GECC 111 – UNDERSTANDING THE
SELF
PRELIM NOTES
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Points to Remember:
Notes will be updated in every discussion and will be posted in our Google
Classroom.
Activities/quizzes will be given individually during our online discussion, they will
not be included in our notes.
Have fun while learning! 
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Prelim Objectives:
explain why is it essential to understand the self;
describe and discuss the different ways by which society and culture shape the
self;
identify the different ideas in psychology about the "self";
create a representation of the Filipino self.
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Introduction
Understanding the Self is a fundamental course in the General Education Curriculum for
tertiary education. It is designed to help the students understand the nature of identity
including factors that influence and shape personal identity.
Today, issues of self and identity are very critical to adolescents. This course was
conceptualized to aid undergraduate students develop a more critical and reflective
attitude in exploring the issues and concerns of the self and identity for a better and
proper way of understanding one’s self. It emphasizes the integration of personal daily
experiences of the students with their learning experiences inside the classroom to
encourage them to improve themselves for a better quality of life (Alata, Caslib, Jr.,
Serafica & Pawilen 2018).
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LESSON 1 - Ancient to Post-Modern Philosophy
Our names represent who we are and they signify us. However, our names
are not who we are. It is only a signifier. The self is something that a person
repeatedly molds, shapes and develops. Everyone is tasked to discover
one’s self.
Along with the many questions about everything, the earliest thinkers
(Greeks) were preoccupied with questions about the self. The Greeks
seriously questioned myths and were also the ones who moved away from
them in an attempt to understand reality and to answer questions about
curiosity including the self. To fully understand the different viewpoints of
the self, it is recommended for us to revisit its prime movers and identify the
most important assumptions made by philosophers from ancient times to
the present period.
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“Knowing others is wisdom. Knowing the self
is enlightenment. Mastering others requires
force. Mastering the self requires strength.“
- Lao Tzu
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Socrates and Plato
▫ Pre-socratics were preoccupied at the primary foundation, arche (beginning or
origin, explains the multiplicity of things in the world). Arche is a Greek word with
primary senses 'beginning', 'origin' or 'first cause’. In the language of the archaic
period arche designates the source, origin or root of things that exist. The most
secure foundations are those provided by the gods—the indestructible,
immutable and eternal ordering of things.
▫ Socrates was more concerned about the problem of the self.
▫ His Life-long mission: the true task of the philosopher is to know oneself.
▫ Socrates affirmed that an unexamined life is not worth living.
▫ Gadfly (annoying person): he was accused because of disturbing men and
shook them off in order to reach truth and wisdom. According to Socrates,
most men are not fully aware of who they were and the virtues that they
were to attain to preserve their souls for the afterlife.
▫ The worst that can happen to man: to live but die inside. Every man is
composed of body and soul: every person is dualistic or composed of two
aspects of his personhood. Body: imperfect, impermanent aspect, Soul:
perfect and permanent
▫ Plato supported his teacher’s idea: that man is dual in nature of body and soul.
▫ Three components of the soul:
▫ Rational Soul – forged by reason and intellect has to govern the
affairs of the human body
▫ Spirited Soul – emotions should be kept at bay
▫ Appetitive Soul – base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping and
having sex are controlled
▫ Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if
the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously with one another.
Points to Remember
▫ Socrates was the teacher of Plato. They both believed that there is a body
and soul in every person and there are qualifications in order to preserve our
souls for the after life. The 3 components of the soul should be in harmony to
attain justice in the human person.
▫ Similarities and Differences of Socrates and Plato about the Self
▫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LoVAd29HhHU
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Augustine
According to him, man is separated in nature. An aspect of man dwells on the world and
is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine and the other is capable of
reaching immortality.
Body: bound to die on earth, Soul: is anticipated to live eternally in a realm of
spiritual bliss with God.
Understanding the Self- St. Augustine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTJVPEXRK1Q
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Thomas Aquinas
He declared that man is composed of two parts: matter and form. Matter or hyle in
greek: refers to the common stuff that makes up everything in the universe. Man’s body
is part of this matter. Form or morphe in greek: refers to the essence of a substance or
thing.
