See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297758248
The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Book · December 2014
CITATIONS
READS
0
222
1 author:
Tim Gardiner
Environment Agency UK
175 PUBLICATIONS 1,140 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
sea walls View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Tim Gardiner on 26 September 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
The Natural History of Waveney Forest
|i
ii
The Natural History of
Waveney Forest
Tim Gardiner
MMXIII
| iii
Published by
FORREST TEXT
S n y Nant, Tresaith, Cardigan, Ceredigion SA43 2JG, UK
ISBN: 978-0-9564692-5-0
First published 2013
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Cover picture
Forest Ride near River
Photo: T. Gardiner
Printed & Bound in the United Kingdom by
The Blissett Group
London
Paper from wood grown in sustainable forests
iv
Contents
Acknowledgements
vi
Preface
1
1. Introduction
3
2. The history of Waveney Forest and its current state
7
3. Paradise lost?
11
4. New threats emerge in the 21st century
17
5. Forest plants and their habitats
23
6. An invertebrate paradise
37
7. Vertebrate animals
51
8. The fight is won?
61
Appendix
67
References
73
|v
Acknowledgements
A range of published and unpublished sources were consulted in
the production of this book. I refer the reader to Allard et al.
(2000) for a detailed discussion of the wildlife of the area. A
record of the Norfolk hawker from 2008 was obtained from the
British Dragonfly Society website. Dr Pam Taylor, the Norfolk
Dragonfly Recorder, provided extra records. The Norfolk
Orthoptera Recorder, David Richmond, sent grasshopper records
for the Forest and surrounding area, and Andy Brazil, the Norfolk
Butterfly Recorder, sent additional sightings for the Forest, which
lengthened the species list. I also found the Lowestoft Bird Club
website (www.home/"www.home.clara.net/ammodytes/) a very
useful source of information on the wildlife of Waveney Forest.
Local naturalist, Colin Jacobs, provided the details of many
personal wildlife sightings in the Forest, having recorded there for
many years. Jan Burton’s blog was also a superb source of
information on the wildlife to be found in the Forest.
The Fritton Woods Action Group (Keith Nunn in particular)
was extremely helpful in providing information on the species
present in the Forest, but also in updating the author on the
campaign at differing stages. I am also grateful to Richard Warner
(local historian) for advice on the WWII bunkers, and to
Environment Agency staff, Jackie James and Norman Jubb, for
their help with groundwater matters. Christian Whiting of
Halcrow provided useful information on the flood defence works
on the periphery of the Forest, including the reptiles found on
them. Toby Abrehart gave advice on the habitat requirements of
the narrow-mouthed whorl snail on the Forest edge.
Photographs have been provided for this book by several
individuals and their images are credited where they appear.
Professor Ted Benton, Karen Brown, Roger Hance, Simon
Johnson and Kim Thirlby generously provided photos to illustrate
the diverse range of species found in the Forest.
A final thank you must be extended to my parents, Adrian and
Judith, who have enjoyed numerous walks around the Forest
looking for all sorts of wildlife. My young son Joseph has been a
constant source of inspiration during the study, particularly with
his inquisitive nature during walks around the Forest.
vi
Preface
Waveney Forest in east Norfolk is a large area of coniferous
woodland, interspersed with remnant heathland and bog. The
Forest has been the subject of much interest recently due to
proposals for large-scale gravel extraction. The threat of quarrying
has attracted a huge amount of opposition and renewed effortsto
document the wildlife found in the Forest. Survey work has
revealed that the Forest and the surrounding marshland and
reedbed provide habitat for many legally protected species such as
the Norfolk hawker dragonfly and water vole. The open heathland
is a rare habitat in east Norfolk, as is the birch carr and Sphagnum
bog. Due to its value being widely recognised it appears that the
Forest is safe from quarrying, although future climate change and
unmanaged scrub encroachment are serious issues for the
remaining heathland and bog. Recent felling of a large area of
conifers has given insects and plants of open areas a new lease of
life after several decades surviving under the dense shade of the
planted pines.
Preface | 1
2 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
1
Introduction
Waveney Forest in east Norfolk is a large area (over 100 ha in
size) of coniferous woodland (known locally as Fritton Woods,
Ordnance Survey grid reference: TG 4600) and is extremely
valuable as a recreational facility for local people. There are few
areas of woodland in the Great Yarmouth area so the Forest is an
important wildlife resource. Many people cite the peaceful nature
of the conifer plantation as one of the main reasons for visiting,
while others enjoy the abundant and sometimes secretive wildlife.
On a summer day, the breeze blowing through the pine needles is
a sound few forget. Walking deep into the Forest, the lonely
Lodge seems homely in the winter months, smoke rising gently
from the chimney. The redundant railway line carves its way
through the Forest in an arc, now a sad relic of the days before
motorcars. A wonderfully derelict railway bridge can be found in
the depths of the Forest, crossing a storm water culvert. The lines
of pylons rise above the coniferous canopy; underneath them are
the last remnants of the extensive heathland and bogs of Fritton
Warren. The Warren was situated on the Sandlings, an area of
coastal sands which stretch from Ipswich to Belton.
Along the path to the edge of the woodland, a large expanse of
marsh and reedbed extends out before you, fringing the River
Waveney. William A. Dutt describes a similar panorama from the
Roman ruins of nearby Burgh Castle in his classic book The
Norfolk Broads published in 1906. He writes:
For miles the course of the rivers can be traced by
their bordering windmills, which, with the darksailed wherries, white-winged yachts, and countless
cattle on the marshes, help to make such a scene as
is to be found nowhere else in England.
This pleasant view has changed much in over a century, most
of the windmills now lie redundant, the wherries have been
replaced with motorised boats, but there are still some fantastic
views across the cattle grazed marshes to Reedham, despite the
Sugar Factory spewing forth a seemingly endless column of
smoke. This does little to detract from the open landscape which
stretches for miles and miles in all directions.
It is here you appreciate how flat the landscape can be in this
part of Norfolk. But Waveney Forest is situated on a ridge of sand
Introduction | 3
The Forest Lodge
Photo: T. Gardiner
The redundant railway line
Photo: T. Gardiner
Remnants of the heathland
below the pylons
Photo: T. Gardiner
4 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
and gravel which extends from Burgh Castle to St. Olaves and
beyond. It is this ridge which influences the wildlife which is
found in the Forest. It is also important to remember that Waveney
Forest exists within a landscape of arable fields and grazing
marshes, where favourable wildlife habitats are scarce due to
modern methods of farming leading to a low diversity of habitats
and species. The nearby towns of Gorleston and Great Yarmouth
and villages such as Bradwell have expanded much in recent
years, with associated development of new roads. Therefore, this
urban sprawl is a serious threat to the wild habitats of the Yarmouth area.
The Forest is probably safe from the damaging effects of
agriculture and urban sprawl, although its future conservation is
far from certain. The Forest was identified in 2008 by Norfolk
County Council (NCC) as one of 100 potential sites for future
gravel extraction to provide material for building works in the
area. This provoked an immediate outcry from thousands of people and the fight to save it from destruction began. This battle
launched attempts to quantify the wildlife of the Forest in an effort
to persuade the planners at NCC that its high conservation value
was a significant reason to exclude it from the list of planned
extraction sites.
It is the Forest’s natural and human heritage that I shall focus
on in this book to give a detailed account of what wildlife the
interested naturalist is likely to encounter. I will also attempt to
paint a picture of how the Forest’s wildlife has changed over the
last two centuries, surviving numerous threats to its habitats. It is
not the intention of the book to provide a complete list of all the
species recorded in the Forest, but to introduce the reader to the
general habitats and wildlife they will come across and discuss
pertinent conservation issues. Hopefully this will generate an
appreciation of the Forest’s immense ecological value and the
need to preserve it moving forward in the face of the pressures
from mineral extraction.
Introduction | 5
6 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
2
The history of
Waveney Forest
and its current state
After the last Ice Age (approximately 10,000 years ago), most of
lowland Britain became covered by densely wooded forest. As the
human population grew the need for land to grow food crops
became an issue. To grow crops, large areas of the forest were felled
mainly in the Neolithic (5000-4000 years ago) and late Bronze Age
(3600-3000 years ago). Where the soils were sandy and gravelly,
such as in the Waveney Forest area, open heathland became
established as the nutrients were washed deep into the soil due to
the exposure of the land to the elements. This process led to
impoverished land on which few crops would grow, so heathland
dominated by ling (Calluna vulgaris) (this is its Norse name in East
Anglia, more widely known as heather) and gorse (Ulex europaeus)
began to form, which was mainly suitable for grazing animals.
Areas of heathland may have been burnt, either deliberately to
return nutrients back to the soil and maintain an open landscape free
from invading scrub and woodland, but also by accident. Many
heathland animals (particularly reptiles) are susceptible to heath
fires, so burning may not have been that regular as they would not
have survived to the present day (Rackham 1986). It was this
burning and grazing which kept the lowland heathlands of Britain
from naturally regressing to woodland.
A significant change occurred in the early Middle Ages when
rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were introduced and large
warrens became established, particularly in Breckland in southwest Norfolk. The term free-warren (or more simply warren)
refers to a privilege granted by a sovereign (often a monarch) in
medieval England to one of their subjects, which allowed them
to kill game of certain species in a defined area, often a wood or
small forest. Poachers of game in the warren would be guilty of
the crimes of theft and trespass under common-law. Warrens
were often enclosed to retain game species, with ditches, banks
and fences used to control the animals. The permission to take
game from a warren was limited to certain animals. According to
John Manwood (most cited authority on Forest Law):
The beasts and fouls of Warren are these, the Hare,
the Cony (Rabbit), the Pheasant, and the Partridge.
However, other animals were also considered beasts of the
warren, notably red deer (Cervus elaphus), but also badger
(Meles meles), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and the Eurasian wolf
(Canis lupus lupus).
The history of Waveney Forest and its natural state | 7
So what evidence is there that Waveney Forest was once a
warren? Well the most obvious clue is that Waveney Forest was
formerly known as Fritton Warren and inspection of pre-1900
maps (c. 1884, 1: 2,500 scale) shows that the Warren was open
with relatively few trees. William Dutt refers to “heath and ling”
and “gorse and bramble bushes” (Dutt 1906), on a stretch of
heathland that would appear to be Fritton Warren. From
Suckling (1846), we learn that Henry Caldecot obtained a licence
for free-warren, a market, and a fair, here, and in Belton. This
licence was granted by Henry III, and it appears that Henry
Caldecot had estates in Fritton, Caldecot, and Belton. So it is
clear that warrens in the legal sense have been in existence in the
Waveney Forest area since the reign of Henry III (1207-1272). I
can find no specific reference to Fritton Warren in historical
literature, but it is likely to have been enclosed to keep game
within its boundaries. In the absence of easily obtained
documentary evidence, I can make no definitive statements as to
which species would have been the subject of the hunting rights
on the Warren, but in all likelihood rabbits would have been one
of the animals present.
During World War One (WW1) the Warren was within the
infantry defence scheme for Great Yarmouth and during World
War Two (WWII) it was used by the Royal Navy to unload depth
charges from the railway line. These charges were then stored at
Fritton Decoy. Circa 1943-44 the United States (U.S.) Army
used the Forest as an infantry training ground complete with a
rifle range. The area at the time was not heavily forested and was
still chiefly lowland heathland. The Warren was then passed on
to ownership by the Forestry Commission and the conifers we
now know were planted after WWII.
So as you can see, heathland is not a natural habitat but is
closely linked to the activities of man for its survival. The
importance of lowland heath is further highlighted by the fact
that Britain currently has approximately 57,000 hectares (ha),
which is 20% of the European resource (Farrell 1989).
Unfortunately, it is now man’s interference which threatens this
precious wildlife habitat. The decline in lowland heathland has
been dramatic with an estimated loss of 75% between 1800 and
1983, mainly due to conversion to farmland, afforestation, urban
sprawl and natural succession to woodland (Dolman & Land
1995).
It seems heaths in the Great Yarmouth area suffered a similar
fate to those lost nationally. Charles & James Paget (1834) in
their classic Sketch of the Natural History of Yarmouth described
the local heaths as:
8 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
...little more than a continuous surface of furze (now
known as gorse) and heath, whose interstices are filled
up with the reindeer lichen, and various species of
Hypnum; the soil of which they consist, is, after these
shrubs are cut down, generally found to repay the
expense of cultivation.
This passage sums up the under-valued nature of the heaths of
the time, also suggesting that cultivation would be beneficial.
Sadly as we now know having lost the vast majority of our
heathland, finding a continuous stretch of gorse and ling in the
Yarmouth area is impossible. The Pagets recorded the enclosure of
commons at nearby Corton and Hopton
...for the purpose of cultivation, which is every day
lessening the extent of those (heaths) that remain.
The Sandlings still contain remnants of the heathland to which
the Pagets referred, approximately 1681 ha or 8% of the once
extensive heaths. From 1932-1983 losses of Sandling heaths were
high, with 83% disappearing due mainly to afforestation (30%)
and agriculture (30%). There are 42 Sandling heaths remaining so
protection of these sites and their wildlife is of paramount
importance. Therefore, it seems the heathland of Waveney Forest
has survived the worst ravages of the plough. That it remains at all
is probably due to its historic use as a warren, probably with large
rabbit populations, which controlled the growth of scrub and
woodland that threatens this rare habitat.
The history of Waveney Forest and its natural state | 9
Map of Waveney Forest in 1938
10 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
3
Paradise lost?
Unfortunately, despite surviving conversion to arable farmland,
the Warren was planted with conifers (mainly pines) after WWII,
and the band of heathland that ran from Belton to St. Olaves was
largely destroyed. A large natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita)
population was present on the Warren until the 1960s (Trevor
Beebee pers. comm.); presumably it disappeared as a result of the
habitat destruction arising from large-scale conifer planting. The
presence of such a rare amphibian illustrates just how extensive
the heathland of Fritton Warren must have been in former times.
Inspection of aerial photographs taken in the 1940-47 period
(www.2.getmapping.com) shows that Fritton Warren was relatively
open, with little tree cover, during WWII (see Map opposite).
Online Ordnance Survey (OS) mapping (www.oldmapsonline.org/)
also illustrates how the vegetation of the Warren has dramatically
changed since 1942. In the 1940s small areas of deciduous and
mixed (deciduous and conifers) woodland were present on the
Warren. Skeleton Wood (1 ha) and the Staith Belts (3 ha), on the
northern boundary of the Warren were deciduous woodland
composed of native tree species such as birch and rowan (Sorbus
aucuparia). The largest area of woodland (23 ha) was to the south
of the Warren adjacent to what is now the A143. From the OS map
it appears that some of this woodland was a mixture of native tree
species and conifers. Calculation of the area of woodland in 1942
based on the old mapping indicates an approximate area of tree
Forest ride on the edge of
Skeleton Wood
Photo: T. Gardiner
Paradise lost? | 11
cover of 30 ha (c. 23% of Forest/Warren area). Taking into
account recent felling of 13 ha in the Forest, the current area of
woodland is estimated at 111 ha (or 85% of Forest/Warren area).
Therefore, open heathland and grassland is a rare commodity
since the afforestation of the post WWII period.
A classic extract from William Dutt’s tome describes the
heathland of Fritton Warren with some interest:
But a mile or so below the bridge (St. Olaves), near an
old windmill and a marsh cottage occupied by the
millman, I often leave the river for a while and ramble
across a stretch of heathland bordering the green road
from Belton to Herringfleet. There, where adders
sometimes lurk amid the tall, waving bracken, pretty
little sand-lizards bask on the footpaths, and that
curious amphibian, the natterjack, or running toad,
may be seen running like a mouse among the heath
and ling (Dutt 1906).
