PSYCH 3T03 Behavioural Ecology

What is behavioural ecology?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">behavioural ecology </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ the scientific study of behavioural phenomena in the light of ecological and evolutionary theory; not just behaviour, but ecological, physiological, and psychological factors that influence it</span></b></li></ul>" What is evolution?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">evolution</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → a change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations. Driven by natural selection acting on the genetic variation in reproductive success among individuals (resulting from a heritable trait). Results in new species</span></b></li></ul>" What are the six common mis understandings in evolution?"<div><ol><li><b><b>evolution is not random<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – mutation is random, selection is not</span></b><br></b></li><li><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">there is</span> no ‘aim’<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> to evolution – whatever survives, survives</span></b><br></span></b></b></li><li><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">what survives is </span>not necessarily<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> what is </span>‘best’<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> for long term survival of the species</span></b><br></span></b></span></b></b></li><li><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b>no species is ‘more evolved’<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> than any other – same ~3.7 billion years of evolution; some are more derived</span></b><br></span></b></span></b></span></b></b></li><li><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">evolution is</span> not necessarily slow<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – big changes can occur in few generations; t</span></b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ime is measured on reproductive scales, not geological</span></b><br></span></b></span></b></span></b></span></b></b></li><li><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b>not all<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> evolutionary change is </span>adaptive<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – neutral processes such as drift</span></b><br></span></b></span></b></span></b></span></b></span></b></b></li></ol></div>" Name the three things that behavioural ecology is NOT."<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> behavioural ecology is</span> not behavioural genetics</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">too many factors go into behaviour, behavioural ecology explores many beyond genetics</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behavioural ecology is </span>not behavioural determinism</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">environmental factors are complicated, we cannot say that one thing necessarily causes a behaviour</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behavioural ecology is n</span>ot primarily about humans</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">environmental factors are complicated, we cannot say that one thing necessarily causes a behaviour</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" Name three things that behavioural ecology IS."<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behavioural ecology is a</span>daptationist<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – looking at adaptive traits</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behavioural ecology is s</span>electionist<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – natural selection is the force driving adaptation</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behavioural ecology is c</span>omparative<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – comparing across different taxa and sexes</span></b></div></li></ol></b>" What is adaptation? Provide an example."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> </span><i>a</i><span style=""font-style: italic;"">daptation</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → the evolutionary process by which organisms fit better into their environments or habitats; change in state or a trait that increases the reproductive success of individual </span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">a physical or behavioral trait maintained and evolved by natural selection that enhances the probability of survival and reproduction</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">ex. bird flight: wings → large chest muscles; bones → hollow, lightweight; aerodynamic → body structure; feathers → help birds fly; powerful cardiovascular and respiratory systems → extract more oxygen and power flight</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Why should we study behavioural ecology?"<ol><li><div> b<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">enefits us</span> – we use animals and plants in many different ways</div></li><ul><li><div>protect our crops from pests, improve the welfare of pets/livestock, find food etc.</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">benefits the natural world</span> – know what animals need and when/where they need it </div></li><ul><li><div>monitor how ecosystems are changing due to habitat and climate change</div></li></ul><li><div>behavioural Ecology is <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">interesting</span></div></li><ul><li><div>>5000 mammals, >30,000 fishes, >40,000 spiders, >400,000 beetles, etc</div></li></ul></ol>" What two fields does behavioural ecology unite?"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">ethology</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → the study of behaviour under natural conditions</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">evolutionary biology</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → the study of how life develops through natural selection</span></b></div></li></ol></b>" What is ethology?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The great insight of the classical ethologists was that they realized that just as each animal species has its characteristic anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, so too each species has its characteristic behaviour.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Behavioural traits can be analyzed in the same way as physical traits, including the study of their evolution (studying behaviour)</span></div></li></ul></b>" "What are Niko Tinbergen's four questions?""<b><ul><li><div>ultimate and proximate questions</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">causation (mechanism) – proximate</span></div></li><ul><li><div>what biological mechanisms are responsible for the behaviour?</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">I.e. hormones, brain function, genes, muscles, etc</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">development (ontogeny) – proximate</span></div></li><ul><li><div>what environmental factors that influence development are responsible for the behaviour?</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">I.e. critical periods, nutrition, etc</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">functional (adaptive) – ultimate</span></div></li><ul><li><div>how does the behaviour influence the individual's ability to survive and reproduce?</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">evolution (phylogeny) – ultimate</span></div></li><ul><li><div>how did evolutionary processes over many generations result in the evolution of the behaviour?</div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" What did Konrad Lorenz contribute to ethology?"<b><ul><li><div>goslings<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> follow him like he is their mother</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">interested in </span>neurobiology of behaviour</b></div></li></ul></b>" What did Karl von Frisch study?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">studied bees waggle dance</span></b></li></ul>" What is evolutionary biology?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">evolution is a change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations. driven by natural selection acting on the genetic variation in reproductive success among individuals – </span>the study of how life develops through natural selection</b></li></ul>" What did Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace believe?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">believed in </span>natural selection instead of acquired traits</div></li><li><div><b>n<span style=""font-style: italic;"">atural selection</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → traits become more or less common within a population because these inherited traits lead to differential survival and reproduction of individuals possessing them</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What are the three conditions for natural selection?"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">individuals within the population must </span>vary in phenotypic traits<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> </span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">individuals differ in traits that affect their chance of survival/reproduction</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">at least some of the</span> variation must have a genetic basis<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> (i.e. is heritable)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">this variation </span>must influence reproductive success<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> in terms of survival or reproduction</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">some individuals will have more offspring than others</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" What are the five observations and their inferences?"<i>Ecological</i><br><ol><li>populations have the potential to<b> increase exponentially</b></li><li>population usually <b>remain stable</b> once they reach a <b>certain size</b></li><li>natural <b>resources are limited</b></li></ol><i>Heredity</i><br><ol style=""""><li style="""">indivduals in a population are <b>not identical</b>, they <b>vary in many characteristics</b></li><li style="""">many <b>characteristic are heritable</b> (passed from parent → offspring)</li></ol>Inferences<br><ol><li><b>not all offspring</b> that are produced <b>survive and reproduce</b> because of struggles for resources<br></li><li><b>some</b> individuals are <b>more lik</b><b>ely to survive</b> than others because of heritable trait</li><li><b>differences</b> in survival and reproduction among individuals is <b>non-random</b>, with some traits being passed on at a higher rate than others and increasing in proportion in the population from one generation to the next – evolution by natural selection (derived from inferences 1 & 2) </li></ol>" Describe evolution in action. "<ul><li>when different survival and reproduction are related to individual differences, and these individual differences are heritable, evolution can ensue</li><li><b>evolution does not necessarily occur even if all 3 conditions are fulfilled</b></li><li>selection is <b>stabilizing</b>: if a trait is optimal, current selection tends to prevent it from evolving away from the optimum</li></ul><span style=""font-size: 30px;""><b><br></b></span>" Give an example of current evolution.<div><ul><li>pollution adapted pepper moth – <b>used to be white, now speckled due</b> to industrial revolution soot on trees</li><li>COVID variants, antibiotic resistance, smaller fish due to overfishing, tuskless elephants</li></ul></div> "What happened to Darwin's Finches?""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Adaptively </span>radiate to fill unoccupied ecological niches</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More diverse in bill morphology, diet and behavior than is typical</span></div></li></ul></b>" What did Peter and Rosemary study?"<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">P</span><span style=""font-style: italic;"">eter & Rosemary</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → 50 years of research on Daphne Island; witnessed evolution first hand due to intense weather changes</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">evolution of beak morphology in the medium ground finance</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">unusual aspect of the study</span></div></li><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>long term</div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">every individual was marked and tracked, every individual’s LRS was known and the traits beneficial for fitness could be assessed</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">natural environmental perturbations in the form of droughts were ‘naturalistic experiments’ or manipulations allowed the Grants to observe natural selection in a relatively short time period</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">birds with large beaks eat large hard seeds</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">medium beaks eat both</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">small beaks eat small soft seeds</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul><b><img src=""7nUibdDxJC2QJdXL70FyzoK_bseZ_-zgs6MaeQMqPyhzr-uaeW7n4Z5QzvfQHQgJt4XToKsX1czUFSAYz9juMiqi0t18g9Nin6losHCIDeS8Rels-DI.png""></b><br>" What are some important things to remeber about evolution?"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">evolution is not natural Selection – it’s </span>gene frequency<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> and occurs across generations (individuals don't evolve)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">the</span> major causes<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> of evolution are </span>mutation, genetic drift and natural selection</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">natural selection is </span>differential reproduction<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – called </span>fitness</div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">natural selection is only </span>evolutionary force predictably leading to adaptation</b></div></li></ol></b>" What happened to finches during the drought?"<b><h3><span style=""font-style: italic;"">1976</span></h3><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">seed abundance plummeted and finch population crashes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">species composition of seed bank changed</span></div></li><ul><li><div>bigger seeds remained to some extent, small seeds almost completely gone</div></li></ul><li><div>directional selection on beak size<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> resulted in </span>larger beak finches<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> surviving and reproducing</span></div></li><li><div>beak sizes are heritable</div></li></ul><h3><i>2004</i></h3><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">new competitor: large ground finch</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">generally bigger, can out-compete the medium ground finch with big beak</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">seed bank was depleted again but it was better to be small billed because they did not have to compete with the large finches</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">beak dimensions were opposite in direction</span></div></li></ul></b>" Describe character displacement in terms of the finched + provide a definition."