The body of human person is something that he shares even with animals. Even his
cells are also present in every living thing or any organic being in the world. But his soul
or essence is what makes him different, it animates the body; it is what makes us
humans.
Aquinas on the Order of Self-Knowledge (Commentary on De Anima)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=no3tT8ZoZFs
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Rene Descartes
He is the father of Modern Philosophy. He conceived that the human person is
composed of having a body and mind. Famous lines: cogito ergo sum, “I think
therefore, I am.”
He stated that the fact that what we think should lead us to conclude without a doubt
that we exist. The self for Descartes is also a combination of two distinct entities:
cogito, the thing that thinks which is the mind, and extenza or extension of the mind
which is the body. The body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind.
All of us have it but it not makes man a man.
René Descartes' Philosophy about the Self
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlorG2V9XDI
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David Hume, Scottish philosopher
empiricist: we can know only what come from the senses and experiences. The self is
not an entity over and beyond the physical body.
Empiricism: a school of thought that promotes the idea that knowledge can only be
possible if it sensed and experienced. Men can only attain knowledge by experiencing.
Example: Lando knows Jesusa as another human person not because he can see her
soul but by the fact that he can see her, hear her stories or even hug her.
If we try to examine our experiences, you will find out that it is categorized into two:
impressions and ideas. Impressions: the basic objects of our experience or sensation.
They form the core of our thoughts. When one touches an ice cube, the cold sensation
is an impression. They are vivid or clear because they came from our direct experience
with the world. Ideas: copies of impressions. They are not as lively and vivid as our
impressions. When one imagines the feeling of falling in love for the first time, that still is
an idea.
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Immanuel Kant
▫ To him, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get
from the external world. Example: time and space are ideas that one cannot find
in the world but is built in our minds. He calls these apparatuses of the mind.
▫ He suggests that the self is actively engaged intelligence in man that
integrates all knowledge and experience. The self is not the only who gives
man his personality. It is also a seat of knowledge achievement for all human
persons.
▫ Understanding the Self- Immanuel Kant: We Construct the Self
▫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikIg6xrz6J0
Gilbert Ryle
▫ To him, what truly matters is the behavior that the person manifests in his day to
day life. Looking and trying to understand the self is like looking for the
university. There is no university but everything that is involved that makes one a
university.
▫ Self: is not an object that we can locate and analyze but simply the suitable
name that people use to refer all the behaviors that people make.
▫ The self by Gilbert Ryle
▫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4wgFiufKb4&t=17s
Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenologist
▫ He asserted that the mind-body divergence is a pointless and an untrue problem.
The mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from
one another.
▫ According to him, we cannot find any experience that is not an embodied
experience. He dismisses the Cartesian Dualism. The living body, the thoughts,
emotions and experiences are all one.
▫ Merleau Ponty's Philosophical definition of "self“
Conclusion:
▫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Revsaypay9s
A self is some sort of inner being or principle, essential to, but not identical
with, the person as whole. It is that in a person that thinks and feels. The
self is usually conceived in philosophy as that which one refer to with the
word “I”. It is that part or aspects of a person that accounts for personal
identity through time. In spite of all the ways one can change with time, the
self is invariably same through time. A self is what is supposed to account
for the fact that an individual is same person today as he/she was at the age
of five, given that all his characteristics have changed over time. For
instance, compared to his childhood, this individual is stronger, taller, and
smarter; he has different aspirations and dreams, different thoughts and
fears, his interests and activities are remarkably different. Yet, he is still the
same.
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LESSON 2&3: Sociology and Anthropology of the Self
Human persons will not develop as human persons without intervention. Tarzan’s story
challenges the long standing notion that humans are special among living beings. We may
have the gift to rationalize things but at the end of the day, our growth and development
and ourselves are products of our interaction with external reality.
