Open Water Diver Course
Knowledge Review
Answer Keys
Open Water Diver Course Knowledge Review Answer Keys
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
Name __________________________________________________________ Date __________________
Knowledge Review – Section One
Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review with you to your next training session.
1. True or False. An object is neutrally buoyant when it displaces an amount of water less
than its own weight.
False
2. Explain why buoyancy control, both on the surface and underwater, is one of the most important skills you can master.
To conserve energy while resting or swimming.
To stay off the bottom and avoid crushing or
damaging delicate aquatic life.
On the surface:
Underwater:
3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words: fresh water or salt water.
“The same object would be more buoyant in salt
ter.”
water than it would be in fresh wa-
4. True or False. “Because water is much denser than air, the pressure change for a given distance ascent or descent is significantly greater in water than in air.’’
True
5. Complete the following chart for a sealed flexible bag, full of air at the surface.
Depth
Pressure
Volume
Density
0'
1 bar/ata
1
x1
10m/33'
1/2
30m/99'
2 bar/ata
4 bar/ata
1/4
x2
x4
40m/132'
5 bar/ata
1/5
x5
6. Circle the letter of the best definition for a squeeze.
a. A condition that causes pain and discomfort when the pressure outside an air space
of your body is less than the pressure inside an air space.
b. A condition that causes pain and discomfort when the pressure inside an air space
of your body is less than the pressure outside an air space.
7. Check each statement that describes a technique used to equalize air spaces during descent:
□
 a. Block your nose and attempt to gently blow through it.
□
 b. Swallow and wiggle the jaw from side to side.
□
 c. Block your nose and attempt to gently blow through it while swallowing and
wiggling the jaw from side to side.
8. State how often you should equalize your air spaces during descent.
Every few metre/feet, before discomfort is felt.
9. True or False. “If you feel discomfort in your ears while descending, continue downward
until the discomfort is gone.”
False
10. State the most important rule in scuba diving.
Breathe continuously and never, never hold your breath.
11. Circle the letter of the best definition for a reverse block.
a. A condition that occurs when expanding air cannot escape from a body air space
during ascent, causing pain and discomfort.
b. A condition that occurs when expanding air escapes from a body air space during
ascent, causing pain and discomfort.
12. Describe what action you should take if you feel discomfort during ascent due to air
expansion, whether in your ears, sinuses, stomach, intestines or teeth.
Slow or stop ascent, descend a metre/few feet and allow
trapped air to work its way out.
13.
When scuba diving, why must your nose be enclosed in the mask?
To exhale into it and equalize.
14.
Explain the best way to prevent water from entering your scuba tank.
Never allow a tank to be completely emptied of air pressure.
15. Circle the appropriate answer. The most important feature for consideration when
selecting a regulator is:
a. The color
b. The number of hoses it has
c. Ease of breathing
d. Size
Name __________________________________________________________ Date __________________
Knowledge Review – Section Two
Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review with you to your next training session.
1. Check one. “Underwater, objects appear 33 percent __________ and/or __________.”
□ a. smaller, further away □
b. larger, closer
2. Check one. Since it travels about four times faster in water than in air, you will have
difficulty determining the origin of __________ underwater.
□ a. light □
b. sound
3. Fill in the blank with the appropriate word: faster or slower.
“Water conducts heat away from your body
faster than air does.”
4. Describe what you should do if you begin shivering continuously underwater.
Get out of the water, dry off and seek warmth.
5. Of the procedures you can follow to compensate for the increased resistance of water while
diving, check those listed here:
□
b. Avoid rapid, jerky movements.
a. Streamline yourself and your equipment. □
□
d. Pace yourself.
c. .Move slowly and steadily □
6. Check the statement that best describes the proper breathing pattern for diving.
□ a. Consistently rapid and shallow. □
b. Consistently slow and deep.
7. It is easy to prevent overexertion while diving. Check the proper preventative measures
listed here.
□
a. Move slowly and avoid extended strenuous activity.
□ b. Use your arms rather than your legs for propulsion underwater.
□
c. Know your physical limits.
8. Explain what to do if you become overexerted while diving.
a. Under water:
Stop all activity, breathe deeply and rest. Hold onto an object for support if possible.
b. At the surface:
Establish buoyancy and stop moving. Rest and catch your
breath. Once recovered: move at slower pace.
9. Check each statement that describes a technique used for airway control:
□
a. Use your tongue as a splash guard by placing the tip on the roof of your mouth.
□
b. Inhale slowly. □ c. Avoid rapid, jerky movement. □d. Inhale cautiously.
10. Explain why it is important not to wear a tight-fitting hood.
A hood that’s too tight can cause changes in the heart
rate due to compression of the arteries in the neck.
11. Check the appropriate answer. The most important feature of any weight system is:
□ a. the size and shape of the weights. □ b. the ease of adjustment.
□
c. a quick-release mechanism.
12. Check one. An alternate air source should be ________________, so it can be quickly and
easily identified by a diver needing the device.
□ a. tucked under the weight belt □
b. conspicuously marked
13. Describe where you should attach an alternate air source to your body.
In the triangular area between your mouth and the lower
corners of your rib cage.
14. True or False. A dive knife is used as a tool (to measure, pry, dig, cut and pound), but is
not intended to be, nor should be, used as a weapon.
True
15. Identify the meaning of the standard hand signal illustrated here.
b. Distress, help □ c. Out-of-air
□ a. OK? OK □
16. Explain how to check for proper weighting.
You should float at eye level with an empty BCD and while
holding a normal breath.
17. List and describe the steps of the predive safety check and explain when you should use
this check.
BWRAF – B-BCD, W-Weights, R-Releases, A-Air, F-Final ok.
Should be done before each dive.
Name __________________________________________________________ Date __________________
Knowledge Review – Section Three
Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review with you to your next training session.
1. There are several factors that affect visibility underwater. Check those listed here.
□
b. water movement □ c. ambient pressure □d. suspended particles
a. weather □
2. True or False. “To avoid problems associated with diving in clear water, use an accurate
depth gauge, refer to it frequently, and it is recommended that you use a line for ascents and
descents.’’
True
3. Explain what you should do if you find yourself caught in a current at the surface.
Swim perpendicular to the current or establish buoyancy,
signal for assistance and wait for help.
4. True or False. “You will find it easier to swim against a mild current along the bottom where
it is generally weaker than on the surface.”
True
5. Check one. If a current is present, you should generally begin your dive:
□ a. with the current. □ b. across the current. □
c. against the current.
6. Check one. Nearly all injuries from aquatic life are caused by ____________action on the part
of the animal.
□ a. unpredictable □ b. unprovoked □
c. defensive
7. Describe what you should do if you spot an aggressive animal underwater.
Remain still and calm on the bottom and watch what it does.
Calmly move away from the area by swimming on the bottom
and exit.
8. True or False. “For safety and enjoyment when diving in a new area or engaging in an new
activity, be sure to obtain a proper orientation.”
True
9. A rip current can be recognized as a line of turbid, foamy water moving ________________
□ a. toward shore. □
b. seaward. □ c. parallel to shore.
10. Outline three ways to prevent or control most diving problems that occur at the surface.
1. Dive within my limitations.
2. Relax while I dive.
3. Maintain positive buoyancy at the surface.
11. True or False. “The first step in assisting another diver with a problem at the surface is to
talk to him, offering encouragement and persuading him to relax.”
False
12. Arrange the five low-on-air/out-of-air emergency procedures in order of priority of 1
through 5.
5
3
1
4
2
Buoyant emergency ascent
Controlled emergency swimming ascent
Normal ascent
Buddy breathing ascent
Alternate air source ascent
13. Check one. If you become entangled underwater, you should:
□ a. Twist and turn to free yourself.
□ b. Stop, think and then work slowly and calmly to free yourself.

14. True or False. “With an unconscious diver, the primary concern is to remove him from the
water.”
False
15. True or False. Once removed from the water, an unconscious diver should be administered
oxygen if available.
True
Name __________________________________________________________ Date __________________
Knowledge Review – Section Four
Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review with you to your next training session.
1. A detailed log book is the proof-of experience documentation typically requested in many
diving situations. Check those listed here.
□
a. for additional diver training □ b. by dive stores when buying diving equipment
□
c. when diving at resorts or on boats
2. Explain how to prevent problems with contaminated air.
Have tanks filled only with pure, dry, filtered compressed air
from a reputable air station.
3. State the two ways divers prevent problems with oxygen.
a. Never fill a tank with pure oxygen
b. Do not use enriched air or a cylinder marked for enriched air
unless you are properly trained.
4. Check each symptom related to nitrogen narcosis:
□
b. foolish behavior □ c. joint and limb pain
a. impaired coordination □
5. Check one. To prevent nitrogen narcosis:
□ a. skip breathe. □ b. equalize your air spaces early and often. □
c. avoid deep dives.
6. Check each symptom which may be related to decompression sickness:
□ a. foolish behavior □
b. moderate tingling
□ c. cherry-red lips □
d. weakness and prolonged fatigue
7. Outline the first aid procedure for assisting someone with decompression illness.
Get the person into medical care. Prevent/treat for shock,
administer oxygen, if necessary, CPR. Put diver in a left-side
down position.
8. True or False. “When using either version of the Recreational Dive Planner or any dive
computer, you must ascend at a rate that does not exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute.’’
True
9. Match the following by placing the correct letter in the blank.
a. Maximum depth limit for Open Water Divers.
c. Maximum depth limit for divers with training and experience
beyond the Open Water Diver level.
b. Maximum depth limit for divers with Deep Diver training.
a. 18 metres/60 feet
b. 40 metres/130 feet c. 30 metres/100 feet
10. According to the Recreational Dive Planner, the no decompression limit for
18 metres/60 feet is:
Metric – 56 minutes
Imperial – 55 minutes.
11. What is your pressure group after a dive to 14 metres/46 feet for 24 minutes?
Metric – E Pressure Group
Imperial – F Pressure Group
12. After a dive, you are in pressure group K. What will your new pressure group be after a
34-minute surface interval?
F Pressure Group
13. A diver in Pressure Group G plans a dive to 17 metres/56 feet. What is the maximum
allowable bottom time according to the Recreational Dive Planner?
34 min. Maximum Allowable Bottom Time
14. Indicate the final pressure group upon surfacing after the following series of dives.
First dive: 16 metres/50 feet for 23 minutes; surface interval: 1:30.
Second dive: 10 metres/35 feet for 46 minutes.
Final Pressure Group = M
15. Indicate the final pressure group upon surfacing after the following series of dives.
First dive: 18 metres/60 feet for 15 minutes; surface interval: 1:00.
Second dive: 12 metres/40 feet for 30 minutes.
Final Pressure Group = K
Name __________________________________________________________ Date __________________
Knowledge Review – Section Five
Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review with you to your next training session.
(Answer all questions, regardless of which Recreational Dive Planner your are using — the eRDPML or table version.)
1. Describe the three required situations in which a safety stop should be made.
a. A dive has been to 30 metres/100 feet or deeper.
b. Pressure group at end of dive is within three pressure
groups of the no-decompression limit.
c. A dive is made up to any limit on the Recreational Dive Planner.
2. Check one. “If you accidentally exceed a no-decompression limit or an adjusted no-decompression limit by no more than 5 minutes, you should slowly ascend at a rate not faster
than 18 metres/60 feet per minute to 5 metres/15 feet and remain there for ________ minutes prior to surfacing. After reaching the surface, do not dive for at least ________ hours.”
□
a. 8 minutes, 6 hours □ b. 15 minutes, 24 hours
3. State the altitude above which the Recreational Dive Planners should not be used unless
special procedures are followed.
300 metres/1000 feet
4. True or False. “To be reasonably assured you remain symptom free from decompression
sickness when flying in a commercial jet airliner after diving, wait 12 hours.’’
True
5. Explain the procedure you must follow when planning a dive in cold water or under strenuous conditions using the Recreational Dive Planner.
Plan the dive as though the depth were 4 metres/10 feet
deeper than it actually is.
6. What is the minimum surface interval required between a dive to 18 metres/60 feet for 40
minutes followed by a dive to 14 metres/50 feet for 60 minutes?
Metric – Minimum Surface Interval = 0:28
Imperial – Minimum Surface Interval = 1:12
7. What is the minimum surface interval required between a dive to 20 metres/70 feet for 29
minutes followed by a dive to 14 metres/50 feet for 39 minutes?
Metric – Minimum Surface Interval = 0:00
Imperial – Minimum Surface Interval = 0:04
8. With reference to the compass heading shown in Figure 1, select the figure letter that indicates a reciprocal heading.
Reciprocal heading is shown by the figure letter:
B
9. What is the purpose of the PADI System of continuing education?
Continuing education courses let you:
1. Meet people.
2. Go places.
3. Do things.
10. State the purpose of PADI Discover Local Diving:
To provide a single, supervised open water experience to a
new diving area.
11. When should you consider taking PADI Scuba Review?
If I go several months or longer without diving.
12. What is the relationship between Adventure Dives, Advanced Open Water course dives
and Specialty Diver course dives?
Adventure Dives can be credited toward the Advanced
Open Water Diver course and/or corresponding
Specialty Diver course.
13. What is a Course Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ), and what is it’s purpose?
PADI CEQs are surveys used to recognize outstanding performance by an instructor and to verify that all training elements were conducted in every course.
Adventures in Diving Program
Knowledge Review
Answer Keys
Adventures in Diving Program Knowledge Review Answer Keys
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review ­­– Altitude Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Define “altitude dive” and briefly explain why there are special considerations when using
tables and dive computers at altitude.
Any dive made at 300 metres/1000 feet or greater above sea
level. Special dive table considerations are needed to account for
the difference in atmospheric pressure.
2. What’s the main difference between altitude diving and flying after diving?
In altitude diving, the exposure to lower atmospheric pressure
precedes the dive. The exposure to lower atmospheric pressure follows the dive when flying.
3.List the current recommendations for flying after diving.
For a single dive within the no decompression limit, a minimum
preflight surface interval of 12 hours is suggested. For repetitive
dives and/or multiday dives, a minimum preflight surface interval of 18 hours is suggested. For dives requiring decompression
stops, a minimum preflight surface interval greater than 18 hours
is suggested.
4.List two possible detrimental physiological conditions, aside from decompression sickness, that
may be concerns for altitude divers, and explain how to avoid them.
1. Hypoxia – pace yourself, avoid strenuous work
2. Hypothermia – use adequate exposure protection
5. Describe how altitude affects each of the following instruments, and how to adjust for those
effects.
a. Digital electronic depth gauge:
Varies. Some adjust automatically – consult manufacturer’s
instructions.
b. Bourdon tube depth gauge:
Reads shallower than actual depth – use adjustment knob if available.
c.
Capillary depth gauge:
Reads deeper than actual depth. Reads theoretical depth – no
adjustment necessary
d. Dive computer:
Varies. Some adjust automatically – consult manufacturer’s
instructions.
6. Identify the following when using the RDP at altitude.
9 metres/30 feet or slower
b. Safety stop time/depth: 3 minute stop at theoretical depth
c. Maximum depth: Theoretical depth of 40 metres/130 feet
d. Maximum altitude: 3000 metres/10,000 feet
a. Ascent rate:
7. What’s the generally recommended maximum number of dives in a day when using the RDP
at altitude.
Two
8. You plan to dive to an actual depth of 18 metres/60 feet one hour after arriving to an altitude
of 1090 metres/3578 feet. If you were to dive to the no-decompression limit, what would your
no-decompression limit be for a repetitive dive to the same depth after a 45 minute surface
interval?
16 min metric 18 min imperial
9. You plan to dive to an actual depth of 24 metres/80 feet after spending seven hours at the dive
site altitude of 1226 metres/4023 feet. What is your no-decompression limit for this dive? If
your bottom time is 15 minutes, what would your no-decompression limit be for a repetitive
dive to an actual depth of 18 metres/60 feet after a one hour, five minute surface interval?
Part 1: 20 minutes
Part 2: Metric = 25 min
Imperial – Table = 20 min, eRDPML = 24 min
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _____________
Adventure Dive: Altitude
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Tour (time/air pressure permitting)
•
Briefing
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Gearing Up
•
Exit
•
Predive Safety Check
•
Debrief
•
Entry
•
•
Descent
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
•
Depth Gauge Comparisons at Depth
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – AWARE Fish Identification
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Why are scuba divers and snorkelers the “natural” ambassadors for the aquatic environment?
Divers and snorkelers notice both short and long term changes in
the aquatic realm. This intimate familiarity with the underwater
world, makes them the natural ambassadors for the aquatic
environment.
2. A.W.A.R.E. is an acronym for:
Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education
3. True or False. Project AWARE’s mission includes teaching the world about the importance of
preserving the aquatic environment.
TRUE
4. The Project AWARE Foundation supports environmental efforts by:
❑ a. Encouraging aquatic ecology and education.
❑ b. Funding and assisting worthwhile projects that enrich humanity’s awareness
and understanding of the aquatic world’s fragile nature.
❑ c. Supporting environmental research
■ d. All of the above.
5. Approximately how many different fish species exist worldwide?
21,000
6. True or False. The simple strategy for identifying fish is to focus on families, rather than trying to learn every fish species.
TRUE
7.Fish identification is a(n) __________ activity. Avoid _________ fish to get a better look.
❑ a. interactive/photographing
❑ b. passive/staring at
■ c. passive/chasing
❑ d. interactive/drawing
8. List at least four common fish groupings used to identify fish in your local area.
(Answers vary depending on location)
9. List some of the characteristics that assist in distinguishing between fish families.
Possible answers include:
1. Size
2. Color
3. Body shape
4. Fin configuration
5. Mouth/jaw shape
6. Habitat and behavior
7. Propulsion method
10. Describe the “roving diver” survey technique?
A technique that allows divers to swim along as usual, spotting
fish along the way. The divers do not have to alter or restrict their
normal dive pattern.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name __________________________________________________ Date _________________
Adventure Dive: AWARE Fish Identification
Skills Overview
•
Slate preparation
•
Post dive procedures
•
Briefing
•
•
Equipment preparation
Use reference materials to identify
unfamiliar fish
•
Predive Safety Check
•
Debrief
•
Entry
•
•
Descent
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
•
Observe and identify fish families
•
Record sightings
•
Sketch/describe unfamiliar fish
•
Ascent and exit
Name _________­­­__________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Boat Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.On the illustration, label the following: bow, stern, port, starboard, windward and leeward.
Windward
➞
➞
Port
➞
Bow
➞
Starboard
Stern
Leeward
2.List eight pieces of emergency equipment commonly found on dive boats.
1.
2.
3.
4.
PFDs (personal flotation devices)
Fire extinguishers
Sound signaling devices
Visual distress signals
5.
6.
7.
8.
First aid kit
Oxygen equipment
Marine radio
Bilge pump or bailer
3. Describe how to help prevent seasickness, and what to do if you become seasick.
Prevention: take a seasickness medication well in advance of boarding; avoid
greasy foods; stay on deck, or at least in the fresh air, as close to the center of the boat as possible; look at something stationary on the horizon;
avoid intricate tasks; enter the water as soon as possible; avoid breathing
engine exhaust; and avoid using the head during rough weather.
If seasickness occurs: stay out of the boat’s head; go to the lee side (downwind) rail to vomit; and drink some room temperature water.
4. Describe the “general” boarding procedure for a typical charter boat.
Plan to board 1/2 hour prior to departure. Ask crew where to stow equipment. Sign-in and listen to predive briefings.
5.On most dive boats be sure to work from your dive bag and not take up ___________ .
Excessive space
6.Explain the general guidelines for making proper entries from various types of boats.
When ready to enter the water, make sure your buddy is also ready. Check
in with the divemaster (if there is one). Partially inflate your BCD, put your
regulator in your mouth (unless you are putting your unit on in the water).
Make sure the entry area is clear and hold your mask firmly. Have your accessories handed down.
7.Explain the location and purpose for trip line, gear line, tag line and current line:
Buoyed from front of the anchor, used to release anchor – sometimes used for descent/ascent line.
Gear line: Usually near entry/exit area – used to secure gear when diving from
a small boat, or to suspend accessories.
Tag (swim) line: From stern or entry area to mooring/anchor line – used to pull
yourself from the entry area to the mooring/anchor line.
Current (trail or mermaid) line: Trailed behind boat – used to maintain position
in a current and pull yourself to the boat. Provides a larger target if you
have to swim across current to reach the boat.
Trip line:
8. Describe the procedures for making a free descent from a boat.
Take care to avoid disorientation. Watch descent rate – maintain buddy
contact.
9. What are the general guidelines for making a proper exit into a charter boat?
Wait your turn to exit, avoid positioning yourself under a diver on a ladder.
Time swells to assist with your exit – letting them carry you onto the platform. Don’t remove fins until contact with the boat is made. Keep your mask
on and breathe through your snorkel or regulator until you’re aboard. Hand
up accessory equipment.
10.Explain why you should listen to post-dive roll calls by divemasters or crew members.
This procedure makes sure everyone is aboard and accounted for before
leaving the area.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Boat
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Dive for Fun and Pleasure
•
Briefing
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Suiting Up
•
Boat Diving Exit
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Stow Equipment
•
Boat Diving Entry
•
Debrief
•
Descent
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­__________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Deep Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.List five factors to consider when determining your personal deep diving depth limit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Environmental conditions
Physical and psychological fitness
Surface interval – pressure group
Geographic location
Personal and buddy’s ability
2.Explain how to determine if your equipment is suitable for deep diving.
