CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background to the Study
Mathematics serves as bedrock for other science subjects and at the same time, strengthens
and sharpens the intellectual skills of students. Mathematics is a very important subject. It is
also described as the pivot of all civilizations and technological development (Amarasinghe
& Lambdin 2000). These descriptions point the important position accorded to mathematics
as a key factor in the development of any nation. The Nigeria educational system is geared
towards rapid technological growth of the nation. And in view of this, the National Policy on
Education stipulated that mathematics should be one of the core subjects taught at all levels
of secondary and primary schools, since the importance of mathematics cannot be over
emphasized in the area of science and technology. This is why mathematics is a compulsory
subject for all primary and post primary schools in many countries of the world. The
expectation is that, adequate exposure of student to the knowledge of ICT will facilitate their
achievement not only in mathematics but also in other areas of human endeavours (Fajola
2001).
From birth, a child normally passes through various stages of development to adulthood and
is bound to acquire knowledge. This knowledge could either be through formal or non –
formal educational system (Kersh, 1995). In both cases, primarily in the formal educational
system, an appropriate use of ICT materials could shape the learning habits of students. ICT
materials, otherwise known as teaching aids or instructional materials are aimed at facilitating
the understanding of the learner. This predicated against the background that the children or
students we teach have short attention span and so they learn better if teaching aids are used
during the teaching learning process. They could retain good memory if models or real
objects that they play with are used. Such retentive memory might be relatively high
compared to the verbal speeches made by the instructor (Ebijuwa and ToAnyakoha, 2005).
ICT materials are the instruments used by teachers or instructors in a learning environment
1
for teaching which they hope are capable of eliciting in concrete terms the concepts of
mathematics or any subject which may seem abstract without the use of the materials. (AlAnsari 2006).
Kersh (1995) also agreed that lessons should be more practical and activity oriented as
they are better learnt through manipulation of subjects and symbols. The largely expository
strategies and method commonly adopted by science teachers is not effective. An effective
teaching and learning demands both experimentation and demonstration. This way, we will
be assured of good performance not only in mathematics but also in all subjects which uses
logic.
For students to acquire scientific knowledge and skills through major concept and their effect
in technology, the teaching and learning materials which are relevant to the curriculum
should be improvised. The most commonly used method of teaching science subject and
science related subjects in Nigerian schools is the expository method (explaining or
elucidating the topic to be taught), which usually scares students, other than methods such as
experimentation, discussion, demonstration, project and discovery methods. The learning of
mathematics can be made less abstract to the learner if mathematics teachers adopt more
practical approaches to teaching the subject. With this, there will be good performance not
only in mathematics but also in science and science related subjects in general.
The advent of the computer has opened up possibilities for teachers and learners which is
different from the scope of commercial enterprise for which it was earlier targeted. Computer
has come to be credited with advantages in education, to the extent that in some cases it has
eventually replaced the chalkboard and traditional instruction (Din, 1996). Developing
nations like Nigeria that places premium on its educational development, cannot ignore this
instructional medium called computer assisted instruction (CAI). Merrell & Tymms 2001;
2
Hussein, 2011 both highlighted the advantages and supported the adoption of computer
assisted instruction (CAI) in Nigerian Educational System.
Teachers‟ preparation and practices most often do fall short in the area of computer assisted
instruction (CAI) for students with dyslexia or dyscalculia making them to be more prone to
the learning difficulties than others. Therefore, the need for effective and proper
concentration of teachers on the trainees should be more focused on CAI to sponge poor
concentration, attention deficits by students and perhaps to achieve the instructional
objectives (Luis and Tanoak 2007).
Computer assisted instruction (CAI) appears to be a promising intervention for both teachers‟
and students who have attention problems or those who have identified disabilities such as
dysgraphia, acaculia, romxgraphia and dyscalculia (Orim & lgwe, 2017).
Unfortunately, teachers‟ use of CAI for students appears limited and may not be utilized in
ways that are of maximal benefit for at-risk learners (Desiree, Murray & David, 2014).
Due to the outcry of the situation, this research work intends to confirm whether there
will be a line of change on the performance of these teaming educational beginners if
computer assisted instruction is introduced into the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Therefore, the focus of this research work is to find out the extent to which Computer
Assisted Instructions will affect the performance of students in mathematics in Sokoto
metropolis of Sokoto state.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Mathematics seem to be the major problem to many students at virtually all levels (primary,
secondary and even tertiary levels of education), most of these problems encountered in
mathematics are more or less connected with the abstractions (teaching without
demonstrations) been used in most mathematics class, this eventually lead students to build a
kind of hatred to the subject and thus leading them to massive failures. There has been a
3
perceived feeling by the researcher that, the ability of the teacher to teach by simply using
verbal approach could not enable him/her to achieve the optimum objective of imparting
knowledge to students. The reason being that, some teachers though professionally trained
but may be or are constrained to express themselves very well for the child to grasp firmly
the instructions. Apart from that, students or learners naturally suffer from attack of
forgetfulness and so no matter how explicit the teacher might sound, the child may not
understand and even grasp what is taught. The learner’s inability to keep meditating over
junks of words places him or her in the dilemma of not remembering much of what has been
taught, thus causes the performance of the learner to be poor. This is because, a student who
is battling with remembering or the one that did not even understand the lesson at all will not
have that retentive memory to be able to perform very well.
The study was propelled by the very interesting discoveries from literature that instructional
strategies among which is Computer Assisted Instructions significantly affects students’
performance. However, a question may be asked whether different instructional approaches
will produce the same effects on students in their study of topics like geometry and
trigonometry. This is a gap that exists in literature which needs to be filled to enable
researchers and mathematics teachers fully appreciate the role of Computer Assisted
Instructions in teaching and learning of mathematics. In view of the foregoing the statement
of the problem is thus what will be the effectiveness of Computer Assisted Instructions on the
Performance of Senior Secondary School Students in Mathematics in Sokoto Metropolis.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The research set to find the effectiveness of Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI) on the
performance of Senior Secondary School Students in Mathematics as a general objective;
specifically, the researcher aims to achieve the following objectives
4
i. To examine the effectiveness of CAI on the performance of Student in trigonometry
over conventional (discussion) method
ii. To examine the effectiveness of CAI on the performance of Student in geometry over
conventional (discussion) method
iii. To compare the effect of CAI on the performance of Male and Female Students in
Trigonometry
iv. To compare the effect of CAI on the performance of Male and Female Students in
Geometry
v. To compare the performance of students taught using CAI in Trigonometry and
Geometry.
1.4 Research Questions
The following questions are raised to guide the study:
Research Question 1: What is the difference between the academic performances of
Students in trigonometry taught using Computer-Assisted Instruction and those taught using
the conventional (discussion) method of teaching?
Research Question 2: What is the difference between the academic performances of
Students in geometry taught using Computer-Assisted Instruction and those taught using the
conventional (discussion) method of teaching?
Research Question 3: What is the difference between the performance of Male and Female
students taught using CAI in Trigonometry?
Research Question 4: What is the difference between the performance of Male and Female
students taught using CAI in Geometry?
Research Question 5: What is the difference between the academic performances of
Students taught using Computer-Assisted Instruction in Trigonometry and Geometry?
5
1.5 Null Hypotheses
Following the subject of this research work, five hypotheses are formulated to guide the
study.
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of Students in
trigonometry taught using Computer-Assisted Instruction and those taught using the
conventional (discussion) method of teaching
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of Students in
geometry taught using Computer-Assisted Instruction and those taught using the conventional
(discussion) method of teaching.
Ho3: There is no significant difference between the performances of male and female
students in trigonometry taught using CAI.
Ho4: There is no significant difference between the performances of male and female
students in geometry taught using CAI.
Ho5: There is no significant difference between the performances of students taught using
CAI in geometry and trigonometry.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The finding of this research will be beneficial to our teaming students in making them
more active as learning is simplified via Computer Assisted Instructions. It is expected that
findings from this project work could immensely offer valuable insights to the researchers in
education who are likely to use this research work as a reference material to enable them
develop the field of teaching learning process of mathematics.
To teachers who instruct the students, this work will go a long way in providing credible
facts to enable them improve on their routine work. They can achieve this through selfassessment, which equips them to determine when to withdraw or sustain a particular
6
teaching aid. This is because, while some ICT materials may be boring to students, some are
interesting to them.
It is also significant too that, this inquiry will satisfy the impression of not using
instructional materials when the need arises as mathematics teachers will either be
discouraged or encouraged to improvise when the materials are lacking due to the findings of
this work. Also this research work will go a long way to serve as either a positive or negative
step towards enhancing effective teaching and learning of mathematics in the senior
secondary schools due to the findings.
To government, it will no doubt send a signal on the need for setting an action plan on the
realization of ICT compliance mathematics classes where Computer Assisted Instructions are
put in place in the state. At the same time take necessary actions to implement a new package
for teachers of mathematics who are the brain behind a successful implementation of any
policy introduced by the government. Other members of the society may also find it very
useful if perused with keen interest as to what input would they place in a view to
complimenting government effort in actualizing ICT compliance into the teaching and
learning of mathematics.
1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The research work will consist of all the Senior Secondary Schools in Sokoto State, but
due to limited resources and time amidst the nature of the research, the study will limit itself
to Senior Secondary School (II) students of schools with ICT facilities in Sokoto Metropolis
and the schools are FGC Sokoto (78), UDUMSS (76), FSC Sokoto (76), NCS (76) and GGC
Sokoto (76). Also this study was restricted to using a projector to teach the students some
selected Algebra topics (Trigonometry and Geometry) that established the basis for the
research.
7
1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms
The following terms found in this write up are explained or defined in order to
facilitate a better understanding of the study. And this is to say that the meaning of each term
shall be based on the context of this study.
Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI): the use of computers in helping students and
teachers understand classroom material contextually and conceptually.
Performances: Examining students’ progress base on exposure to some parameters like
computer.
ICT: This simply means Information and Communication Technology.
Abstraction: Teaching theoretical facts without demonstrating it to students
Teaching: This refers to the transmission of teachers acquired knowledge or skills to the
students or learners.