Consider a typical day. You might interact with family members, friends on social media,
have a meeting with a boss or co-worker, and talk to someone you’re interested in dating.
All of these moments, and how we feel about ourselves during them, make up our social
self.
Social self refers to how we perceive ourselves in relation to others. It involves
relationship building, empathizing, and communicating. A healthy, or not so healthy, social
self will also impact your overall mental wellbeing and ability to meet life goals. That’s
because much of our world is social and involves interactions with others.
▫ Here’s a look at some things a person with a positive social self might
experience:
• A healthy sense of self worth including body image.
• Strong connections and emotional bonds with friends and family.
• Satisfaction and enjoyment with physical intimacy in relationships.
• An ability to effectively and appropriately communicate with people verbally
and nonverbally.
• Empathy and understanding of other people’s perspectives.
Consider the many areas of life these skills can help with. If you feel more confident,
you’re more likely to initiate a relationship, interview for a job, or take on a new life goal.
Feeling comfortable with emotional connections and intimacy can improve relationships
and decrease stress and feelings of insecurity. This confidence may also help you set
boundaries, stand up for yourself, and ask for help when your needs are not met.
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The Social Self
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G9Dgs_6UvNk
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10 Signs You Lack Self Awareness
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFb0vzrGwYs
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Sources:
https://sapienlabs.org/mentalog/what-is-social-self/
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Social Constructionist Perspective
Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication theory
that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world that
form the basis for shared assumptions about reality. The theory centers on the notion
that meanings are developed in coordination with others rather than separately within
each individual.
Social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the
time period in which they exist. An example of a social construct is money or the concept
of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/value. Another
example of a social construction—however controversial and hotly debated—is the
concept of self/self-identity. Charles Cooley expressed his looking-glass self theory by
the assertion, "I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think you
think I am." This articulates the view that people in society construct ideas or concepts that
may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.
There are weak and strong social constructs. Weak social constructs rely on brute facts
(which are fundamental facts that are difficult to explain or understand, such as quarks) or
institutional facts (which are formed from social conventions). Strong social constructs rely
on the human perspective and knowledge that does not just exist, but is rather constructed
by society.
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Culture and the Self
Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context is
paradoxical.
o French Anthropologist: Marcel Maus
o Every self has two faces: personne and moi
Moi: refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological
givenness. Moi is a person’s basic identity. Personne: is composed of the social concepts
of what it means to be who he is. It has much to do with what it means to live in a
particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular nationality, and
how to behave given expectations and influences from others.
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The Self and the Development of the Social World
• More than his givenness (personality, tendencies, etc.) one is believed to be in
active participation in the shaping of the self.
• Men and women are not born with particularities that they can no longer change.
 Social constructionism | Society and Culture | MCAT | Khan
Academy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5U2XAJNazik
 How Culture affects your Personality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jx-1EthJeIg&t=14s
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Mead and Vygotsky
• The way that human persons develop is with the use of language acquisition
and interaction with others. The way that we process information is normally a
form of an internal dialogue in our head.
• Cognitive and emotional development of a child: a mimicry of how it is done in
the social world, in the external reality where he is in.
• Vygotsky and Mead: treats the “human mind” as something that is made,
constituted through language as experienced in the external world and as
encountered in dialogs with others.
• Mead: the child assumes the “other” through language and role-play. Ex. Toys
• Vygotsky: a child internalizes real-life dialogs that he has had with others, with
his family, his primary caregiver, or his playmates. Ex. What they watch in TV
Self in Families
• Sociologists focused on the different institutions and powers at play in the
society. The most prominent is the family.
• The kind of family that we are born in, the resources available to us (human
spiritual, economic) and the kind of development that we will have will
certainly affect us as we go through life.
• In trying to achieve the goal of becoming a fully realized human, a child enters a
system of relationships, most important of which is the family.
• Human beings are born helpless
• Dependence to parents is longer than most other animals
• Human persons learns the way of living and selfhood by being in a family.
Through observation, babies learn to internalize ways and styles through
imitation.