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 species in sympatry; </span><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">divergence due to competition</span></b></div></li><li><div>Divergence in traits that is caused by competition between species</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">CD meas differences are exaggerated in sympatry as a result of recent selective history of interspecific competition</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Caused bigger differences in beak dimensions between the medium ground finch and the large ground finch</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""2svl5PpOL89R7OrOSr1-RzHoIyZ0EBGokNaB-i0QVbHtf86_5ZAnGhYMQArE5ba66jnVFAztNjMi5maCg2k-JniXDdRP26icyX0XsrLyglCe9KXKRky.png""></b><br>" Describe character release in terms of the finched + provide a definition."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>absence of competition from the small ground finch, the medium ground finch on Daphne had smaller beaks</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">greater overlap in beak size when each species found alone (allopatry)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">in the past, the medium ground finch was released from competition and had had unusually small beaks</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""7PoyKjJ0pv0aEAF-ZHCH9v3F00lyn6qe4rOnrKQC0zymZPeRsoki56ujccpW397Cgo6fR7Q-5WxoHpoQVL3y-wyZHn4K1hfxWwbE3BxiM_KWcAeu8hh.png""></b><br>" Define allopatry."<ul><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">populations existing in different places/times</span></b><br></li></ul>" Define sympatry."<ul><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">populations existing in the same place/time</span></b><br></li></ul>" What is sensory ecology?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">sensory ecology</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → scientific study of how animals perceive & interact with their environments</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">to successfully navigate and interact with the world, animals must collect and process information</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Give an example of information collectors vs processors."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">information collectors</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → sense organs</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">information processors</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → brain</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What are the human senses and their source of information?"<b><div><table><tbody><tr><td><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vision</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hearing </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Touch</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Taste</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Smell</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vestibular (balance)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Proprioception (position</span></div></li></ol></td><td><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br>But maybe better to think about the source of information</span></div><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electromagnetic radiation</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vibration/mechanical</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Chemicals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electricity</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Magnetism</span></div></li></ol></td></tr></tbody></table></div></b>" Decribe and give examples of how the colour component of vision differs among various species."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>human eyes have three cones<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">: red, blue, and green – </span>trichromatic vision</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">perception of colour comes from comparison of each cones stimulation</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">our cones are </span>slightly skewed towards green and red</div></li><li><div>dogs are dichromatic<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, </span>they do not have red cones</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">most other</span> vertebrates are tetra-chromatic<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> and </span>can see UV light </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">UV light is used to signal in the same way as any colour we can see</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">humans do not have this simply because we do not need it, we used to be nocturnal, so the development of any cones at all was a huge step</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">fish use UV light to distinguish between species where we can not</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">fish with the UV spots</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">invertebrates use </span>compound eyes <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">which are made up of 100s/100s of tiny individual ‘eyes’ called ommatidia</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">each </span>ommatidium is a pixel<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – lower resolution than humans </span></b></div></li></ul><b><img src=""CzJFWDFadRC6uKQqOgcr7QsL5LlY-BffXo4WRyJ2gJfUR5fWxbYaEWSGe73Z4r98Jxj-_NcUbrRQtHMcoar4PIESuH_mUBV54wkN76tnhOvW017ReT0.png""></b><br>" Decribe and give examples of how the polarised light component of vision differs among various species."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">some animals also have </span>polarized lenses<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> that allow them to </span>communicate and navigate<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> where others may not</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">allows animals </span>to distinguish whether a wave is moving horizontally or vertically</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">dung beetles can do this; they orientate following the polarized light of the moon across the sky</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Decribe and give examples of how the acuity component of vision differs among various species."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">acuity → </span>our visual resolution</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">humans have some of the best visual acuity in the natural world; bees + butterflies have poor acuity</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Decribe and give examples of how the flicker rate component of vision differs among various species."<ul><li><b>humans<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> eyes refresh roughly </span>60 times/second<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">;</span> dogs<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> that refresh roughly </span>80 times/second<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">; </span>starling > 100</b></li></ul>" Which animal has it all in terms of vision."<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mantis Shrimp has it all</span><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">12 colour cells</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">polarization vision</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">the beast of visual stimuli</span></div></li></ul></b>" Give three reasons why sensory ecology is important."<b><ol><li><div>avoid Anthropomorphism</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">cannot assume everything experiences the world in the same way we do</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behaviour often </span>involves sharing information</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">senses allow us to understand which cues are important</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">do </span>not want to miss important cues</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">cannot explain behaviour without all the information</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" Why is sensory ecology vital for migration?"<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">birds make some huge annual migrations across the world; often at night and over unfamiliar terrain/open water with few landmarks</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>birds<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> are suspected to have some </span>sense of electromagnetism</div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Elmen & Elmen performed a study; they had a bird in a cage with ink to record their movement, the bird was able to identify migratory direction without any visual stimuli</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">when </span>placed into a novel magnetic field, birds orientate towards their target as if they were in that new location</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Robins ‘see’ the Earth’s magnetic field with proteins in their right eyes</span></div></li></ul></ul><div><b><img src=""5itmsT3ufbXX_Qmzwo-UcNR8Dq5ELhyABQmg8D3EZAOykK0XmhkENkanrRPLBcwiPrsrSKxiiXJ8wUM6MdWPmOHYPrgS60wc5ANgIabIEo-RA4ZWVsN.png""></b><b><img src=""W_6Gw6RohtNY-54w-HqgEO6Rhvv96EzwG_lIuBoXH98wWNYE5y_fZ8xx4upITmV23pzZEU8PNut8QcUUguU4w7VZsuSr729iee9NiX9FbP3wuP7dXSM.png""></b><i><br></i></div>" Decribe the <i>Case Study: Life as a Bee</i>."<b><ol><li><div>find & navigate to flowers</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">vision</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – </span>orientate relative to the polarised light<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> field over the sky</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Smell</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – volatile </span>chemical picked up by antennae</div></li></ul><li><div>choose flowers</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">vision</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – colour vision pick out flowers from leaves</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">UV reflecting petals guide bee to nectaries</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">smell</span> <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">- volatile </span>chemicals picked up by antennae</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">taste</span> <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">–</span> front feet and antennae<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> pick up chemicals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">electrostatic</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – </span>body hairs detect static charge</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bees can pick up + charge </span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">when bees land on the flower, the + charge is transmitted to the bee and the bee </span>can infer if the flower has been used by another bee or not</b></div></li></ul></ul></ol></b><b><img src=""0nAtSI6lT5Nv5UttBp49O-UYcln-_mvWXZksyl-K12Xo9vAu-bKcHtWrXa0Q1XWNPfsnYtSUk63NCLBpD89vexLi_lLjhdoYKXNba6qsQ7ykJKO7XiH.png""></b><b><br></b>" What conclusions can be made about sensory ecology?"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">animals perceive the world ver differently to us humans</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">behaviour depends on the receiving and transmitting of information</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">to understand animal behaviour we need to understand what salient cues the animals is paying attention to</span></div></li></ol></b>" What are Tinbergens four questions?"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How? – Proximate/Immediate Cause Questions</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Causation: <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What mechanisms cause the behaviour?</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How do the mechanisms work physiologically and cognitively?</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Ontogeny:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> How does the behaviour develop within an individual?</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does the behaviour develop during an individual’s lifetime? </span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why? – Ultimate/Long Term Cause Questions</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Function: <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does the behaviour contribute to survival and reproduction? (effect on fitness)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why is it maintained by natural selection? What are the fitness effects?</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Phylogeny:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> How did the behaviour evolve? (Evolutionary Origins)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What were the evolutionary antecedent behaviours? When did the behaviour first appear or originate in evolutionary time?</span></div></li></ul></ul></ol></b>" "What did Tinbergen call his <b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">four basic modes/levels of analysis?</span></b>"<b><ol><li><div>mechanism/causation/mechanisms of control</div></li><li><div>ontogeny/development</div></li><li><div>function/adaptive significance/current utility</div></li><li><div>phylogeny/evolutionary history</div></li></ol></b> "How and why do birds sing? Give your answer in terms of Tinbergen's four questions.""<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What mechanisms cause it?</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In the spring, </span>more daylight<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> causes a </span>release of hormones to the higher vocal centre (HVC) causing them to sing</div></li></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does it develop?</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The</span> hormone changes in male birds increasing drastically 10 days<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> after hatching, this changes their physiology which allows them to sings</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">They learn bird songs from listening to their fathers</span></div></li></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does it affect fitness?</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fundamental for r</span>eproductive success as repertoire size has a direct effect on clutch size <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(the total eggs a bird lays per each nesting attempt)</span></b><br></li></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does it evolve?</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Common ancestors did not have singing ability, it evolved eventually</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""9yst5V7q7-sDxTkdY50T7uCG_jaswNHw_v9vTBwQa2R9VlPWmRdsw6rsvgaYgBGnn1zgYozccuW0T5UNJw4ZpI4KCQarTDfUiK12VKGpMaBADm-xGPT.png""></b><b><img src=""ELTFJIWoTy1rHqDdJwRi5bMuKyb53V-XG9pXWLKmFBjbOqY5omOfMtSxEl8CArNPUSFBqS653VLtrcBLuUpPRIvJ5xeSK-XFElKoAQKTybMKMpWO3yy.png""></b><b><img src=""yMLusrckfHgcF4lO6Ni4kyrri3mpb3G6Q0XwLFT3Xl35aiC-ON60TPG1MnZKE5HPMgoo-crxjF2FQw2d7jKvPlv_ZpGRREL5xkrfVweUj7x7WkeQGjL.png""></b><br>" What is a trade-off? Provide an example"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Behaviours </span>may have benefits<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, but </span>there will also be costs</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. want to eat (gain calories; benefit), you have to find food (spend calories; cost)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Defend great territory with lots of food, have to fight lots of rival</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" How long should a bird sing? Describe in terms of trade-offs."<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How loud should a bird sing?