Consider equipment condition and appropriateness for use while
deep diving. Regulator and SPG serviced annually. BCD in good
working condition. Exposure suit used based on deep water temperatures. Complete set of gauges – ideally on a console.
3.List five pieces of specialized equipment recommended for deep diving.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reference line
Emergency breathing equipment
Wrist weights
Underwater light
First aid kit and emergency oxygen
4. Describe proper ascent and descent techniques for deep diving, including positioning, maintaining a proper ascent rate and descending/ascending without a visual reference.
When possible, descend feet-first on deep dives. Estimate rate of
ascent using depth gauge and timer together or electronic depth
gauge/dive computer with ascent warning. Without a visual reference, ascend/descend in a feet-down position, face buddy, watch
rate of ascent, adjust buoyancy frequently. Make a safety stop.
5.Explain how to avoid low-on-air or out-of-air emergencies while deep diving.
Monitor SPG frequently – more often than on shallower dives.
6. Describe how to make a safety stop at 5 metres/15 feet with a usual reference (line or sloping
bottom).
Grasp line (or bottom) so that depth is at midchest level – body
vertical. Maintain neutral or slight negative buoyancy – watch
depth and time. Review dive time and depth limits.
7. Describe how to prevent narcosis, and how to treat it if it occurs.
Stay in shallower water. If it occurs, ascend with buddy to shallower water until symptoms/signs subside.
8.List six symptoms and six signs of decompression illness.
SymptomsSigns
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pain in arms, legs or torso
Local numbness, tingling, paralysis
Dizziness and vertigo
Unusual fatigue/weakness
Skin itch
Shortness of breath
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Blotchy skin rash
Tendency to favor an arm or leg
Staggering
Coughing spasms
Collapse
Unconsciousness
9. What is the primary reason divers get decompression illness.
Diver error
10.Explain how to minimize the risk of decompression sickness.
Use all decompression devices and tables (including the RDP)
accurately and never dive to their limits.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Deep
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge Review
Briefing
Timed Task on Surface
Assembling and Positioning
Emergency Equipment
Suiting Up
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
Entry
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Descent
Timed Task on Bottom
Depth Gauge Comparisons at Depth
Guided Tour (time/air pressure permitting)
Ascent and Safety Stop
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­__________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review Level Two –
Digital Underwater Photography
Answer the following questions and hand them in to your instructor for review.
1. Which of the following format characteristics apply to JPEGs? (Check all that apply.)
■ a. compressed
q b. used mainly for printing photos
■ c. less quality than other formats
q d. unprocessed image data
q e. slow to write
2. What four settings affect exposure? (Check all that apply.)
■ a. aperture
q b. housing type
■ c. ISO
■ d. shutter speed
■ e. exposure compensation
3. Why do you need to be cautious about using your LCD monitor to assess your exposure underwater? (Check all that apply.)
■ a.LCD screens tend to have high contrast.
■ b.LCD screens look more bright/colorful in dim conditions.
■ c.LCD screens may be hard to see in bright conditions.
4. What characteristics would you expect from a photograph with this histogram?
q a. underexposed
■ b. overexposed
q c. flat
q d. contrasty
5. What do you do if your histogram shows you your picture is too bright or too dark?
■ a. Adjust the exposure compensation, or use a different aperture or shutter speed if the
camera is on manual.
q b.Forget it and go elsewhere.
q c.Fix it in post processing.
6. Why is negative space important to good composition?
q a It prevents the image from having any tone or feeling.
■ b. It balances the subject in the image.
7. To use the Rule of Thirds (check all that apply):
■ a. mentally divide the frame into thirds both vertically and horizontally.
q b. keep your subject away from these lines or where they intersect.
■ c. put your subject on these lines or where they intersect.
8. What helps you get good results from built-in flash underwater? (Check all that apply.)
■ a. Only use built-in flash in very clear water.
q b. Don’t use the white balance.
■ c. Use a flash diffuser if your housing accepts one.
q d. Stay at least 3 metres/10 feet from your subject.
9. Where do you place an external strobe for good results?
q a. Place an external strobe directly next to the lens.
q b. Place an external strobe to the side and well below the subject.
■ c. Place an external strobe away from the camera at an approximately 45º angle to the
side or slightly above camera level.
10. What is the first thing you do after downloading your images?
q a. Adjust their quality.
q b. Email them to a friend.
■ c. Back them up to a separate medium.
Student Statement: Any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I have had explained to
me, and I understand what I missed.
Signature_________________________________________________________________Date______________
Adventure Dive: Digital Underwater Photography
Skills Overview
•
Briefing
•
Assemble and test camera equipment
•
Gearing Up
•
Predive Safety Check
•
Enter the water safely protecting
camera system
•
Demonstrate care for the environment and
avoid damaging it
•
Practice getting proper exposure, contrast
and sharpness by using and controlling shutter, aperture, EV control, focus and flash
•
Practice getting good color by using white
balance, flash, filters and wide angle lenses
•
Practice composition through choice of
subject, subject positioning, negative
space and other compositional elements
•
Demonstrate use of the PADI SEA Method
by using the LCD monitor and/or histogram to evaluate exposure, sharpness and
composition
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
•
•
•
Exit the water safely protecting
camera system
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name ________________________________________________ Date ________________
Knowledge Review – Diver Propulsion Vehicle
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this knowledge review to your next
training session.
1. List two advantages of using a DPV.
1. You can cover significantly more area on a dive.
2. DPVs reduce exertion and air consumption.
2. What are five features common to all DPVs?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thrust control/trigger mechanism
Propeller and housing
Handles
Battery access
Buoyancy characteristics
3.Explain why is it important to secure your DPV when traveling by boat?
If the DPV slides or rolls, this could damage the unit, other
equipment or cause injury.
4. What is a good guideline when using battery power or air supply to determine a
turnaround point for a dive?
The rule of thirds ‑ 1/3 air/power to reach your destination, 1/3 to
return and 1/3 for reserve.
5. True or False. In extreme situations, you may need to abandon your DPV.
True
6. True or False. When using a DPV, a diver should never exceed an ascent rate of 18 metres/60
feet per minute.
True
7.List two suggestions/recommendations for avoiding propeller entanglements and obstructions.
1. Keep all buckles, lanyards, hoses and other equipment firmly
secured and away from the propeller.
2. Be careful when maneuvering around areas with heavy
aquatic vegetation.
8. True or False. Riding tandem while diving with a DPV is neither a common nor acceptable
procedure.
False
9. Explain the procedures entries from shore when using a DPV.
Hold the vehicle in a way that the throttle control can not be
accidentally engaged. Do not operate vehicle until you are in the
water deep enough for it to tow you without obstruction from the
bottom (usually about chest deep). Be sure to keep prop shroud
completely below the surface of the water to prevent cavitation.
10. What are two things a diver can do to avoid damaging aquatic life while using a DPV?
1. Be aware of your fin position at all times when maneuvering
around fragile aquatic life.
2. Avoid disturbing the bottom. Sand or silt not only decreases
visibility, but can damage aquatic life and clog the propeller.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name __________________________________________________ Date _________________
Adventure Dive: Diver Propulsion Vehicle
Skills Overview
•
DPV Preparation
•
Tandem Riding
•
Briefing
•
Parking
•
Equipment Preparation
•
Towing a DPV
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Underwater Tour
•
Appropriate Entry with DPV
•
Appropriate Ascent with DPV
•
DPV Use at Surface
•
Appropriate Exit with DPV
•
Appropriate Descent with DPV
•
Post Dive Procedures
•
Riding Steady and Level
•
Debrief
•
Adjusting Depth
•
•
Turning
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Drift Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. List and explain four advantages and four considerations for drift diving.
Advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Requires little effort
Allows diving even when strong currents exist
Can see more area
Don’t have to return to a specific exit point
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exit and entry must be coordinated
Extra vigilance in maintaining buddy contact
Coordination of surface support and supervision
Must be done where there’s a long extensive bottom
Considerations:
2. Explain why it’s recommended that you have some form of surface supervision for most forms
of drift diving.
Can lend assistance if necessary and if an emergency arises.
3. List seven considerations that should be part of planning a drift dive.
1. Surface conditions and current intensity
2. Depth and visibility
3. Dive objective
4. Number and size of dive teams
5. Diver experience levels
6. Bottom topography
7. Availability of surface support
4. Describe the difference between a buoyant and a negative drift diving entry, and explain when
you would use each.
Buoyant entry: Enter water with BCD partially inflated; used when
problem solving must be done at the surface prior to entry.
Negative entry: Enter water with BCD empty; used when dive must
begin on a small site.
5. Explain the procedure for descending with a float so that a group stays together on a drift dive.
Follow line down, using it as a visual guide. Maintain buddy contact, don’t drop straight down. If having trouble equalizing follow
line up until problem is cleared, then follow it down. Swim around
divers having trouble descending.
6. Describe several techniques used to stay with the group during the underwater tour portion of
a drift dive.
Stay up-current from group leader/line handler. Watch for his
signals and if he stops, maintain position by swimming into current or holding on.
7. Describe how to ascend as a group and as individual buddy teams. Explain when buddy
teams may ascend individually from a group drift dive.
Group ascent: Ascent begins when first diver signals low on air or
when planned bottom time is reached. Group makes normal ascent ahead of group leader/line handler. Make safety stop.
Individual buddy team ascent: Make a normal ascent and safety
stop. Individual ascents may be used when conditions are good
and with experienced divers.
8. Describe the procedures for safely exiting the water onto a boat after a drift dive.
Stay together with the group. Don’t swim toward boat until directed to do so by crew. Keep clear of boarding ladder until it’s
your turn.
9.Explain how to avoid exhaustion in a current.
Keep exertion below levels that induce heavy breathing. Underwater, stay at or near the bottom. Don’t fight the current. At surface inflate BCD and rest.
10. Define “being lost” in the context of drift diving, and how you might rejoin the group if you
were “lost.”
You’re lost when you can’t see the float line or the dive group –
even if you’re with your buddy. Look for the group for no more than
one minute before ascending. Look for group float and bubbles.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and
any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Briefing
•
Gearing Up
•
Predive Safety Check
•
Entry
•
Group Descent
Adventure Dive: Drift
•
•
•
•
•
Drift Dive for Fun and Pleasure
Ascent – Safety Stop
Exit
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Dry Suit Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.Explain why even mild hypothermia can be a problem for divers, and how to avoid it.
It interferes with clear thinking, saps away strength and endurance. To avoid, always wear adequate thermal protection before,
during and after a dive.
2. How do you check for proper weighting when diving in your dry suit?
Wearing dry suit, undergarment and all regular equipment, you
should float at eye-level while holding a normal breath with an
empty BCD. When you exhale, you should sink.
3. Why is it important to not dive with an excessively tight neck seal?
Can cause carotid sinus reflex, which results in changes in your
heart rate and possible unconsciousness.
4. How do you attain positive buoyancy at the surface, attain and maintain neutral buoyancy
underwater, and prevent dry suit squeeze when dry suit diving?
At the surface, add air to BCD, not dry suit. Underwater, if you’re
wearing a shell dry suit add air to the dry suit to adjust for neutral buoyancy. Underwater, if you are wearing a neoprene dry suit
or if you are wearing a dry suit for tec diving, add air to your buoyancy compensator to adjust for neutral buoyancy. Add a little air
to your dry suit on descent to prevent dry suit squeeze.
5. Describe how to add air to your dry suit while underwater.
Short, light bursts of air.
6. How do you vent air from your dry suit while underwater?
In a feet-down position, vent air through the exhaust valve
regularly and gently.
7. What should you do if you become too buoyant due to excess air in your suit?
Disconnect inflator valve hose (if it started the problem).
Immediately dump air from exhaust valve or by pulling the neck or
wrist seals open – flair body while dumping air to create drag.
8. How do you cope with too much air in your dry suit legs/feet?
Rapidly tuck into a ball while rolling on to your back – dump air immediately if needed.
9. What should you remember about breathing if caught in a runaway or rapid ascent?
Be sure not to hold your breath during the ascent
10.List what you should do if your dry suit floods.
Terminate dive immediately. Use BCD to regain buoyancy – drop
weights if necessary. Service your dry suit if necessary.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Dry Suit
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Briefing
•
Suiting Up
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Entry
•
Controlled descent
•
Neutral Buoyancy – Fin Pivot
•
Neutral Buoyancy – Hover
•
Dry Suit Dive for Fun and Pleasure
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Scuba Unit and Weight System Removal and Replace at Surface
•
Exit
•
Debrief
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
•Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________ Knowledge Review – Enriched Air Dive
1. What is the primary purpose for using enriched air nitrox?
To extend the no stop limits beyond the normal air no stop limits.
2. How does using enriched air well within air no decompression limits affect safety?
It has no significant effect on safety, provided enriched air procedures are
followed.
3. What five potential drawbacks does enriched air have that air does not?
1. Potential for oxygen toxicity.
2. Special equipment.
3. Availability.
4. Proper gas blending and handling.
5. Somewhat more complex dive planning.
4. What are the requirements and recommendations for scuba equipment (other than cylinders)
used with enriched air with up to 40% oxygen?
Regular scuba equipment may be used with any modifications specified by
the manufacturer. Follow all manufacturer recommendations. Oxygen compatible lubricants and o-rings are generally recommended. Follow local laws
and regulations.
5. Why does enriched air diving require a dedicated cylinder, and what color coding, stickers and
tags should an enriched air cylinder have?
• Dedicated cylinder is required to prevent confusion with air cylinders, and to
ensure it is oxygen compatible if it will be used for partial pressure blending.
• Yellow cylinders: 10 centimetre/4 inch green band with yellow/white “Enriched
Air” or similar.
• Nonyellow: 15 centimetre/6 inch band; yellow 2.5 centimetre/1 inch band at
top and bottom, center 10 centimetre/6 inch green with yellow/white “Enriched Air”, or similar.
• Dated annual visual inspection sticker for enriched air use. Contents sticker
or tag.
• Any markings required by local law.
6. What are the two primary concerns associated with filling enriched air cylinders, and how are
they avoided?
Two primary concerns: 1) fire/explosion hazard and 2) percentage of oxygen
in the blend.
To avoid concerns, always have an enriched air cylinder filled only by an enriched air blender, even if you want only air in it, and analyze your blend.
7. How do you recognize qualified enriched air blenders and enriched air service?
Look for: 1) gas quality verification, 2) proper procedures, cylinder markings,
analysis and record keeping and 3) documentation.
8. What are the maximum and contingency oxygen partial pressure limits?
• Maximum oxygen partial pressure limit is 1.4 ata.
• Contingency oxygen partial pressure limit is 1.6 ata.
9. What is the primary hazard of exceeding oxygen exposure limits, what six signs and symptoms may precede this hazard, and what should you do if you experience any of the signs and
symptoms?
• Primary hazard - a convulsion underwater caused by oxygen toxicity, leading
to drowning and a fatal accident.
• Warning signs for oxygen toxicity include: 1) visual disturbances, including tunnel vision; 2) ear ringing or other sounds; 3) nausea; 4) twitching or
muscle spasms, especially in the face; 5) irritability, restlessness, euphoria
or anxiety; and 6) dizziness.
• If you experience symptoms, ascend immediately and end the dive.
10. Identify who must personally verify the analysis of the oxygen content in an enriched air cylinder before it is used, state the maximum allowable variation in oxygen content, and explain
what must be done if the variation is greater.
• Diver who will use the cylinder must personally verify the oxygen content.
• Enriched air must be within 1% of the desired oxygen content.
• If the blend is more than 1% off, the diver must either recalculate the EADs
and oxygen exposure based on the actual oxygen percentage, or have the
cylinder refilled with the desired blend.
11. What action should you take if a diver is suspected of having decompression illness after a
dive using enriched air?
Administer 100% oxygen and first aid as necessary. Activate local emergency medical services. Contact Divers Alert Network office that serves the
area. Inform medical personnel that the diver used enriched air, and provide
blend, depth and time.
Adventure Dive: Enriched Air
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge Review
Practical Application – analyze enriched
air cylinder
Complete contents sticker/tag and fill log
Dive Planning – calculate maximum
depth and time, and set dive computer
Briefing
Gear Up
•
•
•
•
•
•
Predive Safety Check
Entry
Descent
Dive within planned depth and time limits
Ascent – Safety Stop
Debrief
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Multilevel & Computer Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Describe how no-decompression limits are determined.
Through the actual results of manned dives.
2. Because people vary in their
table
computer
or
diving within its limits.
physiology
and susceptibility to decompression sickness, no
can guarantee decompression sickness will never occur, even when
3. Describe how you should ascend when diving with any table or computer.
Ascent should be no faster than 18 metres/60 feet per minute
(slower if specified by computer or table) with a three minute
safety stop at 5 metres/15 feet.
4. Why should a dive requiring a decompression stop be the last, and preferably only, dive of the
day?
Mathematical decompression models can’t adequately predict the
combination of a repetitive dive with a decompression dive.
5. List eight rules that apply to computer diving.
1. Stay within the computer’s limits.
2. When multilevel diving – start deep, work shallower.
3. Control rate of ascent – 18 metres/60 feet or slower.
4. Make a safety stop at 5 metres/15 feet for three minutes.
5. Take a 60 minute surface interval between dives.
6. Limit repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet or shallower.
7. Watch air supply.
8. Beware of predisposing factors leading to decompression
sickness – dive conservatively.
6. List the three pieces of dive equipment for any multilevel dive (in addition to the regular gear
you need for the local environment).
1. The eRDPML
2. Depth gauge
3. Timer
7. List three potential hazards of multilevel diving.
1. Hypothermia
2. Running out of air
3. Disorientation
8. What are the two common mistakes to avoid while multilevel diving, with and without a computer?
1. Sharing a computer
2. Sawtooth diving
9. What three considerations do you include in planning a multilevel dive?
1. Topography
2. Air supply
3. Contingency plans
10. You can use the eRDPML to
and repetitive dives.
estimate
the time your computer will allow on a first dive
11. Describe what to do if your computer fails during a dive.
Immediately stop dive and make a normal ascent to 5 metres/15
feet. Make a safety stop for as long as your air supply permits.
Do not dive again for 24 hours.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Multilevel and Computer
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge Review
Briefing – Plan Dive with the eRDPML and (optional) Computer
Gearing Up
Predive Safety Check
Entry
Descent to Deepest Depth-Level
Ascent to Second Depth-Level
Ascent – Safety Stop
Exit
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
Knowledge Review – National Geographic Dive
After reading the National Geographic Diver Almanac, please answer the following questions:
1. What unifies adventure, conservation, and exploration in diving?
Education
scientific and
educational institutions that supports vital exploration, conservation, research,
2. The National Geographic Society is one of the world’s largest nonprofit
and education programs.
3. The National Geographic Society’s current focus is guided by a keen awareness that our
need protection
planet’s future.
natural resources
and that better educating youngsters is key to
the
4. The worldwide PADI organization is dedicated to: (choose all that apply)
■ a. quality diver education programs
■ b. preserving the aquatic environment
■ c. protecting our underwater cultural heritage
■ d. diver safety
5. Diving on a wreck provides an opportunity to: (choose all that apply)
■ a. delve into the past and learn about maritime history
■ b. explore an artificial aquatic life habitat
❑ c. collect ancient souvenirs and salvage sunken maritime history treasures
❑ d. safely swim into an overhead environment
6. As a diver, you can help protect the world’s coral reefs by: (choose all that apply)
■ a. Controlling your buoyancy and securing your equipment to avoid accidental contact
■ b. Using a camera to bring back memories and leaving everything else in place
■ c. Not purchasing souvenirs made from coral or any endangered species
■ d. Choosing resorts and tour operators that follow good environmental practices
7. What issues most affect the stability of marine mammal populations?
Fishing and hunting practices, oil spills, plastic garbage, pollution,
and noise pollution
8. True or False? Sharks are key predators that play a vital role in balancing the complex aquatic
food chain and need to be protected.
■ True
❑ False
9.List at least four activities that divers enjoy at freshwater dive sites.
1. Artifact collecting
2. Visiting submerged structures or forests
3. Drifting down rivers
4. Ice diving
5. Aquatic life identification
10. In the future, underwater scientists hope to discover: (choose all that apply)
■ a. the origins of life – history and evolution
■ b. new medicines
■ c. new energy sources
■ d. how to more effectively conserve the aquatic world
Adventure Dive: National Geographic
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge Review
Weight System Assembly
Briefing
Suiting Up
Predive Safety Check
Entry
Buoyancy Check
Descent – Neutral Buoyancy
Hover
Exploration Project
Ascent – Safety Stop
Exit
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
Name _________­­­__________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Night Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. What’s the recommendation regarding the use of new or unfamiliar equipment on a night
dive?
When possible, avoid using unfamiliar equipment on night dives.
2.List three uses for marker lights and where you would attach them for those uses.
1. Marking buddy’s location - on tank valve, snorkel, etc.
2. Marking boats/buoys - on anchor line, swim step, etc.
3. Marking ascent/descent lines - float, mid-line, near bottom, etc.
3. Describe what to consider when evaluating a potential night dive site.
Dive familiar sites; try to dive the site the day before the night dive.
Night dive when conditions are good
4. What are the six environmental conditions you should avoid when night diving?
1. Moderate to high surf
2. Moderate to strong currents
3. Poor visibility
4. Thick kelp – or other entanglements
5. Heavy surge
6. Overhead environments
5. What are four general night diving planning considerations?
1. Prepare equipment ahead of time in daylight
2. Eat a proper meal a few hours before the dive
3. Dive with familiar buddies
4. Bring a nondiver friend
6. Briefly describe what you should do if you experience stress, light failure, buddy separation or
disorientation while night diving.