• Internalizing behavior may either be conscious or unconscious. (table
manners; rewards and punishments).
• It is then clear that those who develop and eventually grow to become adult who
still did not learn simple matters like basic manners of conduct failed in
internalizing due to parental or familial failure to initiate them into the world.
What is LANGUAGE ACQUISITION? What does LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
mean?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIQ9q8-XTi0
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If Lady Gaga Were Filipino
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajBG_d-MiGU
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Gender and the Self
• Social sciences and the self-argued that it is important to give one the leeway to
find, express and live his identity.
• One maneuvers into the society and identifies himself as who he is by also
taking note of gender identities.
• Our gender partly determines how we see ourselves in the world.
• Example: Husbands in the Philippines, patriarchal
• Nancy Chodorow: a feminist, argues that mothers take the role of taking care of
children, there is a tendency for girls to imitate the same. Men are taught on how to
behave like a man which includes holding in one’s emotion, being tough, fatalistic
not to worry about danger, and admiration for hard physical labor.
• Example: circumcision
• Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by culture
and the society
Expressing Myself. My Way.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITRdvGnplLU
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Gender Roles and Stereotypes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ulh0DnFUGsk
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LESSON 4: Psychology of the Self
 The Self as Cognitive Construct
Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive functions, but it does not
discount the context and other possible factors that affect the individual. This lesson
provides an overview of the themes of psychology regarding the “self.”
William James (1890)
 He was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self.
 Two aspects of the self: the “I” and the “me.”
 “I” – thinking, acting, and feeling self
 “me” – physical characteristics and psychological capabilities that makes you who
you are.
Carl Rogers
 “I” – the and he one who acts and decides
 “me” – what you think or feel about yourself.
 Carl Rogers captured this idea in his concept of self-schema or our organized
system or collection of knowledge about who we are. The schema may include your
interests, work, course, age, name, and physical characteristics, etc. As you grow
and adapt to the changes around you, they also change. But they are no passive
receivers, they actively shape and affect how you see, think, and feel about things.
Sigmund Freud
 Saw the self, mental processes and one’s behavior as the results of the interaction
between the Id, the Ego and the Superego. Even Freud and other theorists cannot
fully discount the huge and important effect of the environment. Social interaction
always has a part to play in who we think we are.
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Symbolic Interactionism Theory
 G.H. Mead (1934) argued that the self is created and developed through human
interaction.
 Self-awareness
o Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware
of:
o The private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and
feelings; and the public self or your public image commonly geared toward
having a good presentation of yourself to others.
 Self-esteem
o It is defined as our own positive or negative perception or evaluation of
ourselves.
 Social Comparison Theory
o We learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as
our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.
• Downward social comparison - We create a positive self-concept
by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than us.
• Upward social comparison - Comparing ourselves with those better
off than us. It can be a form of motivation for some, but a lot actually
felt lower self-esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or
inequalities.
 Narcissism
o Is a trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and selfcenteredness.
LESSON 5: The Self in Western and Oriental / Eastern Thoughts
Different cultures and varying environments tend to create different perceptions of the
“self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the
Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents
Europe and Northern America.
It must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically closer to each other may
share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. There are a lot
of sources in which you can analyze the perspective of each culture and country about the
concept of “self”.
You can see it in their literature like how one culture depicts a hero or villain in their
stories. You can see it in their social organization like how they see their boss or their
subordinate. Artworks, dances, even clothing may show you clues about the “self.”
Religious beliefs and political philosophies greatly influenced the mindset of each nation or
culture.
1. Confucianism
Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct of how one should properly act
according to their relationship with other people; thus it is also focused on having
harmonious social life (Ho 1995).
Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics of a chun-tzu,
a man of virtue or noble character, is still embedded in his social relationships.
The cultivated self is called as “subdued self” wherein personal needs are repressed
(subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian society also hierarchal for the purpose
of maintaining order and balance in society.
2. Taoism
Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe. The self is not an extension of the
family or the community; it is part of the universe.