This passage paints an evocative picture of the heathland,
with natterjack toads found among the ling, adders (Vipera
berus) lurking amid the bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), and
perhaps surprisingly sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) basking on the
footpaths. There have been no records of this rare reptile from
the heathlands of Fritton, although there are old sightings of sand
lizards from East Ruston Common in 1934 and from the
Sizewell area in 1960 reported on the National Biodiversity
Network (NBN) Gateway online database. There is some debate
about the historic range of the sand lizard in the UK and most of
Norfolk is generally accepted to be outside of the presumed past
range (Moulton & Corbett 1999); although some believe it could
have been present as a native species on many East Anglian
heathlands, not just those in the Brecks. Perhaps this tantalising
and casual mention of sand lizards by William Dutt suggests that
east Norfolk was part of the former range of this protected
species, certainly it seems as though the dry, sandy heathland
found on the Warren would have formed a favourable habitat
for them.
The bogs of Fritton Warren may well have been home to the
bog orchid (Hammarbya paludosa), which was apparently well
known in its Ashby, Belton and Herringfleet stronghold
(Sanford 1991). It was found ‘abundantly’ in Ashby Warren by
Rev. G.R. Leathes in 1834, although it is probable that extensive
conifer planting on Ashby Warren, as at Fritton, led to its loss.
The Pagets noted three species of Sphagnum as common in
Belton and in other bogs in the area (which may have included
those of Fritton Warren), crucially important for species such as
the bog orchid which is associated with Sphagnum moss
(Sanford 1991).
12 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Sadly, the halcyon days of the heathland and bogs so vividly
documented by the Pagets and Dutt in the 1800s and early 1900s,
are no more. The natterjacks have gone, and so to have the bog
orchids and sand lizards, only the adders remain in any number.
Despite the obvious losses due to the widespread planting of
conifers, there is still reason to treasure the wildlife of Waveney
Forest. Fortunately, some heathland was left unplanted and
survives as wide rides in the Forest (presumably as firebreaks and
for easy access to trees by foresters). A quite large area of ling and
bell heather (Erica cinerea) remains and is good for reptiles such
as the adder and common lizard (Zootoca vivipara). The high
wildlife value of the Forest has been recognised through
designation of areas as County Wildlife Sites (CWS). A CWS is:
...a discrete area of land which is considered to be
of significance for its wildlife features in at least a
District/Borough/Unitary Authority context;
although not protected by legislation, their importance is
recognised by local authorities when considering any relevant
planning applications. Therefore, the Forest has a modicum of
protection from development.
The open heathland areas in Waveney Forest and the remains
of Fritton Warren South are designated as CWS, the former
mainly for its stands of ling and bell heather. Nearby
Belton
Common, which is situated approximately 2 km to the north-east
of Waveney Forest, also has remnant heath and is connected to the
Forest by green corridors such as Sandy Lane and a dismantled
railway line. A further heathland CWS is situated in Belton
(Howard’s Common); therefore, the heathland in the Waveney
Forest area forms a mosaic across several local sites. A large area
of Waveney Forest lies within the Broads Authority’s Executive
Area, and there are extensive reedbeds fringing the Forest where
it meets the River Waveney. The area covered by this book
includes all ground covered by conifer planting (and Fritton
Warren South CWS), but also the fringing marsh (Fritton
Marshes), reedbed and carr up to the River Waveney on the
northern and western edges of the Forest. Where reedbed fringes
the river it is known as rond (with common reed (Phragmites
australis) dominant), and this can be up to 220 m wide in places
(Halcrow 2010). The Waveney has been significantly modified
over the years, having been widened and deepened as an aid to
navigation (Halcrow 2010). Aquatic wildlife of the River is
excluded from this book (e.g. fish), but species associated with
banks and riparian habitats are included.
The area of Waveney Forest (known locally as Fritton Woods)
is approximately 130 ha; however, only 6 ha (4.6% of site) of
heathland remain, most of it is largely unmanaged, but occasional
mowing in places restricts the development of scrub. Due to this
Paradise lost? | 13
Bell heather (Erica cinerea)
Photo: T. Gardiner
Open heathland Belton Common
Photo: T. Gardiner
Fritton Marshes
Photo: T. Gardiner
14 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
mowing there is ling in its pioneer (3-10 years old), building (7-13
years), mature (12-30 years) and degenerate (over 30 years)
phases (Webb 1986), interspersed with dry (with bell heather) and
wet heath (with purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea)). There is
plentiful bare earth despite the encroachment of silver birch
(Betula pendula) scrub. Fringing the Forest is 6 ha of reedbed and
Fritton Marshes (77 ha) which provide buffering habitats for the
Forest. However, only 20 ha of Fritton Marshes remain as grazing
pasture, the rest has been ploughed up for conversion to arable
cropping (57 ha). This arable conversion will have reduced the
wildlife value of Fritton Marshes severely, a similar fate to
grazing marshes throughout the UK since WWII.
The Fritton novelist, James Blyth (1864-1933), found inspiration
in the marshes and reedbeds of Fritton Marshes, which were the
backdrop to many of his novels. In an excellent descriptive
passage from Rubina (1908), he talks of the marshes in an almost
supernatural sense:
The dam wound its silver way along the deep shadow
of the pollard willows. Beyond this border of obscurity
the mighty marsh stretched vast, brilliant, but
whispering and mystic. The dykes shone beneath the
moon, but under the cover of their walls lurked
shadows where the spirits of the marsh might lay in wait
for the unwary, and where hob-o’-lanterns might nestle
till his time came to flash out in dancing radiance to
the terror of more superstitious countryfolk.
In this extract two things stand out from a modern viewpoint.
Firstly, the vast, bleak expanse of the marshes was apparent to
Blyth, a view which it is hard not to concur with when looking
from the Forest across the flat landscape of Fritton Marshes and
beyond to Cantley, Haddiscoe and Reedham on a winter’s day.
Sadly, the grassy marshland is now much reduced due to its
conversion to arable cropping, limiting the wildlife value
immensely. Blyth observed that “the cries of the lapwings wailed
aloft” in The Smallholder. He would be pleased to note that the
remaining marshland in the area is still home to overwintering
lapwings (Vanellus vanellus).
Secondly it is clear that the flood defence embankments and
their soke dykes were a prominent feature in Victorian times,
Blyth evocatively mentioning the moon shining on the surface of
the dykes, and the dam and walls obviously referring to the raised
earthen flood defence banks protecting the low-lying land of
Fritton Marshes from tidal inundation. Despite the decline of the
grazing marsh, the flood defences fringing the Forest remain one
of the area’s most important habitats for plants, reptiles and
invertebrates (Halcrow 2010).
Paradise lost? | 15
Three old drainage mills can be found within 1 km of the
Forest lining the modern flood defence embankments: Caldecott
Drainage Mill (grid reference: TG 464021), Fritton Marsh
Drainage Mill (TM 450997) and St. Olaves Drainage Mill (TM
456997). They form quite distinctive landmarks when viewed
from the Forest, particularly Fritton Marsh which has a black
tarred tower and a corrugated iron pitched roof. This is the mill
probably referred to by Dutt (1906) as it is roughly 1 km from St.
Olaves Bridge. St. Olaves still has the sails intact and is a small,
timber boarded structure which is occasionally open to the public.
All three mills played an important role in the drainage of Belton
and Fritton Marshes in past times. Nowadays, pumped sluices are
used to drain the arable and grazing land to prevent freshwater
flooding occurring.
16 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
4
New threats emerge
in the 21st century
Despite all that Fritton Warren has endured over the last two
centuries, somehow a little of its valuable heathland and bog
survived to the turn of the Millennium, much degraded by conifer
planting and scrub encroachment, but still there nonetheless. The
wildlife paradise of Fritton Warren had given way to the relatively
barren landscape of conifers now known as Waveney Forest.
Something of real value had been denuded to such an extent that
little of its original flora and fauna remained. Surely there was
nothing more that man could do to destroy the special meaning of
the Forest in the early 21st century?
Mineral extraction
Waveney Forest is privately owned having been sold by the
Forestry Commission (FC) some years ago. It was a complete
surprise in 2008 when the Forest was identified by Norfolk
County Council (NCC) as one of a hundred potential sites for
future gravel extraction to provide material for building works in
the area. This sparked anger among locals and the general public
alike which must have been totally unexpected by the planners at
NCC. It was particularly pleasing to see such a response, proving
that the public’s appreciation of the importance of Waveney Forest
was very strong indeed. The degree of local (and not so local)
opposition to the plans was evidenced by over 25,000 people
signing a petition against the proposals. The Fritton Woods
Action Group was formed and led by Fritton with St.
Olaves Parish Council. The group set about raising the profile of
the Forest in the local press and the issue even appeared on the
BBC’s Look East news programme.
Climate change
Aside from the potentially devastating impact of gravel extraction,
a more long-term cause for concern may be climate change.
Climate models predict that climate change may lead to a 35-50%
decrease in summer precipitation for low and high carbon
emissions scenarios respectively in eastern England, with a
predicted increase in winter precipitation of 20-30% (Essex
County Council 2002). There will therefore be greater differences
between wet winters and dry summers in eastern England, with a
predicted 10% decrease in summer relative humidity by 2080
New threats emerge in the 21st century | 17
(ECC 2002). This change in our climate, if the predictions prove
to be correct, could have a devastating impact on the wetlands and
their wildlife in the Forest.
Wetlands may suffer from droughts, with dry summers leading
to severe soil moisture deficits. Wetlands such as Sphagnum bogs
are in decline in East Anglia, often due to encroachment by scrub
and woodland, from a lack of active conservation management.
Once trees become established on the bogs and wet heathland
which are found in the Forest, they will absorb large quantities of
water from the soil, leading to the loss of Sphagnum mosses and
other wetland plants. Droughts may also make wetlands more
susceptible to encroachment of trees from drier habitats (e.g. silver
birch), once established these woody species contribute to the
problem further due to their large water intake (Gardiner 2010b).
If summer droughts become more frequent (summer precipitation may decrease by 35% under low carbon emissions scenario;
ECC 2002), then the common green grasshopper (Omocestus
viridulus), which is a localised grasshopper of mid to late summer
found in the Forest, may suffer population loss via increased
desiccation (Gardiner 2010b). Its wet heathland habitats may also
dry out causing further stress to this grasshopper, but also to the
Sphagnum bogs of the Forest.
But climate change is not all bad news for the Forest. Roesel’s
bush-cricket (Metrioptera roeselii) was first recorded in Norfolk
in 1997 (Richmond 2001) after a national range expansion since
the 1970s. Its expansion in range has in part been due to warmer
summers and increased availability of tall grassland on farmland
due to the introduction of environmental schemes promoting the
creation of grass field margins around cropped fields. Land
set-aside from cropping has also aided its expansion in range
from the south-east coast of Essex and Kent (Gardiner 2009a).
Similar to the range-expanding long-winged conehead
(Conocephalus discolor), this bush-cricket is currently localised
in the Great Yarmouth Borough (Gardiner 2013), occurring in
tall grassland habitats on roadside verges and around the edges
of arable fields. It also occurs by the river at Waveney Forest and
in dry heathland at Belton Common. It is likely that Roesel’s
bush-cricket will become more frequent in Great Yarmouth
Borough and Waveney Forest in the coming years, particularly
if the pattern of warmer springs and summers since the Millennium continues. The occurrence of the macropterous form (form
diluta) may be crucial in the future range expansion of this bushcricket (Gardiner 2009b).
Assuming that the stripe-winged grasshopper (Stenobothrus
lineatus), which was first recorded in the Forest in 2011 (Gardiner
2012a), has appeared due to climate change, the overall list of
Orthoptera recorded is likely to have been enhanced by at least
18 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Birch woodland
Photo: T. Gardiner
three species (long-winged conehead, Roesel’s bush-cricket and
stripe-winged grasshopper) in recent years. Other species such as
the alien (non-native) southern oak bush-cricket (Meconema
meridionale) are moving quickly north in East Anglia (Gardiner
et al. 2009), so in a few years’ time, entomologists may have a
further species to record in the Forest.
Lastly, the Forest presents an interesting climate change paradox. Trees, including conifers of forestry plantations, may be a
‘carbon’ sink, removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and storing it as carbon in wood, a process known as
‘carbon sequestration’ (Lindsay 2010). Currently, England has
little woodland cover, and is one of the least wooded countries in
Europe. Despite the lack of woodland in England, the area has
increased from less than 5% cover in the 1870s to 10% (1.3 million
ha) currently (Independent Panel on Forestry 2012). Therefore,
increasing the area of woodland could help to tackle climate
change in the future (Independent Panel on Forestry 2012).
New threats emerge in the 21st century | 19
But increasing the area of woodland also risks damaging rare
wildlife habitats if trees are planted on wet heathland and
Sphagnum bogs, as has happened in Waveney Forest since WWII.
Peaty bogs dominated by Sphagnum mosses are also important
carbon sinks, storing a lot of carbon in their living biomass. For
example, a thin layer of Sphagnum moss (15 cm) can store as
much carbon (50 tonnes of carbon per ha) as a 50-year old conifer
plantation (Lindsay 2010). Therefore, a balance needs to be found
between conserving the wet heathland and bogs in the Forest and
maintaining woodland cover on the site.
Invasive alien species
Non-native (alien) species are those which have established themselves outside their natural range either past or present, usually
with the assistance of man, either as an intentional act but often
they have been introduced unintentionally. Non-native species
have been introduced to Britain over thousands of years; sometimes this has been carried out deliberately for social or economic
reasons such as forestry or agriculture. However, introductions
can occur by accident; for example, Dutch elm disease which was
introduced in imported timber. The introduction of non-native
species is rising quickly due to the increase in trade, transport,
travel and tourism across the world. An audit of non-native
species in England in 2005 found 2721 species in the wild (Hill
et al. 2005). While most of these species are harmless or may be
beneficial, a small proportion can be invasive and have significant
environmental implications.
Invasive non-native species have an impact on biodiversity by
displacing or preying upon native species, by destroying habitats,
or by introducing new diseases or parasites. The most direct
implications are the threats of predation on, and competition with,
native species. For example, water voles (Arvicola amphibius)
have declined as a direct result of predation from non-native mink
(Neovison vison), both species are present in the Waveney Forest
area so it is likely that predation by the latter is a significant threat
to the former. Mink are now being actively trapped on the
Waveney, which should lead to the return of water voles to their
former haunts.
Turning to terrestrial invasive plants, rhododendron
(Rhododendron ponticum), although attractive in flower, can be
found in the Forest and could dominate the understorey where it
appears leaving little room for native shrubs or wildflowers.
Efforts to control rhododendron are being undertaken at nearby
Fritton Lake so that it does not take over the bankside vegetation.
A careful eye should be kept on any rhododendron bushes to make
sure that the flora of the woodlands is not being degraded due to
an abundance of this plant. Methods of rhododendron control are
20 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
many and varied but it seems that stem treatment may produce the
best results. This involves slashing the stem low down with an axe
or bill-hook and then squirting glyphosate (Roundup) at 25%
concentration (75% water) into the created wound. After some
time, the bush should die standing and can be easily removed or
burnt if necessary.
The harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis) was first recorded
in Britain in 2004. It is a native of eastern Asia being found from
central Siberia to the Pacific coast. The harlequin has also been
introduced to countries such as France and Germany as a biological
control agent for aphids and scale infestations. It probably arrived
in Britain by a number of routes, for example, some may have
flown the channel, while others may have been imported on flowers
from Europe. Harlequins have strong dispersal capabilities and can
be found in coniferous woodland such as that present in Waveney
Forest. The main concern is their predation of the larvae, eggs,
and pupae of our native ladybirds, of which there are 46 species
(Roy et al. 2011). In North America, where it was introduced in
1988, it is worryingly the most common ladybird now. Particularly
at threat from predation in Waveney Forest may be the 7-spot
ladybird (Coccinella septempunctata). Harlequins are also more
effective aphid predators than 7-spot ladybirds and so easily
out-compete them. So as you can see invasive species such as
the harlequin ladybird could change the ecology of the Forest
substantially over the next century. We must hope that an effective method of control is found to combat the spread of this
ladybird.