Stop, think and then act; breathe slow, deep and regular
b. Light failure: Switch to backup light and signal your buddy
a. Stress:
Look for glow of buddy’s light; search for one
minute, then surface
d. Disorientation: Without a reference line, hold on to your buddy, hug self,
watch your bubbles or look for the bottom in the visibility allows.
c. Buddy separation:
7. Briefly describe the procedures for entering the water at night from a boat and from shore.
Predive safety check: check lights and backups. From boat: check entry
area, turn on light, enter water, signal “okay.” Clear entry area. From
shore: check entry area with light, stay close to buddy, move quickly
through surf, be cautious where you step. Swim when water is deep
enough.
8. Describe the proper technique for descending and ascending at night so as to avoid disorientation and undue stress.
Use a reference line for both descent and ascent. Descend feet-first
pointing light downward to watch for bottom. During ascent, point light
upward watching above, swim slowly (18 metres/60 feet per minute or
slower).
9.List the methods of communication while night diving.
Rapping on tank. Waving light or moving light in a predetermined pattern. Gently touch your buddy. Shining light on hand signals at waist
level. Using a slate. Using a whistle on the surface.
10. Briefly describe the navigation techniques to use at night to avoid disorientation and loss of
direction.
Dive site during the day. Before descent, take a compass heading to
shore or back to boat. Keep navigation patterns simple. Don’t stray far
from entry/exit and reference line.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me,
and I understand what I missed.
Name _______________________________________________________________ Date ________________
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adventure Dive: Night
Knowledge Review
Briefing
Suiting Up
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
Entry
Descent
Acclimatization on the Bottom
•
•
•
•
•
•
Navigation Exercise
Guided Tour (time/air pressure permitting)
Ascent – Safety Stop
Exit
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Peak Performance Buoyancy
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Using the Basic Weighting Guidelines, estimate the amount of weight (based on your present
body weight), you want to begin a buoyancy check with if you plan to use:
a.Neoprene dry suit, 12 l/80 cf cylinder in salt water:
(Varies)
b. 7mm/1/4in wetsuit with hood and boots, 12 l/80 cf cylinder in fresh water:
c.
3mm/1/16in one piece wet suit, steel tank in salt water:
(Varies)
(Varies)
2. Under what three circumstances should you conduct a buoyancy check before diving?
1. When I change dive equipment
2 When I change diving environments
3. When I haven’t been diving for a while
3. A buoyancy check at the surface includes five steps. Arrange the following into order by putting a 1 next to the first, a 2 next to the second and so on.
5 As a test, exhale. You should sink slowly.
3 Hang vertical and motionless while holding a normal breath.
1 Put on all equipment.
2Enter water too deep to stand, and deflate your BCD (and dry suit) completely.
4 Add or subtract weight until you float at eye level while holding a normal breath.
4.Select those instances in which you need to adjust buoyancy during a dive.
■ To compensate for buoyancy changes as you use your air.
■ To compensate for buoyancy changes due to exposure suit compression.
❑ To begin an ascent.
■ To compensate for increased buoyancy during ascent.
5. When you’re neutrally buoyant, you
exhale.
rise
slightly as you inhale and
6. Proper weight and distribution give you greater
control
7.List four reasons for being streamlined while diving.
1. Encourages an efficient kicking style
sink
in the water.
slightly as you
2. Provides comfort
3. Reduces energy needed to move
4. Keeps equipment off the bottom
8. True or False. Overweighting drags down the lower half of your body, so you want to avoid being overweighted.
True
9. To improve your buoyancy control, visualization techniques can help you:
(Check all that apply.)
■ relax.
■ establish a comfortable breathing pattern.
■ move more gracefully through the water.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Peak Performance Buoyancy
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
Knowledge Review
Briefing
Assembly of weight system
Visualization practice
Gearing Up
Predive Safety Check
Entry
Predive buoyancy check
Neutral buoyancy during slow descent
Hovering practice
Fine-tune with breath control
Maneuver close to bottom – no touching
Buoyancy game
Ascent – safety stop
Post-dive buoyancy check
Exit
Debrief
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Search & Recovery Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Describe a recreational search and recovery diver.
Recreational search and recovery divers use simple equipment
to find small to medium objects within recreational depths and
environments.
2.List the six potential hazards of search and recovery diving.
1. Sharp objects and debris
2. Entanglement
3. Low visibility
4. Currents
5. Sinking recovered objects
6. Boat traffic
3.List the five general steps in planning a search and recovery dive.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define objective
Collect and analyze information
Choose scuba or snorkel
Select a buddy or team
Briefing
4. Briefly describe when to use an expanded square and a U search pattern.
Expanded Square: Well-suited for finding medium-sized objects
missing in rough terrain in calm water.
“U” Search: Well-suited for finding small or larger objects primarily
in calm water over flat, unobstructed bottoms.
5. Briefly describe when to use and how to execute a circular rope search.
Useful for finding a small object in a small area, over a flat
bottom (even currents). One buddy stays in center, acts as pivot.
Searcher has other end of rope and swims circle around pivot
looking for object.
6.Explain why you should never use your BCD for lifting objects.
Excess buoyancy could cause a runaway ascent if object is
dropped or breaks free.
7. Identify the weight at which use of a lift bag become mandatory.
4 kilograms/10 pounds
8.List three reasons why commercially-made lift bags should be used for recovering underwater
objects.
1. Constructed from heavy-duty materials
2. Have exhaust valves
3. Have loops, slings for rigging
9.Explain the procedures for controlling, rigging and lifting an object while using a lift bag.
Rig the bag to the object using a bowline, sheet bend or two halfhitches knot. Attach marker buoy. Use alternate air source to fill
lift bag – use just enough air to lift off bottom for neutral buoyancy. Position self away from bag – not under it during ascent.
10. Identify which air source should you use to filling a lift bag?
Alternate air source
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Search and Recovery
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Small Area Search
•
Briefing
•
Large Area Search
•
Practice Search Patterns on Land
•
•
Practice Object Rigging on Land
Rigging and Lifting an Object – Ascent
and Safety Stop
•
Suiting Up
•
Exit
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Debrief
•
Entry
•
•
Descent
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Underwater Naturalist
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1. Define the terms “ecology” and “ecosystem.”
Ecology:
Study of the interrelationship of living things and their
environment.
Ecosystem:
The complex of living things and their environment functioning
as a unit.
2.List three physical/structural differences between aquatic ecosystems and terrestrial
ecosystems.
(Answers vary)
3. What’s the most common cause of aquatic animal “attacks”?
Defensive reactions
4. Describe an accurate view of potentially dangerous aquatic animals.
Animals rarely attack unprovoked. They do not attack out of
malice. Because we are vulnerable in the water, aquatic animal
attacks seem worse than they are. (answers may vary)
5.List four inaccurate ways people may perceive aquatic animals.
1. As dangerous and harmful
2. As harmless – much like domestic animals
3. As nonliving, inanimate objects
4. As having human characteristics
6.Explain how to interact passively with aquatic organisms.
Actions having least effect on aquatic life. Avoid touching and
handling, riding, spearfishing, gathering and feeding aquatic life.
Secure dangling equipment and use good diving techniques.
7. Explain how and when you can responsibly touch or handle aquatic organisms.
May be done by those experienced with a particular organism.
Action should not interrupt its natural behavior.
8. Explain why you shouldn’t ride aquatic animals.
There are no circumstances in which it benefits the animal.
9. Why should divers avoid feeding aquatic animals?
Feeding aquatic animals disrupts normal behaviors. It causes
them to associate humans with food, and they may stop feeding
on natural prey. It can cause the fed species to overpopulate, and
to lose their natural fears. Animals can get sick from eating unnatural foods, or suffer internal blockages by eating plastic containers.
10. Describe the dive techniques to use to preserve bottom dwelling organisms and to minimize
disturbing all aquatic life.
Stay neutrally buoyant – off the bottom in a horizontal position.
Minimize fin movement – use them gently. Rise off bottom to
kick hard.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Underwater Naturalist
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Briefing
•
Gearing Up
•
Predive Safety Check
•
Entry
•
Descent
•
Identification of Aquatic Plant Life
•
Identification and Observation of Aquatic Invertebrate Animals
•
Identification and Observation of Aquatic Vertebrate Animals
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Exit
•
Debrief
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Underwater Navigation
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.List five benefits of learning to navigate underwater.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reduce confusion and anxiety.
Avoid long surface swims at the end of a dive.
Increase effectiveness of planning a dive.
Avoid buddy separation.
Conserve air.
2. Describe how to estimate distance with kick cycles and with elapsed time.
Kick cycles:
Each time both your legs complete one fin stroke.
Elapsed time:
Measure how long it takes to cover a fixed distance. Swim at a
normal relaxed pace preferably timing with a digital or sweep
second hand stopwatch.
3.List four predive observations that can assist you with natural navigation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Waves, currents and tidal movement
Sun angle
Offshore objects and formations
Fathometer readings
4. Describe how to descend so as to benefit natural navigation.
Feet-first; facing the direction you intend to travel
5. What six natural references can help you navigate during a dive?
1. Light and shadows
2. Water movement
3. Bottom composition and formations
4. Bottom contour
5. Plants and animals
6. Noise
6. To maintain an accurate heading, describe how to hold and swim with an underwater compass.
Hold compass squarely in front. Keep lubberline centered with
body’s centerline, looking over the compass face. Keep compass
level and needle inside the index marks on the bezel.
7. Describe how to set a compass heading and how to set a reciprocal heading.
a.Setting a heading:
Point lubberline in desired direction of travel, rotate bezel
until index marks are set over compass needle.
b.Setting a reciprocal (return) heading:
First turn bezel so that the index marks are 180 degrees from
original heading. Next, turn your body so the compass needle
centers between index marks.
8.List several tips for using your compass.
Trust the compass. Use natural references. Practice on land. Allow
for effects of currents. Be prepared to navigate around obstacles.
Share responsibilities midwater. Understand the limits. Swim
slowly.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name _________________________________________________________ Date ______________
Adventure Dive: Underwater Navigation
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Compass Use on Land
•
Briefing
•
Suiting Up
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Entry
•
Descent
•
Distance/Time-Estimation Swim
•
Navigate a Straight Line Underwater
Using Natural Navigation Techniques
•
Navigate a Straight Line and its Reciprocal
Underwater Using a Compass
•
Navigate a Square Pattern Underwater
Using a Compass
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Exit
•
Debrief
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­__________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Underwater Photography
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.List six ways to overcome light loss and four ways to overcome color loss underwater:
Light loss:
1. Take pictures with sun overhead
2. Take pictures in clear, bright water
3. Use a strobe
4. Use high-speed film
5. Take pictures in shallow water
6. Get close to subject
Color loss:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Get close
Stay shallow
Use a color-correcting filter
Use a strobe
2. Define “depth of field” and explain the relationship between aperture and depth of field.
How much of the scene, from front to back, is in focus. The smaller
the aperture (high f/number) the greater the depth of field.
3. Write three equivalent exposures for the two examples provided.
f/16 at 1/60 =
f/11 at 1/125 = f/8 at 1/250 = f/5.6 at 1/500
f/5.6 at 1/60 = f/4 at 1/125 = f/2.8 at 1/250
f/8 at 1/30 =
4. Describe how to set a nonautomatic light meter and how to program the electronics of an automatic camera for proper exposures.
Set film ISO number, set desired shutter speed and
match meter needle by turning f/stop.
Automatic: Change ISO settings or use provided controls.
Nonautomatic:
5.Explain how to bracket exposure with nonautomatic and automatic cameras.
Vary shutter speeds or f/stops or strobe distance.
Change ISO settings or use provided controls.
Nonautomatic:
Automatic:
6. Describe the differences between a TTL strobe and a manual strobe, and explain how to set a
camera for proper exposure with each.
TTL strobe couples with camera’s electronic automatic exposure
device. Manual strobes have no automation. Set camera on “A”
to get proper exposure with a TTL strobe. Manual strobe requires
camera set at synchronization speed (1/60 or 1/90) and f/stop
set by test roll data or exposure guide.
7. Describe the best way to aim a strobe, and how to hold a camera to avoid blurring and parallax error.
Aim strobe on bracket (for new photographers). Positioned off
to side from 45 degree angle. Steady camera with both hands,
squeeze trigger slowly and steadily.
8. Define “photographic composition” and describe basic principles for better composition.
The arrangement of objects in a photograph. Image completeness,
clear foreground, clear background, subject direction, subject position and complimentary colors are basic principles.
9. Describe the recommended five-step procedure for removing, inspecting, cleaning, lubricating
and replacing an O-ring.
Remove O-ring – without sharp objects. Wipe clean – using soft
cloth and inspect. Lubricate O-ring – thin coat. Clean groove. Reseat O-ring carefully.
10. The most important step in caring for underwater photo equipment is to
fresh water
rinse
it in cool
immediately after a dive.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Underwater Photography
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Expose a Complete Roll of Film (macro or still-life photos)
•
Briefing
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Prepare and Assemble Underwater
Camera System
•
Exit
•
Debrief
•
Gearing Up
•
•
Predive Safety Check
Post-Dive Care and Disassemble Underwater
Camera System
•
Entry
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
•
Descent
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Underwater Videography
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.Explain why the combination of a wide angle lens and dome port gives you the best sharpness,
color and focus.
Dome allows wide lens to stay wide, you get close and reduce
amount of water light travels through preserving sharpness and
color. Wide lenses have great depth of focus, so you don’t need to
focus it much or at all.
2. What is the best general angle for all-round underwater videography?
Get close to and slightly below your subject, shooting with an upward angle.
3.List four common errors to avoid while shooting underwater videos:
1. Failing to hold the shot.
2. Holding a shot too long.
3. Moving the camera rapidly.
4. Shotgun videotaping everything without thought.
4. Describe how to prepare and check an underwater video system.
[The answer will be specific to the system to some degree, but
should include maintaining O-rings and settings for focus, exposure and filters.] Check by operating all functions and immersing
and watching for bubbles or moisture in the housing.
5. Describe post-dive care for an underwater video system.
Immediately immerse the system in fresh water, agitating gently
for 30 seconds to 1 minute. If making another dive, change the
battery and tape if needed, and maintain O-rings. If not, disassemble and store in a cool, safe place.
6.Explain how to enter/exit the water with a video system.
From boats, have someone hand you the system after you enter,
or suspend if from a line to retrieve after you enter. You can also
put it on the swim step. After the dive, hand the system up, put
on the line for retrieval after you’re aboard, or put on the swim
step. From shore, use a wrist lanyard and cover the lens port. Do
not set the system down in the sand. If conditions are bad, don’t
take the system diving.
7.Explain how video systems may affect buoyancy, drag and air consumption.
They may make you more buoyant or less buoyant, and they add
drag. This can make you use your air faster as you swim around
with the system.
8. How often should you check your gauges when shooting underwater videos?
You should check your air, depth, time and direction about twice
as often when diving with a video system as when diving without
one.
9. What should you do with a video system in a diving emergency, such as having to assist a
buddy who’s out of air?
In an emergency, ditch the video system.
10.Explain what to do if a video system has a major flood, and why.
Make a normal ascent. There is no urgency because a flooded
camcorder is usually beyond repair.
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Underwater Videographer
Skills Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Video system preparation
Briefing
Gearing Up
Predive Safety Check
Entry – retrieve video system
Descent
Shooting with video system (assigned or
student-selected subjects; all students
•
should practice each of the following)
•
• standing
•
• sitting
•
• kneeling
•
• lying
•
• swimming
• holding steady – at all times
•
• staying close to subjects, using upward angle
•
holding takes five to twelve seconds,
depending on subject – all shots
• camera motion very slow and steady
all camera moves
• checking depth, time, air supply and
location frequently – throughout dive
• maintaining proper buoyancy – throughout dive
Ascent
Safety stop
Exit
Post dive procedures
Video system disassembly
Debriefing and review video
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive
Training Record
Name _________­­­______________________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review – Wreck Dive
To the student diver: Answer the following questions and bring this completed Knowledge Review
with you to your next training session.
1.List two reasons why artifact recovery is discouraged when wreck diving.
1. Wrecks that are stripped are much less interesting.
2. Historical wrecks must be left undisturbed for research
purposes.
2.Explain why divers must pay close attention to local laws before planning a wreck dive.
A permit may be required and it may be illegal to either dive on the
wreck or remove artifacts.
3. Describe how to avoid the following potential hazards common to wrecks:
Sharp objects:
Wear protective coverings and use good buoyancy control.
Entanglement:
Watch where you go, avoid swimming into or under potential
entanglement, carry a knife
4.List five dive planning and equipment considerations for wreck diving deeper than 18
metres/60 feet.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PADI Deep Diver training
Extra tank at 5 metres/15 feet
Nitrogen narcosis
Short time limits
Become trained as a PADI Enriched Air Diver
5.List two reasons for obtaining a local orientation to an unfamiliar wreck before diving on it.
1. Dive techniques vary on wrecks
2. Unique hazards or points of interest
6.Explain why special training and equipment are necessary for shipwreck penetration. In your
explanation, include the five hazards of entering a wreck.
Special training is necessary because it is extremely hazardous.
You can lose direction, there’s no direct access to surface,
restricted passages, falling objects and silt.
7.List three aspects of a wreck that should be evaluated when diving on it.
1. Possible hazards
2. Points of interest
3. General condition
8. Describe the three methods of navigating on a shipwreck.
1. Following the wreck’s layout
2. Feature reference
3. Using a base line
Student Diver Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my
ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained
to me, and I understand what I missed.
Name ______________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Adventure Dive: Wreck
Skills Overview
•
Knowledge Review
•
Briefing
•
Suiting Up
•
Predive Safety Check (BWRAF)
•
Entry
•
Descent
•
Navigating the Wreck
•
Returning to Ascent Point
•
Ascent – Safety Stop
•
Exit
•
Debrief
•
Log Dive – Complete Adventure Dive Training Record
Rescue Diver Course
Knowledge Review
Answer Keys
Rexcue Diver Course Knowledge Review Answer Keys
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
PADI Rescue Diver Course Knowledge Review
Chapter One – ANSWER KEY
1. What is the most common cause of diver emergencies?
Poor judgment.
2. List three things to consider before attempting an inwater rescue.
1. Do you need to enter the water at all?
2. Do you have the equipment and training necessary for your safety and the victim’s
safety?
3. Can you reasonably expect to accomplish the rescue without getting into trouble
yourself?
3. What is diver stress? Explain what effects stress can produce in a diver and
how perceptual narrowing relates to these effects.
Stress is defined as a physical or mental tension that results in physical, chemical and/or
emotional (psychological) changes in the body.
A degree of stress causes biological changes that temporarily make you stronger, think
faster and more pain tolerant. Extreme stress can cause you to flee when confronted by
something frightening or overwhelm you emotionally so that you can not handle the situation rationally.
As stress increases, a diver may experience perceptual narrowing – a decrease in broad
awareness. Perceptual narrowing may reduce the ability to look for the real problem or
alternate solutions, or to perceive other problems arising.
4. What are four advantages of a pocket mask?
1. It simplifies getting an effective seal and head positioning.
2. It reduces worries about disease transmission.
3. It is one of the most effective ways to provide inwater rescue breathing for a nonbreathing diver.
4. You can connect a pocket mask to emergency oxygen to provide oxygenated air with
your rescue breaths.
5. What are two types of emergency oxygen systems recommended for PADI
Rescue Divers? How do these systems differ?
Nonresuscitator demand valve units and continuous flow units.
Nonresuscitator demand valve unit.
Oxygen flows only when the diver inhales
Minimizes oxygen waste
Can deliver nearly 100% oxygen
Used with a breathing diver
Continuous flow unit.
Releases oxygen continuously
More wasteful of oxygen
Can deliver more than 90% oxygen
Used with a diver who has difficulty
breathing
6. What are six basic steps for emergency management?
1. Assess the situation
4. Attend to injuries
2. Act on your plan
5. Control the scene
3. Delegate
6. Arrange evacuation to medical care
7. What five skills increase your self rescue abilities? What should you do when
you encounter a problem while diving?
1. Good buoyancy control
4. Handling air depletion
2. Proper airway control
5. Responding to vertigo
3. Cramp removal
Stop. Breathe. Think. Act.
8. What are the signs and behaviors that indicate a diver may have a problem at
the surface? Compare and contrast the characteristics of tired divers versus
panicked divers.
Distress signals
Rejecting equipment
Struggling on or just below the surface
Clinging or clambering
High treading or excessive kicking
Not moving
Tired Diver
Adequately manages stress
Asks for help and respond to directions
Doesn’t reject their equipment
Usually assists with your efforts
Often recovers quickly
Panicked Diver
Overwhelmed by stress and fear
Abandons rational responses
Reacts through instinct and fear
Tends to reject their equipment
Fails to establish buoyancy and swims vigorously until exhausted
Eyes tend to be wide and unseeing due to perceptual narrowing
Does not respond to commands or questions
Can do little to help themselves
9. Why does the rescuer’s safety take priority over the distressed diver’s safety?
With that in mind, what four types of rescues should you consider before an
inwater rescue?
You can’t help a victim if you’re in trouble. If you become a victim, it divides the remaining
rescue resources between you and the original victim.