Learning: This is the learner’s ability to effect a change in behaviour as a result of external
encounter with new introduced method of teaching (learning).
8
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This study focused on the effectiveness of Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI) on
the performance of Senior Secondary School Students in Mathematics. The review of related
literatures was done under the following sub-headings:
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Information and Communication Technology
2.1.2 Computer Assisted Instructions
2.2 Computer Assisted Instructions and Role of ICT in Teaching and Learning
2.2.3 Internet
2.2.4. Teaching and Learning
2.3. Why Integrating ICT into the Teaching and Learning
2.3.1 ICT as an aid to Teaching and Learning
2.3.2. ICT as tool for Educational Management
2.3.3. ICT as instrument for Economic Development
2.3.4. ICT as tool for higher technological development
2.3.5. ICT as a course of study
2.4 Theoretical framework
2.4.1 Jean Piaget
2.4.2 Zoltan P. Dienes
2.4.3 Jerome Bruner
2.5 Review of Empirical Studies
2.6 Summary and uniqueness of the study
9
2.1 Introduction
Mathematics is a compulsory subject in all secondary schools. Due to its importance
the government through the National Communication Commission should be committed in
ensuring the provision of high quality Mathematics education in our secondary schools not
only in Sokoto State but in the nation as a whole. Though effectively introducing technology
into schools is also largely dependent upon the availability and accessibility of ICT resources
(e.g. hardware, software and communications infrastructure). Technology is essential in
teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the Mathematics that is taught and enhances
students’ learning. There are several benefits of using ICT in teaching and learning
Mathematics. ICT has the potential to transform the nature of education; improving teacher’s
design work, enhancing the roles of students and teachers in the learning process and helping
to create a collaborative learning environment. However, there are challenges and
opportunities (Khan, Hossain, Hasan & Clement, 2012) which hinder greatly the integration
of ICT in teaching and learning Mathematics in secondary schools.
The growth of information and communication technologies (ICT) has dramatically reshaped
teaching and learning processes. Mathematics teachers are faced with inhibiting challenges or
barriers to computer use (Hudson & Porter, 2010). For this reason, there have been several
studies which have specifically focused on ICT integration in secondary Mathematics
teaching. Drent and Meelissen (2008); Tsai and Chai (2012); and Wachira and Keengwe
(2011) describe two types of barriers, currently hampering the integrated use of ICT by
teachers: - external (first order) barriers and internal (second order) barriers.
Researchers argued that with the introduction of technology, it is possible to de-emphasize
algorithmic skills; the resulting void may be filled by an increased emphasis on the
development of mathematical concepts. Technology saves time and gives students access to
powerful new ways to explore concepts at a depth that has not been possible in the past. The
10
power of computers leads to fundamental changes in mathematics instruction. For example,
the ability to build and run complex mathematical models, and easy exploration of "what if"
questions through parametric variation has opened up new avenues for mathematics (Dreyfus,
1991). Furthermore, as Munirah (1996) observes, the teaching of calculus has seen a dramatic
change now that activities such as exploring data or graphical data analysis have been
revolutionized by the computer technology. It is also reported that weaker students often are
better able to succeed with the help of technology, and thereby come to recognize that
mathematics is not just for their able classmates (Wimbush, 1992). Although there has been
much written about the potential of technology to change how mathematics is taught, there
does not seem to be much written about how the use of technology changed students’
perception about mathematical problem solving.
In everyday ramifications of human life there is one and constant attitude one is attributed to,
such a thing is none other than dynamicity; every living creature is dynamic in the way they
do things, understand those things and been able to manipulate those things. In those days
however the developments we witnessed are too timid and negligible that one cannot
precisely say this is the level of development we’ve identified as a result of this effort been
made. Nowadays the situation is entirely different as series of efforts have been made to
change the way things are done in previous days. One area of concern that is believe to be the
universal element of change in the global face is the area of information and communication
technology (ICT), all and sundry has now change or are trying to change the direction of their
routines to ICT, it has now become the order of the day, it is considered worldwide to be the
solution to many cumbersome problems that has been blocking the advancement of many
aspects of human endeavour.
Information has now become the most strategic resources that has transformed the world
economy, changed many facets of life, education being inclusive. We cannot afford to live
11
without communicating to one another such is even the modus operandi in the teaching and
learning environment where the teacher communicates to the students while the students
respond back in terms of answering or asking questions about their areas of difficulty.
Technology been the mastermind of both information and communication plays an
intermediate role in a way that any device used in either passing information or
communication as the case may be is a product of technology. ICT evidently promotes how
a class setting becomes interesting, conducive and attractive in the side of the students.
Integrating ICT into our mathematics classroom will no doubt enhances the way and
manner students capture readymade information and also are able to keenly retrieve them.
2.1.1 Information and Communication Technology
The phrase Information and Communication Technology has been used by academic
researchers since the 1980s. Information and communications technology (ICT) is an
extended term for information technology (IT) which stresses the role of unified
communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless
signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks
with computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
However, ICT has no universal definition, as "the concepts, methods and applications
involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. The broadness of ICT
covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information
electronically in a digital form, e.g. personal computers, digital television, email, robots. For
clarity, ICT hierarchy where all levels of the hierarchy contain some degree of commonality
in that they are related to technologies that facilitate the transfer of information and various
types of electronically mediated communications. Skills, frameworks for the information age
12
is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals for
the 21st century. ICT refers to the convergence of Information Technology (IT) and
Communication Technology (CT) that ICT is the acquisition, processing, storing and
disseminating of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by Microelectronic based
combination of computers and telecommunication. ICT is concerned with use of technology
in handling, acquiring, processing, storing and disseminating information (Muhammad,
2007). Ebijuwa and ToAnyakoha (2005) define ICT as “tools and as well as means used for
collection, capture, process, storage, transmission and dissemination of information”. The
computers are used to process and store data, while telecommunications technology provides
information communication tools, which make it possible for users to access databases and
link them to other computer networks at different locations. “IT and ICT are used somewhat
interchangeably.
2.1.2 Computer Assisted Instruction
The computer is a technological innovation under the control of stored programme that can
perform some of the intellectual roles of man even beyond human capability. It is a powerdriven machine equipped with keyboards, electronic circuits, storage compartments, and
recording devices for the high speed performance of mathematical operations. Reith (1993)
defines computer as an electronic device which stores information on disc or magnetic tape;
analyses it and produces information as required from the data on the tape. Sharing the same
view with Reith (1993), Kingsley (1995) sees computer as a device that accepts data in one
form and processes it to produce data in another form. Adekemi (2001) defines computer as a
combination of related devices capable of solving problems by accepting data, performing
described operations on the data, and supplying the results of these operations. Hence,
computer could be said to be a man-made machine made up of electronic components that
operates information at a very high speed to produce results that are meaningful to the user. It
13
is basically a processor of information. Computer is a machine designed to make life easier
due to its speed, accuracy, ability to store large quantity of information and to carry out long
and complex operation without human intervention.
Computers, irrespective of type and size have five basic parts namely, Input Unit, Memory
Units, Control Units (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Units (ALU) and Output Units. Both ALU
and CU are joined into one piece of hardware known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
which is the brain of the computer (CMP for SSCE, 2014 edition, P. 3).
Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing
calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to
automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical
machines did specialized analogue calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital
electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and
versatility of computers increased continuously and dramatically since then, to the point that
artificial intelligence may become possible in the future. Conventionally, a modern computer
consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and
some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations,
a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored
information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mouse, etc.), output
devices (monitors, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions.
Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable
the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. Computer encompasses almost all facets of
human endeavours. So much has been written on it and its relatedness to all areas of human
disciplines, which include computer/information technology, engineering, agriculture etc.
According to McCormick (1993), computers can be used to diversify, develop and improve
the pedagogical relation of teaching and learning. Also, technological development can only
14
be enhanced through proper acquisition of scientific knowledge: which can only be realized
through relevant training in Science, Mathematics and Computer Education.
The advent of the computer has opened up possibilities for teachers and learners which is
different from the scope of commercial enterprise for which it was earlier targeted. Computer
has come to be credited with advantages in education, to the extent that in some cases it has
eventually replaced the chalkboard and traditional instruction (Din, 1996). Developing
nations like Nigeria that places premium on its educational development, cannot ignore this
instructional medium called computer assisted instruction (CAI). Merrell & Tymms 2001;
Hussen, 2011 both highlighted the advantages and supported the adoption of computer
assisted instruction (CAI) in Nigerian Educational System.
Teachers‟ preparation and practices most often do fall short in the area of computer assisted
instruction (CAI) for students with dyslexia or dyscalculia making them to be more prone to
the learning difficulties than others. Therefore, the need for effective and proper
concentration of teachers on the trainees should be more focused on CAI to sponge poor
concentration, attention deficits by students and perhaps to achieve the instructional
objectives (Lui and Tannock 2007).
2.1.3 Internet
The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before.
The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this
unprecedented integration of capabilities (Walmiki &Ramakrishnegowda 2009). The Internet
is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination,
and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers
without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful
examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and
development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet
15
switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and
deploying this exciting new technology. The Internet today is a widespread information
infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the National (or Global or Galactic)
Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological,
organizational, and community. And its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of
computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of
online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community
operations.
The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came into existence. It was
conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived into the era of personal computers,
client-server and peer-to-peer computing, and the network computer. It was designed before
LANs existed, but has accommodated that new network technology, as well as the more
recent ATM and frame switched services. It was envisioned as supporting a range of
functions from file sharing and remote login to resource sharing and collaboration, and has
spawned electronic mail and more recently the World Wide Web. But most important, it
started as the creation of a small band of dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a
commercial success with billions of dollars of annual investment. One should not conclude
that the Internet has now finished changing. The Internet, although a network in name and
geography, is a creature of the computer, not the traditional network of the telephone or
television industry. It will, indeed it must, continue to change and evolve at the speed of the
computer industry if it is to remain relevant. It is now changing to provide new services such
as real time transport, in order to support, for example, audio and video streams. In the arena
of teaching and learning internet plays a vital role in the way researches, assignments and
other educational activities are carried out.