</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>Louder birds tend to attract more mates<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, however, if birds are </span>too loud, they will attract predators</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Therefore, it's important to maximise benefits and minimise costs</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">There is an optimal range of cost to benefit that lands when you combine the two curves that dictates a loudness of</span> 20 dB is ideal to increase mates with minimal predation</div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Singing </span>mediumly<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> is the best option</span></b></div></li></ul></ul><b><img src=""-mmmAJOXaJ3-NuZzUKlew4uYSk6rkmsNR9Z05XrnKzP1kbyyiRTGiDTSUOhfPEZjY3lyK9QikPJ2XNDGm9U7O1xhuJFMh2RgbCM1YA05Cg-ZiO5LKzE.jpg""></b><br>" What is optimality?"<ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Optimality</span> → where it is advantageous to engage processes with a maximal beneficial effect and a minimal cost under given constraints</div></li><li><div>Optimality models force us to be explicit about trade-offs</div></li></ul>" Desrcibe how Kestrel hunting strategies allow for optimality."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Generally, Net Gain = Benefits - Costs (g = b - c)</span></div></li></ul><ol style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>Flight Hunting</div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More ground covered</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But more energy expenditure</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Intake Rate: b</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 131.8 kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-1</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Expenditure Rate: c</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 52.2 kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-1</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Net Gain = g</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 131.8 - 52.2 = 79.6 kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-2</span></div></li></ul></ul><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>Perch Hunting</div></li><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Less ground covered</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Less energy expenditure</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Intake Rate: b</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 13.2  kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-1</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Expenditure Rate: c</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 6.5 kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-1</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Net Gain = g</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">f</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> = 13.2 - 6.5 = 6.7 kJh</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-2</span></div></li></ul></ul></ol>Big Prey or Little Prey?<br><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both big and little prey come with</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Benefits = energy = E</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Costs = Handling Time = h</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Profitability of each prey type (P) = E/h</span></div></li></ul>" Provide two scenarios of the big prey/little prey dilemma."<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Scenario 1: The big grey gives more energy, and the handling time is equal</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The profitability is better for the bigger prey</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">So, if you find a big  bug, always eat it</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But, if find a little bug, you have to make a decision</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""HcAsxt5nGgXgjFu98OrdP5b6iQnvACLveYHBcnwTdHrEiwlMXp1Vw-fmbthDWDn8myszpSfNWAgiwNOBb2QxYKqMfxJ5myYYR38rwPP_qCj3cj4AW86.jpg""></b><br><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Scenario 2: you find a little bug when you would prefer a big one</span><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If you </span>find a small bug, you should eat it or go looking for a big bug</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">You add in the search time (S) – this is cost-affecting</span></div></li><li><div><b><img src=""2bGXKP8nGxUUPsj7Ptwdr-00NeI2KIPptTJ1L1Y8U7ZbrWgXNr4jbX4bLLO8fhCi9qtn2ur_bPL5Uepyqa27_Hg8gjyxtZ5vOVLqorZckPaMeQYBmeU.png""></b></div></li><li><div><img src=""45l-43O2-N6UVEuuYl_WHdxubPzvu19lZmbqPhcIwH24XVd96LX2l_r7kopUEEZ-G5PQfilze-mfYOTi8-22PClRyEtg5-hYqqy7FOwAUWE9K3pgdsW.png""></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Profitability now included Search time  = E/(h+S)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">So if the profitability is lower for the little bug after including search time to the big bugs</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The equation can be rearrange as →</span></div></li><li><div><img src=""D1U9mgquN4laXwgQMwZXfzbx2WJvtmgz0cRIgwFaVTZy3mm9SvmBLRktLBk21gjUs35Z8_NVkTIhd2jQ6TeIjUwUkocrK9uGnvUp_U55AkANpcIvuzJ.png""></div></li></ul><br>" What are generalists?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Predators with </span>short handling times and long search times are generalists</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This makes sense because they can eat things fast and there aren’t many things to eat</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are specialists?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Predators with</span> long handling times and short search times are specialists</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This also makes sense because they take longer on each snack but lots of them are there</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" How do preys make themselves less profitable?"<ul style=""""><li><div>Preys make themselves <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">less profitable by increasing their search time</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Ex. while searching in camouflage, crypsis</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Preys can also increase the handling time</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Ex. antipredator defences and toxins</span></div></li></ul></ul><div><b><img src=""lStfBxrpBF2gMsK5lJN71EVOLCJJ6_rpZJ2aL-3rtzGdlIauSurpUqodLaXX5wR6d1XpcvnNIbBaFNamP48JAFqFxXuV48x8ZXZsvAtIwWp585Xdn4P.png""><br></b><i><br></i></div>" What are the three most important variables in the optimality approach?"<b><ol><li><div>Decisions</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are the alternative possible strategies are available to the animals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Should the animal take time to eat the bug now or keep searching for a bigger one?</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Currency</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is being maximise</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are the means used to establish the value of alternative decisions (time, energy, risk)</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Constraints</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is the organism’s limit? The intrinsic and extrinsic constraint on an animal (physical or psychology limitations; temperature or available light, bill size/shape)</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" What is the evolutionary game theory?"<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Frequency depend</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Playing a dynamic game-strategies can change</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Co-evolutionary (strategies within a population can change and the best solutions depend on what others are doing)</span></div></li></ul><li><div>If alternative cannot invade, then the strategy is Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)</div></li><ul><li><div>A strategy that resists invasion - Nash Equilibrium</div></li><li><div>A player trying any alternative strategy will always lose</div></li></ul></ul><br>" Describe the Hawk or the Dove example."<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A game of resource collection (costs C & benefits V) with two strategies</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hawks are typically aggressive and always attacks</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Doves are non-aggressive and never attack</span></div></li></ul></ul>Possible Examples<br><b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hawk vs Hawk: will </span>always fight <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">each other to dominate whole food source</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Dove vs Dove: will </span>always share<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> the food source</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hawk vs Dove: </span>hawk will always take all food <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">away from the dove</span></b></div></li></ol></b>Are these strategies Evolutionarily Stable?<br><ol style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If a strategy is stable, it must be that if almost all members of the population adopti it, then the fitness of members is greater thant any possible mutant</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Otherwise, a mutant could invade and so the strategy would not be stable</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is always playing hawk or dove while a contest an ESS?</span></div></li></ol><b><img src=""4r43tE_GbccAkmlzWWoTD41Hl7lwyOfzwIMrCXSOIEqdgxVuCK6h62PYoJTA3oVqatRlu0Dxxt4WlCC2CYsI1YvEt0uBG1mtZJTAthtZ-rwnIyy55zk.png""></b><b><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The Dove is not an ESS, they are easily invaded</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hawk is an ESS if ½ (V -C) > 0, i.e. if V (benefit) > C (cost)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If V<C the costs of the injury is high relative to the reward, expect mixed strategies</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is the Traffic Light Game? Give possible options and a Nash Equilbrium explanation."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Imagine two cars are heading towards each other and come to a light</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">It makes sense for the one with the green light to go and the one with the red light to stop</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is an example of a Nash equilibrium because any other option is worse</span></div></li></ul><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Possible Options</span></h3><ul style=""""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If there</span> both go<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, then they will crash into each other</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is </span>very bad and both players lose fitness (-5)</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If they </span>both stop<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> then they will both just wait around an be delayed</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">They</span> lose a little fitness (-1)</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If </span>one goes at the green light while the other car stops<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> at a red light, on one will crash</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The car that goes gets to their </span>destination quickly (+1) the that waits is delayed but not by much (0)</b></div></li></ul>Nash Equilibrium<br><ul style=""""><li style=""""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">So when two cars meet each other at a traffic light or stoplight, it makes the most sense for the one with a green light to go and the one with a red light to stop</span><br></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is the best solution, no other strategy can better it</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is what is meant by the best strategy or an ESS, or a Nash Equilibrium; no one can do better by adopting different strategy</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A nash equilibrium is a set of a strategies, one for each player such that not player has incentive to change his or her strategy given what there other players are doing</span></div></li></ul></b><b><img src=""7NSJjn7Lzim3OgCbo4STbyjFf1ht_a6tWtzg5zl7u1dsfKggILgYGCOvGsQU5fmSP6QTEiF-UR6ro_wFXXEhx1HQDF2aUbG7RI_gyXhSbDlESGEkxXU.png""></b>" What is personality?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Personality </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ a set of behavioural characteristics that differ between individuals but are consistent within individuals</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">An everyday word that is used to describe particular complex human attributes</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What is a personality trait?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Personality Trait</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → quantifiable aspect of behaviour that shows between-individual variation and within-individual consistency</span></b></li></ul>" What is a behavioural syndrome?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Behavioural Syndrome</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → correlations between two or more personality traits over time and context</span></b></li></ul>" What is the problem with science writing?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Science writing is becoming more and </span>more complex</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More acronyms and jargon</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Harder for non-specialists</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are the pros and cons of personality literature?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Personality literature with</span> less technical language is better but has costs</div></li><ul><li><div>Pros: <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">non technical and eye catching, makes research accessible and engaging </span></div></li><li><div>Cons:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> comes with baggage from everyday use, unhelpfully anthropomorphic, needs strict definition at odds with fluidity of everyday language</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Evolution as an example – hard to explain without accidentally invoking agency</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Oten suggest individuals wants, needs, or plans</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Natural selection designs, evolution aims, diversified to survive</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></ul></b>" Describe natural variation."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Understanding natural variation is the fundamental to understanding Evolution by Natural Selection</span></div></li><li><div>Individuals vary in their physical and behavioural traits</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Variation results from random mutations to genes – </span>can be beneficial, neutral, or costly</div></li><li><div><b>Natural selection leads to some variants increasing in frequency among the population<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – i.e., Evolution</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" Describe the Churchill et al study."<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>Group density<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> affects the</span> number of eggs<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> a fruit fly produces.</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Each coloured point is a single individual, the black error bars show the average (mean) and 95% confidence intervals.