New threats emerge in the 21st century | 21
22 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
5
Forest plants
and their habitats
The plant communities of the Forest cannot be discussed without
reference to the key issues facing many species. The over-riding
factor controlling the distribution of plants in the Forest is the
dense shade cast by the planted conifers, Corsican pine (Pinus
nigra var. maritima) and to a lesser extent Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris). These conifers were planted after WWII with a view
to producing an economic return from the heathland of Fritton
Warren. This post-war rush to plant up marginal land must have
had a devastating impact upon the heathland vegetation present.
As the conifers steadily grew tall to form a dense tree canopy,
almost all light would have been extinguished to the Forest floor,
eradicating a large swathe of heathland vegetation. The
woodland floor under this mature closed canopy (indeed the
felling of the planted conifers is now beginning after the best
part of 60 years) is largely now impoverished of all its heathland
plants, with only scattered patches of ling and bell heather
remaining where there are rides and sunlight penetrates to the
ground. Bracken or bramble (Rubus fruitcosus agg.) now carpets
much of the forest floor allowing little space for other plants to
co-exist.
Heathland is a habitat of the acidic, sandy soils of the Forest.
Dry acid grassland and heathland occur in the open areas between
the trees, particularly prevalent on the well-drained soils under the
pylons which run through the site. Here the main heathland
species are bell heather and ling, with occasional patches of heath
bedstraw (Galium saxatile), sheep’s sorrel (Rumex acetosella),
tormentil (Potentilla erecta) (one small patch by the Lodge),
wood sage (Teucrium scorodonia) and tufts of wavy hair-grass
(Deschampsia flexuosa). Where the soil is moist there is wetter
heathland with purple moor-grass dominant and occasional
patches of cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix) which is relatively
rare in the Forest. These plants are indicative of wet heathland in
Norfolk (Hornby 1976). One plant of black knapweed (Centaurea
nigra) was seen near the Lodge, although the species has been
recorded more plentifully on the disused railway line where it runs
between the Forest and Belton Common.
There is also a fairly large area of carr (wet) woodland
(roughly 7 ha in extent) to the west of the Forest (grid reference
TG 457003) at the base of the sand and gravel ridge. The carr
woodland and bog is intersected by numerous drainage ditches
Forest plants and their habitats | 23
The carr woodland and
Sphagnum bog
Photo: T. Gardiner
(presumably it was once grazed), full of water even in late
summer. The carr grades into open reed fen on the edge of the
Forest, before disappearing into arable farmland bordering the
River Waveney to the west. This complex mixture of bog and
carr is perhaps the Forest’s most important botanical feature. It
will have been the Sphagnum bogs of Ashby and Fritton Warrens
which were home to the extinct bog orchid (Sanford 1991). But
Sphagnum bog is of value in its own right, particularly in eastern
England where rainfall is low and relatively few sites, except in
areas such as Waveney Forest, have suitable geology.
It is useful to compare the distribution of bog and carr with
the underlying geology and soil type. It seems that the last
glaciation deposited the sand and gravel which now forms the
Waveney Forest Ridge. On the low-lying periphery of the high
ground (the Ridge is only 10 m Above Ordnance Datum AOD)
peat has formed due to the water-logged anaerobic conditions
leading to ineffective decay of organic material. Talking to
hydrology specialists at the Environment Agency (EA), I
discovered the fascinating role of the sand and gravel in the
formation and persistence of the carr, acid bog, and reed fen.
24 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
The role of the sand and gravel in
the formation and persistence of
the carr, acid bog, and reed fen
It seems that rainfall falling on top of the sand and gravel
Ridge percolates through the freely draining substrate before
reaching the water table at the base of the Ridge, at this stage the
rainwater is unable to freely disperse laterally through the soil
and may even build up in the Ridge, so much so that the
groundwater at the base of the Ridge is artificially high. This
high water table in turn has led to the formation of the peat on
which Waveney Forest’s carr and bog has established over many
thousands of years. The results of a National Vegetation
Classification (NVC) survey of the wetland habitat discovered
that the carr was closely matched to W4 woodland (downy
birch – purple moor-grass community), due to the high
frequency of downy birch (Betula pubescens) and tussocks of
purple moor-grass. The W4 woodland also had a high frequency
of blunt-leaved bog moss (Sphagnum palustre) giving it a
hummocky look typical of acid bogs. It appears that W4
woodland is widespread but localised in Britain, and is
particularly scarce in the drier east of England (Rodwell 1991).
If large-scale gravel removal were to take place in Waveney
Forest it would almost certainly affect the hydrology of the W4
woodland, possibly leading to lower groundwater levels as the
rainfall no longer attenuates in the gravel ridge (e.g. it may run
straight off into the River Waveney or nearby Blocka Run
causing flooding).
To further understand the impact of gravel ridges on the
ecology of the area, two additional sites were visited to
undertake NVC surveys. The first was S26 tall-herb fen
(common reed – common nettle community), indicative of the
peaty ground fringing the southern and western edge of the
Forest; TM 458999). This unmanaged herb-fen, despite a
dominance of common reed and common nettle (Urtica dioica),
has species indicative of the habitat such as hemp agrimony
Forest plants and their habitats | 25
Cut reed stacked at forest edge
Photo: T. Gardiner
(Eupatorium cannabinum), wild angelica (Angelica sylvestris),
yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus) and yellow loosestrife
(Lysimachia vulgaris). The presence of these plants suggests a
more base-rich (alkaline) status for the fen (Hornby 1976), than
is found on the wet heathland on top of the Ridge. Goat willow
(Salix caprea) has encroached on the fen in places as has
bramble scrub due to the lack of active habitat management.
Fringing the edge of the Forest, two Nationally Scarce plants,
marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis) and marsh sow-thistle
(Sonchus palustris), can be found together in some abundance.
These plants are extremely valuable members of the Forest’s
flora and should be protected from harmful activities. Extensive
Pioneer plant community on ground
disturbed by logging
Photo: T. Gardiner
26 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
reed cutting takes place on an annual basis in the rond along the
River Waveney near the Forest (Halcrow 2010). Often the cut
reeds can be seen stacked up in bundles in winter by the hut found
on the path down to the Staith.
If you travel eastwards from Waveney Forest you come
across Fritton Decoy (or Fritton Lake as it is otherwise known)
and Ashby Ridge. Once again, the low-lying peaty ground to the
east of Ashby Ridge reveals more carr (TG 497008), this time
similar to the W6 community (alder Alnus glutinosa – common
nettle) identified during the NVC process. This wet woodland
was completely different to the Waveney Forest W4 community
in that the understorey had herb species indicative of base-rich
wetlands such as wild angelica and yellow flag iris. The geology
and hydrology of the area are uniquely interwoven and could be
seriously impacted by the large-scale extraction of gravel, with
severe damage to the wet woodlands and fens highly likely. Any
change to the geology (e.g. disturbance of gravel ridges) could
be catastrophic, possibly leading to irreversible losses of
important wetland habitats. Sphagnum bogs are now not as
common as in the Pagets’ day due to drainage and conifer
planting, but at least one Sphagnum species (palustre) can still
be recorded in Waveney Forest, compared with the three species
noted by the Pagets for the Belton area.
Outside of gravel extraction and the dense shade of the
conifers, the next most important threat to the flora of the Forest
is from the natural procession of succession. Most ground if left
bare of all vegetation will gradually pass through several stages
of succession, the plants at each stage modifying the
environmental conditions creating suitable habitats for plant
species of the next stage. A simplified outline of the differing
stages of succession (in sequential order) for the Forest’s open
habitats (excluding those in the dense shade of the conifer
canopy) would seem to be as follows:
Stages of succession
Bare earth/pioneer species > Grassland/heath > Scrub > Woodland (climax)
Plants
Sheep’s sorrel/lichens
>
Heathers
>
Bramble
>
Birch
Forest plants and their habitats | 27
After disturbance of the vegetation cover, perhaps by
churning up of the soil during tree felling operations using
heavy machinery, large areas of bare ground will be
established. The pioneer plant species present in this the
earliest stage of succession are often annuals or low-growing
ones (in the latter case mosses, lichens and sheep’s sorrel).
Mosses commonly found in Waveney Forest include
Polytrichum commune and Hypnum jutlandicum. A mosaic of
mossy ground with patches of bare earth can be found on the
sloping sides of the old railway embankments which cut
through the shade of the Forest. Trampling by horses and
walkers also holds vegetation communities in their pioneer
stages and prevents succession to mature heathland and
eventually woodland. The influence of the wear and tear caused
by walkers’ feet should not be underestimated in a Forest where
management of vegetation to control development of scrub and
woodland communities is rarely undertaken as a deliberate act.
In July 2012, a young person on a scrambling motorbike
was observed roaring along the Forest’s paths. Despite being
a loud nuisance to walkers and frightening for dogs, infrequent
motorbike scrambling may actually create the patches of bare
earth and soil disturbance required by annual plant species of
the pioneer heathland communities. It may also provide the
bare earth needed by basking insects such as grasshoppers.
If left unmanaged (e.g. not mown or grazed by rabbits or
sheep/cattle) open mossy habitat will gradually colonise with
bell heather and ling on dry ground, or with cross-leaved heath
on wetter soils. Perennial grasses will begin to establish, the
fine-leaved common bent (Agrostis capillaris) or sheep’s
fescue (Festuca ovina) on drier soils, or the taller and more
aggressive purple moor-grass on peaty ground. Where left
unmanaged, a quite dense thatch can establish in purple moorgrass swards, smothering all of the lower growing plant species
and leading to almost continuous ground cover of this grass.
If left unmanaged bracken can invade and dominate large
areas of ground, or woody species will start to appear. Bramble
scrub can also become established alongside trees such as
aspen (Populus tremula), rowan, sessile oak (Querus petraea)
and silver birch. These native tree species (as opposed to the
introduced conifers) would then form natural woodland over
time, often with shrubs such as broom (Cytisus scoparius), dog
rose (Rosa canina agg.), elder (Sambucus nigra) and gorse, the
latter a particular feature of heathland on acid soils.
The decimation of the British rabbit population by
myxomatosis in the 1950s has led to the loss of much heathland,
as their high numbers were keeping scrub encroachment in
check in the absence of habitat management. The open heathland
28 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
left unplanted with conifers has undoubtedly suffered from scrub
and woodland encroachment due to the reduction in rabbit
numbers in the 20th century.
These woodland habitats can be particularly important for
fungi, particularly where dead wood is not tidied up. A notable
fungus of autumn is the colourful fly agaric (Amanita muscaria),
a species which is closely associated with birch trees. The birch
polypore (Piptoporus betulinus) is often found on living and
dead birch trees and is another easily identified species. Slippery
Jack (Suillus luteus) is only found among coniferous trees such
as Scots pine. It is not unusual to find more than 20 species of
fungi during a foray through the Forest.
Although woodland has much value for wildlife, including
fungi and saproxylic insects of dead wood, if left to develop
unmanaged it may lead to the complete loss of dry and wet
heathland. This is most visibly demonstrated for the strips of
heathland which occur underneath the pylons that run through
the Forest. These strips of heathland are now heavily encroached
upon by birch, as this tree matures it will shade out the
underlying bell heather and ling, as well as the purple moorgrass and rare Sphagnum bog habitats. Only periodic cutting of
this woody growth (by the power company who maintain the
cables and pylons) is holding it in check underneath the pylons.
This cutting decimates the birch and bramble scrub, but allows
the heathland to recover, until inevitably the woodland canopy
closes over again as part of the natural process of succession.
In recent years some of the heathland and acid grassland of
Waveney Forest, has become increasingly overgrown. There is
also significant birch encroachment on the heathland in the rides
and this must surely threaten its long-term survival. It would be
much better to set about restoring these areas to their former
glory through scrub removal and cutting back of the bushes
rather than the clearance of the site for gravel extraction.
Ironically, the felling of large areas of conifers may allow
heathland to re-establish, at least in the short-term (for the first
10 or so years after felling) until pines are replanted and the
canopy casts a dense shade once again. A 20 acre area
(approximately 8 ha in new money) of conifers was felled
during the winter of 2010/11 to harvest the softwood timber,
providing an interesting opportunity to see how the flora would
respond to the opening up of the canopy. According to Penistan
(1976) areas of felled conifers can support over 50 species of
flowering plant (excluding grasses).
It was a pleasant surprise to see that in the felled plot in
summer 2011 and 2012, the flora was responding quite nicely,
with small patches of ling, sheep’s sorrel and plenty of bracken
fronds appearing to like the warm and sunny conditions
Forest plants and their habitats | 29
produced by the clear felling of such a large swathe of conifers.
It appears that some of the original heathland plants (as the
Forest was planted on the heathland of Fritton Warren in the
1950s) can persist in the seed bank for several decades, biding
their time, waiting for the sunlight to flood in to allow their
reappearance. No doubt the heavy forestry machinery used
churned up the soil causing germination of the long dormant
seeds of heathland species. Apparently, ling seed can lie dormant
in the soil for at least 60 years. Therefore, this tree felling, far
from having a devastating impact on the ecology of the site, may
actually be a good method of encouraging the original heathland
flora to re-establish. I recorded 31 flowering plant species in the
felled area in the Forest, which compares favourably with
Penistan’s guide of 50 species in clear fells. Undoubtedly, the
vigorous growth of bracken after felling has reduced the number
of plant species slightly.
A second area of 13 acres (5 ha) was felled over winter
2012/13, this time nearer the River Waveney. It has already been
replanted but plenty of ground has been left unplanted along the
rides and paths as I suggested to the Forestry Commission. This
should ensure that as the trees mature the rides will still be quite
open without heavy shade. Approximately 10 m has been left
unplanted on either side of some of the rides. On a survey of the
felled area in 2013, 25 flowering plant species were recorded,
less than the original clear felled plot and substantially fewer
than Penistan’s 50 species. This plot appeared less botanically
diverse with a scarcity of ling. However, large patches of
climbing corydalis (Ceratocapnos claviculata) and heath
bedstraw were noted, species absent from the original clear fell.
A statistical comparison of the flora can be made between the
two clear fell areas using Sørensen’s Similarity Index. The Index
allows the similarity of the vegetation species composition to be
compared between two sites, in this case the clear fell areas. The
Index uses measures of the total number of flowering plant
species counted in each area and the species both plots have in
common to calculate a percentage Index value. An Index value
of 100% means that the plant species composition of the two
plots is exactly the same (e.g. every species counted in one plot
is in the other one), whereas, a value of 0% indicates complete
dissimilarity between samples (no species in common). In the
case of the clear fell areas, the larger one (8 ha) had 31 flowering
plant species recorded during an hour’s survey, compared to 25
species in the second plot (5 ha). This would seem to suggest that
the smaller clear fell plot had a lower number of plant species
present, in accordance with the ecological theory that larger
habitats have more species, but also that clear fell areas take time
to acquire species as the smaller plot had only just been felled the
30 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
winter before. A total of 39 flowering plant species were
recorded for both areas combined, of which only 17 (c. 44%)
were recorded in both clear fell plots. The Similarity Index value
calculated for both clear fell plots was 61%, suggesting a
reasonable level of similarity in the plant species found
(remember 100% is complete similarity, 0% total dissimilarity),
but that they were far from identical in terms of the flowers
recorded.
Having determined that the flora of both clear fell areas was
relatively different (only 17 species common to both plots), the
reasons for this can only be guessed at. It is likely that the smaller
the clear fell plot, the fewer flowering plant species it can hold.
The difference in the pre-forestry land use of both areas could also
be a key factor in determining which plants return after decades
of heavy shade. What is certain is that the flora of the clear fell
plots is likely to vary depending on their location in the Forest.