2.1.4 Teaching and Learning
16
A teacher is anyone who affects the environments so that others learn. Teaching at its most
literal level educating, imparting knowledge is the most fundamental part of a teacher’s job. It
is more obvious than (though just as important as) inspiring, motivating and forming
relationships.
However, just like many other elements of the job, the act of teaching is personal. No two
teachers are the same. The way you teach is unique to you and by teaching, you bring
yourself to the classroom: your personality, your experiences and your ambitions. Your
pedagogy your teaching style is shaped by these characteristics, influenced by your own
education, and becomes the guide you use to teach your students.
However, learning is a cooperative effort, requiring engagement on the parts of both students
and teachers. Each student also has their own learning style: They learn at their own pace and
in their own ways. While it is important to establish your teaching style, you should also be
flexible enough to take the learning styles of your students into account. You can be guided
by a general pedagogy while also being considerate of your students varying needs. Great
teachers find balance between a curriculum-centred and a student-centred approach. Learning
is skill acquisition and increased fluency. Teachers’ computer competence is a major
predictor of integrating ICT in teaching. Evidence suggests that majority of teachers who
reported negative or neutral attitude towards the integration of ICT into teaching and learning
processes lacked knowledge and skills that would allow them to make an “informed
decision” (Bordbar, 2010).
2.2 Computer Assisted Instructions and Role of ICT in Teaching and Learning
According to Daniels (2002) ICTs have become within a very short time, one of the basic
building blocks of modern society. Many countries now regard understanding ICT and
mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT as part of the core of education, alongside
reading, writing and numeracy. However, there appears to be a misconception that ICTs
17
generally refers to ‘computers and computing related activities’. This is fortunately not the
case, although computers and their application play a significant role in modern information
management, other technologies and/or systems also comprise of the phenomenon that is
commonly regarded as ICTs. Pelgrum and Law (2003) state that near the end of the 1980s,
the term ‘computers’ was replaced by ‘IT’ (information technology) signifying a shift of
focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. This was
followed by the introduction of the term ‘ICT’ (Information and Communication
Technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the general public.
According to a United Nations report (1999) ICTs cover Internet service provision,
telecommunications equipment and services, information technology equipment and services,
media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation centres, commercial information
providers, network-based information services, computing skills in everyday life. Hepp,
Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) claim in their paper “Technology in Schools:
Education, ICT and the Knowledge Society” that ICTs have been utilized in education ever
since their inception, but they have not always been massively present. Although at that time
computers have not been fully integrated in the learning of traditional subject matter, the
commonly accepted rhetoric that education systems would need to prepare citizens for
lifelong learning in an information society boosted interest in ICTs (Pelgrum, W.J., Law, N.,
2003).
The 1990s was the decade of computer communications and information access, particularly
with the popularity and accessibility of internet-based services such as electronic mail and the
World Wide Web (WWW). At the same time the CD-ROM became the standard for
distributing packaged software (replacing the floppy disk). As a result, educators became
more focused on the use of the technology to improve student learning as a rationale for
investment. Any discussion about the use of computer systems in schools is built upon an
18
understanding of the link between schools, learning and computer technology. When the
potential use of computers in schools was first mooted, the predominant conception was that
students would be ‘taught’ by computers (Mevarech & Light, 1992). In a sense it was
considered that the computer would ‘take over’ the teacher’s job in much the same way as a
robot computer may take over a welder’s job. Collis (1989) refers to this as “a rather grim
image” where “a small child sits alone with a computer”. However, the use of information
and communication technologies in the educative process has been divided into two broad
categories: ICTs for Education and ICTs in Education. ICTs for education refers to the
development
of
information
and
communications
technology
specifically
for
teaching/learning purposes, while the ICTs in education involves the adoption of general
components of information and communication technologies in the teaching learning process.
2.2.1 ICT enhancing the quality and accessibility of education
ICT increases the flexibility of delivery of education so that learners can access knowledge
anytime and from anywhere. It can influence the way students are taught and how they learn
as now the processes are learner driven and not by teachers. This in turn would better prepare
the learners for lifelong learning as well as to improve the quality of learning. In concert with
geographical flexibility, technology-facilitated educational programs also remove many of
the temporal constraints that face learners with special needs (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Students are starting to appreciate the capability to undertake education anywhere, anytime
and anyplace.
One of the most vital contributions of ICT in the field of education is- Easy Access to
Learning. With the help of ICT, students can now browse through e-books, sample
examination papers, previous year papers etc. and can also have an easy access to resource
persons, mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, and peers-all over the world. This
flexibility has heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning
19
opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other
commitments (Young, 2002). Wider availability of best practices and best course material in
education, which can be shared by means of ICT, can foster better teaching. ICT also allows
the academic institutions to reach disadvantaged groups and new international educational
markets. As well as learning at any time, teachers are also finding the capabilities of teaching
at any time to be opportunistic and able to be used to advantage. Mobile technologies and
seamless communications technologies support 24x7 teaching and learning. Choosing how
much time will be used within the 24x7 envelope and what periods of time are challenges that
will face the educators of the future (Young, 2002). Thus, ICT enabled education will
ultimately lead to the democratization of education. Especially in developing countries like
India, effective use of ICT for the purpose of education has the potential to bridge the digital
divide.
India has a billion-plus population and a high proportion of the young and hence it has
a large formal education system. The demand for education in developing countries like India
has skyrocketed as education is still regarded as an important bridge of social, economic and
political mobility (Amutabi and Oketch, 2003). There exists infrastructure, socio- economic,
linguistic and physical barriers in India for people who wish to access education
(Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). This includes infrastructure, teacher and the processes
quality. There exist drawbacks in general education in India as well as all over the world like
lack of learning materials, teachers, remoteness of education facilities, high dropout rate etc.
(UNESCO,2002). Innovative use of Information and Communication Technology can
potentially solve this problem. Internet usage in home and work place has grown
exponentially (McGorry, 2002). ICT has the potential to remove the barriers that are causing
the problems of low rate of education in any country. It can be used as a tool to overcome the
20
issues of cost, less number of teachers, and poor quality of education as well as to overcome
time and distance barriers (McGorry, 2002).
People have to access knowledge via ICT to keep pace with the latest developments
(Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2007). ICT can be used to remove communication barriers such as
that of space and time (Lim and Chai, 2004). ICTs also allow for the creation of digital
resources like digital libraries where the students, teachers and professionals can access
research material and course material from any place at any time (Bhattacharya and Sharma,
2007; Cholin, 2005). Such facilities allow the networking of academics and researchers and
hence sharing of scholarly material. This avoids duplication of work (Cholin, 2005). ICT
eliminating time barriers in education for learners as well as teacher. It eliminates
geographical barriers as learners can log on from any place (Sanyal, 2001; Mooij, 2007;
Cross and Adam, 2007; UNESCO, 2002; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). ICT provides new
educational approaches (Sanyal, 2001). It can provide speedy dissemination of education to
target disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2002; Chandra and Patkar, 2007). ICT enhances the
international dimension of educational services (UNESCO, 2002). It can also be used for
non-formal education like health campaigns and literacy campaigns (UNESCO, 2002). Use
of ICT in education develops higher order skills such as collaborating across time and place
and solving complex real world problems (Bottino, 2003; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007;
Mason, 2000; Lim and Hang, 2003). It improves the perception and understanding of the
world of the student. Thus, ICT can be used to prepare the workforce for the information
society and the new global economy (Kozma, 2005). Plomp et al (2007) state that the
experience of many teachers, who are early innovators, is that the use of ICT is motivating
for the students as well as for the teachers themselves. Bottino (2003) and Sharma (2003)
mention that the use of ICT can improve performance, teaching, administration, and develop
relevant skills in the disadvantaged communities. It also improves the quality of education by
21
facilitating learning by doing, real time conversation, delayed time conversation, directed
instruction, self-learning, problem solving, information seeking and analysis, and critical
thinking, as well as the ability to communicate, collaborate and learn (Yuen et al, 2003). A
great deal of research has proven the benefits to the quality of education (Al-Ansari 2006).
Hepp, Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) state that the literature contains many
unsubstantiated claims about the revolutionary potential of ICTs to improve the quality of
education. They also note that some claims are now deferred to a near future when hardware
will be presumably more affordable and software will become, at last, an effective learning
tool.
2.2.2 ICT enhancing learning Environment
ICT presents an entirely new learning environment for students, thus requiring a different
skill set to be successful. Critical thinking, research, and evaluation skills are growing in
importance as students have increasing volumes of information from a variety of sources to
sort through (New Media Consortium, 2007). ICT is changing processes of teaching and
learning by adding elements of vitality to learning environments including virtual
environments for the purpose. ICT is a potentially powerful tool for offering educational
opportunities. It is difficult and maybe even impossible to imagine future learning
environments that are not supported, in one way or another, by Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT).
When looking at the current widespread diffusion and use of ICT in modern societies,
especially by the young the so-called digital generation then it should be clear that ICT will
affect the complete learning process today and in the future. Authenticity is an important
issue which should be addressed in the design and development of learning environments
(Collins, 1996). Learning environments need to reflect the potential uses of knowledge that
pupils are expected to master, in order to prevent the acquired knowledge from becoming
22
inert (Bransford, Sherwood, Hasselbring, Kinzer, & Williams, 1990; Duffy & Knuth, 1990).
In addition, teachers should stimulate pupils to engage in active knowledge construction. This
calls for open-ended learning environments instead of learning environments which focus on
a mere transmission of facts (Collins, 1996; Hannafin, Hall, Land, & Hill, 1994; Jonassen,
Peck, & Wilson, 1999). ICT may contribute to creating powerful learning environments in
numerous ways.