The ideal self is selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living a balanced
life with society and nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about
prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about equality as well as complementarily
among humans as well as other beings.
In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will not be restricted by
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3. Buddhism
The self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control
things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these
sufferings. It is therefore, our quest to forget about the self, forget the cravings of
the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to renounce the self
which is the cause of all the suffering and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana.
Western perspective does not discount the role of environment and society in the
formation of the self but the focus is always looking toward the self. (refer to p. 38)
Western thought looks at the world in dualities wherein you are distinct from the
other person, the creator is separate from the object he created, in which the self is
distinguished and acknowledged.
Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as well as things you
may create, a drama in which everyone is interconnected with their specific roles.
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LESSON 6: The Physical Self
The sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or male) and their
secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic
makeup. However, there are individuals who do not accept their innate sexual
characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs through medications
and surgery. This lesson will help us to better understand ourselves through a
discussion on the development of our sexual characteristics and behavior.
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Marieb, E.N. (Elaine Nipcon Marieb)
She explained that the gonads (reproductive organs that produce the gametes;
testis or ovary) begin to form until the eighth week of embryonic development.
During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive
structures of males and females are alike and are said to be in the indifferent
stage. When the primary reproductive structures are formed, development of the
accessory structures and external genitalia begins. The formation of male or
female structures depends on the presence of testosterone. Usually, once formed,
the embryonic testes release testosterone, and the formation of the duct system
and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that form ovaries, it
will cause the development of the female ducts and external genitalia since
testosterone hormone is not produced.
Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo
results in strange abnormalities such as:
1. Pseudohermaphroditism
- a condition in which the individual has a single
chromosomal and gonadal sex but combines features of both sexes in the
external genitalia, causing doubt as to the true sex. Female
pseudohermaphroditism refers to an individual with ovaries but with
secondary sexual characteristics or external genitalia resembling those of a
male. Male pseudohermaphroditism refers to individuals whose gonads are
testes but whose secondary sexual characteristics or external genitalia
resemble
those
of
a
female
(https://www.britannica.com/science/pseudohermaphroditism).
2. Hermaphroditism - the condition of having both male and female reproductive
organs (https://www.britannica.com/science/hermaphroditism).
Nowadays, many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex change operations to have
their outer selves (external genitalia) fit with their inner selves (gonads). Puberty is
the period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological
changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The onset of puberty typically
occurs at age 10 or 11 for females and at age 11 or 12 for males; females usually
complete puberty by ages 15 to 17, while males usually finish around ages 16 to
17.
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Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System
Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In
females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs,
according to the American Cancer Society. Many experts have seen what they refer to
as the "Angelina Jolie" effect, where women are taking proactive measures by having
breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they have a family history of cancer
before there are signs of the disease.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes,
gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a
disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact;
sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread. For females, severe
menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of the reproductive
system occurs with a woman's monthly menstrual period, according to Dr. Sheryl Ross,
OB/GYN and Women's Health Specialist at Providence Saint John’s Health Center. Pelvic
inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs,
including the uterus and ovaries.
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Erogenous Zones
An erogenous zone (from the Greek word “eros” that means "love") is an area of the
human body that has heightened sensitivity, the stimulation of which may generate a
sexual response, such as relaxation, sexual fantasies, sexual arousal and orgasm.
 Specific zones
Specific zones are associated with sexual response, and include the lips and nipples
in addition to areas of the genitals, notably the foreskin and corona of the glans
penis, clitoris and rest of the vulva, and perianal skin.
 Nonspecific zones
In these zones, the skin is similar to normal-haired skin and has the normal high
density of nerves and hair follicles. These areas include the sides and back of the
neck, the inner arms, the axillae (armpits) and sides of the thorax (chest). An
exaggerated tickle and anticipatory response are responsible for the heightened
sensual response.
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Human Sexual Behavior
Human sexual activity, any activity—solitary, between two persons, or in a group—that
induces sexual arousal. There are two major determinants of human sexual activity: the
inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction
and that are a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or
other types of influence exerted on individuals by society in the expression of their
sexuality (https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sexual-activity).