</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In many applications of behavioural ecology, we’re interested in differences between populations</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Here; on average solitary females laid more eggs than grouped females.</span></div></li></ul><li style=""""><b><img src=""e-WzDSArvadmeMpBKzrTBkit4TQwBfZdJ4D9u4wADos95yIAEB_RJpYPTdof9ypqBAouPLFEpc2GShtChrikfUJkqEEC8fRDOP2sR7h11Kz0jbuGakU.png""></b><br></li></ul>" "Describe the <b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Strickland & Frère. 2018</span></b> study.""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Strickland & Frère. 2018. Behav. Ecol.</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Repeatability of social behaviour between male and female water dragons</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Compare repeatability to a null model (red) – </span>males are more consistent than predicted by chance – more variation between than within individuals</b></div></li></ul></ul></b><img src=""-05k21jfUfdVZsXlG7yC_IoHUPA6ClBEI_nTfl04skAOSoLo2mLzTgPNYoirhIq8DlW9X47YImo7IXNudsSjwJ_488xf9KDVbCeVbRVFrqZlJ87UKjZ.png""><br><b><br></b>" What are traits that correlate across all behaviours?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can think of Personality as a suit of behavioural correlations that may create </span>individual fitness peaks</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">i.e., boldness – increased explorative drive across multiple different behaviours (predator defence, foraging, searching for mates, etc.)</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But</span> discrete macro differences between strategies are not generally considered personality<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> (i.e., the Ruff)</span></b></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are life history trade-offs?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Situations where the optimal behaviour for one trait negatively affects another</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Have to balance the costs and benefits of one behaviour against the costs and benefits on another behaviour</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Different trade offs (i.e., akin to specialisation) can lead to multiple phenotypes / personalities co-existing</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Fast paced, active, and exploratory individuals may get more food but may have higher mortality</div></li><li><div>2. More cautious individuals get less food, but may live longer </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both strategies produce the same number of offspring on average</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" What is the Pace of Life Syndrome?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Trade offs between survival and reproduction</span></div></li><li><div>Balance lifetime reproductive success</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1. Fast paced, active, and exploratory individuals may get more food but may have higher mortality</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2. More cautious individuals get less food, but may live longer</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Commonly studied between species or populations, adaptation for geographically distinct niches</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But </span>growing body of research looking at within population dynamics</b></div></li></ul></b>" How are personality traits measured? Name three ways."<b><ul><li><div>Which behaviours to measure?</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Reactions to novel / sudden stimuli or environments</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Often looking at broad categories of behaviour</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Repeatability (Consistency over time)</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not enough to measure behaviour just once</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">i.e., Need to build up data on variation in an individual’s response</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div>Multiple stimuli (Consistency over context)</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not enough to measure behaviour in just one context</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">i.e., Time to begin exploring a novel environment & Time taken to return after startle stimulus</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" How are individual differences controlled?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If we assume that the behaviour of all individuals within a population is random relative to the mean, we may increase bias in our experiments.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bold individuals may dominate our experiments as they are easier to encounter and to get to perform</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Need to account for individual behavioural repertoires to ensure we capture true behaviour</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Need controlled conditions to reliably test the same behaviour multiple times</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But </span>natural behaviour occurs in highly variable, often unpredictable, environments</b></div></li></ul></b>" What is the Kluane Red Squirrel Project?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Big, long, term study looking at many aspects of squirrel behaviour and ecology</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Based in Yukon, Kluane National Park</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Collaboration between Alberta, Michigan, McGill, Saskatchewan, and Guelph Universities</span></div></li></ul></b>" Describe the findings of the Boon et al. 2008. Oikos study"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Squirrels hold territories and store food in large middens that can last years</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">When a squirrel dies its midden can be inherited by the new territory holder</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">New territory holders inheriting a high-quality midden have great fitness</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Leaving a midden to offspring increases number of grandchildren</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Quantified personality as consistent:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Activity / explorative behaviour in a novel environment</div></li><li><div>2. Aggression towards a mirror</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Activity and aggression are repeatable and correlated – consistent between time and context = Personality</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Personality trade off survival and reproductive success</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. More active squirrels more likely to be captured by experimenters</div></li><li><div>2. More active/aggressive squirrels were more likely to die within the year</div></li><li><div>3. More active squirrels were more likely to leave a midden for their offspring</div></li></ul></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""ejDSKNanIHfwWQH7mFG76ka-eHy8-mugqpzRT21MTHk6h627OJZ0zZK83jx7XoU8cDqmoyvFJhSCfCB4G1OIzY7R_EAGDBi_PLPqD9RApdr_faS_FBq.png""></span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""Yi8c5YOhb9u9ZbIDS9s_sdxuCkyD-P3goCBXUN7dfC2Htdzk7hNi0eH3NqwRSltZxCl7D3pxLfb2mvbYWUv20Uxxtxz68Hz8T6uH7l5yYpP7UGBgNIY.png""></span></b>" Define the following terms: Sexual Reproduction, Recombination, Gametes, Zygote, Sexual Selection, Haploid, Diploid."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Sexual Reproduction </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ Mixing the genetic material of 2 individuals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Recombination</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Swapping genetic material across chromosome pairs</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Gametes</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Sex cell  </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Zygote</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Fused gametes – fertilised egg, earliest embryo stage</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Sexual Selection</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Selection on organism traits due to reproductive functions </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Haploid</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → A cell having 1 copy of each chromosome</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Diploid</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → A cell having 2 copies of each chromosome</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What does the bowerbird do?<ul><li><div>Create elaborate structures to prove that he is a good mate, using optical illusions</div></li></ul> What is sexual reproduction?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">the production of haploid gametes by </span>meiosis</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">the</span> fusion of these gametes produces a zygote<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> that restores the full diploid complement of chromosomes (fertilisation)</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">new genetic combinations - </span>transfer of genetic material & crossing over.</b></div></li></ul></b>" What is asexual reproduction?"<ul><li><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is the production of new individuals without creating new genetic combinations (parthenogenesis). It is a form of reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction or fertilisation. Asexual reproduction only takes one parent!</span></b></li><ul><li><div>familiar in inverts and in invertebrates</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">invertebrates</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Hydra</span>: uses budding to grow little versions of itself that will fall off and become individual copies of itself</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Aphids</span>: uses eggs but does not require fertilisation</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">vertebrates</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Amazon Molly:</span> entirely female population, clone themselves, mate with males from other species and discard male genome</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Unisexual salamanders: </span>entirely female, “<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">hybridizes</span>” with males of other species, throws away male genome, not perfect and can sometimes result in multiple copies of genetic code</div></li></ul></ul></ul>" What is reproductive success?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Basic unit of evolution by natural selection is the number of offspring produced in the next generation</span></div></li><li><div>Asexual reproduction guarantees all offspring are 100% the same as you</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Yeast take 8h to reproduce sexually but 1 hour to reproduce asexually</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In 8 hours, sexual reproduction = 2 yeast cells</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In 8 hours, asexual reproduction = 256 yeast cells</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Sexual reproduction very inefficient by comparison</div></li></ul></b><b><img src=""sMpT0zxtd2uPUYS92Cmramtj8OPlTui05sgIBUFyFf2eJl97-RS40sAlbxA0AIIHCX_wW8y7gxaN5khpuTCeWy2mMAgPEjKEDRR4HFeP4B0vMdkbYmn.png""></b><b><br></b>" Is sexual reproduction a costly strategy?"<ol style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>Break up coadapted gene complexes</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Recombination can mix up genes Risk of splitting up advantageous combos</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Costs of producing males</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Half the population cannot produce eggs Asexual reproduction quick and efficient</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Sexually transmitted diseases</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Safer to reproduce alone</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Having to find a mate</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Large investment in time & energy Finding a mate may increase predation risk Attracting a mate can be very costly</span></div></li></ul></ol><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If reproductive output is limited asexual reproduction produces many more offspring per unit time</span></div></li></ul><br><img src=""NS6rls5WBmhaE7TSKOE26mtxfG4Xp-JBeOKA2I5OIXiSAqvPYHvoHmUqdEtAlETruKFzOF3wkSnyiEr_RbUKUkGgJxT7Wu2fc59FRKaR6CZKKLWcsU4.png""><br>" Why may sexual reproduction evolved?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vast majority of animals & plants reproduce sexually </span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Evolved multiple times independently</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More than 20 different hypotheses</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can be divided into two broad categories</span></div></li></ul></ul><ol><li><div>Clears deleterious mutations</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">By shuffling genes in the next generation, new advantageous combos may arise or harmful combos to be hidden or eliminated</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Creates greater variety in offspring</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">By having more variable offspring the traits underlying reproducing sexually may be more likely to persist as environments changes</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" What does recombination increase?"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Recombination creates </span>new combinations of genes and increases variation</div></li><li><div>Offspring will differ from their parents</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More variation in offspring increases the chance some of them will survive</span></div></li><li><div><b>Higher reproductive success<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Increased likelihood of adaptation</span></b></div></li></ul><b><img src=""8Pn3otWCkz4Yu5opKfbORhs-rXJL4UAABE6SYSMY99TjVk4yneOkVHfe48UtUnNQSzUqx2fFYAcI9eVHKo8gm6HIJGvG3-a0SHqnuHmA8cESM8Rfewo.png""></b><br>" What is the red queen hypothesis?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Constant arms-race between predator/prey and host/parasite</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Evolutionary dynamics are constantly changing</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Asexual populations are vulnerable as they all share very similar genes/traits</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Less variation means less adaptation Asexual lineages more likely to go extinct</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" How is sexual reproduction more common than not?"<b><ol><li><div>Old lineages of asexual species are rare</div></li><li><div>Species than can reproduce asexually and sexually ‘prefer’ to reproduce sexually</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Many species can reproduce both sexually and asexually – a good model for exploring evolutionary trade-offs between different strategies</span></div></li></ul></b>" Give an example of how sexual reproduction escapes parasites."