ICT provides opportunities to access an abundance of information using multiple information
resources and viewing information from multiple perspectives, thus fostering the authenticity
of learning environments. ICT may also make complex processes easier to understand
through simulations that, again, contribute to authentic learning environments. Thus, ICT
may function as a facilitator of active learning and higher-order thinking (Alexander, 1999;
Jonassen, 1999). The use of ICT may foster co-operative learning and reflection about the
content (Susman, 1998). Furthermore, ICT may serve as a tool to curriculum differentiation,
providing opportunities for adapting the learning content and tasks to the needs and
capabilities of each individual pupil and by providing tailored feedback (Mooij, 1999; Smeets
& Mooij, 2001). As Stoddart and Niederhauser (1993) point out, ICT may fit into a spectrum
of instructional approaches, varying from traditional to innovative. Another aspect which
may of course influence the use of ICT is access to technology (Kennewell, Parkinson, &
Tanner, 2000). This refers not only to the number of computers, but also to the placement of
the equipment, e.g. in the classroom or in a computer room. Kennewell et al. (2000) feel it is
essential that computers be placed in the classroom, in order to maximize the opportunities
for curriculum activity. ICT environment improves the experience of the students and
teachers and to use intensively the learning time for better results. The ICT environment has
been developed by using different software and also the extended experience in developing
23
web based and multimedia materials. ICTs have an important role to play in changing and
modernizing educational systems and ways of learning.
2.2.3 ICT enhancing learning motivation
ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways, by increasing learner motivation
and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher
training. ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote
the shift to a learner centred environment. ICTs, especially computers and Internet
technologies, enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and
students to do what they have done before in a better way. ICT has an impact not only on
what students should learn, but it also plays a major role on how the students should learn.
Along with a shift of curricula from “content-centred” to “competence-based”, the mode of
curricula delivery has now shifted from “teacher centred” forms of delivery to “studentcentred” forms of delivery. ICT provides- Motivation to Learn. ICTs such as videos,
television and multimedia computer software that combine text, sound, and colourful moving
images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student
in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs,
dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance conventions to compel the students to
listen and become more involved in the lessons being delivered. Some of the parents of the
respondents opined that their children were feeling more motivated than before in such type
of teaching in the classroom rather than the stereotype 45 minutes’ lecture. They were of the
view that this type of learning process is much more effective than the monotonous
monologue classroom situation where the teacher just lectures from a raised platform and the
students just listen to the teacher.
24
ICT changes the characteristics of problems and learning tasks, and hence play an
important task as mediator of cognitive development, enhancing the acquisition of generic
cognitive competencies as essential for life in our knowledge society. Students using ICTs for
learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students
use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves and Jonassen, 1996), the
influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase.
Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist
learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student centred settings and
by enabling learning to be related to context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). The
teachers could make their lecture more attractive and lively by using multi-media and on the
other hand the students were able to capture the lessons taught to them easily. As they found
the class very interesting, the teachings also retained in their mind for a longer span which
supported them during the time of examination. More so than any other type of ICT,
networked computers with Internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it
combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect
with real people and to participate in real world events. ICT-enhanced learning is studentdirected and diagnostic. Unlike static, text- or print-based educational technologies, ICTenhanced learning recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many
different articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than
merely listen and remember. The World Wide Web (WWW) also provides a virtual
international gallery for students’ work (Loveless, 2003). ICT can engage and inspire
students, and this has been cited as a factor influencing ready adaptors of ICT (Long, 2001).
2.2.4 ICT enhancing the scholastic performance
Based on the extensive usage of ICTs in education the need appeared to unravel the myth that
surrounds the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as an aid to teaching
25
and learning, and the impact it has on students’ academic performance. ICTs are said to help
expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital
workplace, and raise educational quality. However, the experience of introducing different
ICTs in the classroom and other educational settings all over the world over the past several
decades suggests that the full realization of the potential educational benefits of ICT. The
direct link between ICT use and students’ academic performance has been the focus of
extensive literature during the last two decades. ICT helps students to their learning by
improving the communication between them and the instructors (Valasidou and Bousiou,
2005).
The analysis of the effects of the methodological and technological innovations on the
students’ attitude towards the learning process and on students’ performance seems to be
evolving towards a consensus, according to which an appropriate use of digital technologies
in education can have significant positive effects both on students’ attitude and their
achievement. Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyse the
paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the
21st century. Kulik (2003) meta-analysis study revealed that, on average, students who used
ICT-based instruction scored higher than students without computers. The students also
learned more in less time and liked their classes more when ICT-based instruction was
included. Fuchs and Woessman (2004) used international data from the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), they showed that while the bivariate correlation
between the availability of ICT and students’ performance is strongly and significantly
positive, the correlation becomes small and insignificant when other student environment
characteristics are taken into consideration. Attwell and Battle (1999) examined the
relationship between having a home computer and school performance, their findings suggest
that students who have access to a computer at home for educational purposes, have
26
improved scores in reading and math. Becker (2000) found that ICT increases student
engagement, which leads to an increased amount of time students spend working outside
class. Coates & Humphreys (2004) showed that students in on-campus courses usually score
better than their online counterparts, but this difference is not significant here. ICTs
especially computers and Internet technologies enable new ways of teaching and learning
rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better
way.
ICT helps in providing a catalyst for rethinking teaching practice (Flecknoe,2002),
developing the kind of graduates and citizens required in an information society improving
educational outcomes and enhancing and improving the quality of teaching and learning
(Wagner, 2001). ICT can help deepen students’ content knowledge, engage them in
constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of complex thinking skills
(Kozma, 2005; Kulik, 2003; Webb & Cox, 2004). Studies have identified a variety of
constructivist learning strategies (e.g., students work in collaborative groups or students
create products that represent what they are learning) that can change the way students
interact with the content (Windschitl, 2002). ICTs have the potential for increasing access to
and improving the relevance and quality of education. The use of ICT in educational settings,
by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. Students using ICTs for learning
purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use
computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves and Jonassen, 1996), the
influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase.
2.3 Why integrating ICT into the teaching and learning
The question of why information and communication technology be integrated into the
teaching and learning in Nigeria may appear too simplistic and unnecessary. However, the
political conditions in Nigeria for the past thirty years leave no room for continuity. Over the
27
years, political power in Nigeria has been used to entrench mediocrity, corruption in high
places, misplace priority, and consumer culture. The direct effect of these is a battered
economy and an educational system that is decaying by the day. In 1988, in an attempt to
keep pace with development in computer education, Nigeria enacted a Policy on Computer
Education. According to Okebukola (2007).
The plan was to establish pilot schools and thereafter diffuse the innovation, first
to all secondary schools and then to the Primary schools. Unfortunately, beyond
the distribution and installation of computers in the Federal Government
Colleges, the project did not really take off the ground (P.16).
Okebukola (2007) concluded that computer is not part of classroom technology in over 90%
of public schools in Nigeria. Thus the chalkboard, marker board and textbooks continue to
dominate classroom activities in most secondary schools in Nigeria. If a country such as
Uganda which has less than one-fifth of Nigeria’s resources, is now using information and
communication technology to help secondary school’s students to become better information
users, why is Nigeria lagging behind? The answer is simply mismanagement of the huge
resources of the country and inability of political leaders to prioritize Nigeria’s
developmental needs. There is no doubt that in the current harsh economic competition, the
private sector in Nigeria has embraced ICT to stay afloat. The banking sector, insurance,
manufacturing industries and multinational companies in the oil sector have embraced
multimedia technology to bring innovative solutions to their current challenges.
If Nigeria wants to be a major player in the global market place of ideas and prepare her
citizens for the new environment of today and the future, the country should embrace ICT for
the following reasons: ICT as aids to teaching and learning; ICT as a tool for management;
ICT as instrument for economic development; ICT as instrument of high technological
development, and ICT as a course of study.
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2.3.1 ICT as aids to teaching and learning
The importance of ICT is quite evidence from the educational perspective. Though the
chalkboard, textbooks, radio/television and film have been used for educational purpose over
the years, none has quite impacted on the educational process like the computer. While
television and film impact only on the audio-visual faculties of users, the computer is capable
of activating the senses of sight, hearing and touch of the users. ICT has the capacity to
provide higher interactive potential for users to develop their individual, intellectual and
creative ability. The main purpose of ICT “consists just in the development of human mental
resources, which allow people to both successfully apply the existing knowledge and produce
new knowledge” (Shavinina, 2001).
The collective and rigid nature of learning and the passive nature of the learning
associated with the use of radio, television and film do not contribute any innovative changes
to traditional methods in education system. Information and communication technologies are
being used in the developed world for instructional functions. Today, computers perform a
host of functions in teaching and learning as many nations are adding computer literacy,
reading and writing literacy as skills students will need for succeeding in a technologically
developed world (Thomas, 1987). At the instructional level, computers are used by pupils to
learn reading, mathematics, social studies, art, music, simulation and health practices.
In educational multimedia application Shavinina (1997) asserted that today’s learning
contents are domain-specific products and that they dominate the world market. According to
Shavinina (1997), domain-specific educational multimedia is directed to knowledge
acquisition skills development in the language arts, history, physics, literature, biology and so
on.
There is no doubt that ICT provides productive teaching and learning in order to increase
people’s creative and intellectual resources especially in today’s information society.
29
Through the simultaneous use of audio, text, multicolour images, graphics, motion, ICT gives
ample and exceptional opportunities to the students to develop capacities for high quality
learning and to increase their ability to innovate.
Nigeria cannot afford to lag behind in using multimedia to raise the intellectual and creative
resources of her citizens. This is particularly important for children whose adulthood will
blossom in a cyber-environment entirely different from that of the present (Shavinina, 1997).
Nigerian children need to be taught by radically new educational programme and variety of
educational contents with multimedia playing key role.
2.3.2 ICT as tool for Educational Management
It is not uncommon to find that many establishments in Nigeria, including educational
institutions still keep records in files and tucked them away in filling cabinets where they
accumulate dust. Many of these files are often eaten up by rodents and cockroaches thus
rendering them irretrievable. A great deal of routine administrative work in government
establishment is still done manually with the state and the Federal government showing little
or no interest in embracing ICT. The official administrative drudgery in government offices
and education institutions can be better managed through ICT. Educational administrative
functions include a wide variety of activities such as educational governance, supervision,
support services, infrastructure, finance, budgeting, accounting, personnel selection and
training system monitoring and evaluation, facilities procurement and management,
equipment maintenance, research, and so on (Thomas, 1987).