1. Reaching assists
2. Extension assists
3. Throwing assists
4. Wadding assists
10. Describe the steps for inwater rescues of responsive divers at the surface.
Explain how to make contact with a panicked diver at the surface.
Responsive Diver
Approach – keep your eyes on the victim and pace your swim.
Evaluate – stop out of reach and assess whether the diver is rational or panicked. Note BCD
inflator location and ask the diver to inflate the BCD or drop weights.
Make Contact – establish ample buoyancy, approach from the front and assist the diver in
establishing buoyancy.
Reassure the Diver – make eye contact, talk directly to the victim and help the diver to relax.
Assist and Transport – assist the diver to the boat or shore and allow them to self assist as
much as possible.
Panicked Diver
Approach – keep your eyes on the victim and pace your swim.
Evaluate – stop out of reach and assess whether the diver is rational or panicked. Note BCD
inflator location and ask the diver to inflate the BCD or drop weights.
Make Contact – make a surface or underwater approach. Gain control of the situation and
assist the diver in establishing buoyancy by inflating the BCD or dropping weights.
Reassure and Transport – reassure the diver while assisting them back to the boat or shore.
Student Diver statement: I’ve reviewed the questions and answers, and any I answered
incorrectly or incompletely, I now understand what I missed.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date ______________
PADI Rescue Diver Course Knowledge Review
Chapter Two – ANSWER KEY
1. Explain two steps to apply to recognize stress in a diver and what you should
do when you recognize it.
• Direct Observation – look for behavioral changes.
• Ask the diver about what you’ve observed.
Do not pressure the diver - ask about your concerns privately in an open, caring and nonjudgmental manner. Break the cycle that leads to anxiety and potentially, panic or other
problems. Encourage solution thinking.
2. What three points does the dive community generally agree upon regarding
alternate air sources?
1. The second stage the out-of-air diver should use should be clearly identified.
2. It should not be allowed to dangle.
3. It should be secured in the triangle formed by your chin and the corners of your rib
cage.
3. What are six general causes of equipment-related problems?
1. Using unfamiliar equipment.
2. Using equipment that doesn’t fit properly.
3. Using makeshift or obsolete equipment.
4. Not using equipment essential for the dive environment.
5. Using modified equipment.
6. Using equipment that is not properly maintained or inspected.
4. What are the six types of releases commonly found in scuba systems? What is
at least one problem each may have?
1. Release Quick release buckle.
Problem The buckle not holding.
2. Release Quick disconnect fastener.
Problem They may become less reliable with wear or pull free under strain.
3. Release Touch fastener.
Problem They may wear out. They can become clogged with sand and lint, making
them less reliable.
4. Release Tank band release.
Problem The release is not threaded or adjusted properly.
5. Release Inflator quick disconnect.
Problem Failure to connect it or not connecting it properly.
6. Release Integrated weight releases.
Problem Unfamiliarity with their use.
5. What are three forms of aquatic life injuries?
1. Bites
2. Cuts, abrasions or punctures
3. Stings
6. What is the common treatment for aquatic life injuries?
Begin with primary assessment.
Remove spines or stingers with forceps or other tools, or by irrigating the wound.
Soak the affected area with hot water for 30 to 90 minutes.
If injury occurred to a limb, keep the limb below heart level.
Treat the patient for shock.
Maintain the ABCD’S and get the patient to emergency medical care as soon as possible.
7. What is the basic first aid for jellyfish stings?
Remove tentacles or stingers with forceps or other tools, or by irrigating the wound with
seawater and 5% solution of acetic acid.
If possible, shave the affected area.
Resoak the area with acetic acid or ammonia solution.
Clean the wound with soap and apply an antihistamine or mild corticosteroid ointment.
Ice packs may also help to reduce pain.
Follow local protocol and get emergency care, if appropriate, as soon as possible
8. Describe the techniques and considerations for responding to a responsive
diver at the surface from a distance, including the use of emergency flotation.
The equipment you take will depend on the circumstances. In most cases, you’ll need
your mask, fins, snorkel and some form of flotation.
Enter the water as close to the distressed diver as possible. Don’t lose sight of the victim.
Swim with your head up and eyes on the victim.
Pace yourself to conserve energy to handle the rescue.
Stop out of reach to evaluate the victim’s mental state. Note BCD inflator location and ask
the diver to inflate the BCD or drop weights.
Establish ample personal buoyancy but be ready for a quick reverse, if necessary.
Use emergency flotation devices to provide immediate buoyancy and to avoid contact
with a potentially panicked diver. Put it between you and the victim as you approach. It
may be easier to tow the diver to safety using a flotation device than by towing the diver
directly.
9. What are the general criteria for tows used for transporting a distressed diver
in the water?
The diver’s face is kept out of the water.
Drag is minimized, letting you and the tired diver move through the water horizontally.
You must be able to maintain control.
Your swimming should not be restricted.
The tow allows you to communicate with the tired diver.
10. What three concerns do you need to handle with a responsive diver once you
get on the boat or shore?
1. Assess the diver for injuries or illnesses
2. If you find a serious medical condition contact EMS
3. Be sensitive to the diver’s feelings
Student Diver statement: I’ve reviewed the questions and answers, and any I answered
incorrectly or incompletely, I now understand what I missed.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date ______________
PADI Rescue Diver Course Knowledge Review
Chapter Three – ANSWER KEY
1. What is an emergency action plan? What five areas of information should it
include?
An emergency action plan is the information you will need in the event of a dive accident
at a particular dive site.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The sequence of steps to follow that may be affected by the local environment.
A list of local emergency phone numbers.
A script for what to say when calling emergency services.
The procedures for responding to, moving and transporting an injured diver out of the
area to within reach of emergency medical care.
5. Procedures for completing any required accident and incident reports.
2. What is meant by “Basic Life Support”? What types of dive accidents can
require BLS?
BLS includes monitoring and enacting emergency procedures for patient respiratory and
/or cardiovascular system failure.
Dive accidents involving drowning, decompression sickness and lung overexpansion injuries can cause respiratory and/or cardiac arrest.
Heavy exposure suits in hot weather can cause heat stroke and heat exhaustion.
Prolonged exposure to cold can cause hypothermia.
Exertion beyond physical limits can cause heart attack or stroke.
3. Explain how time affects BLS?
Without oxygen, brain damage can occur in four to six minutes. After six minutes brain
damage is likely and after 10 minutes it is almost certain.
4. What are the steps, in order of priority, for conducting a primary assessment?
How can diving circumstances affect each step?
1. Assess the situation – water can conceal potential dangers
2. Establish responsiveness – turn the diver face up in the water
3. Upon discovering unresponsiveness or other serious medical emergency, call for help
as soon as possible – when diving, you may not be able to contact help easily.
4. Establish an airway if the diver is unresponsive – protect the victim’s airway from
water.
5. Check for breathing – use techniques for doing so in the water.
6. Check for circulation – it’s difficult or impossible to detect a heartbeat in the water, so
don’t waste time trying to do so.
7. Check for bleeding – it may be difficult or impossible to use pressure points through an
exposure suit.
8. Manage shock – get the diver out of the water
5. What is the procedure for treating shock, and how may dive accident circumstances affect it?
Once out of the water, begin with primary assessment and monitor the patient’s ABCD’S
until a medical professional takes over. Maintain the patient’s body temperature. This
may mean removing a wet exposure suit – cutting it away if necessary with a weak
patient. It can also mean protecting the patient from heat, by providing shade and
removing a hot exposure suit.
6. What are the differences between heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and how
should you handle each?
Heat Exhaustion
Heat Stroke
Body’s ability to cool becomes taxed.
More serious condition. Rising temperatures
exceed the body’s cooling mechanisms.
Signs and symptoms include profuse
sweating, nausea, dizziness weakness
and faintness.
Core temperature rises and may result
in tissue damage and permanent disability.
Body temperature will be near normal
with cool clammy skin.
Symptoms include hot, dry flushed skin.
Patient is hot to the touch and does
not perspire.
Treatment – begin with primary
assessment and move patient to a
cool, shaded area. Remove wetsuit and
have the patient drink water.
Treatment – begin with primary assessment.
Get the patient into a cool area, remove
exposure suit and immerse the patient in
cool water or apply cool wet towels.
7. What are the seven signs and symptoms of hypothermia?
1. Shivering
4. Loss of coordination
2. Numbness
5. Weakness and confusion
3. Blueness in the fingers, lips
6. Body systems fail
and toes
7. Loss of consciousness
8. Explain what to do to help a diver with the following underwater problems:
Overexertion – have the diver stop and rest. Encourage the diver to relax and resume
breathing normally.
Uncontrolled descent – you can often stop an uncontrolled descent by signaling to the
diver to add air to the BCD and level off. If this doesn’t work, make contact with the diver
to arrest the descent. If the diver has extreme negative buoyancy, you may need to drop
the diver’s weights.
Excessive buoyancy – escort an underweighted diver to the surface and get the right
amount of weight. If you are close to someone as a runaway ascent begins, you need to
make contact and correct the problem quickly. Use the quick dump on the diver’s BCD,
and reduce your own buoyancy by dumping your BCD.
Cramps – before helping the diver stretch and massage a cramp, point to the muscle you
suspect has a cramp and confirm with the “cramp” signal. After relieving, encourage a
slower pace and stay close, just in case the diver needs a tow back to the boat or shore.
Entanglement – your first priority when dealing with entanglement is to have the victim hold still. Signal “stop,” and get the victim to hold still while you disentangle him.
Entrapment – your first concern will be ensuring adequate air supply while working to
free the diver. If you believe you won’t be able to free the victim before you run out of air,
it may be best to ascend and get more while you still have ample time. If you decide to
do this, mark the site in anyway you can so you can return easily with additional tanks.
You may also consider leaving your scuba unit with the victim and making an assisted or
emergency ascent.
Passive panic – approach the diver from the front and signal, “Okay?” If you get no
response, go behind the diver and, holding the regulator in place, take the diver to the
surface. Once you reach the surface, establish buoyancy for the victim and yourself, and
help the victim out of the water.
Active panic – you probably can’t stop a panicked diver from ascending, but you don’t
need to. You need to prevent a rapid breath-held ascent. If the victim has the regulator in
the mouth, simply hanging on and flaring out will usually suffice to control the ascent
rate. If the victim is breath holding, delay is your best bet at getting the diver to resume
breathing before ascending too far. If the diver has dropped the regulator, slow the ascent
as much as possible while providing your alternate air source.
9. List the steps you should take if you discover a diver is missing.
1. Have someone call for emergency help while you find out where the missing diver was
last seen.
2. Assign spotters to look in that area for bubbles and to direct rescuers to that area.
3. Try to determine if the missing diver may have left without telling anyone.
4. Immediately assign qualified divers to don scuba equipment and head to the area
where the diver was last seen to begin an underwater search.
5. If immediately available, send two or more skin divers to mark the search area with
buoys.
10. What considerations should you take into account when implementing a
search for a missing diver?
1. Have a way to recall searchers when someone finds the victim.
2. Permit searches in buddy teams only.
3. Begin searches where someone last saw the diver.
4. If you don’t have qualified divers present for the searches, you may need to choose a
buddy and begin the search yourself.
5. Search for 30 minutes, until you find the victim, until you reach the safe limit of air
supply, no decompression time or exposure for searchers, or until relieved by professionals.
6. If unsuccessful, turn the search over to professionals.
Student Diver statement: I’ve reviewed the questions and answers, and any I answered
incorrectly or incompletely, I now understand what I missed.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date ______________
PADI Rescue Diver Course Knowledge Review
Chapter Four – ANSWER KEY
1. Explain what critical incident stress is, its signs and symptoms, and what you
should do to reduce it.
The acute stress caused by an emergency involving a serious injury or death. Signs &
symptoms include: confusion, lowered attention span; restlessness, denial, guilt or depression, anger, anxiety, unusual behavior, changes in interactions with others, increased or
decreased eating, uncharacteristic excessive humor or silence, sleeplessness or nightmares.
Requires professional help to prevent post-traumatic stress disorder.
2. Explain what decompression illness is.
Term which combines both lung overexpansion injuries and decompression sickness.
3. What’s the most common cause of lung overexpansion injuries? How do you
prevent it?
Running out of air, panic and rushing to the surface without exhaling. Check your air
often remember your training if you do run out of air and never hold your breath.
4. Explain the differences between air embolism, pneumothorax, subcutaneous
emphysema and mediastinal emphysema.
Air embolism: expanding air is forced into blood vessels in the lungs and enters the blood
stream where they collect and block blood flow. Pneumothorax: total or partial collapsed
lung. Subcutaneous emphysema: expanding air from torn lung accumulates under the
skin around the neck and collar bone. Mediastinal emphysema: expanding air from torn
lung lodges in the chest cavity between the lungs.
5. Describe the first aid steps to take for a diver with suspect decompression
illness.
Begin with primary assessment, if patient is unresponsive maintain the ABCD’S, provide
rescue breathing and CPR if necessary. Encourage responsive patient to lie down and
relax. Ask the patient or their buddy (if unconscious) questions about the incident and
make notes on the PADI Diving Accident Management Work Slate. Give breathing patient
100% oxygen and maintain the patient’s lifeline. Protect the patient from excess heat or
cold and arrange for emergency evacuation and medical care. Keep the patient comfortable, lying down and breathing oxygen or enriched air with the highest O2 content available until medical help arrives or patient gets to a medical facility.
6. What is the primary first aid for a serious near drowning accident?
Immediate rescue breathing, with CPR if the patient has no heartbeat. Be alert for vomiting. Be prepared to turn the patient and keep the airway clear. Give breathing patient
emergency oxygen, keep lying down and treat for shock. Contact local EMS. Patient
should always go to hospital as soon as possible.
7. Imagine you’re rescuing an unresponsive diver at the surface. You find the
diver isn’t breathing. What would you do if you’re more than an estimated
five minute swim from safety? What would you do if you’re less than an estimated five minute swim from safety?
More than 5 minutes: give rescue breaths for one more minute while checking for signs
of movement or other responses to ventilations. If signs of response are present continue
providing rescue breaths while towing to safety. No signs of response, discontinue rescue
breaths, tow victim to safety as quickly as possible, exit water and perform CPR and rescue breathing as appropriate. Less the 5 minutes: tow the diver to safety while continuing
rescue breaths. Begin CPR if necessary and continue with the ABCD’S.
8. Why do you give rescue breaths to an unresponsive diver with no apparent
heartbeat? Describe how you would give rescue breaths using mouth-to-pocket
mask.
Even if you cannot detect a heartbeat one may be present. If you correct respiratory arrest
quickly with rescue breaths, cardiac arrest may not occur. The survival rate for respiratory arrest is much higher than survival for full cardiac arrest. Mouth-to-Pocket Mask:
approach victim, retrieve pocket mask and prepare for use. Move above the victim and
place the mask on his face, thumbs on the mask and fingers on the bony part of the jaw.
Secure the mask strap and administer the two initial breaths. Leave the mask on while you
look, listen and feel for breathing. If the victim doesn’t breathe, give rescue breaths every
five seconds as you tow the diver to safety.
9. Describe what to do when bringing an unresponsive diver to the surface from
underwater.
1. Upon finding the victim, quickly note diver’s position, if regulator is in the mouth,
mask on and any other clues about the accident.
2. If regulator is in victim’s mouth, hold in place. If not, don’t waste time putting it back
in.
3. Hold the victim from behind, keep the regulator in the mouth and hold the head in a
normal position.
4. Use your BCD to ascend with the victim. Begin your ascent and vent air from your BCD
to maintain a safe ascent rate. You may need to vent the victim’s BCD to maintain
control and flare out if needed to keep the ascent under control. If you cannot control
the ascent, allow the victim to ascend separately, ascend at a safe rate and regain contact at the surface.
5. During ascent keep the victim’s head in a normal position so expanding air will vent
by itself.
6. As you ascend, think about the steps you’ll take when you reach the surface.
7. If victim’s weights are still in place drop them just below the surface to assure the victim’s positive buoyancy.
10. Explain the priority equipment removal takes in rescuing an unresponsive
diver at the surface. What considerations affect whether to remove gear, what
gear to remove and when?
Equipment removal takes a very low priority. Remove gear if doing so more than offsets
the time required. For a long tow this could help reduce the equipment’s drag and speed
up the swim. For a short tow it makes little sense to remove the gear. Think “What’s the
fastest way out of the water?” rather than “I need to take this gear off.”
1. Think buoyancy- don’t dump anything you need to maintain buoyancy.
2. Do things in a logical order, always using one hand to ensure an open airway.
3. Keep a rhythm. When giving rescue breaths, remove gear between breaths. Breaths
have priority.
4. Keep moving! Swim and tow while ditching the gear.
Student Diver statement: I’ve reviewed the questions and answers, and any I answered
incorrectly or incompletely, I now understand what I missed.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date ______________
PADI Rescue Diver Course Knowledge Review
Chapter Five – ANSWER KEY
1. When should you write up a report after a dive accident? What should you
avoid doing on a report or when answering questions?
Following an accident that requires first aid and summoning emergency medical care or
other emergency personnel. Do not guess or speculate or offer opinions.
2. Explain why administering oxygen to a diver suspected of decompression illness is crucial.
Emergency oxygen provides significant benefit in many (but not all) cases of DCS.
3. List six procedures to follow when handling oxygen.
1. Keep unit clean and protected in its box until needed.
2. Never attempt to lubricate oxygen equipment or use standard scuba parts in it.
3. Always open valves on oxygen equipment slowly.
4. Keep your unit assembled to minimize the possibility of contaminates getting into it
and to save time in an emergency.
5. Never attempt to clean or service the equipment yourself. Have it serviced regularly as
required by the manufacturer.
6. Always extinguish any source of flame before deploying oxygen.
4. Describe the procedure for administering oxygen to a breathing diver.
Open the oxygen kit. The kit should be set up in advance. If not, set it up. Slowly open the
valve and test the unit by inhaling from the mask. Do not exhale into the mask. Secure
the tank and protect it from being knocked over or rolling loose. Say to the injured diver,
“This is oxygen. It will help you. May I give it to you?” Assuming agreement, place the
mask on the diver’s face and instruct the person to breath normally. If the diver is unresponsive and breathing, you may assume that the diver would want oxygen, and supply
it. Monitor the oxygen pressure gauge and do not let it run empty with the mask still on
the diver.
5. Describe the procedure for administering oxygen to a weakly breathing diver.
Open the kit and attach the tube from the nonrebreather mask to the continuous flow
outlet on the regulator. Slowly open the valve a set the continuous flow rate to 15 liters
per minute. Using a nonrebreather mask, hold your thumb over the inlet inside the mask
and allow the reservoir bag to inflate. Say to the injured diver, “This is oxygen. It will
help you. May I give it to you?” Assuming agreement, place the mask on the diver’s face
and instruct the person to breath normally. Use the head strap and be sure the mask fits
snugly. You may assume consent with an unresponsive diver. If the reservoir bag collapses
completely when the diver inhales, increase the flow rate to 25 litres per minute. Monitor
the oxygen pressure gauge and do not let it run empty with the mask still on the diver.
6. Describe the procedure for administering oxygen to a nonbreathing diver.
Have someone open the kit while you continue rescue breaths and attach the oxygen tube
from the continuous flow outlet. Slowly open the valve a set the continuous flow rate to
15 liters per minute. Give rescue breaths through the pocket mask. If the diver begins to
breath, switch to the demand or nonrebreather masks.
7. Describe what to do for a diver after beginning primary care, secondary care,
oxygen and other first aid while waiting for emergency medical care to arrive.
The priority is to continue to monitor the patient’s lifeline and the ABCD’S. Protect the
patient from excess heat or cold (shock management), and control bystanders to keep the
area open for arriving emergency medical personnel. Maintain contact with the local diver
emergency service. Keep a responsive patient comfortable, but lying down. Try to collect
information regarding the accident and write it down to send with the injured diver.
8. What information should you collect to send with the injured diver upon the
arrival of emergency medical services?
Diver’s name and contact information. Significant medical history. First aid procedures
initiated. Dive profile information. Comments relative to emergency care received. Contact
information for local diver emergency system and name of doctor or personnel you’ve spoken with.
9. Describe how to perform the lifeguard exit.
The rescuer places the injured diver’s hands on the deck. The rescuer pushes out of the
water keeping one hand on the victim’s hands so the victim doesn’t slide back in. Holding
the diver by the wrists and standing, the rescuer lifts the victim’s waist to dock level, then
lowers the diver face down on the deck. From there the rescuer rolls the victim over, and
may drag the person the rest of the way from the water.
10. Explain how circumstances may affect exiting with an unresponsive diver.
Environmental conditions and other circumstances will affect what you have to do when
you exit the water, including the technique that you use. Shore exits: give two breaths then
carry or drag the victim ashore. Exit through surf: protect the victim’s airway. Over rocks
let the water carry you and the victim up the rocks in stages. A longer swim to an easier
exit may be the fastest way. Swim steps, low docks and small boats: may be easiest using
the lifeguard exit. Tall dock, boat or pier: you might be able to use the roll up technique.
Student Diver statement: I’ve reviewed the questions and answers, and any I answered
incorrectly or incompletely, I now understand what I missed.
Signature _____________________________________________ Date ______________
Knowledge Review
Chapter 1
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
A growing number of dive operations have staff dress codes. How does this benefit the
perceptions customers have of the operation in general, and staff members in particular?
A dress code makes the staff look professional. This benefits customer perceptions
of the operation and the staff because it gives them credibility.