The isolation of the smaller plot near the river from the larger one
adjacent to the pylons means that it will be difficult for scarce,
sedentary insects such as the mottled grasshopper (Myrmeleotettix
maculatus) to colonise the former from the latter due to the lack
of open corridors connecting the two plots.
Surveys of an area where logs were stored after felling
revealed an interesting flora of disturbed ground. The logs had
been removed and the resultant bare earth and wheel ruts
presented a botanical niche for plants of disturbed ground such
as common cudweed (Filago vulgaris), field madder (Sherardia
arvensis), pineapple mayweed (Matricaria matricarioides) and
scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis). These plants would
probably not have been recorded without the significant
disturbance to the soil and the creation of early successional
pioneer vegetation. The area also had plenty of mosses, rushes
and sheep’s sorrel. Several of the plants recorded (e.g. field
madder and scarlet pimpernel) are also found on arable
farmland, but more rarely so nowadays as these ‘weeds’ have
been eradicated from the fields by the war waged on our
agricultural flora since WWII, mainly driven by the widespread
usage of herbicides to cleanse crops. In places such as Waveney
Forest, these arable weeds should be safe from the dangers of
intensive agriculture. It might also be the case that some of the
former heathland of the Warren was ploughed and cropped
centuries ago and the ‘weedy’ seedbank still persists, with
annual plants ready to germinate in response to the significant
soil disturbance associated with felling.
The final important botanical habitats to mention are the
extensive reedbed (rond) and marshes (known as Fritton
Marshes) which fringe the Forest where it meets the River
Waveney. Dutt (1906) states that:
Forest plants and their habitats | 31
River Waveney
Photo: T. Gardiner
Below:
Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis)
Photo: T. Gardiner
Below right:
Sea barley (Hordeum marinum)
Photo: T. Gardiner
The four or five miles of river between Burgh Castle
and St. Olave's Bridge call for no description. They
are bordered by marshes like those through which
the Yare flows between Reedham and Breydon, and
only botanists in search of marsh orchids, rare
sedges, and other plants that " partake the nature of
their fenny bed," care to land and explore the levels
lying beyond the river walls.
The summary dismissal of the botanically important marshes
which would have fringed the Forest as commonplace, seems an
envious state of affairs these days given the massive decline
suffered by our wetland flora since WWII due to government
subsidised agricultural ‘improvements’ such as chemical fertiliser
inputs used to enhance grass yields leading to nutrient rich swards
dominated by a few grass species of little conservation value.
32 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Unsure of the “marsh orchids” to which Dutt referred, I
consulted Martin Sanford’s The Orchids of Suffolk to see which
species have been and are still recorded in the Waveney Forest
area. It seems that the bog orchid was commonly found in
Sphagnum bogs in nearby parishes as already mentioned, but has
since been lost with no records for over 100 years (Sanford 1991).
However, the heath-spotted orchid (Dactylorhiza maculata) was
recorded in Fritton in June 1990 by Martin, probably utilising the
old pasture by the River and possibly the surviving wet heathland
of the Forest.
The Nationally Scarce marsh mallow, marsh sow-thistle and
sea barley (Hordeum marinum) have also been recorded along the
riverbanks and tidal flood defence embankments in the vicinity of
the Forest (Halcrow 2010). It is clear that the tidal nature of the
River Waveney influences the plants found in riverside habitats.
In an area of sparsely vegetated ground at the Staith which is
inundated by tidal water on a high tide, there are plants of coastal
habitats including annual seablite (Suaeda maritima), glasswort
(Salicornia spp.), sea aster (Aster tripolium), sea couch (Elytrigia
atherica) and sea spurrey (Spergularia marina). This interesting
salt tolerant vegetation adds another dimension to the flora of the
Forest and its surroundings. Indeed, some of these plant species
are indicative of saltmarsh habitats on the east coast, particularly
annual seablite, glasswort and sea aster.
There are earthen flood embankments which fringe the Forest
and protect the low-lying arable land and grazing marsh from
tidal flooding. On these flood defences, a tussocky grassland flora
exists of some value for conservation. On one bank, dominated by
grasses such as cock’s-foot (Dactylis glomerata) and common
couch (Elytrigia repens) with occasional crested dog’s-tail
(Cynosurus cristatus) (an indicator of unimproved grassland
which has never been ploughed up or had chemical fertilisers
applied), there is a diversity of wildflowers such as meadow
vetchling (Lathyrus pratensis) and tufted vetch (Vicia cracca),
which are important forage sources for bumblebees. On these
flood defences there is also the Nationally Scarce grass, sea
barley, although this is at the Belton Marshes end (Halcrow
2010). Fringing the flood defences there are the scarce plants,
marsh mallow and marsh sow-thistle. Associated with the flood
embankments is a soke dyke (where clay has been dug to build
the flood walls) and a flat area between the toe of the embankment
and the soke dyke known as the folding. All these areas of the
flood defences (or seawalls) are important botanically.
In the soke and marsh dykes, several botanical communities
have been recorded in recent years by surveys undertaken as part
of recent flood defence works (Halcrow 2010). Plants recorded
include a water soldier-frogbit community in a dyke near St.
Forest plants and their habitats | 33
Flood defence immediately post
construction 2012
Photo: T. Gardiner
Flood defence one year post
construction showing vegetation
colonisation 2013
Photo: T. Gardiner
A dyke on the edge of the Forest
Photo: T. Gardiner
34 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Table 1
Area (in ha) of new habitat created from Belton to St. Olaves during flood defence improvements as part of
the Broadland Flood Alleviation Project (source: Halcrow 2010)
New habitat
Area (ha)
Rond (reedbed fringing river)
0.49
Bank
1.07
Folding (area between bank and soke dyke)
1.51
Soke dyke
2.03
Olaves Drainage Mill which indicates a freshwater regime,
probably due to the use of a modern drainage pump operated by
the Somerleyton Estate which regularly flushes out water and
prevents saline intrusion into the dyke (Halcrow 2010). Other
dykes support a filamentous algae and Enteromorpha spp.
community.
The flood defences fringing the Forest and Fritton Marshes
are included within the Broadland Flood Alleviation Project
(BFAP) which is run by Broadland Environmental Services
Limited (BESL) on behalf of the EA. There have been
improvements made to the 7.2 km of flood defences which stretch
between Belton and St. Olaves (Halcrow 2010). During these
flood defence works opportunities have been identified to create
new habitats fringing the River Waveney (Table 1). For example,
instead of importing clay for the works on the flood defences, new
soke dyke habitats have been dug to obtain the material on site.
The newly created habitats are initially devoid of all vegetation,
but within one growing season should recolonise with plants
(Halcrow 2010). The flood walls form a very important wildlife
corridor linking the Forest to St. Olaves and Haddiscoe to the
south and Belton to the north. Research on tidal flood
embankments (seawalls) in Essex showed them to be one of the
most important green corridors left in the county, mainly due to
their unimproved grassland flora and insect assemblages.
Despite all the pitfalls which have befallen the Forest’s flora
from its heyday as heathland on Fritton Warren, there is still
much to attract the botanist to the area. It is possible to record
over 100 plant species on a 3-4 hour walk through the Forest in
summer. For example, on a 4 hour walk, split over two
weekends in July 2012, 131 plant species were recorded
(including ferns, grasses, mosses, trees and wildflowers). This is
a considerable total, matched by more well-known botanists’
haunts such as the limestone ridge of Wenlock Edge where 100
species can be recorded in a 4 hour walk in a spring ‘wildflower
marathon’.
Forest plants and their habitats | 35
To conclude, I must disagree with William Dutt on one very
important point, while not seeking to detract from his excellent
work. It is not just botanists who would benefit from an
exploration of the marshes fringing Waveney Forest these days in
search of heath-spotted orchids, it’s an entomologists’ paradise as
they are extremely important for rare invertebrates as the
following chapter will show.
36 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
6
An invertebrate
paradise
Aside from the important botanical communities of the Forest,
perhaps just as notable are the impressive invertebrate
assemblages.
Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera)
A total of 26 butterfly species have been recorded in Waveney
Forest since 1999. The highlight of the butterfly fauna of
Waveney Forest is undoubtedly the white admiral (Limenitis
camilla), an insect which is declining and has a UK Biodiversity
Action Plan (BAP). The insect would appear to be fairly
widespread in the Forest; it was seen at five locations in July
2009. Previous sightings of the butterfly appeared to show that it
was more localised in the Forest.
The other UK BAP butterflies recorded in Waveney Forest
were the wall (Lasiommata megera), which is declining fast in
Norfolk, and the small heath (Coenonympha pamphilus). Purple
hairstreak (Neozephyrus quercus) has been recorded from areas of
regenerating native woodland (with pedunculate oak (Quercus
robur) and rowan). There is a record of milk parsley
(Peucedanum palustre), the larval foodplant of the protected
swallowtail butterfly (Papilio machaon), from Fritton Marshes in
2002 (TM 4409990). However, there have been no records of this
distinctive and large butterfly from the Waveney Forest area
suggesting its absence.
One of the first butterflies to appear in the spring is the bright
yellow brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni) and the attractive males of
the orange-tip (Anthocharis cardamines) are not far behind. The
delicate small copper (Lycaena phlaeas) can also be readily seen,
perhaps closely linked to its larval foodplant sheep’s sorrel, which
is frequent in the open areas which have not been encroached
upon by scrub. As summer progresses, butterflies whose larvae
feed on grasses such as the gatekeeper (Pyronia tithonus),
meadow brown (Maniola jurtina) and ringlet (Aphantopus
hyperantus) are found throughout the glades and rides in the
Forest. The dappled shade of the conifers along some of the rides
provides ideal conditions for the speckled wood (Pararge
aegeria), a frequent species in the Forest.
Much less is known about the moths of the Forest and light
trapping should be undertaken to produce a more comprehensive
list of species. However, the woodland habitat appears to be
An invertebrate paradise | 37
important for the orange footman (Eilema sororcula), a localised
British moth (recorded by Jan Burton).
The larva of this moth feeds on mature oaks and blackthorn
(Prunus spinosa) scrub. The yellow horned moth (Achlya
flavicornis) is also a woodland species which is found in the
Forest, its larval foodplants being downy and silver birch. The
buff-tip (Phalera bucephala) is one of the more common
woodland moths, its larva feeding on hazel (Corylus avellana),
oak or willow (Salix spp). Hundreds of buff-tip caterpillars have
been recorded in Waveney Forest indicating the favourability of
the woodland (Allard et al. 2000). The bordered white (Bupalus
piniaria) is a species which appears to be abundant in the Forest,
its larva feeding on the needles of conifers, often in large numbers
becoming quite a pest in favourable years. The pine hawk-moth
(Hyloicus pinastri) is occasionally seen in Waveney Forest,
during the day it rests on the trunks of pines where it is very well
camouflaged.
Therefore, despite the urgent need for the removal of
encroaching scrub and woodland on heathland areas, it is
important that woodland composed of native tree species such as
birch and oak is encouraged, perhaps as natural regeneration in
plots of newly felled conifers. Areas of conifers should not be
felled to conserve dependent species such as the pine hawk-moth.
A balance between open and wooded habitats is needed in the
Forest to conserve the widest range of species.
Dragonflies (Odonata)
The dragonfly fauna is yet another reason why destruction of the
Forest would be disastrous for insects. Odonata commonly seen
in the Forest include large red damselfly (Pyrrhosoma nymphula),
four-spotted chaser (Libellula quadrimaculata) and hairy
dragonfly (Brachytron pratense). Undoubtedly, the star of the
Forest is the Norfolk hawker (Aeshna isosceles), an extremely
rare dragonfly in the UK, afforded protection under Schedule 5 of
the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981), listed as Endangered in
the Odonata Red Data List, and added to the UK BAP list in 2007.
An adult male was recorded hawking around the reedbeds
adjoining the Waveney (area known as the Staith) on 4 July 2009.
The male frequently rested on emergent vegetation, which
allowed observation of its clear wings and distinctive triangular
marking.
In England, the Norfolk hawker appears to have always been
a scarce insect, although it can be abundant where it occurs. The
largest populations are found in the Broads and in the marshes,
which border the eastern end of the River Waveney. The main
reasons for its decline in Norfolk are thought to be inappropriate
ditch management (e.g. intensive dredging), eutrophication
38 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Above:
Small copper (Lycaena phlaeas)
Photo: K. Brown
Above right:
White admiral (Limenitis camilla)
Photo: T. Gardiner
Norfolk hawker
(Aeshna isosceles)
Photo: T. Benton
An invertebrate paradise | 39
(nutrient enrichment from fertiliser run-off from arable fields) and
conversion of grazing marsh to arable crops. The latter is likely to
have caused a decline in the Norfolk hawker population on Fritton
Marshes, where over 74% of the grazing marsh is now arable
farmland, leaving a much reduced area of pasture with drainage
ditches. The now redundant Fritton Marsh Drainage Mill is a sad
monument to the past glory of the marshes. However, the Norfolk
hawker is often found in dykes with frogbit (Hydrocharis morsusranae) and water soldier (Stratiotes aloides), two plants found in
a dyke to the south of the Forest. The presence of these plants
indicates that this dyke probably has reasonably good water
quality and a range of invertebrates which could be suitable prey
for the Norfolk hawker.
Despite conversion of much of the marshes to arable crops,
the tall-herb fen and dykes on the edge of the Forest are still
excellent dragonfly habitats, with at least six species present
including brown hawker (Aeshna grandis), common darter
(Sympetrum striolatum), four-spotted chaser, migrant hawker
(Aeshna mixta), ruddy darter (Sympetrum sanguineum) and
southern hawker (Aeshna cyanea). The total number of Odonata
species recorded in Waveney Forest (15 species) is notable in a
county context, comparing favourably with Holme Dunes (15
species) and Geldeston (17 species), all sites which are listed as
dragonfly hotspots on the Dragonflies of Norfolk website
(www.norfolkdragons.co.uk). Indeed, Dr Pam Taylor suggests
that the site qualifies as a possible Key Site for Dragonflies as it
meets the Vice County Diversity Threshold of 11 species
recorded in the past 10 years (Taylor pers. comm.).
Grasshoppers and bush-crickets (Orthoptera)
The dry heathland in the Forest is important for insects such as the
mottled grasshopper, which was recorded from the rides in July
2009. This grasshopper is rare in east Norfolk only being found at
a handful of sites. Along with the more widespread field
grasshopper (Chorthippus brunneus), it is associated with
sparsely vegetated patches of mossy and lichen covered ground
with few other plants except for sheep’s sorrel. Maintenance of
these patches of pioneer vegetation is likely to be crucial for the
survival of the mottled grasshopper.
A female mottled grasshopper was also observed to jump into
an acid pool and immediately sink beneath the surface film. The
female (approximate body length 1.5 cm) managed to swim
underwater, but quite weakly in a constant direction. An
underwater hop, as has been observed for the meadow
grasshopper (Chorthippus parallelus) (Gardiner 2009c), was
exhibited by the female, but eventually it became tangled in
vegetation and ceased movement after approximately 3 minutes
40 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
and apparently ‘drowned’. To see if the grasshopper could be
revived if removed from the water; it was collected after
4 minutes submergence and left on the bank to recover. After
approximately 1 minute the female started to move its hind legs
and wings, before walking slowly off. It therefore seems that this
grasshopper had survived the ‘drowning’. This observation of
adult mottled grasshopper submergence at Waveney Forest was
consistent with experiments conducted by Brust et al. (2007), who
observed a degree of tolerance to immersion in hypoxic water
among several species of rangeland grasshopper in the USA.
They speculate that drowning due to intense periods of
precipitation is rare in the field as grasshoppers can tolerate
immersion in hypoxic water between 3-21 hours depending on
their life stage; nymphs were killed more quickly when immersed
in hypoxic water than adults.