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">An example with Snails: New Zealand Mud snails</span><img src=""sxy55w4OgHTl8zqzibU0QnrCU85tedk0JrEx6Qd1oethkLr1S3NSys2FCu9DfyIHXHBb1QCcLJT3R_M16Z8XPNS4nNiUSaRLK2eA6DBUQ3P6HyFIM-A.png""></div></li><ul><li><div>Reproduce both sexually & asexually</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Infected by a parasitic trematode worms</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Leads to becoming sterile and eaten by ducks</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Parasitic worms need to complete their life cycle inside a duck</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sexual Reproduction in </span>shallow water</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The ducks can reach the snails </span></div></li><li><div>More parasites </div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sexual population better able to escape</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Asexual Reproduction in </span>deep water</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The ducks cannot reach the snails </span></div></li><li><div>Fewer parasites </div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Asexual population survives</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">An accidental experiment:</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">`Snails introduced to Switzerland</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">No natural parasites</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Asexual reproduction bring very fast population growth</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Over time the proportional of clones decreased as snails became more susceptible to parasites</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sexual reproduction became the more successful strateg</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" How many gametes does sexual reproduction involve?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sexual reproduction involves the fusion to two different types of gamete...</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>‘Male’</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">  </span>Small<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> gametes Produced in very large numbers Often mobile</span></div></li></ul><li><div>‘Female’</div></li></ol><ul><li><div>Large<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> gametes Produced in relatively small numbers Each has a large investment in resources</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How did this dimorphic system evolve?</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is the model of gamete specialization?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Parker-Baker-Smith model (1972) Two new terms</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Evolving anisogamy from a isogamous ancestors</span></div></li></ul></ul><ol><li><div>Isogamy – algae & fungi</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gametes of similar sizes No male or female, but multiple ‘mating types’</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Anisogamy</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gametes of dissimilar sizes Smaller gamete designated ‘</span>male’<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Larger gamete designated ‘</span>female<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">’</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Two assumption</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Trade off between gamete size and gamete number</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Making gametes is costly, resources are limited</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Zygote fitness increases with size</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More resources makes for better survival and future reproductive potential</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Selection for larger zygote</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" What is disruptive selection?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Disruptive or Diversifying Selection</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Selection simultaneously favours individuals who <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">are both extremes of the population.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Compare to Stabilising Selection </span></div></li><li><div>Natural selection favours the population mean</div></li></ul></ul></b><b><img src=""WN_WKgT68_RXdvl8p-UYcJ1gia6qXds8GNVydyL6Cldd9E54kYmi5wSjsNTTTk-npvkkFz4dZTZ-59R89VSKcb-zChklp2HOCgTo0l3VtwLotLBF0pm.png""></b><b><br></b>" What is specialisation and differential investment?"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>Natural variation in gamete size</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Selection favours extremes – </span>specialising<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> for numbers vs individual investment</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Differential investment in reproduction is at the root of sexual selection</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""wFAJwnDoprarxwV69YyeYXJMWP33Sl6FyFjNxtb-E4ipKKiL-gay-f_Bn0rmQ7ig7o5p5Fl3sIPhXx64pJAMLREmqF_3UE3Kwd18vKnZAGkzyEz-qDI.png""></b><br>" What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?"<b><ol><li><div>Clears deleterious mutations</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">By shuffling genes in the next generation, new advantageous combos may arise or harmful combos to be hidden or eliminated</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Creates greater variety in offspring</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">By having more variable offspring the traits underlying reproducing sexually may be more likely to persist as environments change</span></div></li></ul></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Disruptive selection</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → favouring the population extremes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can lead to specialization towards small (male) and large (female) gametes.</span></div></li></ul></b>" What sex determination system doe placental mammals use?"<b><ul><li><div>Placental mammal use XX – XY system</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">XX usually results in </span>female<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Homogametic sex<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">)</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">XY usually results in </span>male<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Heterogametic sex<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">)</span></b></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What sex determination system do Platypi use?"<b><ul><li><div>Platypus is a mammal, but uses a different system</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">10 pairs of sex chromosomes</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> X</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">X</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">X</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">X</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">4</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">X</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">5</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Y</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Y</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Y</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Y</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">4</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Y</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">5</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> usually results in males</span></b></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What sex determination system do birds use?"<b><ul><li><div>Birds use a ZZ – ZW system</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ZZ usually results in </span>male<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Homogametic sex<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ZW usually results in</span> female<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Heterogametic sex<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">) </span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The system is reversed relative to mammals</span></div></li></ul></b>" What sex determination systems do grasshoppers use?"<b><ul><li><div>Grasshoppers use a XX – X0 system</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">XX usually results in </span>female<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Homogametic sex)</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">X0 usually results in </span>male<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> characteristics (</span>Heterogametic sex)</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The Y chromosome has disappeared, and sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes inherited</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not the same as haplodiploidy</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What sex-determination system do bees, wasps, and ants use?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bees, wasps, and ants use a </span>haplodiploidy system</div></li><ul><li><div>Diploid individuals are female </div></li><li><div>Haploid individuals are male</div></li></ul><li><div>Males develop from unfertilized<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> eggs </span></div></li><li><div>Haploid across all chromosomes</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">* In X0 systems only the X chromosome is unpaired</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are the different types of sex ratios?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In a mammalian XY system we may expect a sex ratio of 1:1, but why?</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is the </span>primary sex ratio</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The </span>sex ratio at cocception</div></li></ul></ul></ul><ul><li><div>Sex ratios are not static<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, and we can define other important stages?</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is the </span>Secondary sex ratio</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The </span>sex ratio at birth</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is the </span>Tertiary sex ratio</div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The </span>sex ratio of sexually mature individual</b></div></li></ul></b><img src=""4Nk3QBKFHrVxreGhAGTk4oAHGCzDUPzgcBvQb3Y0PWmqr9lNzu52bVUtkIuDVjDtGkj96NoyiuybLt0Lqdw0Fe0thur2hQJIt0HHiQxUFsHgyxz-Fa8.png""><b><br></b>" "What is Fisher's model of sex allocation?""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In most species males and females are produced in roughly equal numbers</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why?</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">R. A. Fisher (1930) Statistician & Evolutionary Biologist</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Model of how selection may shape parental investment between daughters & sons</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Only stable strategy was equal investment leading to a 1:1 sex ratio</span></div></li></ul></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""1xXY1Yq8ZCiTQaoOiDBq3P30eRDCCkZinNLywUpQqU8NOX4-_Su5CJdzY0ieiGFdyAsxsz9aiWYSrQktTHi1zn35a7se4cYgXgq5MPCM8ZkGD7riyxl.png""></span></div></b>" How are sex ratios an evoluationary stable strategy?"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Nash Equilibrium </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ A set of strategies where no player has incentive to change</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Evolutionary Stable Strategy</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → A Nash Equilibrium maintained by Natural Selection</span></b></div></li></ul><b><img src=""fah04qzm8txl00izU0gC5OcUg__sEcElDTebn9o9RhA04cc-m4j7oW4tBdnNQvoFHe1k9U6KvRpxpJwLJPDHEBtxVbRPvfobCdNZM4JRkCWL-rhh6KH.png""></b><br>" What are departures of 1:1 sex ratios?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not all systems have a 1:1 sex ratio though...Why?</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Local mate competition</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Competition between brothers for mates</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Local resource competition</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Competition between parent and offspring</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Maternal condition</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Trade-offs between what makes successful sons & successful daughters</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Sex ratio distorters</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Manipulation of sex ratios by external factors</span></div></li></ul></b>" What are sex allocation trade-offs?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">So far, we have assumed that male and female offspring have the same benefits to parental fitness</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not always the case</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Sperm is cheap<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males can monopolize reproductive output</span></div></li></ul><li><div>The ‘limiting’ sex</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In sexually reproducing species there is </span>more sperm than eggs </div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can be more variation in male reproductive output than female</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not just gamete availability</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Other resources/provisions such as </span>parental care can act as a limiting factor</b></div></li></ul></b>" Describe the local mate competition of Fig Wasps."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tiny wasps that are vital for the success of some of the biggest and most important trees in the rainforest</span></div></li><li><div>Haplodiploid<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> sex determination system</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Single female lays multiple eggs inside a developing fig fruit</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lays hundreds of eggs</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Eggs hatch</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Young wasps pollinate the fig and breed</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">One </span>male can mate with many females</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">To maximize reproductive output in the next generation females outnumber males</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Maximize number of eggs, </span>minimize competition between related males</b></div></li></ul></b>" Describe the local mate competition of Galagos."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Competition for mates is not the only reason for skewed sex ratios</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can also arise from competition for resources.</span></div></li><li><div>Galagos<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> (a type of primate) </span></div></li><ul><li><div>Male skewed sex ratio</div></li><li><div>Female offspring don’t disperse<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, stay near mother’s territory</span></div></li><li><div>Males disperse<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> far away</span></div></li><li><div>Investing in males reduces resource competition</div></li></ul></ul></b>" Describe the maternal condition of Red Deer on Rum."