2.
List at least five characteristics of a good role-model PADI Divemaster.
Have excellent dive skills
1. _______________________________________
Equipped with well-maintained gear
4. ______________________________________
Practice safe, responsible diving
2. _______________________________________
Easily build rapport with divers
5. ______________________________________
Demonstrate care for the environment
3. _______________________________________
3.
Answers may vary.
Certified divers are responsible for following the safe diving practices they’ve been trained
to use. However, if they see a “professional” disregarding them, how may that affect their
perceptions?
Depending upon the situation, seeing a “professional” disregard safe diving
practices may cause questions about the practices, or raise questions about the
professionalism and credibility of the individual violating the practices.
4.
List five benefits of being a PADI Divemaster and a PADI Member.
PADI's brand recognition
1. _______________________________________
Support of environmental efforts
4. ______________________________________
Ability to conduct certain programs
2. _______________________________________
PADI publications and Pros' Site
5. ______________________________________
Access to PADI services
3. _______________________________________
5.
Answers may vary.
List five responsibilities of being a PADI Divemaster.
Adhere to PADI Standards
1. _______________________________________
Renew annual membership
4. ______________________________________
Meet Code of Practice
2. _______________________________________
5. ______________________________________
Fulfill listed divemaster duties (mulitple answers possible)
3. _______________________________________
Answers may vary.
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
The Role and Characteristics of the PADI Divemaster
15
6.
Explain how you expect your relationship with your instructor in the PADI Divemaster course to
differ from the relationship with your instructor in previous PADI courses.
In previous courses, my instructor relationship has been primarily a student-teacher
relationship. During the PADI Divemaster course, the instructor will, ideally, become more
of a mentor and coach who treats me as a junior peer. The instructor will share thinking
and explain judgment calls. The instructor will want to know how I think and why.
7.
How does having a dive reference library relate to your ability to solve problems as a diving expert?
Experts in a given field are better able to solve problems than nonexperts because they have
a large knowledge and experience base to draw upon. This allows them to better recognize
the relationships of factors involved and better define a problem. A dive reference library
helps develop my knowledge base and puts the resources at my fingertips.
8.
List at least five types of additional training you may want and how each may benefit you.
1.
Specialty Diver courses
Training ___________________________________________
Answers may vary.
Expand knowledge and skill
Benefit ____________________________________________
2.
Specialty Instructor courses
Training ___________________________________________
Teach popular courses
Benefit ____________________________________________
3.
PADI TecRec courses
Training ___________________________________________
Expand knowledge and skill
Benefit ____________________________________________
4.
Other dive-related or business courses
Training ___________________________________________
Help reach career goals
Benefit ____________________________________________
5.
Discover Scuba Diving Leader
Training ___________________________________________
Introduce people to diving
Benefit ____________________________________________
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I
answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have
missed.
Signature _______________________________________________________________ Date_________________
16
Chapter One
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Knowledge Review
Chapter 2
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
broad
As a divemaster, your role is generally to provide _________________________
planning that
other divers use to plan their individual buddy team dives within.
2.
List three ways that wind can affect dive conditions.
Wind can cause upwelling that affects water
1. ____________________________________________________
Wind can cause upwelling that affects water temperature and visibility
2. ____________________________________________________
Wind can generate waves and surge
3. ____________________________________________________
3.
slack high
The rule of thumb is that it is best to dive at _________________
tide, but this is a general rule.
4.
List three broad considerations when planning dives for remote areas.
Cover broad logistics - air fills, sleeping arrangements, food, etc.
1. _______________________________________
Emergencies – more medical supplies, transport. etc.
2. _______________________________________
Self-sufficiency - communications, etc.
3. _______________________________________
5.
The primary reason for having and using accounting procedures is to be sure every diver
returns from the dive. Incident reports indicate that problems with this usually result from
using an inaccurate accounting procedure.
divers refusing to participate in roll calls.
■ failure to use an accounting procedure at all.
6.
List six characteristics of responsible diver behavior.
Plan dives within training/experience
1. _______________________________________
Check air frequently and end with reserve
4. ______________________________________
Properly equipped
2. _______________________________________
Stays well within no stop limits
5. ______________________________________
Maintains equipment and checks it
3. _______________________________________
Avoids contact with sensitive aquatic life
6. ______________________________________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Supervising Diving Activities
51
7.
What are four ways you can encourage responsible diver behavior?
Be a good role-model
1. _______________________________________
Make responsible behavior easy
3. ______________________________________
Remind about responsible behavior
2. _______________________________________
Reward responsible behavior
4. ______________________________________
8.
behavior may help you assess for apprehension or stress
Paying attention to a diver’s ______________
related to the dive.
9.
Signs and symptoms of psychological stress include (choose all that apply)
■
a. being uncharacteristically withdrawn.
■
b. talkativeness.
■
c. irritability.
■
d. distraction.
■
e. perceptual narrowing.
10. Before a dive along a wall that drops into extremely deep water, you notice a diver seems
preoccupied and withdrawn. You talk to the diver and learn the person doesn’t feel adequately
skilled with buoyancy control and fears descending out of control. Give an example of helping
this diver by removing the stressor.
Move the boat to a new dive site.
Guide the diver to a part of the site that is away from deep water.
Answers may vary.
11. List the four aspects of supervision in managing dives and identify what each consists of.
Planning - make/act on dive plan
1. _______________________________________
Vantage point - choose where to supervise
3. ______________________________________
Communication - inform divers
2. _______________________________________
Recognition – anticipate problems
4. ______________________________________
12. List eight types of equipment that can assist in supervising certified divers.
52
Clipboard and dive roster
1. _______________________________________
Rescue float or life ring
5. ______________________________________
Binoculars
2. _______________________________________
Marine radio or cellular phone
6. ______________________________________
Dive site map
3. _______________________________________
Tool kit and spare equipment
7. ______________________________________
Emergency oxygen and first aid kit
4. _______________________________________
Dive specific equipment
8. ______________________________________
Chapter Two
13. List two advantages and two disadvantages of inwater supervision.
Advantages
Close to divers
1. _______________________________________
Guide divers and point out aquatic life
2. ______________________________________
Disadvantages
Only watch one group
1. _______________________________________
Limits ability to explore independently
2. ______________________________________
14. List two advantages and two disadvantages of out of water supervision.
Advantages
Give buddies more individual options
Close to emergency-related equipment 2. ______________________________________
1. _______________________________________
Disadvantages
Can't remind divers of procedures
1. _______________________________________
Unable to show points of interest
2. ______________________________________
15. List the 10 points a dive briefing usually includes.
1. Dive site name
2. Site description
3. Your role
4. Entry & exit techniques
5. Dive procedures
6. Emergency procedures
7. Signal review
8. Roster/buddy check
9. Environmental orientation
10. Predive safety check
16. List three ways you can prepare to handle novel problems at a dive site.
Increase your knowledge, skill and experience
1. ___________________________________________________________________________________
Pay attention to steps required to deal with familiar and unfamiliar situations
2. ___________________________________________________________________________________
Gather physical resources
3. ___________________________________________________________________________________
17. It is important to include an environmental orientation in dive briefings because it helps
divers dive so that they minimize effects to the environment and familiarizes those with little
or no experience with the specifics of the environment.
■ True
False
18. To help divers interact responsibly with the environment, you should suggest that they:
(choose all that apply):
■ Dive carefully to protect the ecosystem.
■ Secure gauges or alternate air sources so they don’t drag and damage aquatic life.
Only touch or pick up creatures that seem docile.
■ Respect underwater life and be a role model for others.
Supervising Diving Activities
53
experience
19. You develop good judgment through ________________.
When making decisions that involve
doubt, or when making decisions in areas with which you have less experience, err on the
conservative
____________________
side.
20. You’re leading a group on a 12 metre/40 foot charter dive boat. The captain tells you that
water is rising slowly in the bilge. There’s no imminent danger, because the bilge pumps
are keeping up with it, but action is required. Following the problem-solving steps, you and
the captain examine below the decks and discover that a cooling hose leading outboard has
ruptured. What would you do next?
Answers may vary.
Inventory resources.
Create several possible solutions.
Choose the best and devote energy to that solution.
Assess and revise solution as you go.
21. When managing an emergency situation, when delegating tasks one advantage you have as a
divemaster is that
you always have lots of Rescue Divers on hand.
your training lets you handle anything.
■ people expect you to take charge, and will do what you ask if they’re able.
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature _________________________________________________________ Date
54
Chapter Two
_______________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Knowledge Review
Chapter 3
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
logistics
As a PADI Divemaster assisting in training, your primary role is handling ______________
and
supervision
assisting with student diver _________________________.
2.
Of the following, identify what your functions may include. (Choose all that apply.)
■
a. supervising the predive equipment distribution to student divers, post dive equipment
collection, and handling equipment difficulties.
■
b. supervising student divers not being immediately watched by the instructor.
■
c. handling logistics, such as coordinating student diver flow to keep things moving during
training.
■
d. conducting the tour for experience portion of dives.
■
e. providing the instructor with additional information about student diver performance.
■
f. checking divers in and out of the water at a training site.
■
g. helping student divers with learning difficulties on an individual basis.
3.
Students may feel more comfortable confiding concerns and fears with you rather than the
instructor. Why?
a. They see you as being at the same level as they are.
b. Most instructors are not interested in concerns and fears.
■
c. You may seem like a member of the instructional team who is closer to their level.
4.
On an open water training dive for PADI Open Water Diver students, the bottom is very silty
and easily stirred up. Of the student arrangements listed, which one would you probably pick
if the instructor asked you for a recommendation?
a. students in a line with you at one end and the instructor at the other; students rotate
position after each skill
b. students in a line with the instructor in the center and you centered above and behind the
line; students rotate position after each skill
■
c. students in a line with the instructor in the center and you centered above and behind the
line; the instructor goes from one student to the next for each skill
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Assisting With Student Divers
75
5.
Depending upon circumstances, if you must make direct contact with a student, holding the
BCD at the shoulder or low on the outside is a good general method.
■
True
False
6.
Which of the following are duties normally expect of a PADI Divemaster when assisting with
PADI Open Water Diver students in training? (Choose all that apply.)
■
a. supervising the group while the instructor focuses on a single student
■
b. leading the group with the instructor taking up the rear, or vice versa
c. performing final skill mastery evaluations of students having skill learning difficulties
■
d. assisting with paperwork
■
e. enforcing facility safety rules
■
f. handling equipment and assisting students with it
7.
Why would you demonstrate a skill? (Choose all that apply.)
a. when the instructor can’t do the skill well
■
b. when the skill requires two people (you’re the instructor’s buddy)
■
c. to redemonstrate while working with a student having learning difficulties
8.
Watching role model demonstrations and videos can help you develop demonstration- quality
practice
skills, but there is no substitute for _________________________.
9.
The 20 basic dive skills from the PADI Open Water Diver course and the four skills from
the PADI Skin Diver course are the only skills you need to be able to perform at the
demonstration quality level.
True
■
False
10. A student is having difficulty with regulator recovery and clearing. The instructor asks you to
assist the diver with learning the skill. What would your first step probably be in helping the
student?
■
a. redemonstrate the skill
b. have the student attempt the skill
c. point out what the student is doing wrong
76
Chapter Three
11. Specific requirements and obligations that apply to working with children may be found
a. in the Professional Membership Guide of the PADI Instructor Manual
b. in the Child Protection Guidelines for PADI Dive Centers and Resorts on Pro’s Site
■
c. Both a and b.
12. When helping a student, it is often best to let the student handle a problem to benefit from
learning, unless you must handle it for safety or logistical reasons.
■
True
False
13. When helping a student diver with a physical challenge accomplish a skill, focus on what the
can do
student _________________________.
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Assisting With Student Divers
77
Knowledge Review
Chapter 4
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
diver safety
The primary goal of risk management is _________________________.
2.
Duty of care
_________________________
means that you are expected to act as a reasonably prudent
divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances to help protect less
knowledgeable divers from harm. Most legal systems define failing to do this as
negligence
_________________________,
which can lead to a lawsuit.
3.
During a lawsuit, it is shown that divemaster Pat failed to properly use accounting procedures,
so the dive boat left with two divers still in the water. They were picked up several hours later,
but had mild hypothermia. The suit is seeking damages to compensate the two divers for the
costs of the medical care. The defense is able to show that Pat normally uses a very accurate
accounting procedure and intended to do so the day of the incident, but got distracted helping
another diver. In most legal systems, which statement likely reflects the bearing of this on the
case?
■
4.
Divemaster Carl does not exercise regularly to any significant degree, he does not eat a
reasonably balanced diet, and he routinely pushes his dive computer’s no stop limits. He
has not taken a diving course nor practiced or reviewed his dive skills in years. He may be
increasing, depending upon the situation, the risk to
■
5.
a. By demonstrating that Pat is normally a competent, responsible divemaster, the suit will
likely fail and Pat will win.
b. Demonstrating what Pat intended to do will not help much, if at all, because the court
primarily considers what actually happened.
a.
b.
c.
d.
himself.
his buddies.
the divers he supervises.
All of the above.
Diving can cause elevated physical stress that can strain the heart and cardiovascular system.
This can cause a heart attack, stroke or other heart/circulation-related event in predisposed
individuals.
■
True
False
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Diver Safety and Risk Management
97
6.
The first, and most important way you reduce risk by adhering to PADI Standards is that you
accident or incident in the first place.
reduce the risk of a(n) _________________________
7.
Should an accident occur despite your best efforts, and you can demonstrate you were
following PADI Standards, you reduce your legal risk by showing that you acted credibly as a
professional and met that expected duty of care.
■
8.
Local dive community and industry practices and regulations aren’t typically part of PADI
Standards,
■
9.
True
False
a. but you should follow them conservatively as well as follow PADI Standards.
b. so you should disregard them.
c. and therefore have no legal merit.
The fact you were within PADI Standards alone is sufficient to defend your actions in the
event of a dive accident.
■
True
False
10. Divemaster Dawn is escorting several PADI Advanced Open Water Diver course students on
the AWARE, Fish Identification Adventure Dive. PADI Standards allow adult students to dive
as deep as 30 metres/100 feet on this dive, but there is a substantial thermocline and visibility
reduction at 12 metres/40 feet. Of the following choices, which is likely Dawn’s best decision
under these circumstances?
■
a. Allow the divers to go as deep as standards allow.
b. Cancel the dive entirely.
c. Limit the dive to 12 metres/40 feet and shallower.
intent
11. When applying a PADI Standard, consider the _________________________
of the standard and
judgment
then use good, conservative _________________________.
12. The PADI Member Code of Practice and the Youth Leader’s Commitment
■
98
a. are suggestions that you should usually follow.
b. are part of PADI Standards that all PADI Members must always follow.
Chapter Four
13. The first and most important role of paperwork is to inform divers and student divers about
the risks of diving, to confirm that they accept those risks, to confirm that they’re medically fit
to participate in diving and to remind them that it’s important to follow safe diving practices.
■
True
False
14. Enrolling in a PADI program, Lars checks “yes” to a condition listed on the medical history
form. At this point
■
a. Lars needs a physician’s approval before being eligible to dive.
b. the instructor or divemaster should ask Lars for more information to see if it is really a
problem.
c. Lars should have the option to complete a new medical form and indicate “no” if he
wants.
d. All of the above may be correct, depending upon circumstances.
15. At the scene of a dive accident in which she was involved, divemaster Alexandra is
cooperating with authorities to find out what happened. Based on her extensive experience
in diving, she tells them that the victim likely panicked and lost consciousness, though
she didn’t actually see it happen. What is the most likely result of Alexandra offering her
expertise?
■
a. Authorities will probably determine the accident’s cause more quickly.
b. The situation will get confused, because Alexandra’s opinion is not based on observed
facts.
c. It is not likely to help or hinder the investigation.
16. PADI Standards require you to report all PADI Standards violations that you personally
witness or hear about.
■
True
False
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Diver Safety and Risk Management
99
Knowledge Review
Chapter 5
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
To find standards that apply to all PADI programs, your primary reference is
_________________________ in the PADI Instructor Manual.
a. PADI’s Guide to Teaching
■
b. the General Standards and Procedures
c. the Discover Local Diving Program Guide
d. the PADI Skin Diver Course Guide
2.
If you’re looking for tips, suggestions and reminders for organizing training sessions,
selecting dive sites, etc., you want to look in
■
a. PADI’s Guide to Teaching.
b. the General Standards and Procedures Guide of the PADI Instructor Manual.
c. individual program guides in the PADI Instructor Manual.
d. All of the above list tips, suggestions and reminders for organizing training sessions,
selecting dive sites, etc.
3.
Participants in Scuba Review cover their knowledge development by reviewing their Open
Water Diver course materials, by completing Scuba Tune-up online or by completing the
Scuba Tune-up Guidebook
_________________________.
4.
Discover Local Diving as part of Scuba Review.
If feasible, it is recommended you offer _________________________
5.
The number of divers you can take on a Discover Local Diving tour is based on your judgment
regarding environmental conditions, logistics, diver training and experience levels, ages and
other similar factors.
■
True
False
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Divemaster Conducted Programs
117
6.
A couple tells you that they want to explore the underwater world, but that they don’t want
to deal with scuba gear. They have a 9 year old daughter whom they want to participate with
them. You would probably recommend
a. Discover Scuba Diving.
b. Discover Local Diving.
■
c. the PADI Skin Diver Course.
d. Scuba Review.
7.
After which of the following would you complete the PIC process for successful participants?
a. Discover Scuba Diving
b. Discover Local Diving
■
c. the PADI Skin Diver Course
d. Scuba Review
8.
As a PADI Divemaster who has completed the DSD Internship, you can take Discover Scuba
Diving participants on their first open water dive.
True
■
False
9.
As a PADI Divemaster who is assisting an instructor with a Discover Scuba Diving experience
or as a DSD Leader, you must position yourself so you can make immediate contact or render
immediate assistance for participants at all times, and only look away from them briefly as
needed to lead the dive.
■
True
False
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature _________________________________________________________ Date
118
Chapter Five
_______________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Knowledge Review
Chapter 6
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
You and your buddy are planning to map a dive site that is 100 metres/330 feet by 100
metres/330 feet. You need a useable map that has reasonable accuracy, but the map will be
used for dive briefings, not archaeology or anything scientific. What measurement method(s)
would be appropriate?
a. arm spans
■
b. timed swim
c. measured tape or line
■
d. kick cycles
2.
Which of the following patterns would generally be the preferred pattern for mapping?
a. circular pattern
■
b. U-pattern
c. semicircular pattern
d. random path pattern
3.
You have to anchor a float that will be used by Open Water Diver students on their first dive.
You find a very small sand patch right next to a beautiful coral stand. Which statement mostly
likely represents what you would do:
a. You would anchor the float in the coral.
b. You would anchor the float in the sand patch.
■
c. You would look for a better place to anchor the float.
d. You would tie the float to the coral.
4.
Identify the statement that is not true regarding towing a float or DSMB.
a. Keep tension on the line to reduce the risk of entanglement.
■
b. Clip the line to your gear to keep your hands free.
c. Be cautious that the line does not harm aquatic life.
d. Pull down on the line to make a DSMB stand in the water.
5.
The goal with any search pattern is to cover the search area as quickly as possible without
gaps
leaving _________________________.
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Specialized Skills and Activities
155
6.
Identify the characteristics of an expanding square search pattern.
■
a. well suited to looking for something lost in the immediate area
b. best choice for finding a small object in a large area
■
c. requires no special equipment
d. difficult to apply over obstructed bottom
e. use to search a large area for a medium to large object
f. requires a line and reel
7.
Identify the characteristics of a circular or semicircular search pattern.
a. well suited to looking for something lost in the immediate area
b. best choice for finding a small object in a large area
c. requires no special equipment
■
d. difficult to apply over obstructed bottom
e. use to search a large area for a medium to large object
■
f. requires a line and reel
8.
Identify the characteristics of a U-pattern search.
a. well suited to looking for something lost in the immediate area
b. best choice for finding a small object in a large area
c. requires no special equipment
d. difficult to apply over obstructed bottom
■
e. use to search a large area for a medium to large object
f. requires a line and reel
9.
Identify the characteristics of a jackstay search pattern.
a. well suited to looking for something lost in the immediate area
■
b. best choice for finding a small object in a large area
c. requires no special equipment
d. difficult to apply over obstructed bottom
e. use to search a large area for a medium to large object
f. requires a line and reel
10. You’re ascending with a lift bag and it starts to runaway from you. You should ______________
let it go
__________________________________.
156
Chapter Six
11. A team of recreational divers wants you to supervise a dive to 24 metres/80 feet to map a
wreck’s wheelhouse, photograph the telegraph, locate a moray eel known to live there and
photograph the eel. Which of the following would probably be the most appropriate response?
a. Agree, but tell the divers to leave the eel alone.
■
b. Agree, but tell the divers they need to pick one or at most two, of those objectives.
c. Decline, no explanation.
d. Decline, but explain that when they’re all tec divers, you’ll reconsider.
12. When feasible, when deep diving it is good to practice to have spare weights and a spare
cylinder with regulator hanging at 5 metres/15 feet.
■
True
False
13. If divers appear uncomfortable while leading a deep dive underwater, at many dive sites an
appropriate action is to
a. share air for easier breathing.
b. take them deeper so they enjoy the experience more.
c. ascend rapidly.
■
d. lead the group to a shallower level and continue the dive.