Swimming behaviour has now been observed for five
grasshopper species in the UK (common green, field, meadow
and mottled grasshoppers all observed in the Forest, and the
large marsh grasshopper (Stethophyma grossum) which is not)
and may be more common in the wild than was previously
thought. In total, swimming behaviour has been observed for
nine species of Orthoptera in the UK (c. 33% of 27 native
species), including all three groundhoppers (Tetrigidae) and the
endangered mole cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa).
In July 2009 another scarce species in east Norfolk, the
common green grasshopper was observed. The distinctive reeling
stridulation (or song) was heard in areas of wet heathland with
an abundance of purple moor-grass, often the grasshopper was
present in heathy vegetation beneath the pylons, where scrub has
been kept clear for access. The grasshopper is uncommon in east
Norfolk and may depend on the persistence of wet heathland at
sites such as Waveney Forest for survival in the area. It may be
particularly susceptible to drier summers and prolonged
droughts if our climate changes as predicted in the 21st century
(Gardiner 2010b).
The Forest heaths are also important for the meadow
grasshopper, a widespread species nationally, but one which is not
often found in east Norfolk. Richmond (2001) believes that this
flightless grasshopper has not been able to colonise these areas of
former marine transgression, where the lesser marsh grasshopper
(Chorthippus albomarginatus) (commonly found in and around
the Forest) is the dominant species. However, in a study of the
Great Yarmouth area in recent years, the meadow grasshopper
was found to be widespread (Gardiner 2013).
The orthopteran highlight for the Forest is undoubtedly the
stripe-winged grasshopper (Gardiner 2012a). A stridulating male
was heard on 30 July 2011 in Waveney Forest from a small area
An invertebrate paradise | 41
Great green bush-cricket
(Tettigonia viridissima)
Photo: T. Benton
Mottled grasshopper
(Myrmeleotettix maculatus)
Photo: T. Benton
42 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
of acid grassland and heathland. The Forest had been searched
many times before (every summer since 2008) and I thought there
were no new species to be discovered (Gardiner 2012a). A
climate-driven range expansion is thought to be behind the
appearance of the grasshopper in the Forest, although it is possible
that it has been overlooked due to its small and localised
populations. Scrub encroachment is a serious threat to its
continued persistence in the Forest.
The tall-herb fen on the fringe of the Forest, accessible by a
public footpath, is home to a large dark bush-cricket
(Pholidoptera griseoaptera) population, the distinctive chirps
from the adult males emanating from reeds and scrub in the late
afternoon and evening. The drier parts of the fen are inhabited by
the lesser marsh and meadow grasshoppers, perhaps in their ideal
habitat here due to the taller vegetation than on sparsely vegetated
heathland. Near St. Olaves Drainage Mill, the tall couch grassland
has abundant long and short-winged coneheads (Conocephalus
dorsalis), as well as Roesel’s bush-cricket. The singing of the
latter insect is a continuous high-pitched buzz, inaudible to more
elderly naturalists. The use of a bat detector enables efficient
recording of Orthoptera song and we suggest it is the only way to
pick up species such as the two coneheads, whose call is largely
inaudible to the human ear.
In total, 13 species of Orthoptera have been recorded from the
Forest, which is extremely notable in the county context. Indeed,
if the heathland of nearby Belton Common is considered, the area
also supports the common groundhopper (Tetrix undulata) and the
scarce great green bush-cricket (Tettigonia viridissima) (seen in
Belton in 2005). A total of 15 species of Orthoptera (56% of the
British list of 27 species) makes the heathlands and woodlands in
the Waveney Forest area notable in a national context (Gardiner
2008; 2010a; 2012c). The diversity of the orthopteran fauna of the
Waveney Forest area is highlighted by a tantalising record of the
nationally rare large marsh grasshopper from Belton Bog in 1911.
Unfortunately, this grasshopper appears to have become extinct in
Norfolk, although it is just possible that it may remain in boggy
areas at Waveney Forest or Belton Common.
Large grasshopper populations may be extremely beneficial for
the Forest’s food chain. Grasshoppers are prey for declining bird
species such as the skylark (Alauda arvensis), but also for spiders
(Gardiner 2009a). The long-winged (macropterous) form of
Roesel’s bush-cricket is found in tall grassland on the edge of the
Forest and may be an important food source for avian predators.
On a set-aside field in Essex, long-winged Roesel’s bush-crickets
were observed being taken up by air currents to a considerable
height, where they were promptly devoured by hobbies (Falco
subbuteo) and kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) (Smith 2007), two
An invertebrate paradise | 43
birds which are both found in the Forest. The range expanding
Roesel’s bush-cricket was first recorded in Norfolk in 1997
(Richmond 2001). The long-winged form is thought to have
played a key role in the colonisation of new areas in eastern
England (Gardiner 2009b).
Beetles (Coleoptera)
When surveying the heathlands of the Forest, several green tiger
beetles (Cicindela campestris) were observed, which are
characteristic of open sandy habitats including heathland. It is
widespread but locally common in the UK and indicative of the
value of the remnant heath in the Forest. There are also reports of
the lesser stag beetle (Dorcus parallelipipedus) from the Forest.
This beetle may be threatened by the tidying up of woodland. Its
larva, which needs dead and decaying wood may be threatened by
the tidying up of woodland. It is imperative that an ample supply
of dead wood is maintained in the Forest to sustain this insect. The
violet ground beetle (Carabus violaceus) is also found and rests
under stones or logs by day. Despite the presence of the three
beetles already mentioned we know little about the Coleoptera of
the Forest and I am sure further survey work would be rewarding.
One beetle to search for could be the glow-worm (Lampyris
noctiluca), which is found at other sites in the Waveney Valley
but has yet to be recorded in the Forest. This enigmatic insect
which preys on snails and slugs as a larva has declined in the
east of England (Gardiner 2011a). It may well be present in the
open heathland areas of the Forest or in the wet grassland along
the River Waveney. Searches for the green glow of the adult
female should be undertaken on warm June and July evenings
after dark.
Bumblebees (Hymenoptera)
The heathland is also alive with bumblebees and wasps; including
both buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris), and its related
brood parasite, the vestal cuckoo bee (Bombus vestalis). The
cuckoo bees invade the nests of their host (in this case the bufftailed bumblebee) after emerging from winter hibernation in
spring. Once entering the established nest, they may be attacked
by workers of the host species, but their thick cuticle is thought to
give them protection from being stung. They then proceed to hide
in nest materials and acquire the scent of the nest, and are therefore
no longer attacked as intruders by the host workers. It is believed
that the invading cuckoo bee females kill the host queen, but this
does not always happen. When the nest of the host species has
sufficient workers to nurture the larvae of the cuckoo bee female,
she brutally destroys the host eggs and larvae, using wax/pollen
44 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
from the host cells to make new cells for her own eggs. The host
workers then nurture the resulting ‘cuckoo’ larvae, which go on to
pupate, subsequently emerging as female or male adults. This
quite remarkable strategy for survival ensures that the fortunes of
the host bumblebee are intimately linked to that of its parasite.
Large queens of the red-tailed bumblebee (Bombus lapidarius)
can be seen in spring searching for nest sites in cracks in the
ground. A classic extract from F.W.L. Sladen’s (1912) work
describes the nest sites of the red-tailed bumblebee as follows:
The usual position of the nest is under the ground
and the tunnel is generally from 18 inches to 2 feet
long, but sometimes it extends to 3 feet, and in one
nest I dug up it was over 7 feet.
Therefore, bare ground established after the clear felling of
conifers in the Forest is likely to be a key nesting habitat for the
Forest’s most common bumblebee.
A new species, the tree bumblebee (Bombus hypnorum) was
observed in 2013 bringing the total number of bumblebees
recorded to eight. The tree bumblebee was first recorded in
Britain in 2001 and has since spread quickly throughout southern
England. Its first Norfolk record was in 2008 and it has taken just
five seasons to colonise the Forest. It typically nests above ground
in trees, hence the name. The Forest sighting is the first record
from the Great Yarmouth area, although it also appeared in
gardens in nearby Gorleston in 2013. The total of four species
observed foraging on shrubs in a garden confirms the lower
diversity of bumblebees in urban areas without the extensive
‘wild’ habitat present in places such as Waveney Forest.
Bumblebees are crucial pollinators of many agricultural and
horticultural crops including broad bean, cranberry, lucerne, oil
seed rape and red clover, so the conservation of them not only has
pollination benefits for our native flora, but also very large
economic benefits (Benton 2000). The new term to describe the
economic value of habitats and wildlife to humans is ‘ecosystem
services’, in which the worth of bumblebees can be expressed in
monetary terms. For example, in the absence of bumblebee and
honey bee pollination, the cost of pollinating crops would be
astronomical. Despite their obvious value to mankind,
bumblebees are declining severely in the UK. Mechanised
agriculture is the main culprit, as with so much of our declining
wildlife, leading to the removal of hedgerows, ploughing up of
flower-rich meadows, and increasing usage of chemical fertilisers
causing an increase in high yielding grasses desirable to the
farmer at the expense of forage plants which bumblebees utilise
(Benton 2000).
Therefore, habitats which have survived the ravages of
intensive agricultural practices such as the heathlands found in the
An invertebrate paradise | 45
Forest are important for our declining bumblebees. But the
diversity of the Forest’s bee population is likely to have been as
severely reduced as that of other insects due to the planting of
conifers and the shading out of the wild flora on the woodland
floor. Scraps of open heathland still have value for the commoner
bumblebees, but as yet no rare species have been observed. Clear
felling of conifers, aside from creating the nesting sites already
mentioned, is likely to be hugely beneficial for bumblebees due to
the re-establishment of the flora of the open heathland which is
more favourable for foraging bumblebees.
Hornets (Vespa crabro) can also be seen in the open areas of
the Forest. Despite these observations, further surveys by
specialists should reveal a good diversity of Hymenoptera.
Froghoppers (Homoptera)
Froghoppers are abundant in the open areas, with the most
numerous species appearing to be the common froghopper
(Philaenus spumarius). This insect is responsible for the frothy
cuckoo-spit which can be abundant on grass and shrubs in the
spring. The spit is actually an anal secretion in which the tiny
froghoppers reside to avoid drying out (desiccation) and as a
defence against predators.
The quantum of molluscs
Aside from terrestrial insects, the Forest edge is also valuable for
the narrow-mouthed whorl snail (Vertigo angustior), a UK Red
Data Book (a list of the rarest of the rare) mollusc enjoying
European protection as it is in serious decline throughout much of
Europe. The snail often inhabits a narrow zone only a few metres
wide because it is a species of transitional zones where freshwater
seeps onto saltmarsh, or in calcareous fenland. This tiny snail,
which is less than 2 mm in size, prefers short, damp grass, moss
or low growing herbs where it occurs. The snail is thought to have
an annual life cycle and may feed on micro-fungi growing on
decaying plant material in the litter layer. Adults lay large eggs (in
proportion to their body size) in the damp field layer of their
habitats. The juvenile snails can be found from early summer,
perhaps reaching peak numbers in October.
Habitat management is considered key for the future survival
of this snail. Suitable habitats for this species may be maintained
through manual scrub control to prevent shading of sites and the
implementation of an appropriate mowing or grazing regime,
ensuring minimal disturbance or damage to the ground
vegetation, and leaving areas of moist grassland in the transition
zone untouched.
46 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
What is certain is that alterations to the hydrological regime
(e.g. drainage or flooding) at known sites could be detrimental to
the snail. The original proposal to ship the gravel out by the River
Waveney would have meant destruction of the aquatic habitats
used by the snail during the creation of a new dock. The proposed
gravel extraction was also likely to be detrimental to the habitats
of the snail by encouraging run-off of polluted water to its
wetland habitats along the River Waveney. Therefore, threats to
the snail from quarrying were unavoidable and probably an
important reason for the refusal of large-scale quarrying in the
Forest. During recent flood defence works, the presence of this
snail has been taken into account to avoid detrimental impacts
during bank widening and strengthening (Halcrow 2010).
Response of insects to felling of conifers
Felling of conifers, as well as benefiting the flora, may have a
positive impact on heathland insects of open habitats which need
bare ground (Gardiner 2011b). During observations of insects in
the felled area in May 2011, the green tiger beetle could be seen
scampering along the bare earth among the conifer stumps. Also
on the edge of the felled area, you can find late instar nymphs of
the localised mottled grasshopper, an insect of habitats with a
large amount of bare ground. It appears to be venturing into the
felled area due to the warm and sunny conditions favourable for
its basking and egg-laying needs. It had been seen in previous
years on the dry heathland under the pylons; however, much of its
preferred open ground habitat is being lost due to the
encroachment of birch and oak trees. The felling of the conifers
has created a large area of sparsely vegetated ground for it to
spread into as its former habitat under the pylons disappears due
to unmanaged encroachment of trees. Unwittingly, the felling of
the conifers may have given the mottled grasshopper a stay of
execution in the Forest.
Indeed, in 2012, the mottled grasshopper appeared to continue
its dispersal into the felled area. For example, during a
standardised study of the grasshopper in 2011, there was a fairly
even split between the total number of mottled grasshoppers
recorded under the pylons (unaffected by felling and the donor
population for the felled plot) when compared to the newly
cleared conifer area (59 vs. 56 grasshoppers respectively; Table
2). In summer 2012, numbers of mottled grasshoppers were
extremely low under the pylons when compared to the cleared
forestry area (5 vs. 62 grasshoppers respectively; Table 2),
suggesting a shift in the population from its traditional habitat of
scrubby heathland into a connected area of recently felled
conifers. This movement is likely to have been aided by the dark
An invertebrate paradise | 47
Burnt ground and bracken in clear
fell area used by mottled
grasshoppers (Myrmeleotettix
maculatus)
Photo: T. Gardiner
form of the mottled grasshopper on burnt ground in the felled plot
(95% of total number of individuals recorded in 2012), the lack of
green colouration on the insects giving them an advantage on the
blackened ground (see next section for more detail on fire
melanism).
Other insects recorded in the felled area in 2011 included late
instar nymphs of the common green grasshopper in purple moorgrass tussocks on the edge bordering the pylons and the field
grasshopper taking advantage of the abundant bare earth present.
The dark bush-cricket was also observed in scrub along the edge
of the felled plot taking the total number of orthopterans recorded
to four species in the first summer season after winter felling. This
total increased to seven species in summer 2012, with lesser
marsh, meadow and stripe-winged grasshoppers also observed in
addition to the other orthopterans. Remarkably all six grasshopper
species currently observed in Norfolk (Richmond 2001) have now
been recorded from the clear felled area in just two summer
seasons since winter felling. This reinforces Richmond’s view
that areas of cleared forestry can be a crucially important habitat
for grasshoppers. While observing grasshoppers in the felled plot
in summer 2011, I also saw a small heath butterfly, the first
sighting for the Forest.
Adaptation of grasshoppers to forest fires, evolution in action?
A small patch of conifers was damaged in a fire on 22 May 2011
on the edge of the newly felled area, with the scarred trees and
ground being very evident on my visits to the Forest. Given that a
high proportion of not green (often black) forms of the mottled
grasshopper appeared on the black scorched earth present after a
fire at Kelling Heath in north Norfolk in 2010 (Owens 2010), an
48 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Table 2
The number of mottled grasshopper individuals with green colour on them and brown/mottled (no green
colouration) forms on burnt ground at Kelling Heath and in Waveney Forest after a fire in May 2011
Site/year/plot
Green
form
Brown/
mottled form
Total
% brown/
mottled form
Kelling Heath 2010
Fire site
12
37
49
75.5
Old fire site
7
15
22
68.2
Control (unburnt)
11
11
22
50.0
Waveney Forest 2011
Fire site (cleared forestry)
6
50
56
89.3
Control (unburnt)
26
33
59
55.9
Waveney Forest 2012
Fire site (cleared forestry)
3
59
62
95.2
Control (unburnt)
1
4
5
80.0
interesting comparison could be made within Waveney Forest. I
believe that the black forms in a population may be at a substantial
advantage on the dark earth of fire sites over lighter coloured
forms (with green on them) which may get picked off by avian
and other predators (e.g. spiders). In summer 2011 and 2012,
surveys revealed that 89% and 95% of grasshoppers respectively,
sighted on the fire site (cleared of conifers in winter 2010/11) in
Waveney Forest were dark forms with no green colouration at all;
perhaps indicating the ideal camouflage this grasshopper can have
on burnt ground (Table 2). In the unburnt control area underneath
the pylons, where vegetation was much lusher and greener, 56%
and 80% of mottled grasshoppers recorded had no green colour at
all in 2011 and 2012 respectively.
