed with primary
pulmonary hypertension?
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Very poor; the disease is progressive and fatal
92
What are some of the potential causes of secondary
pulmonary hypertension?
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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, left-to-right shunt, mitral stenosis,
recurrent thromboemboli, autoimmune disease (ie, systemic sclerosis),
sleep apnea, or living at high altitudes
93
What are three pathological changes in the vasculature are
caused by pulmonary hypertension?
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Atherosclerosis, medial hypertrophy, and intimal fibrosis of the pulmonary
arteries
94
How does chronic obstructive pulmonary disease cause
pulmonary hypertension?
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By the destruction of lung parenchyma and subsequent vasoconstriction
due to hypoxia
95
How does mitral stenosis cause pulmonary hypertension?
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By increasing resistance to blood flow in the left heart; thus causing a buildup of pressure starting in the left atrium and backing up to the pulmonary
vasculature
96
How do recurrent thromboemboli cause pulmonary
hypertension?
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By decreasing the total cross-sectional area of the pulmonary vascular bed
97
How can autoimmune disease cause pulmonary
hypertension?
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Processes such as systemic sclerosis lead to inflammation, then to intimal
fibrosis, which in turn leads to medial hypertrophy in the pulmonary
vasculature
98
How does left-to-right shunt cause pulmonary
hypertension?
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By causing increased shear stress (due to increased blood volume in the
pulmonary vasculature) and thus endothelial injury
99
How do sleep apnea or living at high altitudes cause
pulmonary hypertension?
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Sleep apnea and living at high altitudes cause hypoxia, which in turn causes
pulmonary vasoconstriction
100
What are the sequelae of pulmonary hypertension if left
untreated?
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Severe respiratory distress, causing right ventricular hypertrophy and
cyanosis . This results in decompensated cor pulmonale which leads to
death
101
How is pulmonary vascular resistance calculated?
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Pulmonary vascular resistance = (pressure in the pulmonary artery minus
pressure in the left atrium) divided by the cardiac output
102
How is left atrial pressure measured?
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It is approximated by wedge pressure
103
Pulmonary vascular resistance is _____ (directly/inversely)
related to vessel length and _____ (directly/inversely)
related to vessel radius.
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Directly; inversely
104
What is the equation for resistance, given vessel length,
diameter, and blood viscosity?
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R = (8ηl) / (πr4), where η = viscosity of blood, l = vessel length, and r = vessel
radius
105
How is the oxygen content of the blood calculated?
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Oxygen content of the blood = (oxygen-binding capacity × percent
saturation) + dissolved oxygen
106
How much oxygen can 1 g of hemoglobin bind?
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1.34 mL
107
What is the average amount of hemoglobin in normal
blood?
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Approximately 15 g/dL
108
What is the normal oxygen-binding capacity of the blood?
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Approximately 20.1 mL oxygen/dL of blood
109
When the hemoglobin level rises, the oxygen content of the
blood _____ (rises/falls).
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Rises, because oxygen-binding capacity depends on the total amount of
hemoglobin
110
When the hemoglobin level falls, the percent oxygen
saturation of the blood ______ (rises/falls/remains stable).
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Remains stable; the blood can still be 100% saturated but there will be less
oxygen-binding capacity and therefore lower total oxygen content
111
A decrease in hemoglobin will have what effect on partial
oxygen pressure: decrease, increase, or no change?
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No change
112
Visible cyanosis typically results when deoxygenated
hemoglobin is at what level?
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> 5 g/dL
113
Why does arterial partial pressure of oxygen decrease with
chronic lung disease?
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Physiologic shunt decreases the oxygen extraction ratio
114
What is the formula for oxygen delivery to tissues?
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Oxygen delivery to tissues = cardiac output × oxygen content of blood
115
Will a patient with anemia become cyanotic at a higher or
lower oxygen saturation than a normal patient?
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An anemic patient will have a lower oxygen saturation by the time she
appears cyanotic; the blue coloration of cyanosis is proportional to the
concentration of deoxyhemoglobin, which is lower in anemic patients (as
are the concentrations of all types of hemoglobin)
116
What is the alveolar gas equation?