14. One reason for altitude diving procedures is that most decompression models were developed
sea level
for use at _________________________.
15. It is common for groups of inexperienced drift divers to ascend as a group, whereas
experienced drift divers commonly ascend as individual buddy teams.
■
True
False
16. When surf diving, divers should move slowly through the surf zone so they remain stable and
sure-footed.
True
■
False
1
17. The minimum number of lights per diver on a night dive is _________________________,
2
though the recommended number is at least _________________________.
Specialized Skills and Activities
157
18. Symptoms of hypothermia include (choose all that apply)
■
a. uncontrollable shivering.
■
b. loss of dexterity in fingers.
■
c. impaired mental processes.
d. skin itch.
19. In cold water diving, sufficient time should be planned between dives so divers can
rewarm
_________________________.
20. It is acceptable for EANx divers to use any EANx cylinder available.
True
■
False
21. Tec divers usually need you to set up their gear for them and remind them how to kit up.
True
■
False
22. Do not touch a tec diver’s gear unless asked to do so by the diver.
■
True
False
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature _________________________________________________________ Date
158
Chapter Six
_______________
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Knowledge Review Chapter 7
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
Two divers come into the PADI Dive Center or Resort with which you’re affiliated as part
of the instructional staff, but not as an actual sales person. The divers ask you for guidance
in selecting dive computers. Assuming it doesn’t conflict with the store’s policies, your best
response is probably to
■
2.
a. politely decline and suggest the divers speak with a salesperson.
b. agree because you have the best computer made and the store doesn’t stock it.
c. help the divers choose the computer that has the features and benefits they want.
The four Es of diving are
Equipment
1. _______________________________________
Education
2. _______________________________________
Experience
3. _______________________________________
Environment
4. _______________________________________
3.
A diver asks for a wet suit with thigh pockets because they are ideal for storing slates and
other accessories the person uses during tec dives and photography. The dive center has a
single suit in stock with thigh pockets that the customer could probably make work, but you
know that next week a shipment is due that has wet suits exactly like the diver has described.
Following a customer-centric business philosophy while supporting the dive center’s business
needs, your best option is probably to
■
a. say nothing about the suits coming in and sell the diver the suit you have in stock.
b. tell the diver to come back next week because there will be more suits to choose from.
c. explain that the suits due next week sound exactly right and encourage the diver to put
down a refundable deposit on one.
d. ask the store manager what to do.
4.
Customers choose to do business with you over the long term when they know you have their
best interests
_________________________
in mind.
5.
PADI Instructors
There are more opportunities for_________________________
than for any other professional
in the dive industry.
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
The Business of Diving and Your Career
171
6.
Which of the following skills/qualifications are likely to make you more valuable in the dive
industry? (Choose all that apply.)
■
■
■
■
■
7.
licensed boat captain
web/media production
retail sales training
compressor repair
scuba equipment technician
If you forget to renew your PADI Membership
■
a. you are no longer qualified as a certified assistant for PADI programs.
b. you may assist, but you aren’t authorized to conduct PADI Divemaster-conducted programs.
c. you may assist, but do not have access to any other PADI benefits.
d. nothing happens because renewal is only required at the PADI Instructor level.
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________
172
Chapter Seven
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Knowledge Review
Chapter 8
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
Being knowledgeable about the biological and physical properties of the underwater world
is important because it helps you with dive planning. It’s also important because divers are
curious
_________________________
about the organisms they’ve seen and discovered and expect you
to be reasonably knowledgeable about the local aquatic habitat.
2.
Project AWARE
You can learn a great deal about the underwater environment in the ________________________
Specialty Diver courses, as well as the PADI Underwater Naturalist course.
3.
Diving in an environmentally responsible manner is important so you role-model this
behavior. It’s also important because
a. divers are a significant threat to the underwater environment.
b. anything else is actually unsafe.
c. your buddy probably will not do so.
■
d. it’s part of the credibility needed to be environmental ambassadors.
4.
71
Water covers approximately _________________________
percent of the Earth’s surface.
5.
hydrologic cycle
The “oceans” are actually one big connected ocean. Beyond this, the ________________________
is thought to ultimately connect all water on Earth.
6.
heat distribution
The ocean provides oxygen and _________________________,
both of which are vital to life on
Earth.
7.
Phytoplankton
_________________________
are the base of the marine food chain.
8.
Many scientists think the coral reef is the most diverse ecosystem on Earth.
■
True
False
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Awareness of the Dive Environment
199
9.
Because they are highly productive, coral reefs require water that is high in nutrients.
True
■
False
Mangrove
10. _____________________
forests are important to the survival of adjacent coral reef ecosystems.
11. To support sustainable fisheries, be an educated consumer who only buys sustainable,
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
managed species and support the establishment of _________________________
12. Heat can be a pollutant.
■
True
False
13. Efforts to counter alien (invasive) species are very effective, especially the practice of
introducing alien (invasive) counter species that act as predators.
True
■
False
14. A good rule of thumb is that if you don’t recognize an aquatic organism you should
a. kill it.
b. end the dive.
c. notify the local environmental authorities.
■
d. None of the above.
15. Currents that affect divers are most commonly caused by the Earth’s rotation, waves, tides and
wind
_________________________.
16. Generally, the recommendation when diving in a current is to swim ________________________
the current at the start of the dive.
■
a. into
b. with
c. perpendicular to
d. away from
Drift
17. _______________________
diving is a common practice where strong, unabated currents exist.
200
Chapter Eight
wind
18. Most upwellings and downwellings result from the _________________________.
19. Depending upon how they affect conditions, dive planning may need to account for the tides
and tidal currents, or the tides may have so little effect that you don’t need to consider them.
■
True
False
1.3
20. A wave breaks in water that is _________________________
times its height.
wind
21. The most common disturbing force that causes waves is _________________________, though
passing vessels can also cause waves large enough to topple divers and equipment on a nearby
dive boat.
22. Waves can affect divers by
a. requiring the use of surf diving procedures.
b. making it difficult to stand on a boat deck.
c. causing seasickness.
■
d. All of the above.
23. The Project AWARE Foundation is a government-funded international organization that
involves divers and water enthusiasts in projects, activities and efforts that protect and
conserve underwater environments.
True
■
False
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________
Awareness of the Dive Environment
201
Knowledge Review
Chapter 9
Complete this review to be turned in to your instructor.
1.
Water absorbs more heat than air does because it is denser, and because
a. it is thinner.
■
b. water molecules form weak bonds between themselves.
c. water transmits light well.
d. None of the above.
2.
The tendency for water to cool you because water in contact with your skin warms, becomes
less dense and rises, being replaced by cooler water, is called
a. elasticity.
b. conduction.
■
c. convection.
d. induction.
3.
Eventually, you chill even with an exposure suit on, unless you have on very heavy exposure
in relatively warm water.
■
True
False
4.
When light passes from one material to another, such as from water into air, it changes
speed
_________________________
, which causes it to alter direction slightly.
5.
Loosely, we say that sound travels faster through water than in air because water is denser
elasticity
than air. But, more precisely, it is because water has more _________________________
than air
does.
6.
At the surface at sea level, the absolute pressure is
a. 0 bar/0 ata
■
b. 1 bar/1 ata
c. 2 bar/2 ata
d. None of the above.
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Dive Theory Review 269
7.
At the surface at sea level, the ambient pressure is
a. 0 bar/0 ata
■
b. 1 bar/1 ata
c. 2 bar/2 ata
d. None of the above.
8.
If you take a volume of air in a flexible container from 0 metres/feet to 10 metres/33 feet in
seawater, the volume will be _________________________ what it was at the surface.
a. 33 times
b. 10 times
c. 2 times
■
d. one half
9.
To lift an object in 20 metres/66 feet of seawater, you must fill an open bottomed lift bag
halfway full of air. Assuming you don’t vent air from a valve on the way up, will expanding
air start bubbling out the bottom of the bag before you reach the surface?
■
Yes
No
There’s not enough information to answer the question.
30
10. If a given cylinder of air lasts 20 minutes at 20 metres/66 feet, it will last ________
minutes at 10
metres/33 feet, all else being the same.
11. One method of increasing your buoyancy is by increasing your displacement. How would you
do this?
a. by dropping your weights
■
b. by inflating your BCD
c. by both dropping your weights and inflating your BCD
d. None of the above.
12. A PADI Enriched Air Diver is planning a dive to 10 metres/33 feet using EANx32. The diver
.64 bar/ata.
would calculate oxygen exposure based on a PO2 of _______
13. When gas in contact with a liquid has dissolved into the liquid to the point of equilibrium, no
more gas can go into solution. This is called
a. supersaturation.
■
b. saturation.
c. desaturation.
d. M-value.
270
Chapter Nine
Arteries
14. _________________________
are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.
Veins
_________________________
are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.
dead air
15. Long, slow deep breathing helps avoid concerns related to _________________________
spaces.
16. Excessive hyperventilation prior to a breathhold dive risks shallow water blackout, which is
caused by significantly depleting body carbon dioxide and excessively delaying the urge to
breathe.
■
True
False
17. The primary way to avoid CNS oxygen toxicity is to stay within the time-exposure limits of the
“CNS clock.”
True
■
False
18. A patient who has recovered from near drowning feels fine, seems perfectly recovered and
asks to go home. What would you recommend?
a. No problem, drive safely.
b. Go home, but stay near the telephone and call a doctor if you feel ill.
c. Go home, but keep breathing oxygen for at least four hours.
■
d. Don’t go home; medical examination and care are still necessary.
19. A buddy team is planning a dive to 40 metres/130 feet and tells you that nitrogen narcosis
won’t be a concern because they’re using EANx28. Is their thinking valid?
Yes
■
No
20. Dissolved gases in the tissues exert pressure, even though they’re in solution.
■
True
False
21. A diver surfaces and shortly after gearing down, begins to complain about pain in the right
elbow and shoulder. Although you’re not a doctor and there’s no need to diagnosis to provide
first aid for suspected DCI, the specific type of DCI is probably
a. AGE.
■
b. Type I DCS.
c. Type II DCS.
d. subcutaneous emphysema.
Dive Theory Review 271
22. Do physiologists think strenuous exercise makes you more or less at risk of DCS?
a. More at risk.
b. Less at risk.
■
c. More immediately before or after a dive, but less several hours before.
d. There are no data to answer this question.
23. A diver in a dry suit in very hot weather is delayed entering the water. The diver was sweating
profusely, but now is not sweating. The diver’s skin is hot and flushed, and the diver has a
strong, rapid pulse. You would suspect
■
a. heat stroke.
b. heat exhaustion.
c. hypothermia.
d. overexertion.
24. When severe, life-threatening hypothermia sets in, the victim often stops shivering, feels
warm and becomes drowsy.
■
True
False
25. What is the serious ear injury that can result from a long, forceful equalization?
a. middle ear squeeze
■
b. round window rupture
c. reverse squeeze
d. pneumothorax
26. Arterial gas embolism is an injury characterized by air overexpanding in the lungs and
■
a. entering the arterial bloodstream.
b. collapsing a lung.
c. accumulating in the center of the chest.
d. accumulating under the skin at the base of the neck.
27. Mediastinal emphysema is an injury characterized by air overexpanding in the lungs and
a. entering the arterial bloodstream.
b. collapsing a lung.
■
c. accumulating in the center of the chest.
d. accumulating under the skin at the base of the neck.
140 percent of a cylinder’s working pressure.
28. A burst disk will burst at approximately _______
272
Chapter Nine
29. A hydrostatic test checks for metal fatigue by comparing cylinder _________________________
before and after filling it to test pressure.
■
a. displacement
b. color
c. weight
d. buoyancy
30. During a predive safety check, a diver’s SPG needle swings to almost zero then, rises back to
full pressure, with each test breath. You would suspect
a. the SPG is near failure.
b. the regulator is out of tune.
c. the cylinder needs to be filled.
■
d. the valve is only partially open.
servicing
31. If a regulator freeflow persists, the regulator requires _________________________
.
32. A mechanical SPG has a curved tube in it that flexes when pressure is put into it. The degree of
flex is what moves the SPG needle.
■
True
False
33. The first step in dive computer use is to read the instructions for use manual.
■
True
False
34. The dive community guideline is that standard regulators, BCDs, SPGs and alternate
40 percent oxygen, though
air sources may be used with EANx blends with up to ______
manufacturer guidelines and local regulations should be followed.
35. A diver’s computer fails between dives, and the person has not been diving with a backup.
The recorded depth and time limits are outside table limits. What should the diver do?
a. Rent or borrow a computer and continue diving.
■
b. Discontinue diving for 12 to 24 hours before resuming with another computer.
36. To account for the fact that the body doesn’t absorb and release inert gas on a single time scale,
tissues
Haldanean models have theoretical _________________________
, also called “compartments.”
halftime
37. Each compartment in a Haldanean model is assigned and named for a _____________________,
which represents how fast it absorbs and releases inert gas.
Dive Theory Review 273
38. The “fast” tissues have ____ M-values compared to “slow” tissues.
■
a. higher
b. lower
c. either higher or lower
39. Dr. Raymond Rogers created the RDP for
■
a. recreational divers.
b. special forces.
c. Commercial divers.
d. All of the above.
40. The RDP concepts were tested with more than 1000 individual hyperbaric and inwater dives.
These included multilevel and repetitive dives.
■
True
False
41. Dive computers offer divers considerably more no stop dive time than do tables because
computers use decompression models that differ substantially in their validity and reliability.
True
■
False
Candidate Statement: I’ve completed this Knowledge Review to the best of my ability and any questions I answered incorrectly or incompletely I’ve had explained to me, and I now understand anything I may have missed.
Signature ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________
274
Chapter Nine
Knowledge Reviews may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Open Water Diver Course
Lesson Guide
Presentation Notes
Open Water Diver Course Lesson Guide Presentation Notes
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
Presentation Outline
Complete System
Lesson Guides
Preparing Students for the Course
When student divers enroll in the PADI Open Water Diver course, you set
them up with the PADI Open Water Diver Manual and Video, or the Open
Water Diver Multimedia. Schedule their first confined water dive as soon as
possible — the same day, ideally.
Have students fill out the information on the Student Record File, taking note of the PADI Medical Statement to determine if they need to see a
physician. (Note: In some areas, physician approval is required by law.)
This provides time for students who need to see a physician to do so, avoiding delays.
Registration and
Orientation Session
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Motivational videos and slide programs.
2. Dive equipment - masks, fins, snorkels, scuba unit, weight systems,
exposure suits, knives.
3. Materials to conduct Discover Scuba Diving experience
Notes:
1. Beginning the PADI Open Water Diver course with an orientation
session reduces the time of your first knowledge development review
and elaboration. The idea is to get student divers excited about diving, and to get them into the water as soon as possible. Keep this
session brief so you can do this, but use it also to handle administrative requirements and loose ends that may create delays later in the
course.
2. When possible, conduct this session at a PADI Dive Center or Resort
and use equipment on the sales floor as training aids. This familiarizes the students with equipment, and with the dive center/resort.
3. When youngsters take this course, encourage parents/guardians
to come to this session. Parents/guardians must sign administrative
paperwork prior to in-water activities.
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-5
Presentation
Contact Suggestions
l.
Welcome the students and thank them for enrolling. Explain that the
course will be adventurous and fun, with an emphasis on diving in
confined water and then in open water. Explain that you and your
staff are there to help them realize their desire to become divers, and
to have fun in the process.
2. Show the This Is Diving video, plus some videos showing trips/classes/
fun with your dive operation.
Overview, Learning Objectives and
Example Value Statement
I. Introductions
•
We’ll have more fun diving together if we know a bit
about each other, so we’ll spend some time getting to
know each other.
II. Course Overview
•
•
Why do you need to have a certification to dive?
By understanding what certification means, you’ll understand what you’ll be qualified to do after you finish
the course.
What are the course requirements, structure and
schedule? Knowing these eliminates misunderstandings regarding what we’re going to do, when, and the
requirements for success in this course.
III. Signing In, Gearing Up for Fun
•
We’ll handle any outstanding paperwork and look at
some of the dive equipment you’ll be using during this
course.
IV. Experiencing Scuba [Optional activities]
•
After we finish, which won’t take long, we’ll go diving in the pool (or confined water). You’ll hear a short
briefing, and then we’ll go get wet. [Note: Assuming
all medical requirements are met.]
Outline
I. Introductions
Introduce yourself and assistants.
[Optional — have students introduce themselves.
They can explain who they are, what they do,
why they’re interested in diving, etc.]
3-6
Three: Knowledge Development
II. Course Overview
A. Certification
1. Upon successful completion of the course,
you’ll receive the PADI Open Water Diver or
PADI Scuba Diver (minimum age 15 years),
or PADI Junior Open Water Diver or Junior
Scuba Diver (minimum age 10 years).
2. A certification card shows that you completed
the course according to PADI Standards.
3. Dive professionals (boat operators, dive store
employees, resort owners, etc.) will ask to see
your card.
4. A certification card allows you to:
a. Rent or buy scuba equipment.
b. Have your tank filled.
c. Participate in dive activities.
d. Take continuing education courses.
e. Dive in areas and under conditions similar to those in which you having training
or experience.
B. Course Structure
1. The PADI Open Water Diver course is:
a. Performance-based. This means that you
can progress by meeting learning requirements.
b. Divided into three segments: Confined
Water Dives, Knowledge Development
and Open Water Dives.
2. The course is taught in five confined water
dives and five knowledge development sections (three each for Scuba Diver). You meet
the requirements for each before moving on
to the next. We’ll begin with your first confined water dive tonight [or state when scheduled].
3. You’ll complete most of your knowledge
development at your own convenience by
reading the manual and watching the video
(multimedia). When we meet, a short quiz
tells me how well you understand the material; then we’ll review any areas where
you have difficulty and I’ll fill in information specific to diving around here. After the
last section, you’ll take a final exam that
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-7
makes sure you remember everything you’ve
learned throughout the course.
4. We’ll make four scuba open water dives
together (two for Scuba Diver), during which
you’ll apply what you’ve learned, plus develop some new skills. But we’ll spend a good bit
of time exploring and looking around, too.
[Mention skin dive if included. Discuss the
option of referrals and what it means.]
C. Course Requirements
1. Attendance requirements [Emphasize performance based requirements and need to
complete each section and session in order.
Discuss how you’ll handle make-ups. Discuss
what can be done if the course cannot be
completed.]
2. Independent study
a. Prior to each class, watch the Open Water
Diver Video and complete the reading, exercises and Knowledge Review questions
in your Open Water Diver Manual. (Or use
the multimedia version) I’ll look over
your Knowledge Review when we meet
for the review.
b. As you read, underline or highlight
important information - particularly the
information related to objectives.
[Introduce your Learning Agreement if you’re
using one.]
3. Equipment requirements
[Outline what equipment student divers need
for the confined water dives and the open
water dives. Merely review the list here. Later,
you’ll give a complete overview of dive equipment.]
4. Log books
[Asks students to bring their log books to all
sessions for your signature.]
5. Other:
D. Course Schedule
[Review the course schedule — times, locations, what
everyone will be doing — in detail.]
3-8
Three: Knowledge Development
III. Signing In
[Be sure you have the following for each student: PADI
Medical Statement, Standard Safe Diving Practices
Statement of Understanding (or Scuba Statement of
Understanding and Liability Release and Assumption
of Risk form. Complete store required or local administrative paperwork.]
IV. Gearing Up for Fun
[Show the Lesson Guide, quickly reviewing the major
pieces of dive equipment and discussing the equipment needed for the first confined water dive. Show,
and as appropriate, have student divers try on actual
masks, snorkels, fins, BCD, tanks and regulators. Emphasize various styles, different features and materials.]
Summary
Preview key points of the registration and orientation session.
Reminders for Next Class Meeting
Prior to the next meeting, complete Knowledge Development Sections One and Two in the Open Water Diver
Manual and Video (or Multimedia).
V. Dive Today
[Provide the Discover Scuba Diving briefing; you
may do this at the confined water dive site using the
Discover Scuba Diving flip chart. Then conduct Confined Water Dive One.].
VI. Water Skills Assessment
[Students must demonstrate, in confined water, they
possess reasonable aquatic ability without using equipment before they participate in open water dives. At some
point prior to certification, they must also complete a 200
metres/yard continuous surface swim or a 300 metre/yard
mask, snorkel and fin swim, plus a swim/float without using a mask, fins, snorkel or any other swim aid. Following
the confined water dive, or within it, you may get some
of this out of the way. It’s not recommended that you
perform water skills assessment without a confined water
dive.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-9
Knowledge Development One
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Complete System Lesson Guides.
2. Dive equipment as discussed.
3. PADI Open Water Diver Video.
Presentation
[Reminder: This is a review and elaboration. Move quickly over areas students know well based on their Knowledge Reviews and quiz
scores. Spend more time where they had problems, where you need
to add detail specific to your students and the local dive environment and where student divers express interest.]
Contact Suggestions
1. Ask students to imagine what it’s like to be a fish and how
it may be the same, and how it may differ from, being a
diver.
2. Compare ear “popping” when flying with pressure changes
in water.
3. Tell students a story about an unusual experience underwater that highlights the experience of neutral buoyancy,
such as trying to turn a handle in a pool, only to find yourself
turning the other way.
Overview, Learning Objectives and
Example Value Statements
I. Buoyancy
•
•
Why control your buoyancy?
How do you control your buoyancy? Buoyancy
control lets you control the dive — you can feel
weightless, or float effortlessly on the surface. By
learning buoyancy control, you’ll be able to relax and
avoid accidentally harming the underwater world.