Recently research has been published suggesting that
groundhoppers (also Orthoptera), specifically the slender
groundhopper (Tetrix subulata) which is found in the Forest,
change their colour patterns in response to substrate colour
(Forsman 2000; Karlsson et al. 2008; Forsman et al. 2011). The
frequency of melanic (black) groundhoppers was higher on sites
where fires had taken place, the black colour providing ideal
camouflage from predation against the darkened burnt ground.
There is a suggestion that the increase in the number of melanic
individuals represents rapid evolution of groundhoppers in
relation to environmental and genetic factors (Forsman et al.
2011). The melanic form of the common groundhopper has been
found to be almost entirely restricted to dark substrates
An invertebrate paradise | 49
established by uncontrolled fires and by the presence of old piles
of railway ballast, bricks and rocks at a disused railway line in Old
Warden, Bedfordshire (Gardiner 2012b).
The studies of the mottled grasshopper at Kelling Heath and
Waveney Forest provide the first evidence that this insect may
respond in a similar way to fire as the common and slender
groundhoppers. Therefore, Norfolk is at the forefront of truly
ground breaking research into natural selection due to the
determined efforts of Dr Nick Owens at Kelling Heath which
inspired the monitoring of mottled grasshopper in Waveney
Forest.
Unfortunately, heath fires can be devastating for wildlife,
particularly reptiles (Chatfield 2012). Rosebay willowherb
(Chamerion angustifolium) (also known as fireweed) quickly
colonises burnt ground and is a good indicator of a fire site. The
large population of adders in the Forest could be susceptible to
large-scale fires over the spring and summer months. The public
must be encouraged to be responsible and to avoid having
barbecues or dropping lighted cigarettes. It can take up to 20 years
for a heath to recover from a serious fire (Chatfield 2012).
50 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
7
Vertebrate animals
Birds
William Dutt noted that a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) was
allegedly shot around 1850 in the area, and that a white-tailed
eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) was taken alive in the decoy at Fritton
in December 1878 (Dutt 1906). These fantastic snippets outline
the richness of the avian fauna of the Fritton area in the 1800s,
although the origins of some of the birds featured may be dubious
in the extreme. Today, the Forest is noted for its birdlife, although
sightings of golden eagles are off the menu. By a bizarre
coincidence, a white-tailed eagle was seen flying over Burgh
Castle in 2013. The bird, which can have a wingspan up to eight
feet, flew south and was spotted at Leiston, Minsmere and Orford.
A nickname for the eagle is ‘flying barn door’ and compared to
other birds it is not difficult to see why. The white-tailed eagle was
lost to Britain as a breeding species in the 20th century due to
widespread persecution. A controversial plan to re-introduce it to
the Suffolk coast was shelved several years ago after protests from
local farmers.
The eagle has been fully re-introduced to the west of
Scotland, and a re-introduction programme is underway in
eastern Scotland. It is not known whether the eagle wandered to
East Anglia from eastern or northern Europe, or came from the
Scottish re-introductions. News of the eagle sighting sent the
birding community into an understandable frenzy and many
made the trip to see the impressive predator in flight. It doubtless
glided over the Forest on its way south. Other birds of prey are
numerous in the Forest area, with 14 species of raptor possible.
Buzzards (Buteo buteo) have been seen soaring over the felled
areas looking for prey below.
The reedbeds on the edge of the Forest are important for
hunting marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus), a species which was
almost extinct in Britain in the 1970s. It is recovering now, but is
still included in the RSPB’s Amber List. The reedbeds are also
home to the bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus) (Amber List) and
reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus) (UK BAP priority species
and Amber List), two important bird species. Reed warblers
(Acrocephalus scirpaceus) and sedge warblers (Acrocephalus
schoenobaenus) are also known from reedbeds on Fritton
Marshes, the latter species utilising scrub as a perch to sing or
forage within (Halcrow 2010). Grasshopper warblers (Locustella
Vertebrate animals | 51
A nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus
has been heard in a recently
felled area of conifers
Photo: S. Johnson
naevia) (Red Status and UK BAP priority species) have been
recorded from the rond (reedbed fringing the River Waveney) at
Fritton Marshes singing from scrubby habitats (Halcrow 2010).
To complete the list of BAP species, skylarks nest within the
marshland and can often be heard singing overhead on a summer’s
day, and are frustratingly hard to locate against the background of
the sky.
A bittern (Botaurus stellaris) was recorded from Fritton
Marshes in 1994, although it is not known whether this was
overwintering or breeding, as no ‘booming’ males were heard.
There has also been a sighting of bitterns in a nearby reedbed at
Haddiscoe, perhaps this secretive and rare species may utilise the
reedbeds fringing the Forest in future, although it should be noted
that bitterns tend to avoid nesting on tidal ronds of common reed due
to the risk of inundation of the nests by rising tides (Halcrow 2010).
Fritton Marshes are used overwinter by foraging and roosting
species such as Bewick’s swan (Cygnus columbianus), Egyptian
goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos),
mute swan (Cygnus olor), teal (Anas crecca) and whooper swan
(Cygnus cygnus) indicating the value of the remaining marshland
and arable set-aside margins (Halcrow 2010). During the Broads
ESA Breeding Wader Survey a number of breeding species such
as lapwing, oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) and redshank
(Tringa totanus) were recorded.
Peregrines (Falco peregrinus) can also be seen flying over the
Forest; this is another recovering species, which is becoming a
more frequent sight in East Anglia. For example, peregrines have
been recorded using nest boxes installed on the Orwell Bridge on
the A14 near Ipswich and have been found to nest on the imposing
spire of Norwich Cathedral and live footage can be obtained
online via a Hawk and Owl Trust webcam. Other birds of prey
seen in and around the Forest include buzzards, kestrels, long52 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
eared owls (Asio otus) and tawny owls (Strix aluco). Perhaps one
of the most iconic birds which can be spotted as dusk falls in the
Forest is the barn owl (Tylo alba). Barn owls can be seen hunting
over the marshes fringing the Forest looking for small mammal
prey. Indeed, analysis of barn owl pellets can reveal that their diet
commonly includes mice, shrews and voles.
One of the principle beneficiaries from the planting of
coniferous woodland would appear to be the crossbills (Loxia
curvirostra) as they eat the seeds from conifers. It must be
remembered that although the conifers have greatly diminished
the botanical richness of the Forest primarily due to their heavy
shade, they are still important for some species such as the
crossbill. Therefore, future conservation of the Forest should
include the retention of an adequate supply of conifers. Many
other birds have been recorded from the Forest and these include
goldcrest (Regulus regulus), hobby and the great-spotted
woodpecker (Dendrocopus major). The goldcrest would seem to
be a typical bird of the conifer stands of the Forest.
William Dutt described “the strange churring of the nightjar”
from “the gloom of the grove which hides the church” at Burgh
Castle in his classic work on the Norfolk Broads (Dutt 1906). The
nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) would no doubt have graced
the heathland of Fritton Warren. However, its available habitat
has been greatly reduced by extensive conifer planting since
WWII and the remaining unplanted patches of heathland are
extremely fragmented. Succession of heathland to woodland due
to a lack of conservation management is a serious threat to nesting
nightjars in the Forest; they also require extensive areas of feeding
habitat, especially uncultivated land.
In Norfolk, 313 churring males were recorded in 2004, which
was an increase from 223 males in 1992. They were found in
fourteen 10-km squares in the county in 2004. Much of the recent
recovery in nightjar numbers has been due to them nesting in
young conifer plantations where there is still bare ground between
the trees (Langston et al. 2007). As the plantations mature, it is
likely that their favourability for nesting declines. Clear felling of
mature conifers is also thought to be behind the recent increase in
nightjar numbers as the felled areas become suitable for nesting
(Langston et al. 2007). Therefore, the recent felling of a large
swathe of conifers in Waveney Forest (13 ha clear felled out of c.
130 ha, 10% of total Forest area) should provide suitable nesting
habitat for the nightjar for a few years before the replanted trees
shade out the ground.
Nightjars were last recorded in the Forest in 1998 when Colin
Jacobs saw them wing clapping along one of the rides. To
investigate whether the recent felling had enticed nightjars to nest
in the Forest, a survey was undertaken in July 2013 by the author
and his father. Both of the recently clear felled areas were checked
Vertebrate animals | 53
after 9 pm as suggested in the literature. No churring nightjars were
heard from the 5 ha area near the river felled in winter 2012/13. In
the 8 ha area clear felled over winter 2010/11 near the car park (TG
461005) our attention was diverted by several noctule bats
(Nyctalus noctula). The surveyors’ attention was however soon
captured by the wonderful churring of a male in the felled area.
They listened for several minutes to the changing tones of the
nightjar before making their way back to the car. Apparently,
nightjars require 2 ha to nest, an area adequately provided by both
clear fell plots. They can nest on such sites until the replanted trees
are about 15 years old so Waveney Forest may be suitable habitat
for the next two decades or more as additional plots are clear felled.
To rediscover the nightjar in the Forest after an absence of 15
years was an exciting event, particularly as I had never heard the
evocative call of this heathland migrant before. The already high
wildlife value of the Forest is further enhanced by this discovery.
There are few areas of heathland suitable for nightjars in the Great
Yarmouth area, although they have been found nesting close to
Winterton Dunes (Allard et al. 2000).
Extensive recording work has been undertaken by Colin
Jacobs, a local naturalist, and the Lowestoft Bird Club, whose
regular web updates have provided many of the species records
included in this book. The Bird Club are also good all round
naturalists providing records of non-avian species, particularly
butterflies, dragonflies and mammals. Without their efforts we
would not be as well informed about the conservation value of the
Forest and the need to preserve it in the light of the recent pressure
to develop it for gravel extraction.
Mammals
The reedbeds and dykes fringing the Forest along the River
Waveney are habitat for the fast declining water vole (Halcrow
2010), which requires an absence of predatory mink to maintain
healthy populations. It is illegal to destroy water vole burrows,
therefore the habitat utilised by them is protected from reckless or
unintentional damage. The water vole is also a UK BAP species
and is the subject of much research and conservation management
to promote the recovery of its populations along our river systems.
To find water voles a careful search is needed of river banks to
find the oval shaped burrow entrances and latrine areas where
there is a cluster of the cylindrical dark droppings.
Otters (Lutra lutra) also use the river corridor adjacent to
Waveney Forest. Sadly, dead otters have also been found along
the busy A143 in the vicinity of the Forest indicating that as they
disperse away from rivers they are very vulnerable to fatal
collisions with cars and other vehicles. Perhaps though, the recent
increase in the records of dead otters on our roads may indicate
54 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Water vole (Arvicola amphibius)
Photo: R. Hance
healthy populations along our rivers. Dead otters are routinely
collected by the Environment Agency and sent off for post
mortem analysis by the University of Cardiff. By analysing them
in this way, it is possible to ascertain their diet among other things
and how healthy they were.
One mammal which has yet to be recorded in the reedbeds and
tall grassland fringing the Forest is the secretive harvest mouse
(Micromys minutus). This tiny mammal is declining and is
thought to be scarce in east Norfolk, being reliably found at
Lound Waterworks to the east of the Forest. The best way to
determine its presence is to look for the tennis ball sized nests in
tall grassland and reeds. In Essex, the harvest mouse is commonly
found in reeds fringing coastal borrowdykes and its remains often
turn up in barn owl pellets.
Otter (Lutra lutra)
Photo: R. Hance
Vertebrate animals | 55
Tall grassland with patches of dense scrub in the Forest can be
suitable habitats for the common shrew (Sorex araneus) and wood
mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus). The latter species is also found in
woodland areas where it forages among the leaf litter for tree
seeds. Bank voles (Myodes glareolus) are found along the flood
embankments that fringe the Waveney. There are many small
mammals found in and around the Forest; therefore it is no
surprise that so many birds of prey are present. Voles, mice and
shrews provide excellent prey for barn owls for example.
Conservation of small mammals will have benefits for their
dependent predators.
Small numbers of red deer can be seen in the Forest, but the
much smaller muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) is more often
observed. Several people have told me of dog-like creatures in the
depths of the Forest, these observations are undoubtedly of
muntjac deer. Fallow deer (Dama dama) are less easily seen and
are comparatively shy. Red foxes are of course present in the
Forest. The ubiquitous and infamous grey squirrel (Sciurus
carolinensis) is frequently observed on a walk around the Forest
and has a dedicated ‘Squirrel Hall’ where they congregate in some
numbers. The grey squirrel was first recorded in Norfolk in 1963
and spread into the Yarmouth area in the mid-1970s (Allard et al.
2000). It is a well-known fact that the introduction of the grey led
to the extinction of the much more delicate red squirrel (Sciurus
vulgaris) from most of lowland Britain including Norfolk and is
another example of the negative effect of alien species on our
fauna. I have been lucky enough to see red squirrels in the wild on
Brownsea Island and in the western highlands of Scotland, both
quite a drive from Norfolk!
Extensive excavations in earthen banks in the Forest indicate
the presence of badgers. The best time to see badgers is in the
evening after dark when they emerge from the setts. Badgers are
protected by legislation which prevents disturbance of their setts
without a licence from Natural England, the statutory body for
nature conservation in the UK.
Both common pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) and
soprano pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pygmaeus) species can be found
in the Forest, but the most notable bat is probably the noctule,
which is often the first to appear in the evening and one of the
largest British species. The noctule bat is another tale of an animal
which has sadly declined due to modern farming methods, which
have led to the loss of important feeding habitats such as
woodland edge rich in invertebrates. Due to the size of Waveney
Forest, it has plentiful edge habitat which is a superb bat feeding
area, particularly where the conifers adjoin the reedbeds of the
River Waveney. The embankments of the disused railway line
56 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
which runs through the Forest could be important corridors for
Daubenton’s (Myotis daubentonii), noctule, soprano pipistrelle and
serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) (Halcrow 2010). Other bats
recorded in the Forest area are barbastelle (Barbastellus
barbastellus) (on the fringe of the marshes) and brown long-eared
(Plecotus auritus) further reinforcing the importance of the
locality for mammals (Halcrow 2010).
Toads in the holes
The Forest is home to several WWII bunkers (dugouts) which
would have been used by resistance fighters in the event of a
German invasion. These dugouts add a significant heritage value
to the Forest which rests comfortably alongside its natural history
and recreational interest. Roger Thomas of English Heritage
believes that silver birch is a good indicator of these archaeological
features which consist of small fire trenches, an infantry redoubt
with two integral dugouts (only earthworks remain), an intact
dugout, and six accommodation dugouts that have had their
roofing materials removed. The dugouts appear to have been
constructed from corrugated sheeting which was laid on a
horizontal timber frame set on the ground over the rectangular
earthen pits. Beside the pits, earth was piled up to hide them from
view. Due to the sandy soil, and the threat of the side walls
collapsing, they were revetted with sacking held in position by
chicken wire, which was supported by timber posts and steel angle
iron pickets. According to Roger the condition of the chicken wire
shows very little rust, remarkable for the age of the dugouts.