In most Nigeria schools, officials still go through the laborious exercise of manually
registering students, maintaining records of pupil, performance, keeping inventory list of
supplies, doing cost accounting, paying bills, printing reports and drawing architectural
designs. The huge man-hour spend on these exercises can be drastically reduced with ICT to
enhance overall management procedure. Thomas (1987) said that “Computers bring great
30
speed and accuracy to each of these tasks, along with the convenience of storing large
quantities of information on ‘small disks or tapes.
The prevailing condition in school management in Nigeria is disheartening and discouraging.
The country seems to be living in prehistoric times in the educational management while
even developing countries in Africa such as South Africa, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are
far ahead of Nigeria in ICT applications. Despite its huge material resources and population
endowment, Nigeria cannot be counted among progressive nations using ICT in educational
management, as technology has become a critical tool for achieving success in education.
2.3.3 ICT as instrument of economic development
The present government in Nigeria is pursuing the deregulation of the economy with a
passion that has never been seen in the country. It is striving for a private sector driven
economy hence it is selling its shares in many companies so that they can fully be managed
by the private sector. Most of these companies in which government hold majority shares
have been mismanaged over the years that they have become a huge burden and a financial
drain-pipe to government, hence deregulation in the country today.
The importance of ICT in Nigeria strongly manifests itself from an economic
standpoint. Today, as a result of globalization, industrial competition is increasingly harsh
and companies must not only come up with innovative products and services to the global
market but most do so with unprecedented speed. For the companies to survive, they need
intellectual and creative employees who’s “novel ideas are to a certain extend a guarantee of
companies’ existence” (Shavinina 2001). Contemporary society strongly needs highly able
minds that could productively solve many economic problems of today. Such highly able
minds are nurtured by a country’s educational institutions. Nigeria lags considerably behind
others in the development of small and medium scale enterprises, which are the mainstay of
modern economy and society. Modern society desperately needs highly able citizens who can
31
bring innovative solutions to its current challenges and at the same time produce new ideas
for on-going socio-economic and political advancement (Shavinina, 1997). Nigeria can only
be part of such modern society if ICT facilities are deployed to all sectors of the economy.
Because, the country is already on the wrong side of the digital divide, it must lay the proper
foundation for ICT use in the education sector.
2.3.4 ICT as tool for higher technological development
In today’s world, not only are we surrounded by technology, but our primary means
of reaching others in far and near places are mediated by technology. According To Elluh
(1989), “technology is progressively facing the two previous environments: nature and
society”. The environment he talked about is that which enables us to live, sets us in danger
and it is immediate to us and mediates all else. He asserted that modern man cannot live
without our gadgets. This is what makes human subservient to technology rather that
technology being subservient to humanity.
There is no doubt that one of today’s realities is an extremely fast development of hightechnology. This has resulted in a huge change of the individual’s life in business and private
settings. There is strong need to know and use modern technology in our social life, the
economy, the business and education. New and sophisticated breakthroughs in high
technology encourage companies to introduce technological innovations rapidly into their
business practices. The United States Space Programme has benefited immensely from rapid
development in high-tech and today’s information and communication technology. In many
parts of the developed world, cellular, satellite, and wireless technologies combined with
innovative business practices are beginning to make up for the shortcomings of the traditional
wire line technologies. Nigeria was introduced to cellular technologies a little over two years
ago and this has revolutionized the communication industry in the country, though majorities
of Nigerians are yet to benefit from the services due to high cost.
32
If Nigeria must be part of developed world in the near future, it must embrace technology and
discard some of the old habits and perspectives and retool completely. There is need for the
country to re-strategize and expand its vision so as to cope with the challenges of a
technological society.
2.3.5 ICT as a course of study
The most challenging aspect of the post-industrial era is how to meet the demand of the
information society that modern man is trying to build. The role of education in developing
modern society cannot be overemphasized. In fact, society and education are highly
interdependent. As society changes, the educational system has to change accordingly
(Westera and Sloep, 2001). Today employers of labour are in search of graduates with
requisite knowledge, skill and training that would help to solve problems that do not yet exist
today. In recent years thousands of university graduates found it difficult to secure good
paying jobs. This has been due to the fact that there are no jobs out there as many government
establishments and private companies are even retrenching workers as a result of hard times
being experienced by the economy.
Though the Nigerian government has opened its doors to foreign investors and many of them
are coming in, Nigerian graduates are not properly trained for the new positions that are
opening up in the new companies being established. There is a high demand for highly skilled
and technologically trained workers. Unfortunately, most Nigerian graduates acquired
overdose of theoretical knowledge, which does not match well with the demands of
workplace practice. Modern companies need employees that are proactive, enterprising,
responsible and self-reliant professional. According to Walton (1995), modern employees
represent the business’ human capital.
Nigeria needs to replace the traditional pedagogical practices that still underpin its
educational system. In a report of the World Bank sponsored research study on the state of
33
the Nigerian graduate, Dabalen and Oni (2000) asserted that Nigerian University graduates of
the past decade are poorly trained and unproductive on the job. The report indicted Nigerian
University graduates as deficient in mastery of the English language and requisite technical
skills. Such development calls for a rethinking of the objectives education should pursue.
In order to revolutionize Nigeria educational system, the country needs ICT not only
as tools for communication but also as a field of study. Modern companies, especially those
operated by the new foreign investors need skilled workers with basic knowledge in
algorithm, flow chart design, complex programming, and web design. Nigeria also needs
computer technicians and engineers. These new fields of study could be introduced as areas
of study in Nigeria universities and polytechnics. Though, few Nigeria universities are
already having computer study as part of their academic programs, most of them are still
theoretical in nature to impact meaningfully on the society.
Nigeria needs to establish a virtual learning company along the model developed and
implemented at the Open University of the Netherlands. The Netherlands virtual Company
was established to answer to future challenges of modern society. According to Westera &
Sloep, (2001), the Netherlands Virtual Company;
“Is a distributed, virtual learning environment that embodies the functional
structures of veracious companies; it offers students a rich and meaningful
context that resembles the context of professional working in many respects; it
aims to bridge the gap between education and professional working, between
theory and practice between knowledge and skills.”(P.116)
The virtual Learning Company is regarded as a state of the art cyber education, which strives
to bring together the context of education and workplace. Nigeria has just launched its own
version of Open University in Abuja after so many years of planning. The Nigeria Open
University has a lot to learn from the Netherlands example by offering a concrete and
34
meaningful environment that closely resembles the student’s future workplaces. The Nigeria
University Commission recently established a virtual learning website but its impact is yet to
be seen and it is too early to be assessed.
2.4 Theoretical Framework
The major theoretical rationale for the use of manipulative materials in a laboratory-type
setting has been attributed to the works of Piaget, Bruner, and Dienes. Each represents the
cognitive viewpoint of learning, a position that differs substantially from the connectionist
theories that were predominant in educational psychology during the first part of the
twentieth century. Modern cognitive psychology places great emphasis on the process
dimension of the learning process and is at least as concerned with "how" children learn as
with "what", it is they learn. The objective of true understanding is given highest priority in
the teaching/learning process, and it is generally felt that such understanding can only follow
the individuals' personalized perception, synthesis, and assimilation of relationships as these
are encountered in real situations. Emphasis is placed, therefore, on the interrelationships
between parts as well as the relationship between parts and whole.
Each of these men subscribes to a basic tenet of Gestalt psychology, namely that the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts. Each suggests that the learning of large conceptual structures
is more important than the mastery of large collections of isolated bits of information.
Learning is thought to be intrinsic and, therefore, intensely personal in nature. It is the
meaning that each individual attaches to an experience which is important. It is generally felt
that the degree of meaning is maximized when individuals are allowed and encouraged to
interact personally with various aspects of their environment. This, of course, includes other
people. It is the physical action on the part of the child that contributes to her or his
understanding of the ideas encountered.
35
Proper use of manipulative materials could be used to promote the broad goals alluded to
above. The researcher discusses each of these men more fully since each has made distinct
contributions to a coherent rationale for the use of manipulative materials in the learning of
mathematical concepts and thus integrating ICT into the teaching and learning of
mathematics.
2.4.1 Jean Piaget
Piaget's contribution to the psychology of intelligence has been compared to Freud's
contributions to the psychology of human personality. Piaget has provided numerous insights
into the development of human intelligence, ranging from the random responses of the young
infant to the highly complex mental operations inherent in adult abstract reasoning. He has
established the framework within which a vast amount of research has been conducted,
particularly within the past two decades.
In his book The Psychology of Intelligence (1971), Piaget formally develops the stages of
intellectual development and the way they are related to the development of cognitive
structures. His theory of intellectual development views intelligence as an evolving
phenomenon occurring in identifiable stages having a constant order. The age at which
children attain and progress through these stages is variable and depends on factors such as
physiological maturation, the degree of meaningful social or educational transmission, and
the nature and degree of relevant intellectual and psychological experiences. Piaget regards
intelligence as effective adaptation to one's environment. The evolution of intelligence
involves the continuous organization and reorganization of one's perceptions of, and reactions
to, the world around him. This involves the complementary processes of assimilation (fitting
new situations into existing psychological frameworks) and accommodation (modification of
behaviour by developing or evolving new cognitive structures). The effective use of the
assimilation-accommodation cycle continually restores equilibrium to an individual's
36
cognitive framework. Thus the development of intelligence is viewed by Piaget as a dynamic,
non-static evolution of newer and more complex mental structures.
Piaget's now-famous four stages of intellectual development (sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operations, and formal operations) are useful to educators because they emphasize
the fact that children's modes of thought, language, and action differ both in quantity and
quality from that of the adult. Piaget has argued persuasively that children are not little adults
and therefore cannot be treated as such.