II. Comfortable Descents
•
•
•
3-10
How do you equalize your ears and other air
spaces as you descend?
What should you do if you feel discomfort in your
air spaces when you descend?
What can make equalization difficult or impossible?
Three: Knowledge Development
At one time or another’ you’ve probably dived to a
pool bottom and felt discomfort in your ears. You’ll
learn how to avoid discomfort, what to do if you feel
discomfort, and some of the things that can make
equalizing difficult.
III. Comfortable Ascents
•
•
What is the most important rule in scuba diving?
In scuba diving, what you don’t know can hurt you.
By knowing and following this rule, you can avoid one
of the most serious injuries that can happen to a diver.
What should you do if you feel discomfort in your
ears and sinuses during ascent? Although it’s rare,
if you have ear or sinus equalization problems when
you ascend, you’ll want to know what to do about it.
IV. Breathing Underwater
•
•
What’s the relationship between depth and air
supply?
What is the most efficient way to breathe underwater?
Breathing underwater differs in a couple respects
from breathing at the surface. We’ll look at how you
breathe as a diver so that you don’t waste air, and so
you stay relaxed.
Conduct
[Ask divers to listen, to ask questions as necessary and to snore
loudly if you’re boring them etc., – whatever works to keep things
light and fun for you and them.]
Outline
I. Buoyancy - Positive, Neutral and Negative
A. Why control your buoyancy?
1. At the surface - to help you conserve energy
by floating.
2. Underwater - to help you become neutrally
buoyant, remaining “weightless.” This saves
energy and keeps you off the bottom, which
in some areas can damage sensitive aquatic
life. Staying off the bottom also keeps your
equipment from being abused.
[Apply to specifics of student/environment
needs, such as buoyancy control for underwater
photography, etc.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-11
B. How do you control your buoyancy?
1. BCD (buoyancy control device) — lets you
vary buoyancy by adding and releasing air.
2. Weight system offsets positive buoyancy of
exposure suit and your body.
[Apply to specifics of suits students will use.]
3. Lung volume - you gain buoyancy when you
inhale and lose buoyancy when you exhale.
[Explain that they’ll practice buoyancy control
during the confined water dives, using breath
control to fine-tune how buoyant they are.]
II. Comfortable Descents
A. How do you equalize your air spaces during descent?
1. Block your nose and attempt to gently blow
through it.
2. Swallow and wiggle your jaw from side to
side.
3. Both together- swallow and wiggle your- jaw
from side to side while attempting to blow
through your blocked nose.
[Have students try these techniques gently.]
4. Add air to your mask through your nose. This
prevents an uncomfortable mask squeeze.
5. Equalize early and often - every metre/few
feet while descending. Don’t wait for discomfort — by equalizing often, you shouldn’t feel
discomfort.
B. What should you do if you feel discomfort in your
air spaces when you descend? [Squeezes]
1. Ascend until the discomfort goes away.
2. Gently attempt to equalize again.
3. If air space equalizes, continue down slowly if
no discomfort.
4. If you can’t equalize, discontinue the dive.
[Explain how students should signal you that
they can’t equalize during confined and open
water dives.]
C. What can make equalization difficult or impossible?
1. Diving with a cold, allergy or other congestion.
3-12
Three: Knowledge Development
2.
Blocking off an air space - such as with conventional ear plugs or a tight fitting exposure
suit hood.
[If using hoods during the course, discuss types in
regards to squeeze prevention. Explain that vented
ear plugs designed for diving are acceptable.]
III. Comfortable Ascents
A. What is the most important rule in scuba diving?
1. The most important rule in scuba diving is:
Breathe continuously and never hold your
breath when using scuba.
[To apply this rule, inform students that you’ll help
them overcome their instinct to hold their breaths
underwater. For example, when the regulator is
out of their mouth, they’ll exhale small bubbles.]
2. Important: Lung rupture can lead to serious injury, even death. A rupture can force
bubbles into the bloodstream, blocking blood
flow to the brain and other parts of the body,
leading to paralysis, serious injury or death.
It is difficult to treat, but easy to avoid – never
hold your breath underwater. Remember the
flexible bag filled with air at depth, sealed,
and then brought to the surface? If you were
to hold your breath while ascending (for even
one metre/ a few feet), your lungs could over
expand similarly, causing lung rupture.
B. What should you do if you feel discomfort in your
ears and sinuses during ascent? [Reverse Blocks]
1. If you feel discomfort in your ears or sinuses
during ascent—stop.
2. Descend a metre/a few feet and allow the
trapped air to work its way out.
3. To avoid ear and sinus reverse blocks, don’t
dive with a cold; don’t use decongestants or
medication before diving because it may allow you to equalize while descending, but
then wear off, trapping air in the ears/sinuses.
[Explain how you want students to communicate
reverse block. Also, outline what you want other
student divers to do if someone gets a reverse
block. Explain that they may not participate in
confined or open water dives with a cold.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-13
IV. Breathing Underwater
A. What is the relationship between depth and air
supply?
1. Shallow diving uses less air, giving you more
time underwater.
2. Deeper diving uses more air, giving you less
time underwater.
[Compare the depths and approximate dive times
using the same tank for local dives at various
depths.]
B. What is the most efficient method of breathing
underwater?
1. Deep, slow breathing is the most efficient
method of breathing dense air while diving.
[Explain to students that they want to breathe
this way during their confined and open water
dives.]
2. For maximum air conservation and comfort,
relax and don’t overexert yourself underwater.
3. Pace yourself - breathe normally and never
get out of breath. The more you work, the
more air you use.
Summary
[Review key points. Also, restate objectives as answers to questions and restate values.]
3-14
Three: Knowledge Development
Knowledge Development Two
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Complete System Lesson Guides.
2. Dive equipment as discussed.
3. PADI Open Water Diver Video.
Presentation
[Reminder: This is a review and elaboration. Move quickly over areas students know well based on their Knowledge Reviews and quiz
scores. Spend more time where they had problems, where you need
to add detail specific to your students and the local dive environment and where student divers express interest.]
Contact Suggestions
1. Specific to heat loss and movement, have students compare
the differences between being on land and underwater.
2. Explain how you stayed warm on a recent dive—what suit
and accessories you used and why.
3. Tell students a story highlighting the benefits of the buddy
system, perhaps how having a buddy at hand made what
might have been a major problem an easily handled minor problem.
Overview, Learning Objectives and
Example Value Statement
I. Staying Warm
•
•
How can you stay warm underwater?
What should you do if you begin shivering continuously?
Getting cold takes the fun out of diving, and even a
small loss of body heat has the potential to be a serious health threat. For these reasons, it’s important to
know how to stay warm, and what to do if you don’t.
II. Streamline Yourself
•
•
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
How should you move underwater?
What should you do if you get tired on the surface or underwater?
3-15
Diving is exciting, but you shouldn’t get winded. Keeping a few points in mind allows you to avoid getting
out of breath, and helps you prevent cramping or
fatigue. You also need to know how to respond if you
do get tired.
III. Diving Together
•
•
What nine considerations should you discuss with
your buddy when planning a dive?
What should you do if you lose contact with your
buddy or the class underwater?
You’ve learned that you always dive with a buddy.
Now we’ll look at steps you want to take to make the
buddy system effective.
Conduct
[Ask divers to listen, to ask questions as necessary. Keep it light
and fun.]
Outline
I. Staying Warm
A. How can you stay warm underwater?
1. Exposure suit options.
[Highlight exposure suits students will use for the
confined and open water dives, those used locally,
and those used when traveling to specific dive
destinations.]
2. Exposure suit accessories needed for our confined and open water dives.
[Show and explain exposure suit accessories
needed for upcoming confined and open water
dives, and those used locally, and those used
when traveling to specific dive destinations.]
B. What should you do if you begin shivering continuously?
1. Continuous shivering is a warning signal
that means you’ve lost so much body heat
that if you lose much more, your body will
begin having trouble functioning (hypothermia). If you begin to shiver continuously during our open water dives, inform me or our
assistant immediately.
2. If you begin to shiver continuously, immediately get out of the water, dry off and seek
warmth.
3-16
Three: Knowledge Development
[Outline a few methods local divers use to get
warm after a dive: Showers on boats, hot drinks,
warm clothing types, etc.]
II. Streamline Yourself
A. How should you move underwater?
1. Move slowly and steadily to avoid overexertion and getting out of breath. Watch how
the staff and I move during our dives.
2. Avoid rapid and jerky movements — they
waste energy.
3. Take your time underwater, avoid overexertion — doubling your speed takes four times
the effort.
4. Streamline yourself to reduce drag. Don’t let
equipment dangle; it slows you down, wastes
energy and can damage the environment.
Keep your arms at your side. You’ll use properly streamlined equipment in your confined
and open water dives.
[Encourage students to check for unsecured hoses
and other dangling equipment during the predive
safety check.]
5. As much as possible, move horizontally
through the water.
[Discuss the trim—avoiding overweighting, and
adjusting weight for a comfortable, balanced
horizontal swimming position.]
B. What should you do if you get tired on the surface or underwater?
1. If you experience overexertion on the surface,
establish buoyancy and stop moving. Rest,
catch your breath and then continue at a
slower pace.
2. If you experience overexertion underwater,
stop all activity, breathe deeply and rest. Hold
on to something for support if needed. If you
become overexerted during our open water
dives, inform me or our assistant immediately.
[Show students the signal to use.]
III. Diving Together
A. What nine considerations should you discuss with
your buddy when planning a dive?
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-17
[Explain that during their open water dives, they’ll
cover these points during predive briefings, just as
they will with their buddies after certification.]
1. Establish entry/exit points and techniques.
[Briefly discuss common local entries.]
2. Choose a course to follow.
[Explain that later they’ll learn to use a compass
to follow a course underwater.]
3. Agree on maximum time and depth limits.
[Describe various ways you can determine depth
before a dive—charts, local divers, local dive centers and resorts, etc.]
4. Review communications.
5. Agree upon returning air pressure.
6. Discuss how to stay together.
7. Discuss what to do if separated.
8. Discuss emergency procedures, including air
sharing procedures.
9. Agree on an objective — it may be simple,
such as “sightsee the reef,” but you need to
agree on what you’re doing together.
B. What should you do if you lose contact with your
buddy or the class underwater?
1. Search for each other or the class for not
more than one minute.
2. If unable to locate, surface to reunite.
3. In some situations after you’re certified, you
may want to avoid surfacing — in that case,
discuss with your buddy and agree on how to
reunite if separated.
[Emphasis point: It is your responsibility to stay with
your buddy, to plan your dive with your buddy, to follow
that plan with your buddy and to be ready to assist each
other. No one can do this for you—you have to do it.]
Summary
[Review key points. Also, restate objectives as answers to questions
and restate values.]
3-18
Three: Knowledge Development
Knowledge Development
Three
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Complete System Lesson Guides.
2. Slides/video of local dive environment.
3. PADI Open Water Diver Video.
4. Local environmental information (tide tables, fish and
game laws, charts and maps, etc.)
5. PADI Rescue Diver course materials and promotional brochure.
Presentation
[Reminder: This is a review and elaboration. Move quickly over areas students know well based on their Knowledge Reviews and quiz
scores. Spend more time where they had problems, where you need
to add detail specific to your students and the local dive environment and where student divers express interest.]
Contact Suggestions
1. Compare the planning of a long hike over unfamiliar territory with that of planning a dive at a new site. Relate hiking to diving by discussing knowledge of the environment,
planning and problem management.
2. Tell students about your most memorable dive at the dive
site they’ll go for open water dives. Work in descriptions of
local aquatic inhabitants and the site itself.
Overview, Learning Objectives and
Example Value Statements
I. What’s It Like Where We’ll be Diving?
•
•
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
Relative to temperature, visibility, currents, and
bottom composition, what is the dive environment like where we will make our open water
dives?
What aquatic animals and plants will we see during our open water dives?
Soon you’ll be making open water dives, so you’ll
probably like an idea of what you can expect during
the dives.
3-19
II. Care for Yourself
•
•
•
Until you complete further training or gain more
experience, where should you dive after this
course?
What are three ways to prevent or control most
diving problems that occur at the surface?
How can you help yourself in the unlikely event a
problem does occur at the surface?
You’ll find that if you and your buddy dive within your
limits, plan your dives and follow safe diving guidelines, you’ll usually avoid problems. However, problems can occur, so you need to know the basics for
handling them.
III. Care for Others
•
What are the four basic steps to assisting another
diver?
Since you care about your diving buddy, you also need
to know how to assist your buddy if necessary.
IV. Solution Thinking Underwater
•
•
How can you prevent or control most problems
that may occur underwater?
Given a certain out of air situation, what emergency procedure would you use to get to the surface? [Explain that you’ll look at several situations.]
Knowing the basics for solving underwater problems
prepares you to handle problems if they occur.
V. Offshore Adventures [Use this topic if open water
dives during the course will be conducted from
a boat and/or if local diving typically involves
boats.]
•
What are some specifics about the dive boat(s)
you’ll ride aboard during this course or on dive
vacations?
When you dive from a boat, there are a few procedures to follow so you stay organized, know what to
do and have fun.
Conduct
[Ask divers to listen, to ask questions as necessary. Keep it light
and fun.]
3-20
Three: Knowledge Development
Outline
I. What’s It Like Where We’ll be Diving?
A. Relative to temperature, visibility, currents, and
bottom composition, what is the dive environment like where we’ll make our open water dives?
1. Water temperature.
[Elaborate on the water temperature at local dive
sites or wherever divers will be making their open
water dives. Highlight the differences, if any,
between surface temperatures and temperatures
at depth. Give examples of varied conditions at
popular dive destinations worldwide.]
2. Visibility.
[Elaborate on the visibility at local dive sites or
wherever student divers will be making their open
water dives. Give other examples. Highlight local
factors affecting visibility: a) water movement,
b) weather, c) suspended particles and d) bottom
composition. Discuss ways to keep visibility at its
maximum during dives.]
3. Currents.
[Elaborate on currents (if any) at local dive sites
or wherever students will be making their open
water training dives. If they’ll dive where currents
are common, discuss current diving techniques.
Give examples of varied conditions at popular
dive destinations.]
4. Bottom compositions.
[Elaborate on the bottom compositions at local
dive sites or wherever students will be makings
their open water dives. Emphasize the need for
each student to be especially cautious when diving
over bottoms inhabited by organisms, for personal safely and to protect the aquatic organisms.]
B. What aquatic animals and plants will we see on
our open water dives?
[Elaborate on the aquatic animal and plant life
at local dive sites or wherever students will make
their open water dives. Emphasize that nearly all
aquatic animals are nonaggressive and harmless,
and to not chase, tease or threaten underwater
creatures. If possible, show slides or videos of local, common aquatic creatures and plants.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-21
II. Care for Yourself
A. Until you complete further training or gain more
experience, where should you dive after this
course?
1. Once you finish this course, dive in an environment and in conditions as good as or
better than those with which you have training and/or experience, or with a professional
level diver. [Remind Scuba Divers that they will
always dive with a professional. Discuss specific
areas locally that are well suited for new divers
—conditions, site, emergency assistance close by,
etc.]
2. The following courses expand your skills and
broaden your experience with supervision
there to guide you:
a. Adventures in Diving program—advances your dive skills in different activities.
b. Emergency First Response —training that
teaches CPR and first aid emergency care.
[Tell students when the next course will be
and that nondiving friends and family may
join.]
c. PADI Rescue Diver course—fine-tunes
your ability to prevent problems, and
teaches you how to handle specific and
potentially complex diving problems.
[Tell students that the PADI Advanced Open
Water Diver certification is a prerequisite to
this course. Give them the dates of your next
Advanced Open Water program, or Adventure Dives for those who just want to “try”
one dive in an activity that interests them.]
B. What are three ways to prevent or control most
diving problems that occur at the surface?
1. Dive within your limits.
2. Relax while you dive.
3. Establish and maintain positive buoyancy
when at the surface.
C. How can you help yourself in the unlikely event a
problem does occur at the surface?
1. Immediately establish buoyancy by either
inflating your BCD or dropping your weights
(weight system).
3-22
Three: Knowledge Development
2.
3.
Stop, think and then act.
Don’t hesitate to signal for help - use a whistle, signal tube or wave. [Outline specific common problems - leg cramps, overexertion, being
out of breath, etc. Explain that they’ll learn how
to handle these basic problems during confined
and open water dives, but encourage them to
continue their training.]
III. Care for Others
A. What are the four basic steps to assisting another
diver?
l. Provide ample positive buoyancy — throw/
extend flotation and/or inflate the BCD; drop
weights.
2. Calm the diver.
3. Help the diver reestablish breathing control.
4. Assist diver back to shore/boat if necessary.
[Explain that they’ll practice tired diver tows during Confined Water Dive Three.]
IV. Solution Thinking Underwater
A. How can you prevent or control most problems
that may occur underwater?
1. Overexertion.
a. Move and breathe slowly.
b. Pace yourself.
c. If overexerted, stop, rest, relax and
breathe slowly.
[Discuss environmental conditions that may
cause overexertion - surf, currents, surge,
etc.]
2. Entanglement.
a. Stop, think and then act. Act based on a
plan; don’t react based on instinct.
b. Work slowly and calmly to free yourself.
Don’t try to turn, because this tends to
tangle you more.
c. Get your buddy to help.
[List the most common entanglement sources in the local aquatic environment.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-23
3.
4.
Breathing from a free flowing regulator.
[Describe how it happens (sand, freezing,
poor maintenance, etc.) and briefly describe
the technique they’ll use in Confined Water
Dive Three.]
Out of air.
a. Monitor your air supply by looking at
your pressure gauge/computer every few
minutes.
b. Being out of air is a big culprit in causing
diver injury, yet it’s a problem you have
complete control over.
[Relate this to the air depletion exercise from
Confined Water Dive Two. Emphasize that
you would like to see them monitor their
pressure gauge/computer often during the
course.]
B. Your buddy is out of air—given a certain situation, what emergency procedure should your
buddy use to get to the surface?
[Remind divers of the options they’ve studied. Also,
remind them that discussing emergency procedures
is part of dive planning: alternate air source location,
air reserves for the return leg and ascending, whether
buddy breathing is an option, etc.]
1. Situation One—Your buddy is suddenly out
of air about a metre/three feet away. It is 10
metres/33 feet to the surface. Your buddy’s
best option is:
[Allow students to discuss their answer. The generally preferred answer is to signal “out-of-air,.”
secure your alternate air source, begin breathing
and when comfortable, ascend with you.]
2. Situation Two—Your buddy takes a breath
from his regulator, it suddenly becomes difficult to inhale. The SPG shows zero, and
you’re about 18 metres/60 feet away. It is 12
metres/40 feet to the surface. Your buddy’s
best option is:
[Allow students to discuss their answer. The
generally preferred answer is: Your buddy should
make a controlled emergency swimming ascent
by swimming to the surface, exhaling continuously, making an aaahhhh sound. Point out that
3-24
Three: Knowledge Development
for this situation to occur, you and your buddy
would have been farther apart than you should
be; an effective buddy system calls for staying
close enough to assist each other.]
V. Offshore Adventures
[Use this topic if you will conduct open water dives from
a boat. Suggested: Show slides or a video of boats used in
the course or on sponsored dive trips.]
A. What are some specifics about the dive boats we’ll
use during this course or on your dive vacations?
1. Basic layout
2. General rules
3. Where to stow dive equipment and personal
belongings
4. Entry and exit guidelines/suggestions
5. Emergency procedures
Summary
[Review key points. Also, restate objectives as answers to questions
and restate values.]
Reminder for Knowledge Development Section Four
Read the Instructions for Use that comes with the RDP
Table or eRDPML. If learning to use the eRDPML, read the
first five sections and work the sample problems. If learning to use the Table, read and complete the sample problems and exercises up to “Finding a Minimum Surface
Interval.” These are also in the Open Water Diver Multimedia.
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-25
Knowledge Development Four
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Complete System Lesson Guides.
2. PADI Open Water Diver Video.
3. Giant RDPs.
Presentation
[Reminder: This is a review and elaboration. Move quickly over areas students know well based on their Knowledge Reviews and quiz
scores. Spend more time where they had problems, where you need
to add detail specific to your students and the local dive environment, and where student divers express interest.]
Contact Suggestions
1. Compare using a road map to plan a journey with using
the Recreational Dive Planner to plan a dive.
2. Tell students about the first time you ever experienced nitrogen narcosis. Explain how you handled it safely.
3. Ask students why they believe there are rules for driving a
car—speed limits, rules of the road, etc. Most will answer
“for safety.” Segue to the fact that safe diving has similar
limits and rules, many of which they’ve already learned.
Overview, Learning Objectives and Example Value
Statements
I. Nitrogen Narcosis
•
How should you react if nitrogen narcosis becomes a problem?
Nitrogen narcosis can create a hazard, so you’ll want
to know how to deal with it.
II. Decompression Sickness
•
•
3-26
How do you avoid decompression sickness?
What should you do if you suspect you might
have decompression sickness symptoms?
It’s easy to minimize the risk of decompression sickness by staying within established limits and following
guidelines. If you fail to do this, decompression sickness is potentially life threatening.
Three: Knowledge Development
III. Dive Tables and Dive Computers Introduction
•
•
•
What do these terms mean: dive profile, no decompression limit, bottom time, repetitive dive,
surface interval, and pressure group?