Perhaps the most puzzling aspect is the presence of 18 small
dugouts in the Forest. These dugouts are grouped into two groups
of eight and 10 and are simple rectangular 4-5 ft deep pits in the
ground with similar chicken wire and sacking wall revetment held
in place by timber posts as the other larger bunkers. They are
smaller and shallower than the other dugouts and have concrete
roofs rather than corrugated sheeting. The 6 inch thick concrete slabs
have a square vent at one end and a square access hatch at the other.
On looking into these intriguing bunkers two common toads
(Bufo bufo) were seen in 2011 quite happily crawling around in the
half light at the bottom. Around one of the bunkers cross-leaved
heath together with ling and bell heather were found, indicative of
a patch of wet heathland interspersed with dry ground. Common
frogs (Rana temporaria) are also found in the Forest and like the
common toad tend to be associated with damper ground. Sadly
there is now no sign of the large natterjack toad population that
used to occur in the area. A re-introduction of this rare amphibian
was undertaken at a nearby site (Belton Common) but it has now
disappeared and the attempt has unfortunately failed. It is such a
shame that we may never again see the natterjack toad scurrying
Vertebrate animals | 57
Above:
Bunker entrance
Photo: T. Gardiner
Above right:
Inside bunker
Photo: T. Gardiner
Common toad (Bufo bufo)
Photo: T. Gardiner
Adders
Photo: K. Thirlby
58 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
between ling bushes as William Dutt described in the early 1900s.
Its only hope is if the extensive wet heathland of the former warren
could be re-established at some point in the future, then it could be
re-introduced to its former haunt.
Adders count
All four of the more common reptile species in the UK have been
recorded in the Forest: adder, common lizard (Zootoca vivipara),
grass snake (Natrix natrix) and slow-worm (Anguis fragilis). By
far the most attractive and the only venomous species is the adder,
a declining reptile which can be seen basking in some numbers on
warm spring mornings. Counts of over 10 basking adders are not
unusual on a spring morning walk in the Forest. I caught sight of
two juvenile adders basking in a sunlit patch of open purple
moor-grass habitat, well aware that adults may be lurking in the
tall grassland nearby.
The habitat in which my father recalls seeing a coiled adder in
the 1950s is now no longer the open grassland on which he
camped as a scout. Due to a lack of active habitat management,
this grassy area has become heavily encroached upon by bramble
and dog rose scrub. There would be few suitable basking areas for
adders amid this thick scrub. Patches of tall grassland which could
be important for hibernating reptiles are also absent from this
scrubbed over habitat. The important adder population in the
Forest is another reason why scrub encroachment of open
grassland and heathland needs to be kept in check by periodic
cutting back of woody growth.
Common lizards are perhaps not as frequently observed as the
adder, but careful observation of heathland vegetation in the open
areas between the conifers should prove fruitful in the search for
them in summer. Grass snakes are less easily seen and tend to be
sighted near water. To find slow-worms, it is probably best to
search on the tall and tussocky grassland of the flood defence
embankment that protects the marshland and low-lying parts of
the Forest from inundation by the tidal River Waveney.
Due to the steep slopes of the flood defences they are
infrequently cut or grazed, meaning the resultant tussocky
grassland forms an important habitat for reptiles. Indeed, surveys
for recent flood defence improvements adjacent to the Forest
showed that there was an ‘exceptional’ population of adders in
these tussocky swards, while the common lizard, grass snake and
slow-worm populations were classed as ‘good’ (Halcrow 2010).
On the basis of the presence of the four common reptile species,
the flood defences qualify for inclusion in the Key Reptile Sites
Register according to Froglife’s Advice Sheet (FAS10).
Indeed, the important populations of all four reptiles species
recorded in the Forest area is the reason why one of the tidal flood
Vertebrate animals | 59
embankments was only crest piled (e.g. plastic sheeting driven
into the top of the bank and covered with timber), with no
disturbance to the rear face of the flood bank or area behind, to
avoid significant impacts on the reptiles present which would
have resulted from larger-scale works to widen the embankment
(Halcrow 2010).
Due to the need to mitigate the impacts of these flood defence
works on reptiles, 150 m of the embanked disused railway line is
to be cleared of trees and shrubs between the Forest and Belton
Common. This clearance should create basking and refuge habitats
for reptiles, but also be favourable for plants and insects which are
threatened by unmanaged scrub encroachment in the Forest.
The best way to locate all four species of reptile is to lay down
pieces of roof felt cut into 1 m long x 0.5 m wide sections. An
alternative method would be to lay down corrugated metal sheets.
Reptiles will congregate under these felt tiles and sheets and can
be observed by turning them over early in the morning on a warm
day before they become too active and move into surrounding
grassland areas.
Felling of conifers, which initially seems quite destructive due
to the disturbance associated with the operation, should create
many open basking areas for adders in the Forest. The exposed
sand of the recently felled area should warm up very quickly and
prove to be an important reptile habitat in the Forest.
60 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
8
The fight is won?
Public pressure and sheer quantity of objections to the inclusion of
Waveney Forest in the potential list of gravel extraction sites led to
NCC coming to the decision to ‘not allocate’ the Forest for mineral
extraction in 2009. However, this led to a challenge by the
developers who submitted a revised plan to NCC during the
consultation period. The revised plan had clearly been influenced
by the widespread protest, with the removal of gravel by river being
dropped and a smaller (but still extremely large) area of the Forest
lost to gravel pits. Despite this revised proposal, NCC came to the
same ‘not allocate’ decision in April 2011. However, this decision
was still open to appeal by the developers, but to the best of my
knowledge a convincing proposal did not appear and the Forest was
finally dropped from the minerals plan in 2012 which should ensure
no gravel is extracted in the near future. So all of the key political
battles have been won so far which just goes to show that politicians
do occasionally listen to the public in an encouraging show of
‘people power’ in action. If the Forest is conserved for future
generations to enjoy then the battle to save it will have been one of
the great conservation successes of the early 21st century, to rank
alongside the fight to save Halvergate Marshes (Allard et al. 2000).
So how valuable is Waveney Forest for wildlife?
The answer to this question is simple; the Forest is extremely
valuable for conservation not only in a Norfolk context, but also
from a national perspective. The importance of the Forest for a
myriad of species, some of which are declining fast in the UK, is
now well understood. It is one of the best wildlife sites in Norfolk,
with lists of butterflies (26 species), grasshoppers (13 species) and
dragonflies (15 species) which compare favourably with
recognised nature reserves in the county. Indeed, taking in the
immense biodiversity of the Forest as an entire ecosystem, the site
may be of national importance for conservation. The five mile
stretch of the River Waveney and its riparian corridor between
Burgh Castle and St. Olaves Bridge, casually dismissed by William
Dutt as commonplace, is home to 15 species of Orthoptera, making
the heathland, marshes and woodland one of the best areas for this
overlooked group in Norfolk, but also nationally.
Of those animals and plants which have had to be legally
protected in an attempt to prevent their decline and extinction
from the British countryside, the Forest has at least 22 species
The fight is won? | 61
protected by European or national legislation (or both; Table 3).
The main national (UK) legislation protecting these species is the
Wildlife & Countryside Act (1981) and amendments under more
recent acts (e.g. the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000),
which made it a criminal offence to kill or injure the four reptile
species found in the Forest for example. Other animals such as all
British bat species, now receive protection (for habitats used and
individual bats) from European legislation, as do the populations
of water voles along the River Waveney.
Further protection is given to the active nests of all British bird
species, ensuring that it is illegal to destroy a nest during the
breeding season (peak nesting season April-July). Therefore,
cutting back of tall grassland and scrub likely to be favourable
nesting habitat during the breeding season may lead to a criminal
offence being committed if a nest is destroyed. Some bird species
also receive additional protection from disturbance while nesting
under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife & Countryside Act. Examples of
Schedule 1 species seen in and around the Forest (although not
necessarily nesting) are numerous and include barn owl, marsh
harrier and nightjar.
Not all of the rare and declining species in the Forest benefit
from legal protection. Many recently recorded (since 1990)
species in the Forest are included as priority species in the UK
Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP). The UK BAP comes out of the
‘Earth Summit’ which took place in Rio in 1992 and drew
attention to the worrying decline of global biodiversity. An
outcome of the Summit was the drawing up of a UK BAP, with a
Steering Group of scientists, conservationists and planners to
enable the selection of key habitats and species in need of
conservation. This means in theory BAP species are the focus for
research and action on the ground to protect and enhance their
populations and habitats. Sadly this doesn’t mean that work is being
undertaken on all of the animals and plants listed in Table 3 despite
the sterling efforts of the Norfolk Biodiversity Partnership, but it is
a useful guide to the rare or declining (or both) species of the Forest
and its immediate surroundings, for which specific conservation
action is required to maintain their contribution to the biodiversity
of the area.
For a while now those concerned with the development and
delivery of local and UK BAPs have realised that by maintaining,
enhancing or restoring whole habitats, it is possible to conserve an
entire suite of species which are dependent on them. For example,
the Forest and buffering riverine areas have seven UK BAP
priority habitats: coastal and floodplain grazing marsh, lowland
dry acid grassland, fen, lowland heathland, lowland raised bog,
reedbed and wet woodland. If lowland heathland is effectively
conserved in the Forest then UK BAP reptiles such as the adder
will be safe.
62 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Table 3
List of Norfolk and UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species/habitats recorded in the Forest, legal
protection (from deliberate killing, injuring or destruction of habitat) is also indicated (main national
protection under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 as amended or European legal protection)
Group/species
Norfolk (N) or UK BAP priority
species
Legal protection
(UK or European)
Plants/habitats
Sea barley
Coastal/floodplain grazing marsh
Lowland dry acid grassland
Lowland fens
Lowland heathland
Lowland raised bog
Reedbeds
Wet woodland
UK
UK, N
UK, N
UK, N
UK, N
UK
UK, N
UK, N
No
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Invertebrates
Cinnabar moth
Narrow-mouthed whorl snail
Norfolk hawker dragonfly
Small heath butterfly
Wall butterfly
White admiral butterfly
UK
N
UK, N
UK
UK
UK
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
UK
UK
UK
UK
UK
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Mammals
Badger
Barbastelle bat
Brown long-eared bat
Daubenton’s bat
Noctule bat
Otter
Pipistrelle bat
Serotine bat
Soprano pipistrelle bat
Water vole
–
UK, N
UK, N
UK
UK, N
UK, N
–
UK
UK, N
UK, N
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Birds
Barn owl
Bittern
Lapwing
Nightjar
Reed bunting
Skylark
N
UK, N
UK
UK, N
UK, N
UK, N
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Amphibians and reptiles
Adder
Common lizard
Common toad
Grass snake
Slow-worm
The fight is won? | 63
So whichever way you look at the figures, the list of important
animal and plant species in the Forest is impressive, as is the
diversity of habitats (e.g. lowland heathland and raised bog).
Waveney Forest should be considered a sanctuary amid an
intensively farmed landscape with few valuable wildlife habitats.
Some species such as the stripe-winged grasshopper may be
entirely dependent on the dry acid grassland provided by the
Forest for its survival in east Norfolk. Heathland is also rare in the
Great Yarmouth area and is nowhere near as extensive as the
tracts found in the Brecklands of south-west Norfolk. The Forest
currently has just 6 ha of heathland remaining and much of this is
unmanaged and may quickly revert to woodland without active
conservation action. The birch carr with Sphagnum bog occupies
a further 7 ha of ground. Therefore, the two most important
habitats for conservation combined comprise only 13 ha, which is
roughly 10% of the Forest area. Also of importance is the Forest
edge, particularly valuable for its population of the narrowmouthed whorl snail and Norfolk hawker dragonfly, but also for
birds of prey such as the marsh harrier and riverine mammals such
as the water vole.
There are significant gaps in our knowledge of the flora and
fauna of the Forest. Beetles, moths and bees in particular deserve
further attention. Public moth trapping events in the Forest would
attract attention to the cause of protecting this important area. We
also know very little about the spiders present in the Forest,
necessarily identifying these is a job for the specialist.
Felling and an uncertain future
The apparent ‘devastation’ of the recent clear felling and a fire
may allow the wildlife of the Forest to rise from the ashes.
Keeping in mind the new lease of life given to the heathland flora
and insect fauna of the Forest by the creation of an area of
re-establishing vegetation and bare ground (with a burnt patch),
proposals to replant felled plots are being considered by the
landowner as a Forestry Commission felling licence often
requires the landowner to restock. I advise that it would be better
to keep at least some open areas during any replanting scheme to
ensure that the re-establishing heathland flora and fauna benefits
in the long-term from the felling and creation of open habitat so
desperately lacking under the shady pine canopy. The landowner
has left wide rides (at least a 10 m strip without trees on either side
of paths) unplanted along the paths that run along the edge and
through the middle of the felled areas. This should establish a
system of heathy rides similar to those currently being lost to tree
encroachment under the pylons.
However, further areas of conifers appear due for felling in
the not too distant future. This may sound like more senseless
64 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
destruction of wild habitats, but we must remember that the
conifers which were planted all those years ago as an economic
crop would one day be harvested to produce a yield for the
landowner. If large areas are felled next to each other then it is
possible that the flora and fauna of heathland will follow the
felling around the Forest, utilising the newly created open areas
and bare ground, before the replanted conifers become too tall,
casting a dense shade once more over the woodland floor. During
this felling there needs to be an understanding that the open
habitats have real value for wildlife as well. Natural regeneration
of native woodland containing birch and oak should be
encouraged in some areas.
Most important of all, now that the threat from large-scale
gravel extraction appears to have faded, is that the Forest is still
not a publicly owned nature reserve and management of the
landscape to maximise biodiversity will probably not be the
primary objective. That the wildlife still persists in some diversity
despite the obvious pressures from commercial forestry is a
testament to the resilience of the ecosystem. Major indirect
conservation benefits arise from felling of conifers and cutting
back of scrub under the pylons by the power company.
Efforts should be made to bring the Forest into ownership by
a conservation organisation which would finally safeguard its
future free from the dangers of exploitation for gravel extraction
purposes. The fight to save the Forest has had admirable public
support which must have had a strong bearing on the planners’
decision to exclude it from future quarrying plans in the county.
This shows the collective appreciation which the public have for
the Forest as a place of wildlife but also of quiet recreation. What
is needed now is a campaign to bring the Forest into nature
conservation management and ownership by a suitable
environmental organisation.
There needs to be an appreciation that the Forest, although
noted for its peaceful woodland walks in the dark shade of the
conifers, is about more than tree planting with the heathland
wildlife in desperate need of conservation. Those involved with
the management of the Forest in the future should be concerned
with finding a balance between maintaining woodland and open
heathland habitats. Perhaps a suitable strapline for Forest
conservation should be ‘let there be light!’
The future of the Forest is particularly uncertain given the
predictions over climate change. Its wet heathland and Sphagnum
bogs may be susceptible to decreased summer rainfall and
prolonged droughts as are insects such as the common green
grasshopper. But warmer springs and summers may bring new
species to the Forest as has happened over the last 20 years. The
list of Orthoptera has been increased by three species to the
The fight is won? | 65
overall total of 13, with no reported losses; therefore the Forest’s
ecosystems are greatly enriched by the presence of these new
insects. As with any changes, there will be winners and losers.
What we must ensure is that the threatened habitats and species
have enough resilience to cope with changes in the climate. This
could involve restoration of wet heathland and bog by the
clearance of encroaching scrub and woodland, thereby removing
added non-climatic pressures and increasing the area of these
habitats.
We must also be guarded about viewing the Forest with a
certain amount of sentimentally. The halcyon days of the
Victorian era when natterjack toads graced the Warren are long
since gone, as is the wet heathland habitat which supported
them, now replaced by seemingly endless lines of conifers.
Conservationists like to re-introduce species to their former
haunts, but this must be done with a complete understanding of
the ecology of the animal or plant in question. As mentioned
earlier natterjack toad re-introduction was recently attempted at
nearby Belton but the population did not survive long (Allard et
al. 2000). Similar efforts in Waveney Forest would be totally
misguided and unsuccessful unless the extensive wet heathland
and network of ponds could be recreated somehow.