"Perhaps the most important single proposition that the educator can derive from Piaget's
work, and its use in the classroom, is that children, especially young ones, learn best from
concrete activities" (Ginsberg & Opper 1969). This proposition, if followed to its logical
conclusion, would substantially alter the role of the teacher from expositor to one of
facilitator, that is, one who promotes and guides children's manipulation of and interaction
with various aspects of their environment. While it is true that when children reach
adolescence their need for concrete experiences is somewhat reduced because of the
evolution of new and more sophisticated intellectual schemas, it is not true that this
dependence is eliminated. The kinds of thought processes so characteristic of the stage of
concrete operations are in fact utilized at all developmental levels beyond the ages of seven
or eight. Piaget's crucial point, which is sometimes forgotten or overlooked, is that until about
the age of eleven or twelve, concrete operations represent the highest level at which the child
can effectively and consistently operate. Piaget has emphasized the important role that social
interaction plays in both the rate and quality with which intelligence develops. The
opportunity to exchange, discuss, and evaluate one's own ideas and the ideas of others
encourages decent ration (the diminution of egocentricity), thereby leading to a more critical
and realistic view of self and others.
37
I t would be impossible to incorporate the essence of these ideas into a mathematics
program that relies primarily (or exclusively) on the printed page for its direction and
"activities." To be sure, Piaget speaks to much more than the learning of mathematics per say.
Intellectual development is inextricably intertwined with the social/psychological
development of children, but it should be noted that mathematics and science, with their wide
diversity of ideas and concepts and their capacity for being represented by concrete
isomorphic structures, are especially well suited to the promotion of these ends.
It is generally felt that the basic components of a theoretical justification for the provision of
active learning experiences in the mathematics classroom are embedded in Piaget's theory of
cognitive development. Dienes and Bruner, while generally espousing the views of Piaget,
have made contributions to the cognitive view of mathematics learning that are distinctly
their own. The work of these two men lends additional support to this point of view.
2.4.2 Zoltan P. Dienes
Unlike Piaget, Dienes has concerned himself exclusively with mathematics learning; yet like
Piaget, his major message is concerned with providing a justification for active student
involvement in the learning process. Such involvement routinely involves the use of a vast
amount of concrete material. Rejecting the position that mathematics is to be learned
primarily for utilitarian or materialistic reasons, Dienes (1969) sees mathematics as an art
form to be studied for the intrinsic value of the subject itself. He believes that learning
mathematics should ultimately be integrated into one's personality and thereby become a
means of genuine personal fulfilment. Dienes has expressed concern with many aspects of the
status quo, including the restricted nature of mathematical content considered, the narrow
focus of program objectives, the overuse of large-group instruction, the debilitating nature of
the punishment- reward system (grading), and the limited dimension of tile instructional
38
methodology used in most classrooms. Dienes's theory of mathematics learning has four
basic components or principles. Each will be discussed briefly and its implications noted.
1 The Dynamic Principle: This principle suggests that true understanding of a new concept is
an evolutionary process involving the learner in three temporally ordered stages. The first
stage is the preliminary or play stage, and it involves the learner with the concept in a
relatively unstructured but not random manner. For example, when children are exposed to a
new type of manipulative material, they characteristically 'play' with their newfound 'toy.'
Dienes suggests that such informal activity is a natural and important part of the learning
process and should therefore be provided for by the classroom teacher. Following the
informal exposure afforded by the play stage, more structured activities are appropriate, and
this is the second stage. It is here that the child is given experiences that are structurally
similar to the concepts to be learned. The third stage is characterized by the emergence of the
mathematical concept with ample provision for reapplication to the real world.
The dynamic principle establishes a general framework within which learning of mathematics
can occur. The remaining components should be considered as existing within this
framework.
2 The Perceptual Variability Principle: This principle suggests that conceptual learning is
maximized when children are exposed to a concept through a variety of physical contexts or
embodiments. The experiences provided should differ in outward appearance while retaining
the same basic conceptual structure. The provision of multiple experiences (not the same
experience many times), using a variety of materials, is designed to promote abstraction of
the mathematical concept. When a child is given opportunities to see a concept in different
ways and under different conditions, he or she is more likely to perceive that concept
39
irrespective of its concrete embodiment. For example, the regrouping procedures used in the
process of adding two numbers are independent of the type of materials used. We could
therefore use tongue depressors, chips, and abacus or multi base arithmetic blocks to illustrate
this process. When exposed to a number of seemingly different tasks that are identical in
structure, children will tend to abstract the similar elements from their experiences. It is not
the performance of anyone of the individual tasks that is the mathematical abstraction but the
ultimate realization of their similarity.
3 The Mathematical Variability Principle: This principle suggests that the generalization of
a mathematical concept is enhanced when the concept is perceived under conditions wherein
variables irrelevant to that concept are systematically varied while keeping the relevant
variables constant. For example, if one is interested in promoting an understanding of the
parallelogram, this principle suggests that it is desirable to vary as many of the irrelevant
attributes as possible. In this example, the size of angles, the length of sides, the position on
the paper should be varied while keeping the relevant attribute-opposite sides parallel-intact.
Dienes suggests that the two variability principles be used in concert with one another since
they are designed to promote the complementary processes of abstraction and generalization,
both of which are crucial aspects of conceptual development
4 The Constructivity Principle: Dienes identifies two kinds of thinkers: the constructive
thinker and the analytic thinker. He roughly equates the constructive thinker with Piaget's
concrete operational stage and the analytical thinker with Piaget's formal operational stage of
cognitive development. This principle states simply that "construction should always precede
analysis." It is analogous to the assertion that children should be allowed to develop their
concepts in a global intuitive manner emanating from their own experiences. According to
Dienes, these experiences carefully selected by the teacher form the cornerstone upon which
all mathematics learning is based. At some future time, attention will be directed toward the
40
analysis of what has been constructed; however, Dienes points out that it is not possible to
analyze what is not yet there in some concrete form.
2.4.3 Jerome Bruner
Greatly influenced by the work of Piaget and having worked for some time with Dienes at
Harvard, Bruner shares many of their views. Interested in the general nature of cognition
(conceptual development), he has provided additional evidence suggesting the need for firsthand student interaction with the environment. His widely quoted (and hotly debated) view
that "any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at
any stage of development" (Bruner 1966) has encouraged curriculum developers in some
disciplines (especially social studies) to explore new avenues of both content and method. In
recent years Bruner has become widely known in the field of curriculum development
through his controversial elementary social studies program, Man: A Course of Study (1969).
Bruner's instructional model is based on four key concepts: structure, readiness,
intuition, and motivation. These constructs are developed in detail in his classic book, The
Process of Education (1960).
Bruner suggests that teaching students the structure of a discipline as they study particular
content leads to greater active involvement on their part as they discover basic principles for
themselves. This, of course, is very different from the learning model that suggests students
be receivers rather than developers of information. Bruner states that learning the structure of
knowledge facilitates comprehension, memory, and transfer of learning. The idea of structure
in learning leads naturally to the process approach where the very process of learning (or how
one learns) becomes as important as the content of learning (or what one learns). This
position, misunderstood by many, has been the focus of considerable controversy. The
important thing to remember is that Bruner never says that content is unimportant.
41
Bruner (1966) suggests three modes of representational thought. That is, an individual can
think about a particular idea or concept at three different levels. "Enactive" learning involves
hands-on or direct experience. The strength of enactive learning is its sense of immediacy.
The mode of learning Bruner terms "iconic" is one based on the use of the visual medium:
films, pictures, and the like. "Symbolic" learning is that stage where one uses abstract
symbols to represent reality. Bruner feels that a key to readiness for learning is intellectual
development, or how a child views the world. Here he refers to the work of Piaget, stating
that "what is most important for teaching basic concepts is that the child be helped to pass
progressively from concrete thinking to the utilization of more conceptually adequate modes
of thought".
Bruner suggests that readiness depends more upon an effective mix of these three learning
modes than upon waiting until some imagined time when children are capable of learning
certain ideas. Throughout his writing is the notion that the key to readiness is a rich and
meaningful learning environment coupled with an exciting teacher who involves children in
learning as a process that creates its own excitement. Bruner clings to the idea of intrinsic
motivation learning as its own reward. It is a refreshing thought.
In short, a general overhaul of existing pedagogical practices, teacher-pupil interaction
patterns, mathematical content, and mode of presentation, as well as general aspects of
classroom climate would be called for if the views of Piaget, Dienes, and Bruner were to be
taken seriously. Each in its own way would promote a revolution in school curricula, one
whose major focus would be method as well as content. By and large the process of learning
and teaching will be more interactive when it is made in such a way that the teacher
demonstrate and explains whereas the students attends, view and retrieve the mathematical
concepts, theories and principles capable of reshaping their memory.
2.5 Review of Empirical Studies
42
Lidon (2017) conducted a study to determine the effects of computer-aided instruction on
mathematics performance of pupils at the Grade 4 level in Region 5, Guyana, South America.
The focus was due to the trend of poor performances in mathematics at the National Grade 4
assessments for the past 5 years in the region. Four intact Grade 4 classes in two primary
schools were used in the study. Two classes were used as experimental group and the other
two as control group. The Quasi Experimental, Non-equivalent Control Group design was
employed for the study. The instrument which was used for data collection was a teachermade test. The reliability coefficient of the instrument was .553, significant at alpha .01. The
findings of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the academic
performance of pupils in mathematics who were taught using computer aided instruction and
those who were taught using the traditional method of teaching. Second, there was a
significant difference between the academic performance of male and female pupils who
were taught using computer-aided instruction and those who were taught using the traditional
method of teaching. Based on the findings of the study, some recommendations were made
and among such were that computer-aided instruction should be integrated into the teaching
of mathematics at the Grade 4 level in the area of study.
Adeosun, Jimoh & Salami (2014) conducted a study to critically look into the effect of ICT
supported mathematics instructions on the academic performance of students with disabilities
in Ogun State, the study adopted a sort of non-linear approach to data collection, chi square
was used to analysed the data obtained by the use of questionnaires distributed to the teachers
of JSS 1 and SS 1 of the two selected schools in Ogun State. The study showed that there is
significant difference between the academic performance of students with abilities taught
using ICT supported mathematics instructional materials and those taught using whiteboard
methods.