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Types of Behavior
 Solitary activity
Self-masturbation is self-stimulation with the intention of causing sexual arousal and,
generally, orgasm (sexual climax). Most masturbation is done in private as an end in
itself but is sometimes practiced to facilitate a sociosexual relationship.
 Sociosexual activity
By far the greatest amount of sociosexual activity is heterosexual activity between
only one male and one female. Heterosexual activity frequently begins in childhood,
and, while much of it may be motivated by curiosity, such as showing or examining
genitalia, many children engage in sex play because it is pleasurable. The sexual
impulse and responsiveness are present in varying degrees in most children and
latent in the remainder. With adolescence, sex play is superseded by dating, which is
socially encouraged, and dating almost inevitably involves some physical contact
resulting in sexual arousal. This contact, labelled necking or petting, is a part of the
learning process and ultimately of courtship and the selection of a marriage partner.
What are STDs?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Sbgg8icODY
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The ABCs of STDs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oi6uzWxrFFY
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LESSON 7: The Gendered Self
Gender is a social construction created and maintained between men
and women and not a fixed quantity that one is born with. The terms
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are seen, not as belonging to either men
or women respectively, but as formed in the relationships between
them.
▪ As Chodorow states, “To see men and women as qualitatively
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different kinds of people, rather than seeing gender as processual,
reflexive, and constructed, is to reify and deny relations of gender,
to see gender as permanent rather than created and situated.”
(1989, p. 113)
The social construction of gender emphasizes the various
stereotypical norms that prescribe different roles to men and
women.
In the division of household tasks, particular views of men and
women are perpetuated, which contain not just the allocation of
tasks but also the person’s perceptions of themselves as a man or
woman. These perceptions include the attitudes about what men
and women should do and the characteristics ascribed to each
gender. For example, men are said to be stronger and better at
technical tasks and women more sensitive and able to know
instinctively how to care for children.
Within the family context, self-concept is constructed as ‘internal
working models’ that guide and regulate behavior. As these models
are carried forward to other contexts, they contain gendered
aspects of self and other that help recreate the patterns of gender
relations and power inequalities in society.
 The social construction of self
Social constructionists consider the self as bring constructed through
and in language and narratives (Gergen, 1977). Our knowledges of
ourselves can be viewed as social or interpretive constructions which
adapt to changing social situations, rather than being immutable
characteristics or existing in some independent or objective sense
(Gergen, 1977; Gergen and Kaye, 1992).
Knowledges of the self form a multiverse of meanings which are
created through one’s experiences in relation to others and through
social contexts. Through these self-knowledges we punctuate and
construct our views and experiences of ourselves and others. Hence
there is no real self that is waiting to be discovered by the objective
other (e.g. scientist or therapist) but differing versions of the self. No
one perspective is more right than the other but each exists to
embrace different aspects of experience.
The self is a product of human exchanges, being created in relation to
‘the other’. This process begins in the early formative years before the
infant knows any language, then continues to be modified and
reinforced in the patterns of relationships in the years that follow. This
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The social construction of gender
The language of gender is constructed in polarized terms such as
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’, implying that these qualities belong
inherently to either men or women respectively (Bem, 1974). The
word ‘gendered’ is used here to describe something that is in the
process of being continually created and maintained, as opposed to
being a given quality in the individual. Gender becomes a fluid web
of socially constructed meanings that form an interpretive guide to
one’s own beliefs, behaviors, relationships and expression of affect.
The dominant models of gender relationships can appear inevitable
and unchangeable as part of a person’s ‘core sense of identity’,
both individually and collectively (Chodorow, 1989; Frosh, 1994).
Frosh concludes that sexual difference ‘is’ [not] anything absolutely
fixed; rather the organization of the social world around difference
produces people in relation to gender, so that what are in principle
‘empty’ categories (masculine, feminine) become filled with
expectations, stereotypes and projections.
END OF PRELIM NOTES
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