Moving animals (particularly the common reptile species
which have legal protection) out of the way of damaging activities
(in this case quarrying) to safe sites is an accepted method to avoid
killing them (a criminal offence). However, the site which they
utilised will then be destroyed to make way for development;
ultimately wildlife suffers due to a net loss of habitat, even if the
reptiles thrive in their new home. It is much better to conserve
animals and plants ‘in situ’ rather than shifting everything out of
the way to pave the way for development.
Conservation efforts would be much better focused on
protecting and enhancing the wildlife that still occurs in the
Forest. The lurking adders which Dutt (1906) casually mentions
are still present on the scraps of heathland remaining in the Forest.
We should seek to protect the habitat of these heathland animals
from scrub encroachment and further conifer planting. What a
shame it would be if naturalists in the early 22nd century could not
delight in finding adders as we still do.
66 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Appendix
Species recorded
Scientific names of species recently (since 1990) recorded in the
Forest area and mentioned in this book. Scientific (Latin) names
are important in the identification of species across the world, as
there can be many vernacular names for the same species (e.g.
heather is traditionally called ling in East Anglia, but is known as
Calluna vulgaris across the world).
Vernacular name
Scientific name
Plants
Alder
Annual seablite
Aspen
Bell heather
Black knapweed
Blackthorn
Blunt-leaved bog moss
Bracken
Bramble
Broom
Climbing corydalis
Cock’s-foot
Common bent
Common couch
Common cudweed
Common nettle
Common reed
Corsican pine
Crested dog’s-tail
Cross-leaved heath
Dog rose
Downy birch
Elder
Field madder
Frogbit
Glasswort
Goat willow
Gorse
Hazel
Heath bedstraw
Heath-spotted orchid
Alnus glutinosa
Suaeda maritima
Populus tremula
Erica cinerea
Centaurea nigra
Prunus spinosa
Sphagnum palustre
Pteridium aquilinum
Rubus fruitcosus
Cytisus scoparius
Ceratocapnos claviculata
Dactylis glomerata
Agrostis capillaris
Elytrigia repens
Filago vulgaris
Urtica dioica
Phragmites australis
Pinus nigra var. maritima
Cynosurus cristatus
Erica tetralix
Rosa canina agg.
Betula pubescens
Sambucus nigra
Sherardia arvensis
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae
Salicornia spp.
Salix caprea
Ulex europaeus
Corylus avellana
Galium saxatile
Dactylorhiza maculata
Appendix | 67
Hemp agrimony
Ling (heather)
Marsh mallow
Marsh sow-thistle
Meadow vetchling
Milk parsley
Moss
Moss
Pedunculate oak
Pineapple mayweed
Purple moor-grass
Rhododendron
Rosebay willowherb
Rowan
Scarlet pimpernel
Scots pine
Sea aster
Sea barley
Sea couch
Sea spurrey
Sessile oak
Sheep’s fescue
Sheep’s sorrel
Silver birch
Tormentil
Tufted vetch
Water soldier
Wavy hair-grass
Wild angelica
Willow
Wood sage
Yellow flag iris
Yellow loosestrife
Eupatorium cannabinum
Calluna vulgaris
Althaea officinalis
Sonchus palustris
Lathyrus pratensis
Peucedanum palustre
Hypnum jutlandicum
Polytrichum commune
Quercus robur
Matricaria matricarioides
Molinia caerulea
Rhododendron ponticum
Chamerion angustifolium
Sorbus aucuparia
Anagallis arvensis
Pinus sylvestris
Aster tripolium
Hordeum marinum
Elytrigia atherica
Spergularia marina
Querus petraea
Festuca ovina
Rumex acetosella
Betula pendula
Potentilla erecta
Vicia cracca
Stratiotes aloides
Deschampsia flexuosa
Angelica sylvestris
Salix spp.
Teucrium scorodonia
Iris pseudacorus
Lysimachia vulgaris
Fungi
Birch polypore
Fly agaric
Slippery Jack
Piptoporus betulinus
Amanita muscaria
Suillus luteus
Butterflies (Lepidoptera)
Brimstone
Gatekeeper
Meadow brown
Orange-tip
Purple hairstreak
Ringlet
Small copper
Small heath
Speckled wood
Gonepteryx rhamni
Pyronia tithonus
Maniola jurtina
Anthocharis cardamines
Neozephyrus quercus
Aphantopus hyperantus
Lycaena phlaeas
Coenonympha pamphilus
Pararge aegeria
68 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Wall
White admiral
Lasiommata megera
Limenitis camilla
Moths (Lepidoptera)
Bordered white
Buff-tip
Cinnabar
Orange footman
Pine hawk-moth
Yellow horned
Bupalus piniaria
Palera bucephala
Tyria jacobaeae
Eilema sororcula
Hyloicus pinastri
Achlya flavicornis
Dragonflies (Odonata)
Brown hawker
Common darter
Four-spotted chaser
Hairy dragonfly
Large red damselfly
Migrant hawker
Norfolk hawker
Ruddy darter
Southern hawker
Aeshna grandis
Sympetrum striolatum
Libellula quadrimaculata
Brachytron pratense
Pyrrhosoma nymphula
Aeshna mixta
Aeshna isosceles
Sympetrum sanguineum
Aeshna cyanea
Grasshoppers and bush-crickets (Orthoptera)
Common green grasshopper
Omocestus viridulus
Common groundhopper
Tetrix undulata
Dark bush-cricket
Pholidoptera griseoaptera
Field grasshopper
Chorthippus brunneus
Great green bush-cricket
Tettigonia viridissima
Lesser marsh grasshopper
Chorthippus albomarginatus
Long-winged conehead
Conocephalus discolor
Meadow grasshopper
Chorthippus parallelus
Mottled grasshopper
Myrmeleotettix maculatus
Roesel’s bush-cricket
Metrioptera roeselii
Short-winged conehead
Conocephalus dorsalis
Slender groundhopper
Tetrix subulata
Stripe-winged grasshopper
Stenobothrus lineatus
Beetles (Coleoptera)
7-spot ladybird
Green tiger beetle
Harlequin ladybird
Lesser stag beetle
Violet ground beetle
Coccinella septempunctata
Cicindela campestris
Harmonia axyridis
Dorcus parallelipipedus
Carabus violaceus
Bees (Hymenoptera)
Buff-tailed bumblebee
Hornet
Red-tailed bumblebee
Tree bumblebee
Vestal cuckoo bee
Bombus terrestris
Vespa crabro
Bombus lapidarius
Bombus hypnorum
Bombus vestalis
Appendix | 69
Bugs (Homoptera)
Common froghopper
Philaenus spumarius
Molluscs
Narrow-mouthed whorl snail
Vertigo angustior
Birds
Barn owl
Bearded tit
Tyto alba
Panurus biarmicus
Bewick’s swan
Bittern
Buzzard
Crossbill
Egyptian goose
Goldcrest
Grasshopper warbler
Great-spotted woodpecker
Hobby
Kestrel
Lapwing
Long-eared owl
Mallard
Marsh harrier
Mute swan
Nightjar
Oystercatcher
Peregrine
Redshank
Reed bunting
Reed warbler
Sedge warbler
Skylark
Tawny owl
Teal
Whooper swan
Botaurus stellaris
Buteo buteo
Loxia curvirostra
Alopochen aegyptiacus
Regulus regulus
Locustella naevia
Dendrocopus major
Falco subbuteo
Falco tinnunculus
Vanellus vanellus
Asio otus
Anas platyrhynchos
Circus aeruginosus
Cygnus olor
Caprimulgus europaeus
Haematopus ostralegus
Falco peregrinus
Tringa totanus
Emberiza schoeniclus
Acrocephalus scirpaceus
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Alauda arvensis
Strix aluco
Anas crecca
Cygnus cygnus
Mammals
Badger
Bank vole
Barbastelle bat
Brown long-eared bat
Common pipistrelle bat
Common shrew
Daubenton’s bat
Fallow deer
Grey squirrel
Mink
Muntjac deer
Noctule bat
Meles meles
Myodes glareous
Barbastellus barbastellus
Plecotus auritus
Pipistrellus pipistrellus
Sorex araneus
Myotis daubentonii
Dama dama
Sciurus carolinensis
Neovison vison
Muntiacus reevesi
Nyctalus noctula
70 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Cygnus columbianus
Otter
Rabbit
Red deer
Red fox
Serotine bat
Soprano pipistrelle bat
Water vole
Wood mouse
Lutra lutra
Oryctolagus cuniculus
Cervus elaphus
Vulpes vulpes
Eptesicus serotinus
Pipistrellus pygmaeus
Arvicola amphibius
Apodemus sylvaticus
Reptiles
Adder
Common lizard
Grass snake
Slow-worm
Vipera berus
Zootoca vivipara
Natrix natrix
Anguis fragilis
Amphibians
Common frog
Common toad
Rana temporaria
Bufo bufo
Appendix | 71
72 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
References
Allard P., Bean M., Brown T., Rivett K. & Wooden B. 2000. Nature in East Norfolk. Lowestoft:
Great Yarmouth Naturalists’ Society.
Benton T. 2000. The Bumblebees of Essex. Wimbish: Lopinga Books.
Blyth J. 1908. Rubina. Haymarket, London: John Long.
Brust M.L., Hoback W.W. & Wright R.J. 2007. Immersion tolerance in rangeland grasshoppers
(Orthoptera: Acrididae). Journal of Orthoptera Research 16: 135-138.
Chatfield J. 2012. Recovering from Heath Fires. Country-Side 33: Vol. 4 21-22.
Dolman P.M. & Land R. 1995. Lowland Heathland. In W.J. Sutherland & D.A. Hill, Managing
Habitats for Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 267-291.
Dutt W.A. 1906. The Norfolk Broads. New York: R.W. Crothers. Available online at
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028042608
Essex County Council 2002. Report on the Potential Implications of Climate Change for Essex
County Council. Chelmsford: Essex County Council.
Farrell L. 1989. The different types and importance of British heaths. Botanical Journal of Linnean
Society 101: 3 291-299.
Forsman A. 2000. Some like it hot: intra-population variation in behavioral thermoregulation in
color-polymorphic pygmy grasshoppers. Evolutionary Ecology 14: 25-38.
Forsman A., Karlsson M., Wennersten L., Johansson J. & Karpestam E. 2011. Rapid evolution
of fire melanism in replicated populations of pygmy grasshoppers. Evolution 65: 9 2530-2540.
Gardiner T. 2008. Gravel extraction plan for Waveney Forest is the pits for insects. Bulletin of the
Amateur Entomologists’ Society 67: 245-248.
Gardiner T. 2009a. Hopping Back to Happiness? Conserving Grasshoppers on Farmland.
Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag.
Gardiner T. 2009b. Macropterism of Roesel’s bushcricket Metrioptera roeselii in relation to
climate change and landscape structure in eastern England. Journal of Orthoptera Research 18:
95-102.
References | 73
Gardiner T. 2009c. Observations of swimming grasshoppers in an acid pool in Epping Forest.
Journal of Orthoptera Research 18: 237-239.
Gardiner T., Benton T. & Harvey P. 2009. Southern Oak Bush-cricket Meconema meridionale
(Costa) new to Essex. Essex Naturalist (New Series) 26: 62-63.
Gardiner T. 2010a. Insects of Waveney Forest (Fritton Warren) in East Norfolk. Entomologist’s
Record & Journal of Variation 122: 4 155-162.
Gardiner T. 2010b. Precipitation and habitat degradation influence the occurrence of the common
green grasshopper Omocestus viridulus in southeastern England. Journal of Orthoptera Research
19: 2 315-326.
Gardiner T. 2011a. Glowing, Glowing, Gone? The Plight of the Glow-worm in Essex. Corby:
British Naturalists’ Association.
Gardiner T. 2011b. Waveney Forest rises like a phoenix from the ashes! The Norfolk Natterjack
114: 6-8.
Gardiner T. 2012a. Discovery of the Stripe-winged Grasshopper Stenobothrus lineatus in east
Norfolk. Transactions of the Norfolk & Norwich Society 44:1 80-82.
Gardiner T. 2012b. Melanism in the common groundhopper Tetrix undulata Sowerby (Orthoptera:
Tetrigidae) in relation to substrate colour. Entomologist’s Gazette 63: 157-160.
Gardiner T. 2012c. The Battle to Save a Norfolk Forest: The story so far…. Country-Side 33: 4
16-20.
Gardiner T. 2013. Grasshoppers (Orthoptera) of Great Yarmouth. Transactions of the Norfolk &
Norwich Naturalists’ Society 45: 84-94.
Halcrow. 2010. Broadland Flood Alleviation Project Compartments 33 & 34 (River Waveney),
Flood Alleviation Improvements to Fritton & Belton Marshes, Environmental Statement Volumes 1
and 2. Norwich: Halcrow Broadland Environmental Services Ltd.
Hill M., Baker R., Broad G., Chandler P.J., Copp G.H., Ellis J., Jones D., Hoyland C., Laing
I., Longshaw M., Moore N., Parrott D., Pearman D., Preston C., Smith R.M. & Waters R. 2005.
English Nature Research Reports No. 662. Audit of non-native species in England. Peterborough:
English Nature.
Hornby R.J. 1976. Heaths, Bogs and Fens. In Nature in Norfolk: a heritage in trust. Norwich:
Jarrold and Sons Ltd.
Independent Panel on Forestry. 2012. Independent Panel on Forestry Final Report.
Karlsson M., Caesar S., Ahnesjö J. & Forsman A. 2008. Dynamics of colour polymorphism in
a changing environment: fire melanism and then what? Population Ecology 154: 715-724.
74 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
Langston R.H.W., Wotton S.R., Conway G.J, Wright L.J., Mallord J.W., Currie F.A., Drewitt
A.L., Grice P.V., Hoccom D.G. & Symes N. 2007. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark
Lullula arborea – recovering species in Britain? Ibis 149: Suppl. 2 250-260.
Lindsay R. 2010. Peatbogs and Carbon: A Critical Synthesis. Unpublished report. Stratford:
University of East London,
Moulton N. & Corbett K. 1999. The Sand Lizard Conservation Handbook. Peterborough: English
Nature.
Owens N. 2010. The chameleon grasshopper. The Norfolk Natterjack 111: 10-12.
Paget C.J. & Paget J. 1834. Sketch of the Natural History of Yarmouth. London: Longman Rees.
Penistan M.J. 1976. Forestry in Norfolk. Its influence on habitats and wildlife. In Nature in Norfolk:
a heritage in trust. Norwich: Jarrold and Sons Ltd.
Rackham O. 1986. The History of the Countryside. London: J.M. Dent.
Richmond D. 2001. Grasshoppers and Allied Insects of Norfolk. Norwich:Norfolk and Norwich
Naturalists’ Society.
Rodwell J.S. (Ed.) 1991. British Plant Communities Vol. 1 (Woodlands and Scrub) and 4 (Aquatic
Communities, Swamps and Tall-herb Fens). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roy H., Brown P., Frost R. & Poland R. 2011. Ladybirds (Coccinellidae) of Britain and Ireland.
Wallingford: Field Studies Council & Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.
Sanford M. 1991. The Orchids of Suffolk. An atlas and history. Ipswich: The Suffolk Naturalists’
Society.
Sladen F.W.L. 1912. The Humble-bee: Its Life-History and How to Domesticate it. London:
Macmillan.
Smith G. 2007. Bush crickets on the menu. Essex Field Club Newsletter 54: 8-9.
Suckling A. 1846. The History and Antiquities of the County of Suffolk:Volume 1. ‘Fritton’ pp.
352-359. Available online at www.british-history.ac.uk
Webb N.R. 1986. Heathlands. London: Collins New Naturalist [Print on Demand].
References | 75
76 | The Natural History of Waveney Forest
View publication stats