43
In a related study, Anyamene, Nwokolo, Anyachebelu & Anemelu (2012) conducted a study
to investigate the effect of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) package on the performance
of Senior Secondary Students in Mathematics (Algebra) in Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
The study examined the significance of retention achievement scores of students taught using
computer-assisted instruction and conventional method. The sample consisted of forty senior
secondary school students drawn from two secondary schools. Stratified random sampling
was used to select 40 students (20 males and 20 females). Three research questions and three
hypotheses were formulated, and was tested at 0.05 level of significance. The Algebra
Achievement Test (AAT) was made of 50 items of multiple-choice objective type, developed
and validated for data collection.
In the same vein, the Algebra Achievement Test (AAT) was administered to students as Pretest and Post-test. The results were analysed using t-test statistic to test the hypotheses. The
result indicated that students taught using (CAI) package performed significantly better than
their counterparts taught using the conventional method of instruction. Students taught using
CAI performed better than the control group in retention test. Also there was no significant
difference in the post-test performance scores of male and female students taught using CAI
of package. Based on the finding of their research, it was recommended that ComputerAssistant Program should be encouraged for teaching and learning of mathematics.
Amarasinghe & Lambdin (2000) described three different varieties of technology usage:
using technology as a data analysis tool, II-using technology as a problem-solving/
mathematical modelling tool, and III-using technology to integrate mathematics with a
context. Meanwhile researchers (Balacheff & Kaput, 1996; Kilpatrick & Davis, 1993) have
discussed the impact of technological forces on learning and teaching mathematics.
44
Matthew, Joro and Manasseh (2015) conducted a study to investigate the role of ICT in
educational system in Nigeria. The study observed that Nigeria still experience a lag in its
ICT implementation, and this continue to widen the digital and knowledge divides and the
access to ICT facilities is a major challenge facing most African countries. The study
concludes that despite the roles ICT can play in education, schools in Nigeria have yet to
extensively adopt them for teaching and learning. Efforts geared towards integration of ICT
into the school system have not had much impact. Problems such as poor policy, project
implementation strategies and poor information infrastructure militate against these efforts.
The study recommended that efforts should be made by government to post and provide
teachers skilled in ICT to each school to impart ICT skills to the student and also should
stabilize electricity supply in Nigeria.
Abubakar, Daniel & Adetimirin, Airen (2015) also conducted a study to investigate how
computer literacy predisposes postgraduate students to use e-resources. The survey research
design and multi-stage sampling technique were used to select 2726 postgraduate students
from 16 Nigerian universities. A questionnaire and computer test was used to collect data and
data was analysed using percentages and Pearson’s product moment correlation. The
postgraduates’ computer literacy level was average (56.3%). They used only few of the eresources in their libraries and the frequency of usage was low (weighted average X = 2.45).
The study showed that computer literacy had positive relationship with postgraduates’ usage
of e-resources that was positive, very strong and significant (r= .740; d f=2284; p< .05). This
shows that the more the postgraduates are exposed to computer literacy skills, the better the
use of e-resources for their researches. It also showed that computer literacy is necessary to
influence use of e-resources by the postgraduates’ and therefore recommended that computer
literacy programme should be introduced for new entrant postgraduates.
45
Chukwudi & Godspower (2007), investigated the role of ICT on University of Benin
undergraduate students’ academic performance. The study uses questionnaires which were
distributed among 100 students both full time and part- time students. The survey includes
male and female undergraduate students from diverse age bracket and faculties in the
University of Benin. A total of 93 questionnaires were returned and data were analysed using
the statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS) 16.0 software.
The percentages of the responses were also calculated. The study revealed that there
was 100% technological usage, with the new generation of mobile phones called smart
phone, the respondents are capable of sending emails, files and multimedia at an amazing
speed, through the mobile phones, laptop, IPads and desktop. The study also found that
83.9% of the students of the university visit social network sites on a regular basis. Other
sites such as chat engine, entertainment site and adult sites were also visited. It was also
revealed by the study that 60.9% of the students in addition to the social network surfing also
surf academic related sites. The study also revealed that 6% of the students could make a first
degree, 31% second class upper, 43% second class lower and 20% third class degree.
The study affirmed that ICT have negative impact on students’ academic
performance. It seems to have a profound impact on the process of learning in higher
education by offering new possibilities for students and researchers. However, with the recent
proliferation of ICT tools and services, students are finding it difficult to curtail its negative
appeal.
2.6 Summary and Uniqueness of the Study
Researches have been conducted in many countries across the globe as regards effectiveness
of Computer Assisted Instructions on the performance of students in mathematics and other
46
related subjects amidst other researchers who conducted surveys to investigate the impact of
Computer Assisted Instructions on the teaching and learning of mathematics and thus arouse
the interest of the researcher on what will happen if the research is extended to Sokoto State,
will the findings be the same or something different will emerge, what will make this
research unique from the earlier one(s) conducted. This will tell the uniqueness of the study.
47
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The chapter will present the research design, population of the study, sample and sampling
techniques, instrumentation, validity of the instrument and analysis or method of analysis of
this research study.
3.2 Research Design
This study follows a quasi-experimental research design, as it entails CAI and its
effectiveness on the performance of students in Mathematics. The study will have two groups
(Control and Experimental Group). Experimental group will be the subjects of this study.
They are students who will be taught using CAI while the control group will be students
taught using the conventional method of teaching mathematics. Both two groups will have
classes twice weekly throughout the period of this study. In order to establish the
effectiveness of the Computer Assisted Instructions, the researcher will eventually administer
similar questions to the two groups. The performance of these two groups will be used to
establish the difference between the two teaching strategies i.e. Computer Assisted
Instruction and Conventional Methods of Teaching
3.3 Population of the Study
The population of the study consists of all senior secondary school students in Sokoto State
the total population of students is 71108 out of this 47770 are male while 23338 are females.
The following table shows the number of public and private schools and their corresponding
number of students in Sokoto state.
48
Table 3.1: Public and Private Schools and the Number of Students in Sokoto State
S/No
School Type
No. of Schools
Male
Female
Students
Students
Total
1
Public
83
41839
20104
61943
2
Private
30
5931
3234
9165
47770
23338
71108
Grand Total
Source: Ministry of Basic and Secondary Education Sokoto State, (2020)
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique
A sample of 664 students drawn out of 71108 students in Sokoto State will be used for the
research, this number represent the intact class in each of the schools identified for the
research. The list of the schools and the number of SS II students are shown below:
Table 3.2: Sample for the Study
S/No
Name of school
School Type
Sample of Students
1.
S D U S S Sokoto
Boys Only
111
2.
Nagarta Science College Sokoto
Boys Only
124
3.
Government Girls college Sokoto
Girls only
103
4.
Habsatu Ahmadu Girls Arabic S S
Girls Only
129
5.
Sheikh Abubakar Gummi Memorial
Boys Only
95
6
Women Center for Continuous Education
Girls Only
102
Total
664
Source: Examination offices of the Schools (from 12th to 30th September 2020)
3.5 Instrumentation
For the purpose of this study, data collection and analysis, CAI Coaching Test (C.C.T.) will
be used; (C.C.T.) is a self-constructed question paper based on the perceived topics to be used
in the research; it will be constructed and administered to the sample population of the
49
research. It will consist of two sections A and B each comprising of 15 objectives questions
from two selected topics in algebra (geometry and trigonometry) which will be marked and
the scores will be used to determine the results of both the experimental group and that of
control group. The test questions will be carefully designed. The test will be administered as
pre-test and post-test before and after couching the students using CAI in teaching the
selected mathematic topics.
3.5.1 Validity of the Instrument
This is the extent to which the research instrument measures what it intends to measure.
Thus, to establish the validity of the instrument, the instrument will be given to some experts
in test, measurement and evaluation within or outside the department of Science and
Vocational Education, Faculty of Education and Extension Services, Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto before it will be administered. Usage or otherwise of the instruments for
the research will be based on the judgement of this experts thereby confirming its suitability
and validity to be used as instrument for conducting this research.
3.5.2 Pilot study
To establish the reliability of the instrument, it will be pilot tested; the instrument will be
administered to a non-selected sample not within the target population. The result obtained
from the pilot testing will be used to establish the reliability of the instrument before it will
finally be administered in the field.
3.5.3 Reliability of the Instrument
In order to ascertain the reliability of the instrument, it will be administered to a sample of
students within the target population outside the selected samples. The reliability of the
instrument will be established using the scores obtained from pilot testing
3.6 Method of Data Collection
50
The research instruments will be administered to the respondents in a class with the help of
mathematics teachers to be drawn from the sample schools. Each respondent will be served
with a copy of the instrument. Considering their age and schedules, the respondents will be
given free time to go through them and respond appropriately. The questions to be distributed
will be collected back by the researcher.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
The scores obtained from the test administered will be descriptively analysed using mean and
standard deviation. The result will further be analysed inferentially using t-test to establish
differences that are raised in the research questions and hypotheses.