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Alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (in mm Hg) = the partial pressure of
oxygen in inspired air minus (alveolar partial carbon dioxide pressure
divided by the respiratory quotient); or, PAO2 = PIO2 - (PACO2/R)
117
How can the alveolar gas equation be simplified and
approximated (assuming that the patient is breathing
ambient air)?
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Alveolar partial pressure of oxygen = 150 - (arterial partial pressure of
carbon dioxide / 0.8)
118
By using the alveolar gas equation, what important
measure of pulmonary function can be determined?
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The alveolar-arterial gradient (the A-a gradient)
119
What is the normal alveolar-arterial gradient?
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10-15 mmHg
120
What three pathological processes can lead to increased Aa gradient?
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Shunting, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and fibrosis of the lungs
121
Name five processes that can lead to hypoxemia (ie,
decreased arterial oxygen).
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High altitude, hypoventilation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, diffusion
limitation, and right-to-left shunt
122
Name five processes that can lead to hypoxia (ie, decreased
oxygen delivery to tissue).
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Decreased cardiac output, hypoxemia, anemia, cyanide poisoning, and
carbon monoxide poisoning
123
Name two processes that can lead to ischemia (i.e. loss of
blood flow).
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Impeded arterial flow, and reduced venous drainage
124
What is the difference between hypoxemia and hypoxia?
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Hypoxemia refers to decreased arterial partial pressure of oxygen and can
lead to hypoxia, which is defined as decreased oxygen delivery to tissue
125
Which 2 processes lead to hypoxemia with a normal A-a
gradient?
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High altitude and hypoventilation
126
Which 3 processes can lead to hypoxemia with an
increased A-a gradient?
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Ventilation/perfusion mismatch, diffusion limitation, and right-to-left shunt
127
What is the ideal ratio of ventilation to perfusion to
maximize gas exchange?
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1 to 1
128
Within what part of the lung does ventilation/perfusion
equal approximately 3?
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The apex of the lung
129
In the apex of the lung, there is wasted _____
(perfusion/ventilation).
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Ventilation
130
Within what part of the lung does ventilation/perfusion
equal approximately 0.6?
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The base of the lung
131
In the base of the lung, there is wasted _____
(perfusion/ventilation).
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Perfusion
132
Is ventilation greater at the base of the lung or the apex of
the lung?
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The base of the lung
133
Is perfusion greater at the base of the lung or the apex of
the lung?
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The base of the lung
134
The vasodilation of the apical capillaries of the lung that
occurs with exercise results in what change to the
ventilation/perfusion ratio?
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The ventilation/perfusion ratio approaches 1, maximizing gas exchange to
meet the metabolic demands of exercise
135
Microorganisms that thrive in high-oxygen environments,
such as tuberculosis, flourish in which part of the lungs?
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The apex
136
A ventilation/perfusion ratio that approaches 0 for a given
area of lung indicates that what is occurring in that area?
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Airway obstruction, creating a shunt of blood flow that does not participate
in gas exchange
137
What is the name for the process whereby airway
obstruction leads to perfusion with no ventilation within
an area of the lungs?
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Shunt
138
A ventilation/perfusion ratio that approaches infinity for a
given area of lung indicates that what is occurring in that
area?
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Blood flow obstruction (ie, pulmonary embolus)
139
When blood flow (but not airflow) into an area of the lungs
is obstructed such that the ventilation/perfusion ratio
approaches infinity, the area can be considered what type
of space?
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Physiologic dead space
140
Which zone of the lung is associated with wasted
ventilation?
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Zone 1
141
Which zone of the lung is associated with wasted
perfusion?
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Zone 3
142
In hypoxia due to _____ (dead space/shunting), 100% oxygen
does not improve the partial pressure of oxygen in the
blood; while in hypoxia due to increased _____ (dead
space/shunting), there is an improvement in the partial
pressure of oxygen in the blood.
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Shunting; dead space
143
In the lung apex (zone 1), arrange the following in order of
increasing pressure: artery, vein, alveolus.
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Vein < artery< alveolus
144
In zone 2 of the lung, arrange the following in order of
increasing pressure: artery, vein , alveolus.
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Vein < alveolus < artery
145
In the lung base (zone 3), arrange the following in order of
increasing pressure: artery, vein, alveolus.