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Isle of Rum – Red Deer Project</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Big, long, term study looking at many aspects of deer behaviour and ecology</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Based on the Isle of Rum (Scotland)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Collaboration between Universities of Edinburgh, Cambridge, and Imperial College London, plus Scottish Government</span></div></li></ul><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Trivers-Willard Hypothesis</span></h3><ul><li><div>1:1 sex ratios will not be favoured where maternal investment affects male and female offspring differently</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In polygynous species like Red Deer, only a few males get to mate</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Mate with multiple females</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female produce 1 offspring per year </span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A good male can father many more</span></div></li></ul></ul><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Red deer</span></h3><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males compete with each other for access to mates</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Successful males hold territories used by large numbers of females</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">He is the only male who will mate with the females in his territory</span></div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Many males will not mate at all</span></div></li></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is the best strategy for a female deer?</span><ol><li><div>Male offspring – High risk</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">High potential offspring numbers</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Female offspring – Low risk</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Low potential offspring numbers</span></div></li></ul></ol><br><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Red Deer</span><img src=""eDfGpbamIbAzcEaUflJqYWXacrj4TyZ9NajW5rTiItvhgkAJFyQRE6tghf0vT99R6Ovgw9_WLk4hNzf3_eZGJFwG_jSxkh-jFMayf3fc75RBHSspLCs.png""></h3><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">It takes a lot of energy to produce a male offspring who will be big and strong enough to compete and be successful</span></div></li><li><div>Females are almost guaranteed to reproduce</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Healthier females are better able to rear healthy male offspring</span></div></li><li><div>Male success depends on mother’s social rank, but female success does not</div></li></ul><h2><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">Evidence for the Trivers-Willard Effect:</span></h2><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Birth sex ratios of individual female red deer differ in relation to social rank over their life span</span><img src=""RxMOoc_focnNfekGPMoouAupNJXaRK7x5sc7QsYyUNcDj8-ZubNPKQBQoCOLduH3u1_rqSyJtxX50rPIo-syuXIjUj-OYKRznWLiepqXdCERebBVhGX.png""></div></li><li><div>More male offspring produced by higher status female</div></li></ul></b>" What are sex ratio distortors?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Heritable factors that manipulate the sex ratios of their hosts Increase their transmission (reproductive fitness)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Many different types of microorganisms (bacteria, eukaryotes, etc)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Some have led to the near extinction of males in certain species</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Some examples – Nasonia vitripennis (a parasitic wasp) is affected by >4 SRD </span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Maternal Sex Ratio</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Maternal transmitted factor leads to all eggs being fertilized (haplodiploidy)</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Son Killer</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bacterium kills all unfertilized eggs</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Paternal Sex Ratio</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Paternally transmitted factor leads to diploid eggs developing into haploid males</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Wolbachia bacteria</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inherited bacterium, feminizes males, induces parthenogenesis, sperm incompatibility, etc</span></div></li></ul></ol></b>" Why do animals manipulate sex ratio?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Seemingly very common, but still poorly understood</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Haplodiploid species can just ‘choose’ whether to fertilize eggs or not</div></li></ul></ul></b>" How doe birds manipulate sex ratios?"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">High stress hormones lead to skewed sex ratios in offspring</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">White crowned sparrows → females </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Chickens → males</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Different mechanisms?</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Differences between chronic & acute stress?</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""p3ZJHRxYbZ2N1h6DY54AV-UiNs_ba5v_eTx4LaqgGFi5wHaJm2LlFgsnTW3jBuwb48TScrDXPAyovEqISFx0yrKOF0C_KjM8Tb3-V9MpqPGwqI2V7Xk.png""></b><br>" How do mammals manipulate sex ratios?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female testosterone hypothesis:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Females with high testosterone levels have more male offspring</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Good condition hypothesis:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Females with high fat / glucose levels have more male offspring</div></li></ul></ul></b>" How do Seychelles Warbler manipulate sex ratios?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Small songbird found in the Seychelles</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In 1960, less than 30 birds alive in the world Restricted to a single island</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1968 conservation efforts to restore native forest Very precarious situation</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Typical clutch just 1 egg</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Single nestling cared for by 3 adults </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Don’t breed until 3 years old</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div>Number of offspring depends on the quality of the territory </div></li><ul><li><div>More food = more offspring</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Helpers are a benefit in good habitat, but a cost in poor habitat</span></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""8Waj4DIREA8MGWFq3UFb4voJha4bgRENTQPns5T6OCFva1KP-gPLAUqUO6vXv2U4oufEozY-Tp-d6Tn88knJbTeOof_GYwUy9YLHFWbCjn9IRwWM95i.png""></span><img src=""YDFqseGlidu20A-_up40iD7mJUp_n99GnIIXgorqHXvYHADB-6XsxC_f2MNYp1tn1SoIU1DlnZcvHSzsWSILN4WyfRej1s3kY_A6137DA-AddzlnDA0.png""></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Reintroduction to neighboring islands in 1988</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both populations expanded rapidly, such that all suitable habitat was occupied by territorial birds within 3 – 4 years.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Best territories filled up first.</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Females stay to help parents, but males move away</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Birds on poor territories produced ~77% male offspring</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Birds of good territories produced ~13% male offspring</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Birds moved from low quality to high quality territories switched from mostly male to mostly female offspring</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">  </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""x16KNz1ah0IGwZmG7M9f5Czk_vJoeLMQIpGNoh68-JSQ2QmUHoYnkXKFod3zOA_HJ_mXkumVeZmtRNXnuAHLqyxXlkR3w_d6knRGN_dZQIxF4mKgCoF.png""></span></div></li></ul><br><br><br></b>" What is sexual selection (on an intro level)?"<b><ol><li><div>The is variation within populations</div></li><li><div>Variation is heritable</div></li><li><div>Reproductive success can differ within a population</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Fitness </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ the ability to have genes represented in the next generation (often thought of survival and reproduction)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Darwin made a second book after On the Origin of Species</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Observation that some traits could not easily be explained as survival adaptations</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Mating Competition</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Intra-sexual selection</span></div></li></ul><li><div>2. Mate Choice</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inter-secual selection</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></ul></b>" What is limiting sex and reproductive investment?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Differences in resource investment can lead to different selection pressures on males vs females</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Anisogamy</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Eggs – few and large</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sperm – lots and small</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Parental provisioning & care</div></li><li><div>Territory defense & nuptial gifts</div></li></ol></b>" "What is Bateman's Principle?""<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Males</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → reproduction is usually limited by the number of eggs fertilized</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Females</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → reproduction limited by number and quality of eggs produced</span></b></div></li></ul><b><img src=""-uhbFFS6WVP_iP1RANu0vfqziMdUnrCPXUZxxX2dDLBfdmRSwMWgvxnrNiVhRUqwJGfOOMma1t8fkhaFTBSxA1CkAZJrj8h8av5udrr24xtF7Gw3WId.png""></b><br>" What are sex ratios?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Primary Sex Ratio </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">→ the sex ratio at concpetion</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Secondary Sex Ratio</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → the sex ratio at birth</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Tertiary Sex Ratio</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → the sex ratio of sexually mature individuals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not all reproductively mature individuals are currently breeding</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Leads to operational sex ratio</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ratio of those </span>active in the mating pool</div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not all active individuals will be successful in finding a mate</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This is the</span> effective sex ratio</div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ratio of those </span>successful in the mating pool</b></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What is sexual dimorphism?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Morphological difference between the sexes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can result from</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Differential Natural Selection</div></li><li><div>2. Inter-Sexual Competition</div></li><li><div>3. Sexual Selection</div></li></ul></ul></b>" Give an example of elephant seals in terms of sexual dimorphism?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The most sexually dimorphic mammal</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males ~3000 kg </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Females ~450 kg</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male reproductive fitness is heavily skewed</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males fight to control patches of beach where the females are found</span></div></li><li><div>Males have to spend years (>6 yrs) growing to reach a size where they can compete successfully</div></li><li><div>Females can breed much earlier (~2 yrs)</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Highly </span>polygynous breeding system</div></li><li><div>Male<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> reproductive success a </span>high-risk strategy</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Only ~11% of weaned males every reproduce</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But successful males can produce many offspring per year</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Female<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> reproductive success </span>less risky</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">~35% of weaned females will reproduce </span><img src=""TSawvkGX7uML1cGUkhBXLmZdcnzVOjkxot6VU2RbHSVlCkl0kPuWj1n5uqRHKfXOv8BPRGUGiwZz__JJtWF7T15pMOnHRfnndiDQ1tVirMJrYyRDdWu.png""></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can produce one offspring per year</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males are competing for female investment in their offspring</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Pregnant female = 700 kg </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Newborn = 50 kg</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Weaned Offspring = 200 kg </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Post-breeding female = 450 kg</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Effectively transferring 200 kg of mass to her offspring</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Immediately becomes pregnant again</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Costly investment in body growth can only be sexually selected if there are exceptional reproductive rewards to be gained by being a good fighters</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Intrasexual selection</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → selection imposed due to male-male or female-female competition over mates</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What are primary and secondary sexual characteristics?"<b><ul><li><div>Primary sexual characteristics </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The reproductive structures and organs</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Secondary sexual characteristics</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Features not directly involved in reproduction </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Usually develop at sexual maturity</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ornaments, Weapons</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Describe male-male competition in Dung Beetles"<b><ul><li><div>Male dung beetles have developed horns to fight other males</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males that exceed a critical body size develop a pair of long, curved horns on their heads, while smaller males remain hornless</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A condition dependent weapon Population is bimodal – two morphs</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males fight to defend tunnels</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fight off other male</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Horn size varies greatly</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Longhorns are good fighters, but poor defenders</div></li><li><div>Short horns are good defenders, but poor fighters</div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are properties of weapons?"<b><ol><li><div>Weapons are structures used in combat with rivals.</div></li><li><div>Among species, weapons diverge in size, shapes and the habitats in which they are used.</div></li><li><div>Weapons evolve when one sex (usually males) are able to defend spatially restricted critical resources.</div></li><li><div>Weapons are usually the most variable morphological structure, and the variation honestly reflects individual differences in body size or quality.