51
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59
Appendix I
List of Public Senior Secondary Schools and Number Students in Sokoto State
S/No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Name of Schools
Government Technical College, Binji
Government Day Secondary School, Binji
Government Day Secondary School, Danchadi
Government Day Secondary School, Takatuku
Government Day Secondary School, Badau
Government Day Secondary School, Bodinga
Government Day Secondary School, Sifawa
Government Girls Unity Secondary School, Bodinga
Government Secondary School, Dingyadi
Army Day Secondary School, Sokoto
Government Day Secondary School, Dange
Government Day Secondary School, Shuni
Government Secondary School Gada
Government Secondary School, Wauru
Ahmed Adamu Muazu Science Secondary School Goronyo
Government Secondary School, Shinaka
Government Science Secondary School Gwadabawa
Government Secondary School, Gigane
Government Day Secondary School, Illela
Government Girls Model Secondary School, Illela
Government Girls Arabic Secondary School, Isa
Olusegun Obasanjo Technical College Bafarawa
Government Secondary School, Isa
Government Day Secondary School, Kuchi
Government Secondary School, Kebbe
Federal Science College Sokoto
Government Secondary School, Kware
Gamji Girls College Rabah
Government Day Secondary School Rabah
Government Day Secondary School, Kurawa
Government Day Secondary School, Makuwana
Government Secondary School, Gatawa
Government Secondary School, Sabon Birni
Aminu Ginga Day Secondary School, Shagari
Government Day Secondary School, Dandin Mahe
Government Day Secondary School, Kajiji
Government Day Secondary School, Gande
Government Day Secondary School, Silame
Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwai
Government Day Secondary School, Kofar Marke, Sokoto
Government Day Secondary School, Kofar Rini
Government Day Secondary School, Runjin Sambo
60
Male
227
94
107
237
146
978
373
Nil
203
720
391
451
882
380
1095
250
1139
147
837
Nil
Nil
602
979
215
195
820
67
Nil
341
392
235
491
1406
477
299
230
366
574
539
Nil
456
510
Females
Nil
10
6
61
14
310
278
1232
65
619
64
64
Nil
41
Nil
273
Nil
16
259
473
1014
Nil
Nil
35
54
240
16
518
2
10
6
37
Nil
Nil
30
35
Nil
Nil
255
1181
Nil
375
Total
227
104
113
298
160
1288
651
1232
268
1339
455
515
882
421
1095
523
1139
163
1096
473
1014
602
979
250
249
1060
83
518
343
402
241
528
1406
477
329
265
366
574
794
1181
456
885
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
Gov't Girls Day Arabic Secondary School
Nil
643
Government Technical College Runjin Sambo
425
Nil
Federal Government College, Sokoto
396
232
Abdul-Rasheed Adisa Raji Special School, Sokoto
982
782
Giginya Memorial Secondary School, Sokoto
1180
Nil
Government Day Secondary School, Tudun Wada, Sokoto Nil
598
Government Girls Day Arabic Sec. School, Yar Akija
Nil
1016
Hafsat Ahmadu Bello Model Arabic Sec. School, Sokoto
Nil
2480
Nana Girls Secondary School, Sokoto
Nil
2370
Sheikh Abubakar Gummi Memorial College, Sokoto
2204
Nil
Sokoto Teachers College, Sokoto
759
Nil
Sultan Atiku Secondary School, Sokoto
890
Nil
Sultan Abubakar College, Sokoto
1510
Nil
Sultan Attahirun Ahmadu Secondary School, Sokoto
1167
Nil
Sultan Bello Secondary School, Sokoto
1785
Nil
Nagarta College Sokoto
855
Nil
Government Girls College Sokoto
Nil
920
Women Centre For Continuing Education, Sokoto
Nil
369
Abudullahi Barau Secondary School, Dogon Daji
958
Nil
Community Day Secondary School, Tambawal
374
205
Gov’t Girls Commercial Secondary School Tambuwal
Nil
602
Federal Government Girls College Tambuwal
Nil
375
Government Day Secondary School, Jabo
444
112
Government Day Secondary School, Romon Sarki
218
3
Gov’t Girls' Commercial Secondary School Tambawal
Nil
495
Government Girls Day Secondary School, Dogon Daji
Nil
225
Government Secondary School Sanyinna
515
Nil
Government Secondary School, Tangaza
974
Nil
Govrnment Day Secondary School, Gidan Madi
312
35
Government Secondary School, Tureta
312
Nil
Ahmadu Bello Academy
506
Nil
Government Technical College Farfaru
926
Nil
Government Day Secondary School
271
20
Government Day Secondary School Arkilla
835
521
Government Day Secondary School Wamakko
168
48
Sani Dingyadi Unity Secondary School
1432
Nil
Sultan Maccido Institute for Quran And General Studies
302
176
Government Day Secondary School, Achida
1146
284
Government Secondary School, Wurno
798
Nil
Government Science Secondary Yabo
768
Nil
Community Day Secondary School, Yabo
576
Nil
Total
41839
20104
Source: Ministry of Basic and Secondary School Education Sokoto (24th October, 2020)
61
643
425
628
1764
1180
598
1016
2480
2370
2204
759
890
1510
1167
1785
855
920
369
958
579
602
375
556
221
495
225
515
974
347
312
506
926
291
1356
216
1432
478
1430
798
768
576
61943
Appendix II
Table 3.1: List of Private Senior Secondary Schools and Number Students in Sokoto
State
S/No
Male
Females
Total
Name of Schools
1. Usmanu Danfodiyo University Model Secondary School
120
60
180
2. Blue Crescent Schools Sokoto
300
231
531
3. Success School Sokoto Sokoto
330
221
551
4. Brilliant Footstep International Schools Sokoto
340
274
614
5. Asmau Girls Islamic College Sokoto
Nil
368
368
6. Khalil Fodio Islamic Academy Sokoto
350
Nil
350
7. Iman International Schools Sokoto
267
200
467
8. Jagaba Internatinal Schools Sokoto
170
89
259
9. Caliphate Tarbiyya Academy Sokoto
203
65
268
10. Khalifa International Schools Sokoto
160
75
235
11. Kings and Queens Schools Sokoto
180
64
244
12. Unity Comprehensive School Sokoto
480
199
679
13. Bravo International Schools Sokoto
220
100
320
14. Zasshash International School Sokoto
155
105
260
15. Marshal International School Sokoto
112
59
171
16. Global Kids School
250
89
339
17. Nady Academy Sokoto
139
65
204
18. Alheri Schools Sokoto
305
111
416
19. Premier College Sokoto
167
65
232
20. Fomwan Schools Sokoto
60
20
80
21. Nakowa Schools Sokoto
256
102
358
22. Federal Staff School Sokoto
222
104
326
23. Cement Schools Sokoto
300
124
424
24. Royal Comprehensive School Sokoto
87
48
135
25. Al-Hudah Schools Sokoto
168
59
227
26. RHoly Family Schools
66
20
86
27. a Minarat Schools Sokoto
200
122
322
28. NNasara Baptist Schools Sokoto
108
69
177
29. SSautul Haqq Schools
96
48
144
30. Eagle View Secondary Schools
120
78
198
Total
5931
3234
9165
th
th
Source: Database Offices of the respective schools (25 August to 30 September, 2020)
62
Appendix III
Research instrument
CAI COUCHING TEST
Section A: Trigonometry
Instructions: Answer all Questions
1. Given that sin =. , find the value of
a. 1 b. 2
c. 4
d. 5
2. In Triangle XYZ, x=2m, y=5m and Z=880, find z.
a. 5.3 b. 2.3 c. 3.3 d. 6.3
3. If tan
a. 1 b. 3
c. 6
d. 7
4. Given that Sin3 =cos2 , find the value of
a. 540
b. 640 c. 740 d. 840
5. In a right angled triangle, one of the angles is 380 what is the value of the other angle
a. 520
b. 620 c.720 d. 820
6. The angles of a triangle are 2x, 3x and 4x, find the values of the angle
a. 300
b. 200 c. 100 d. 10
7. If tan
a. 2 b.1
c. 3
d. 4
8. Express the value of sin600 in surd form
a.
b.
c.
d.
c. 5
d. 7
9. Evaluate
a.
b. 1
10. An Isosceles triangle has one of its angles as 560 find the remaining angles.
a. 420, 420
b. 620, 620
c. 720, 720
d. 820, 820
11. Solve the equation 5cos -1=0
a. 750
b. 760 c. 790 d. 78.50
12. Solve the equation 2sin
a. 750
b. 760 c. 790 d. 300
13. An observer on top of a tower 20m high, views the angle of depression of a point on the
ground level, 30m from the base, as
a. 300
b. 400 c. 500 d.340
14. The angle of elevation of the top of a flagpole from a point on the ground, 50m away from the
foot of the flagpole, is 580. Find the height of the flagpole.
a. 670
b. 870 c. 790 d. 800
15. An aeroplane is 800m above the ground. The angle of elevation from a point P on the ground
is 300. How far is the plane from point P by line of sight?
a. 1600m
b. 800m
c. 300m
d. 400m
63
Section B: Geometry
1. A 3 by 4 rectangle is inscribed at the centre of a circle, what is the circumference of
the circle?
a. 15.7m
b. 31.4m
c. 40.4m
d. 70m
2. The angles of a quadrilateral are x, 2x, 3x and 4x, find x in degrees.
a. 360
b. 780
c. 600
d. 800
3. How many sides have a polygon if the sum of its angles is 1260?
a. 9
b. 10
c. 11
d. 12
4. Calculate the sum of interior angles of a pentagon
a. 540
b. 1080
c. 2160
d. 4320
5. How many sides have a polygon if the sum of its angles is 3240?
a. 30
b. 20
c. 2
d. 22
6. Calculate the area of a circle of radius 7cm
a. 154cm
b. 154cm2
c. 154cm3
d. 154cm4
7. Calculate to the nearest cm the length of an arc subtended at the centre of a circle of
radius 14cm by an angle of 1200.
a. 105
b. 102
c. 104
d. 106
0
8. The exterior angles of a triangle are 112 and 980, what is the value of the third
exterior angle?
a. 130
b. 150
c. 140
d. 160
9. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are y and y, if the opposite angle is 88 0, what
is the exact value of y?
a. 290
b. 460
c. 560
d. 660
10. Calculate the sum of angles of a regular hexagon.
a. 4600
b. 7200
c. 8800
d. 8890
11. Point X and Y are 20km north and 9km east of point O, respectively. What is the
bearing of Y from X, correct to the nearest degree?
a. 240
b. 1560
c. 1500
d. 1600
12. A man leaves his house and travels 21km on a bearing of 0320 and then 45km on a
bearing of 2870. Calculate to the nearest km the distance between the man’s final
position and his house.
a. 34km
b. 45km
c. 64km
d. 46km
13. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point R on the ground level is 60 0.
If the height of the tower is 100m, calculate, correct to one decimal place, the distance
between R and the base of the tower.
a. 50.0
b. 57.7
c. 57.78
d. 57.67
14. The length of a rectangle is twice its breadth, if the perimeter of the rectangle is 60cm,
find the length.
a. 10cm
b. 20cm
c. 30cm
d. 38cm
64
15. Calculate the volume of a cube of length 6cm
a. 36cm2
b. 216cm3
c. 729cm3
d. 343cm3
65