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Alveolus < vein < artery
146
What process causes the ventilation at the apex of the
lungs to be considered "wasted?"
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The high alveolar pressure at the apex causes compression of the
capillaries, and thus an inability to undertake gas exchange with the blood
vessels
147
In which forms is carbon dioxide transported from the
tissues to the lungs?
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Three forms: (1) as bicarbonate, (2) bound to hemoglobin as
carbaminohemoglobin, and (3) dissolved
148
Ninety percent of the carbon dioxide transported from the
tissues to the lungs is in what form?
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Bicarbonate, the creation of which is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase
149
Other than as bicarbonate, in what two other ways is
carbon dioxide transported from the tissues to the lungs?
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Bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin and dissolved in blood
150
What percentage of carbon dioxide gets transported from
the tissues to the lungs as carbaminohemoglobin; as
dissolved carbon dioxide?
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Approximately 5%; approximately 5%
151
After it is inside a red blood cell, each carbon dioxide
molecule combines with which molecule in a reaction
catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase?
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Water
152
What enzyme catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide
and water into carbonic acid?
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Carbonic anhydrase
153
Within a red blood cell, the carbonic acid formed from the
combination of carbon dioxide and water dissociates into
what two compounds?
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Hydrogen and bicarbonate ions
154
What is the fate of the bicarbonate that results from the
deprotonation of carbonic acid within an red blood cell?
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It gets exchanged out of the red blood cell for a chloride molecule that
enters the red blood cell
155
In the lungs, the oxygenation of hemoglobin promotes
what?
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The dissociation of a proton from hemoglobin and therefore a decrease in
pH, which favors formation of carbon dioxide from bicarbonate
156
What is the name for the effect in which the oxygenation of
hemoglobin within the lungs promotes the dissociation of
carbon dioxide from hemoglobin?
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The Haldane effect
157
Regarding carbon dioxide transport, in which direction
will the lower pH of peripheral tissues (compared to the
lungs) shift the oxygen dissociation curve?
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To the right, favoring dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin
158
In peripheral tissues, the right shift of the oxygen
dissociation curve that results from decreased pH causes
an unloading of oxygen. What is this effect called?
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The Bohr effect
159
What happens to ventilation as a response to high altitude
in acute situations; chronic situations?
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Ventilation is increased in both cases
160
What happens to erythropoietin levels as a response to
high altitude?
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Erythropoietin levels are increased as are hematocrit and hemoglobin
161
What happens to the level of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in
response to high altitude?
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The 2,3-diphosphoglycerate level increases
162
What substance binds to hemoglobin so that hemoglobin
releases more oxygen as a physiologic response to high
altitude?
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2,3-Diphosphoglycerate; increased concentrations shift the hemoglobin
dissociation curve to the right
163
What cellular changes occur in response to high altitude?
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There is an increase in mitochondria
164
Increased renal excretion of what substance occurs in
response to high altitude?
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Bicarbonate
165
The increased renal excretion of bicarbonate that is seen in
response to high altitude compensates for what?
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The respiratory alkalosis that occurs as a result of increased ventilation
166
The increased renal excretion of bicarbonate that is seen in
response to high altitude can be augmented using what?
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Acetazolamide; the drug is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that makes the
urine more basic
167
In response to high altitude, chronic hypoxic pulmonary
vasoconstriction results in what condition?
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Right ventricular hypertrophy
168
As a result of exercise, what happens to carbon dioxide
production in muscles; oxygen consumption?
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Both are increased
169
What happens to the V/Q ratio as a response to exercise?
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It becomes more uniform from apex to base; hence gas exchange is more
efficient
170
What happens to pulmonary blood flow as a response to
exercise?
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It increases due to increased cardiac output
171
How does the pH of the body change during strenuous
exercise?
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pH decreases during strenuous exercise due to lactic acidosis
172
PaO2 and PaCO2 _____ (increase/decrease/remain stable) in
response to exercise, whereas venous CO2 content _____
(increases/decreases/remains stable).
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PaO2 and PaCO2 do not change in response to exercise but venous CO2
content increases
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Decks in S1 - Respiratory Class (4):
Respiratory Anatomy
Respiratory Pathology
Respiratory Pharmacology
Respiratory Physiology
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