</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">As reproductive resources are limited and access is often uneven competition between individuals will drive the evolution of morphology and behaviour</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can be worth taking risks (costs to survival) to ensure reproduction</span></div></li></ul></b>" Why do animals fight?"<b><ul><li><div>Benefits:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> win resource</span></div></li><li><div><b>Cost:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> energy, time, predation risk, injury, death</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What are the rules of a fight?"<b><ul><li><div>Fights are high risk and high cost even for the eventual winner</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Best to work out the likely result before physical encounter</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Assessment – sizing up</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bluff & Threats</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Only fight if not clear who would win</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is resource holding power/potential?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The absolute fighting ability of the individual is a measure of the size, strength, weapons, etc.</span></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""XDHTtUFr7jFybD_O_FcrqYdJ65DZGjhzETMV9WblmmzWqpQXrBirocMi6U0IJqD5M0GX86BD6FRh9NWyI7PQwTSpkuqnlOTNEZ2PikBEj6nLKgiZHtW.png""></span></div></b>" What is resource vale?"<ul><li>Motivation to fight</li></ul><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""dNLhVgD4qSRVc6uX7AUrlhYu59pS8mEYM-StcFUX5jmS4fmYDiHtPMVAyaE7TMowYbG5mLTcbbZ3czRs9Ex8-KRqGgp-XFPqeHWtzCFHRtUeF_Yenaz.png""></span></b><br>" What are alternative mating strategies? Give an example."<b><ol><li><div>Compete</div></li><li><div>Try something different</div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Male bluegill sunfish have three different mating strategies</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Dominant territorial</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Satellite</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Sneaker</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Male reproductive success can be skewed</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Fertilization is external so males can ‘easily’ access</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Strategies have different costs and benefits</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Non-territorial males can breed earlier at smaller sizes</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" How does disruptive selection influence mating strategy?"<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>Selection simultaneously favours individuals who are both extremes<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> of the population.</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Also, can be applied to the evolution of mating strategies:</span></div></li><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>1. Polymorphic genotypes</div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Frequency dependent selection</span></div></li></ul><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div>2. Monomorphic genotypes</div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Condition dependent traits</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul><b><img src=""NxKtdZEArv2cDo5FVaAmeqtPSvxkWck1JxsZWJ2jo4wIbhWHc_bdTKUZF_nuAOa8P3losl-cwO8ydo1N6i_iP49SANwZOTDdXpvEx3F5v0CLl01Wu-5.png""></b><br>" Describe polymorphic genotypes of ruff."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Three different male morphs: </span></div></li></ul><ol style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>Independents</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Territory (lek) holders – display to females</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Usually bigger</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More aggressive</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Satellites</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Compete on territories of independents</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Medium size</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More display and alert stance</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Faeders</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female mimics, attend leks of independents and attempt to sneak matings</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Super smalle</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Some proximity</span></div></li></ul></ol><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Strategy is controlled by a supergen of ~125 non-recombining genes</span></div></li></ul><img src=""mhio0dGYPL7luE7USS8yzo8rSbHrg_qmvp70W9qU16J7YTXFzW87OyOS0weCfMT926LX9xtzoml4k-0N7ERzXpN7HycPoma2ONMC5UL6U5mi0oMLk20.png""><br>" What is positive and negative frequency dependent selection?"<b><ol><li><div>Positive</div></li><ul><li><div>Fitness increases<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> as </span>trait<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> becomes </span>more common</div></li><li><div>Aposematism is positive</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If rare, likely to be easily spotted and eaten</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If common, predator likely already knows what to avoid</span></div></li></ul></ul><li><div>Negative</div></li><ul><li><div>Fitness decreases<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> as </span>traits <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">become </span>more common</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Camouflage is affected negative frequency dependent selection</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If common, a predator can learn to spot colors</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If rare, a predator does not know what to look for, cannot learn a search image</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Rare traits increase in population until system is reversed</span></div></li></ul></ul></ol></b>" Give an example of frequency dependent selection?"<b><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Example: Side Blotched Lizards</span></h3><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males compete for females, three male strategies all linked to colour</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Orange - territorial</div></li><li><div>Blue - mate guarders</div></li><li><div>Yellow - sneakers</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male strategy depends on how common each strategy is</span></div></li><li><div>Frequency dependent selection can affect mating strategies<img src=""M_4OORAyiXkTxI7rwE3QZtMIxZ5egTLTeDK5eXl3zZvIK9O59L8QrqIGlUyplE1zca19-CDAgRQo_JlxtevLqV64uYV217Cas0LYyViUzDc_s8gDQ_O.png""></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""7-VTqoGEMtl31PMN5iM_YweplN_7ytUtn6ErAwenygZP79OPF9TkVPSPd9S6l3wXeSlBZYkgxWUuxa_LOLlyePXE2RUVqc5znLVW91qKdXl8UVOoE3s.png""></span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""ASnJkMRuPDd6UFeXClPqeFdv2wpyBtcdSapz-adJKK8i0hygaBsLzzUMGK-cFo4ZkduWj737sAeZ1exE5Hf-Myi8Q7alpT_1VbDEMshhVl3ArAOrZN_.png""></span></div></b>" What are monomorphic genotypes?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Alternate strategies can be more flexibly</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Make the most of a bad situation – try a different strategy if cannot compete</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Condition dependent strategies</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fitness benefits of each strategy may not be even </span></div></li><li><div>Strategies can change throughout life</div></li><li><div>Flexible behaviour / morphology </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Depending on resources</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" Give an example of monomorphic genotypes."<b><h3><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Orangutans: Example</span></h3><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Dominant males defend territories </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Grow impressive cheek flanges</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not all males are dominant</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Subordinate males will delay growth of secondary sexual characteristics until dominant is removed</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are conditionally behavioural strategies?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Focused so far on physical adaptations and discrete behavioural types But reproductive behaviour is very flexible</span></div></li><li><div>Males and females will change behaviour in response to social and environmental conditions</div></li></ul></b>" What is intra-sexual selection?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Relative reproductive rate between sexes</span></div></li><li><div>The choosy sex is likely the one which invests most heavy in each offspring</div></li><ul><li><div>Females are limited by # of eggs produce, males limited by # of mates</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The greater the difference in potential reproductive potential between the sexes the more divergent their strategies</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">As reproductive resources are limited and access is often uneven competition between individuals will drive the evolution of morphology and behaviour</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is kin selection?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The metric of reproductive success is how many copies of an individual's genes get passed into the next generation</span></div></li><li><div>Close relatives share genes</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">So can share reproductive success</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Root of the evolution of cooperative behaviours (we will return to these)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">All spermatozoa are very similar genetically not in competition</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Bees</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Most bees don't reproduce, but share genes with the queen, so they will harvest resources to benefit the queen</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What is sperm competition?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male-male competition does not end with copulation</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Competition can continue until fertilization is complete, they all race to fertilize the egg</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mating systems can be incredibly diverse and dynamic</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Monogamous – 1 male : 1 female</div></li><li><div>Polygynous – 1 male : multiple females</div></li><li><div>Polyandrous – 1 female : multiple males</div></li><li><div>Polygynandrous – multiple females : multiple males</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In</span> Polyandrous and Polygynandrous systems<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> females may mate with multiple males during the same season</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Potential for sperm competition</div></li></ul></ul></b>" Give an example of how dung flies display sperm competition?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sperm competition was first discovered by watching flies on cow pats</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Up until the 1970s there was often a general consensus that features evolved for the ‘good of the species’</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In a 1970 paper from Geoff Parker (Uni Liverpool) outlined how post-mating competition could play out.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female flies mate with multiple males – Parker made the connection that the males’ sperm would have to compete</span></div></li></ul></b>" What are male adaptations?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sperm Competition has driven the evolution of many different strategies:</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Offensive & Defensive Strategies</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Mate Guarding</div></li><li><div>2. Removing Competitor’s Sperm</div></li><li><div>3. Mating Plugs</div></li><li><div>4. Preventing Female Mating</div></li><li><div>5. Increased Numbers of Sperm</div></li><li><div>6. Changes to Sperm Morphology</div></li><li><div>7. Changes to Sperm Motility</div></li><li><div>8. Sperm Cooperation?</div></li></ul></ul></b>" What is guarding and removing/destroying sperm?"<b><ul><li><div>Physical adaptations</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1. Prevent female from mating with any other males</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2. Remove sperm already deposited</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Chemical adaptations</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1. Release enzymes and chemicals that competitor sperm is killed</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" What are mating plugs?"<b><ul><li><div>If guarding a mate is not possible, they may try mating plugs</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Subsequent matings can be prevented with mating plugs</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Often not permanent but give sperme more time</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Very common in vertebrates</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males often have detachable reproductive organs</span></div></li></ul></b>" Give an example of mating plugs?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Example:</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In </span><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">euscorpius italicus</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, scorpions solid sclerotized mating plugs from spermatophore</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gel-like fluid mating plus than solidify in the female tract </span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" How do you prevent female maitng?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Prevent other males from mating with a female by stopping the female from mating</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div>Remove reproductive structures</div></li><li><div>Anti-aphrodisiac </div></li></ol></b>" Describe the advantage of greater sperm numbers."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Exactly which sperm reaches the egg first can be a matter of luck</span></div></li><li><div>More likely to be lucky if you have more lottery tickets</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Increasing the number of sperm produced can increase likelihood of success</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Higher concentrations of sperm increase the likelihood of fertilization in salmon</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Comparing across species – </span>testicles are often larger in more polyandrous species<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> (e.g., chimpanzees vs gorillas)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">  Sperm are cheaper than eggs but not unlimited</span></div></li></ul></b>" Describe Sperm."<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male reproductive success can be skewed</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male Bluegill Sunfish have 3 different mating strategies</span></div></li><li><div>Fertilization is external so males can ‘easily’ access</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Strategies have different costs and benefits</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Non-territorial males can breed earlier at smaller sizes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Satellites & Sneakers invest in sperm density</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Territorial Male Black Goby change the amount of sperm deposited Depending on the number of Sneaker Males present</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More sperm when competitor is present</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But, with 3 Sneaker Males there was no increase... why?</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Trade off between sperm production and physical nest guarding</div></li></ul></ul><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""n04yRSz9jh7xKfoAUiA8g4pD_rE7CC3Qfd5EkqNP_2Cixj3jMztlmD8Ru_AlFLKOWOthv9ZdlozLMhkBsyD2_CBqkVrXffceuuEdOAP-ifem5ufU_GM.png""></span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""2dOkFezLaztHPbOAKpVj--d3L3Rz__xmpZX-GrpbSZsdR2Kxe-YXCZk8N40CAJQF3HUiCQ8ppd5ahZEP73Gak36UnRPVZTuboKAKL_fAovU9wYPsiPN.png""></span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""yQjDNVcoAGb5LEu6QizBnypytMUejEw3ZwLaSIG2cX66YT8TtvFmZSx6-cYmGG2MfaECU3mU9FlC_7zwn9-SmArHUVLQ-2_MswjaHYVVKpEbiTwXS6a.png""><br><br></span></b>" Describe sperm morphology."<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div>The spermatozoa of Drosophila bifurca are 20x longer than the male’s body (6 cm long!)</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">~1000x longer than a human sperm cell</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mostly tail and is delivered coiled up</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Only makes a few hundred in a lifetime</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Carballo et al. 2019 (J. Evol. Biol)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sperm length is associated with male male competition in parrots</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More social and more sexually dimorphic species had longer sperm</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Longer sperm may be quicker to reach the eggs</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Huge variety of different sperm shapes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Rodents have evolved a hook</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More polyandrous species have more developed hooks</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not known why</span><b><img src=""fuhfFUfROdsBUM6fc_dcI9MUiQf_aVtwj4YIUDUpZVjjTVamNIDh3jRVs7kGK7N0p7lmlgSh0-LHq1mqbcthyLkVuTRShD-cTNJ8EqgcyD7yG4noN8H.png""></b></div></li></ul>" What is sperm motility?"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Getting to the egg quickly is very important </span></div></li><li><div>Longer sperm swim more quickly</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More promiscuous species have faster sperm</span></div></li></ul><b><img src=""4CEnbq7ykEnQXC_URIn8rtydDo-i0euns5H09LDGOy5Krrj9FZJYZuxeviwGZnknHSCQfqOaHSRQ6UEFSuoZulbvTGCPFk-7NGto0nyvbB4otg4u18c.png""></b><br>" What is sperm coorperation?"<b><ul><li><div>Spermatozoa may work together to increase the changes that one of their relatives will fertilize the egg<img src=""KU4YJnbVwmN9wg9k_DYHA8jpDr5hWzYJJvoetgkvRVyh1-jkZBMlQWQcEMZONT2sINilqKXwFB2-GSWrSHiY1PfchoNDI3GTiNxj8cbRrpEjWMgF4kT.png""></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sperm can form aggregations, conjugations, or trains</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Some evidence that these may swim more quickly and more linearly when working together</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Promiscuous Peroyscus maniculatus more likely to produce sperm that aggregate at ~7 spermatozoa than monogamous P. polionotus</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is intra-sexual selection.?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Intra-Sexual Selection</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → sleceltion imposed due to male-male or female-female competition over mates</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Morphological differences between the sexes can result from </span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Intrasexaul (between sexes compeition and intersexual (same sex) mate choice can result from”</span></div></li></ul></ul><div>1.   Differential natural selection</div><div>2.   Inter-sexual competition</div><div>3.   Sexual selection</div></b>" How is mate choice not universal?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not all species choose who to reproduce with…</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. corals will release large numbers of gametes into the water</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which sperm will meet which egg is largely a matter of chance...</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But sexual selection can still act:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Sperm competition</div></li><li><div>2. Cryptic female choice</div></li></ul></ul></b>" What is intersexual selection?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Natural selection imposed by differences in mating preference…</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Often female preference as reproductive potential is limited</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Costs of a bad decision are higher</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Mating systems are highly variable and dynamic</span></div></li><li><div>‘Limiting’<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> reproductive resources define the direction of choosiness:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Paternal care </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male care of offspring is the limiting factor</span></div></li></ul><li><div>2. Monogamous species </div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both male and female have equal reproductive success</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" What are the benefits of being choosy?"<b><ul><li><div>Why take the effort to be choosy?</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Takes time and effort to evaluate different mates </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Predation risks when at breeding grounds</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ultimately to increase reproductive fitness:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Increase number of offspring </div></li><li><div>Increase survival of offspring</div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Benefits can be at many levels:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Directly to female</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Greater resource acquisition = more, higher quality, eggs</span></div></li></ul><li><div>2. To Offspring</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Parental care + provisioning</span></div></li></ul><li><div>3. To future generations</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Likelihood offspring will reproduce themselves</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" What are indirect and direct benefits?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Reproductive Fitness is not just about an individual Close relatives share genes so share success</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not just about having more offspring</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Want offspring that will have lots of offspring</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Direct Benefits</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Actively benefiting the production and immediate survival of offspring</span></div></li><li><div><b><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Indirect Benefits</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> → Benefiting the future reproductive success of offspring</span></b></div></li></ul></b>" What are nuptial gifts (direct benefits)?"<b><ul><li><div>Producing offspring takes a lot of energy and resources</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Females may choose males that provide limiting resources as part of courtship</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Options include:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Whole prey items</div></li><li><div>Nutritious secretions </div></li><li><div>Own body parts</div></li></ul></ul></b>" How are protection & territories a direct benefits?"<b><ul><li><div>Choosing a mate who controls a territory can directly benefit a female</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males will allow females to forage in their territories if given mating access</span></div></li><li><div>Dominant males will protect a harem from harassment from rival males</div></li></ul></b>" Give two examples protection and territories."<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Elephant seals again…</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Females more likely to choose males who control a large harem and protect her from harassment from subadult males</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> </span></div></li></ul></ul><b><img src=""egulvtnrOM9JOSWWOVpCAVwp5Y4UW8ELpmbF0GtiONUBiDA3S5oJKJZt7Sjl_RKMgyUtEfhvnFpZrYL9t52xNmyEQCFF1AE9t8ePfhCWOV1JkIYFswm.png""></b><br><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Ex. Bullfrogs</span></div></li><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: bold;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Larger males have better territories with fewer leeches & water water</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; font-style: italic;"">Choosing a male by the quality of his territory reduces offspring mortality</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul><div><b><img src=""5V4721mE_0ehnKwXYm9ZW1KMd4VNp3LELh6bdkXRKl1uqrQpc9SbYoL484ZiNF06rk0oYTV0dDrkiukWpEXVFyiLIXFXamMOtuRXP1jVg-pGUEk2LNe.png""></b><i><br></i></div>" What is parental care?"<b><ul><li><div>Choosing a mate who will contribute to raising offspring will increase offspring survival and growth</div></li><li><div>Benefits the female if males invest more heavily in her offspring alone</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Choose males that are better at providing food, have better territories, are less likely to be polygynous</span></div></li></ul></b>" What are good genes (indirect benefits)?"<b><ul><li><div>Females ‘want’ to maximize the survival of their offspring</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Selecting a mate who will provide good genes </span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Good at surviving and finding a mate</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Very important part of the immune system</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell surface proteins involved in identifying foreign pathogens</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Seychelles Warbler </span></div></li><ul><li><div>Study concluded that females prefer to mate with males more diverse MHC genes</div></li></ul></ul></ul></b><b><img src=""2RxIQMFKg2NfhoxJSL7K6r-PTWHwHfuyc5gd0EVN8R7ZzzdXCPrW_wfUmxlvJjyZvWlv-nymQ9aZyjjVFBBOWdVE2dIDfpmsqpuumZCOgFv8QNU0PHn.png""></b><b><br></b>" What is avoiding inbreeding (indirect benefits)?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inbreeding can be common in nature</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But has some major costs</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Inbreeding can increase the likelihood of genetic disorders</div></li><li><div>Increased incidence of harmful recessive traits</div></li></ul></ul><li><div>Inbreeding depression</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">More inbreeding in a population </span></div></li><li><div>Less genetic diversity</div></li><li><div>Less likely to survive and reproduce</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Benefit of identifying and rejecting close relatives</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is avoiding hyrbidization (indirect benefits)?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hybridization can be common in nature</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">But has some major costs</span></div></li><ul><li><div>Hybrids are less likely to be well adapted to their environments than either parent</div></li><li><div>Hybrids may be sterile due to genetic incompatibility</div></li></ul></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Reproductive character displacement</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Closely related species evolve to look radically different to avoid hybridization</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Benefit of being able to identify suitable mates</span></div></li></ul></b>" What are sexy sons (indirect benefits)?"<b><ul><li><div>Benefits a female for her sons to be attractive<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> – she can benefit a lot from having a son that will mate with lots of females</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male offspring can be high risk and high reward Investing in sexy sons can be a good way to increase the number of grandchildren produced</span></div></li><li><div>Potential explanation for the evolution of polygyny <span style=""font-weight: 400;"">– benefits to both female and male</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">However, we need to be careful when testing this hypothesis as male reproductive success is highly variable</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>" "<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How do we get from selection to phenotypes?</span></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Three Main Mechanisms:</span></div></li><ul><li><div>1. Honest signals</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Zahavi's Handicap Principle</span></div></li></ul><li><div>2. Run-away selection</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fisherian run-away</span></div></li></ul><li><div>3. Chase-away selection</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sensory biases</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>" What is the handicap principle?"<b><ul><li><div>Females prefer traits that reduce survival in their mates</div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Honest signals are displays that cannot be faked</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Male demonstrates survival and reproductive potential</span></div></li></ul><li><div>Any male that can waste energy on expensive displays Or survive to adulthood with disadvantageous traits</div></li><ul><li><div>Only the ‘best’ males can pass the test Must have a good set of genes</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Will produce sexy sons and daughters with survival genes but no disadvantageous display structures</span></div></li></ul></b>" What is runaway selection?"<b><ul><li><div>Female preference and male traits become coupled</div></li><ul><li><div>Preference genes will get genetically coupled to trait genes as females only mate with certain males</div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Variation in female preferences and in male traits</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Positive feedback loops develop as reproductive success becomes concentrated in at the extremes of the distribution</span></div></li></ul></b>" What are sensory biases?"<b><ul><li><div>Male traits evolve from preexisting female preferences</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Males can exploit female preferences for other stimuli</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ex. food or nesting cues</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female guppies prefer orange foods</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Female guppies prefer orange males</span></div></li></ul></ul></ul></b>"

PSYCH 3T03 Behavioural Ecology

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PSYCH 3T03 Behavioural Ecology

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