What are the general rules for the Recreational
Dive Planner?
How does a dive computer compare to a dive
table, and what rules and recommendations apply?
As you know, dive tables and computers help you
determine the maximum time and depth limits for
avoiding decompression sickness. To use tables and
computers, you have to understand the terminology,
recommendations and guidelines that apply to them.
IV-A. Using The eRDPML
[Use this portion of the presentation when teaching the eRDPML.
Use IV-B when teaching the Table RDP. When working sample
problems, draw dive profiles to help students follow.]
•
How do you find the NDL for any depth between 0 metres/0 feet and 40 metres/130 feet?
•
How do you find the pressure group for a certain dive
depth and time?
•
How do you find the pressure group after a surface interval?
•
How do you plan repetitive dives?
•
What are the special rules for three or more repetitive
dives in one day?
Knowing how to use the Recreational Dive Planner allows you to
plan dives within appropriate limits.
IV-B. Using the Recreational Dive Planner Table Version
[Use this portion of the presentation, IV-B, when teaching the
Table RDP. When working sample problems, draw out dive
profiles to help students follow along.]
•
How do you find the NDL for any depth between 0 metres/0 feet and 40 metres/130 feet?
•
How do you find the pressure group for a certain dive
depth and time?
•
From Table 2, how do you find the pressure group after a
surface interval?
•
How do you find residual nitrogen times on Table 3?
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-27
•
How do you find adjusted no decompression limits on
Table 3?
•
How do you plan repetitive dives?
•
What are the special rules for three or more repetitive
dives in one day?
Knowing how to use the Recreational Dive Planner allows you
to plan dives within appropriate limits.
Conduct
[Ask divers to listen, to ask questions as necessary. Keep it light
and fun. For the RDP portions, students will need their RDPs, paper
and pen. ]
Outline
I. Nitrogen Narcosis
A. How should you react if nitrogen narcosis becomes a problem?
1. Nitrogen has an anesthetic quality under
pressure.
2. If you begin to feel strange or intoxicated,
ascend immediately until you reach a depth
at which the feelings diminish.
[Emphasize that it’s best to experience nitrogen
narcosis for the first time under supervision, such
as during the deep dive in the Adventures in Diving program.]
3. If acting impaired, assist your buddy to shallower depths.
[Remind divers that nitrogen narcosis is not dangerous or harmful by itself, but creates a hazard
by impairing judgment, reactions and problem
solving ability.]
II. Decompression Sickness
A. How do you avoid decompression sickness?
1. Decompression sickness is a medical condition caused by excess nitrogen forming
bubbles in the blood vessels and body tissues
following a dive. Bubbles block blood flow
and nerve signals.
2. Follow established safe time and depth limits
from validated dive tables/computers.
[Provide examples of how you follow tables/computers on every dive.]
3-28
Three: Knowledge Development
3.
4.
Ascend slowly — maximum 18 metres/60 feet
per minute (slower if stipulated by your computer).
[Explain how they gauge their ascent rate in confined and open water dives.]
Make a safety stop at 5 metres/15 feet for
three minutes or longer after every dive.
[Review the specifics of how you’ll make safety
stops during the open water dives.]
Emphasis Note: Dive tables are based on mathematical
models. Because people differ in their susceptibility to
decompression sickness, no dive table or computer can
guarantee that decompression sickness will never occur, even though you dive within table/computer limits.
Always dive well within the limits your computer or table
provides.
B. What should you do if you suspect you might
have symptoms of decompression sickness?
1. Discontinue diving.
2. Seek medical attention. When possible, consult a physician trained in dive related problems, but any physician will do.
[Provide students with local diving emergency
phone numbers (DAN, DES, etc.)]
3. Breath oxygen at the highest concentration
possible. Breathing oxygen helps eliminate
nitrogen from the body.
Emphasis Note: Even if you vaguely suspect you might
have decompression sickness, seek treatment immediately; do not delay. Delays can result in permanent residual
symptoms.
III. Avoiding Decompression Sickness - Dive Tables
Introduction
A. What do the terms no decompression limit, bottom time, repetitive dive, surface interval, pressure group and dive profile mean?
1. Dive profile: a graphic representation of a
dive.
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-29
[Use the dive profile on the lesson guide to review the following information. Explain how
to use profiles to plan dives. Use examples of
actual dives to show application and increase
student interest when reviewing terms and
rules.]
2. No decompression limits (NDLs) — a.k.a.
no stop limits: found on dive tables — the
maximum allowable bottom time for a given
depth.
3. Bottom time: Using the RDP, the time in minutes from the beginning of descent until the
beginning of final direct ascent to the surface
or safety stop.
4. Repetitive dive: using the RDP, a dive made
within six hours of another dive.
5. Surface interval: the time spent on the surface between repetitive dives.
6. Pressure groups: Letters that represent the
amount of residual nitrogen—excess nitrogen
left in your body after a dive. Pressure group
A indicates the least amount of residual nitrogen. Pressure group Z indicates the greatest allowable amount. Using the RDP, after a
six hour surface interval, there is no need for
a pressure group since for practical purposes
there is no remaining residual nitrogen.
B. What are the general rules for the Recreational
Dive Planner?
1. Plan any dive planned to 10 metres/35 feet or
less as a dive to 10 metres/35` feet.
2. Use the exact or next greater depth shown for
the depths of all dives.
3. Use the exact or next greater time shown for
the times of all dives.
4. Slowly ascend from all dives at a rate that
does not exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute. This is a speed limit; it’s fine to go slower.
The RDP was designed and tested using this
ascent rate. A faster ascent rate increases the
risk of decompression sickness.
5. Never exceed RDP limits and whenever possible, avoid diving to the limits of the planner.
42 metres/140 feet is for emergency purposes
only, do not dive to this depth.
3-30
Three: Knowledge Development
6.
When planning a dive in cold water, or under
conditions that may be strenuous, plan the
dive assuming the depth is 4 metres/10 feet
deeper than actual.
7. Plan repetitive dives so each successive dive is
to a shallower depth. The dive medical community recommends avoiding following a
dive with a deeper dive — you can calculate
such a dive with a table or computer, but this
practice has a disproportionately high rate
of decompression sickness. Always plan your
deepest dive first. The RDP was designed and
tested using this accepted practice. To dive
otherwise increases the risk of decompression
sickness.
8. Limit all repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet
or shallower.
9. Limit your maximum depth to your training
and experience level. Novice = 18 metres/60
feet. Recommended depth limit for Advanced
Open Water Divers = 30 metres/ 100 feet.
Diver with Deep Diver training and a reasonable objective = 40 metres/ 130 feet absolute
maximum.
C. How does a dive computer compare to a dive
table, and what rules and recommendations apply?
1. A dive computer simply writes a custom dive
table for your exact dive using the same theories and models used by tables.
2. Dive computers are no more or less valid
than dive tables.
3. The guidelines for diving with tables apply
to computers (make dives successively shallower, deepest dive first, etc.).
4. Always dive well within computer limits. You
should always have ample no decompression
time showing on your computer display.
[If teaching students Table RDP, skip the next
segment and go to IV-B.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-31
IV-A. Using The eRDPML
[During this presentation demonstrate using the
eRDPML Desktop Version.]
A. How do you find the NDL for depths between 0
metres/0 feet and 40 metres/130 feet?
M. Metric sample problem: Your first dive of the
day is to 17 metres, the depth of a famous
reef known for its abundant fish life, seals
and manta rays. What’s the maximum allowable bottom time (no decompression
limit—NDL) for this dive? [NDL = 56 minutes]
I.
Imperial sample problem: Your first dive of
the day is to 57 feet, the depth of a famous
reef known for its abundant fish life, seals
and manta rays. What’s the maximum allowable bottom time (no decompression limit—NDL): for this dive? [NDL = 55 minutes]
B. How do you find the pressure group for a certain
dive depth and time?
M. Metric sample problem: Continuing from the
previous sample — After watching fish for 30
minutes, at a maximum depth of 17 metres, you notice that your SPG indicates you
should ascend, which you do. What’s your
pressure group at the end of this dive? [pressure group = L]
I.
3-32
Imperial sample problem: Continuing from
the previous sample — After watching fish
for 30 minutes, at a maximum depth of 57
feet, you notice that your SPG indicates you
should ascend, which you do. What’s your
pressure group at the end of this dive? [pressure group = L]
Three: Knowledge Development
C. How do you find the pressure group after a surface
interval?
Sample problem: Continuing the previous
sample—The weather is exceptional. After
lunch, you and your buddy decide to make another dive on the same reef Just before you suit
up, you notice that it’s been l-hour, 30-minutes
since you got out of the water. Using the pressure group after your first dive, “L,” what’s
your new pressure group? [pressure group = B]
D. How do you plan repetitive dives?
M. Metric sample problems
a. Finding the NDL prior to a repetitive dive.
Continuing from the previous sample —
On the first dive you noticed a shallower
portion of the reef that you and your
buddy could visit about 16 metres deep,
which is where you saw several manta
rays. As a group B diver after your surface
interval, what’s the maximum allowable
time (NDL) you could watch manta rays?
[NDL = 60 minutes]
b. Complete two dive profile. Continuing the
previous sample—You now know that the
maximum time you can watch the rays
on this second dive is 60 minutes. However after watching them for 35 minutes at
16 metres, your SPG indicates you should
ascend soon, so you decide to return to the
surface. What is your new pressure group?
[pressure group = Q]
I.
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
Imperial sample problems
a. Finding the NDL prior to a repetitive dive.
Continuing from the previous sample—
On the first dive you noticed a shallower
portion of the reef that you and your
buddy could visit about 50 feet deep,
which is where you saw several manta
rays. As a group B diver after your surface
interval, what’s the maximum allowable
3-33
b.
time (NDL) you could watch manta rays?
[NDL = 67 minutes]
Complete two dive profile. Continuing
the previous sample—You now know
that the maximum time you can watch
the rays on this second dive is 67 minutes. However after watching them for
35 minutes at 50 feet, your SPG indicates
you should ascend soon, so you decide to
return to the surface. What is your new
pressure group? [pressure group = P]
E. What are the special rules for three or more repetitive dives in one day (when using the RDP)?
[Highlight specific examples of when these rules
might apply to actual dive situations: boat dives, dive
vacations, etc.]
1. If you are planning three or more dives in
a day: Beginning with the first dive, if your
ending pressure group after any dive is W or
X, the minimum surface interval between all
subsequent dives is one hour.
2. If your ending pressure group after any dive
is Y or Z, the minimum surface interval between all subsequent dives is three hours.
Emphasis Note: Since little is presently known about the
physiological effects of multiple dives over multiple days,
divers are wise to make fewer dives and limit their exposure toward the end of a multiday dive series.
[If teaching the eRDPML, skip the next segment to the summary.]
3-34
Three: Knowledge Development
IV-B. Using the Recreational Dive Planner Table Version
A. How do you find the NDL, for any depth between
0 metres/0 feet and 40 metres/130 feet?
How do you find the pressure group for a certain
dive depth and time?
1. Begin with table 1 to plan first dive of the
day or whenever you plan a dive after six
hours following a previous no decompression
dive.
2. Table 1 features:
a. Starting point
b. Depths
c. Bottom times
d. No decompression limits
e. Pressure groups
3-M. Metric sample problem:
a. Finding the no decompression limit
(NDL.) after a dive. Your first dive is to
17 metres, the depth of a famous reef
known for its abundant fish life, seals
and manta rays. What’s the maximum
allowable bottom time (no decompression limit NDL) for this dive? [NDL = 56
minutes]
b. Finding the pressure group after a dive.
Continuing the previous sample — After
watching fish for 33 minutes at a maximum depth of 17 metres, you notice that
your SPG says you should ascend soon,
so you end the dive. What’s your pressure group at the end of this dive? [pressure group = M]
3-I. Imperial sample problem:
a. Finding the no decompression limit
(NDL.) after a dive. Your first dive is to 57
feet, the depth of a famous reef known
for its abundant fish life, seals and manta rays. What’s the maximum allowable
bottom time (no decompression limit
NDL) for this dive? [NDL = 55 minutes]
b. Finding the pressure group after a dive.
Continuing the previous sample — After
watching fish for 33 minutes at a maxiOpen Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-35
mum depth of 57 feet, you notice that
your SPG says you should ascend soon,
so you end the dive. What’s your pressure group at the end of this dive? [pressure group =M]
B. From Table 2, how do you find the pressure group
after a surface interval?
1. Used to determine how much residual nitrogen a diver eliminates during a surface interval.
2. Enter Table 2 using the pressure group found
in Table 1.
3. Find surface interval. Numbers in the boxes
are times expressed in hours and minutes.
Example: 1:30 = 1 hour and 30 minutes.
4. Move vertically to the bottom of Table 2 to
find new pressure group.
5. Note: more time on the surface—less residual
nitrogen; less time on the surface—more
residual nitrogen. Remember, residual nitrogen is low in pressure group A and becomes
greater as one moves to pressure group Z.
6. Continuing from the previous sample—The
weather is exceptional. After lunch, you and
your buddy decide to make another dive on
the same reef. Just before you suit up you
notice that it’s been 1 hour, 30 minutes since
you got out of the water. Using Table 2, what
‘s your new pressure group? [pressure group =
B]
C. How do you find residual nitrogen times on Table
3 and how do you find adjusted no decompression limits on Table 3?
1. Table 3 is used to find out how much residual
nitrogen, expressed in minutes, a diver has
remaining in the body prior to entering the
water for a repetitive dive.
2. This amount is referred to as residual nitrogen time (RNT).
3. Enter Table 3 at the top, with the new pressure group found after the surface interval.
4. Find the depth of the repetitive dive in the
column on the left side.
5. Intersect the depth row with the pressure
3-36
Three: Knowledge Development
group column. You will locate a box with two
numbers.
6. The RNT is the number in the white box.
7. The adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL)
is located in blue box. The Adjusted no decompression limit is the maximum time you
can spend at that depth on the repetitive
dive.
8. The ANDL is the result of subtracting the RNT
from the NDL for the depth of the repetitive
dive.
9-M. Metric sample problems:
a. Finding the RNT before a repetitive dive.
Continuing the previous sample — On
the first dive, you noticed a shallower
portion of the reef that you can visit,
about 15 metres deep, where you saw
manta rays. As a group B diver after
your surface interval, what’s your RNT?
[RNT= 13 minutes]
b. Finding the ANDL before a repetitive
dive. Continuing the previous sample
— What’s your ANDL for this repetitive
dive? [ANDL = 59 minutes]
9-I. Imperial sample problems:
a. Finding the RNT before a repetitive dive.
Continuing the previous sample — On
the first dive, you noticed a shallower
portion of the reef that you can visit,
about 45 feet deep, where you saw manta rays. As a group B diver after your
surface interval, what’s your RNT? [RNT=
13 minutes]
b. Finding the ANDL before a repetitive
dive. Continuing the previous sample—
What’s your ANDL for this repetitive
dive? [ANDL = 67 minutes]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-37
D. How do you plan repetitive dives?
1. When planning more than two dives a day,
a diver needs to know how to get a new pressure group at the end of a repetitive dive.
2. Find the RNT after a repetitive dive on Table
3.
3. Add the RNT to the actual bottom time (ABT).
a. Actual bottom time: The time actually
spent underwater on the repetitive dive.
4. The sum of the RNT and ABT equals the total
bottom time or TBT.
a. Total bottom time: A time representing
the amount of nitrogen a diver has in the
body after a repetitive dive.
b. RNT + ABT = TBT
c. Forgetting to add RNT to ABT to get TBT
is the single most common error made by
divers learning to use
the tables. Use this
Residual Nitrogen Time (RNT)
mnemonic to help
+ Actual Bottom Time (ABT)____
you remember:
Total Bottom Time (TBT)
Always find the RAT:
5.
Find the new pressure group on Table 1 by
using depth of the repetitive dive and total
bottom time (TBT).
6-M. Metric sample problem Continuing from the
previous sample — Your second dive to 15
metres for 30 minutes couldn’t have been better — you see a manta ray up close. Now that
the dive is complete and you’re back on the
surface, what’s your TBT and new pressure
group? [TBT= 43; new pressure group = O]
6-I. Imperial sample problem Continuing from
the previous sample—Your second dive to 45
feet for 30 minutes couldn’t have been better—you see a manta ray up close. Now that
the dive is complete and you’re back on the
surface, what’s your TBT and new pressure
group? [TBT= 43; new pressure group = N]
3-38
Three: Knowledge Development
E. What are the special rules for three or more repetitive dives in one day (when using the RDP)?
[Highlight specific examples of when these rules
might apply to actual dive situations: boat dives, dive
vacations, etc.]
1. If you are planning three or more dives in
a day: Beginning with the first dive, if your
ending pressure group after any dive is W or
X, the minimum surface interval between all
subsequent dives is one hour.
2. If your ending pressure group after any dive
is Y or Z, the minimum surface interval between all subsequent dives is three hours.
Emphasis Note: Since little is presently known about the
physiological effects of multiple dives over multiple days,
divers are wise to make fewer dives and limit their exposure toward the end of a multiday dive series.
Summary
[Review key points. Also, restate objectives as answers to questions
and restate values.]
Reminder for Knowledge Development Section Five
Finish the Instructions for Use for with the RDP Table or
eRDPML. This material is also in the Open Water Diver Multimedia.
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-39
Knowledge Development Five
Training Aid Recommendations
1. Complete System Lesson Guides.
2. PADI Open Water Diver Video.
3. Giant RDPs.
Presentation
[Reminder: This is a review and elaboration. Move quickly
over areas students know well based on their Knowledge
Reviews and quiz scores. Spend more time where they had
problems, where you need to add detail specific to your students and the local dive environment and where student divers express interest.]
Contact Suggestions
1. Ask students if they think they will ever be diving in cold
water or flying to a dive destination. Most will probably
answer “yes” to one or the other. Segue to the notion that
to dive safely under these special circumstances, there are
some steps to follow when planning dives with the Recreational Dive Planner.
2. Drawing from past experience, explain how making a
safety stop prevented a possible problem (adjust ill fitting
equipment, double checked table limits and dive time,
looking for boats overhead, etc.) Emphasize safety stop
benefits.
3. Tell students about the last time you traveled by air from a
dive destination and applied the guidelines for flying and
driving to altitude after diving.
Overview, Learning Objectives and
Example Value Statements
I. Be a S.A.F.E. Diver - Making Safety Stops
•
When must you make a safely stop?
Understanding when safety stops are recommended
and required helps you reduce the risk of decompression sickness.
II. Emergency Decompression
•
3-40
What should you do if you accidentally exceed a
no decompression limit?
Three: Knowledge Development
Accidents happens. If you exceed the RDP or your
computer’s no stop limits, you need to know what to
do to reduce your risk of decompression sickness.
III. Altitude Considerations for Divers
•
•
Above what altitude should you use special procedures with the Recreational Dive Planner?
What are the guidelines for flying after diving?
Altitude makes it easier for bubbles to form in your
body after a dive, so you need to follow procedures to
keep your decompression sickness risk tolerable.
IV-A. Using The eRDPML — Finding a Minimum Surface Interval and Calculating a Multilevel Dive
[Use IV-A when teaching the eRDPML. When
working sample problems.]
• How do you find the minimum surface interval
between two no decompression dives using the
eRDPML?
• How do you plan a multilevel dive with the
eRDPML?
Knowing how to use the eRDPML to find a minimum
surface interval will help you make the most effective
use of your time when planning two or more dives.
IV-B. Using the RDP Table—Finding a Minimum Surface Interval
•
[Use IV-B when teaching the Table.]
How do you find a minimum surface interval between two no decompression dives using the RDP
Table version?
Knowing how to use the Table to find a minimum surface interval will help you make the most effective use
of your time when planning two or more dives.
V. Computer Dive Planning
•
•
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
What is a dive computer?
How do you use a dive computer?
Dive computers have become very popular, and it’s
more unusual to see a diver without one than with
one. Since diving with a computer has many benefits,
you’ll want to know how to use one.
3-41
Conduct
[Ask divers to listen, to ask questions as necessary. Keep it light
and fun.]
Outline
I. Be a S.A.F.E. Diver—Making Safety Stops
A. When must you make a safety stop?
1. After a dive to 30 metres/100 feet or deeper.
2. Your pressure group at the end of a dive is
within three pressure groups of the no decompression limit (using the RDP).
3. When you dive up to any limit on the RDP or
your dive computer.
Emphasis Note: Make a safety stop after every dive.
[Explain PADI’s S.A.F.E. Diver campaign—be a S.A.F.E. Diver—
Slowly Ascend From Every dive, and make a safety stop after
every dive.]
II. Emergency Decompression
A. What should you do if you accidentally exceed a
no decompression limit?
1. Using the RDP, if you exceed a no decompression limit or an adjusted no decompression
limit by no more than five minutes, slowly
ascend at a rate not faster than 18 metres/60
feet per minute to 5 metres/15 feet and remain there for eight minutes prior to surfacing. After reaching the surface, do not dive
for at least six hours.
2. Using the RDP, if you exceed a no decompression limit or an adjusted no decompression
limit by more than five minutes, slowly ascend at a rate not faster than 18 metres/60
feet per minute to 5 metres/15 feet and remain there for no less than 15 minutes prior
to surfacing, air supply permitting. After
reaching the surface, do not dive for at least
24 hours.
3. Using a dive computer, your computer will
give you your emergency decompression
requirements. After surfacing, remain out
of the water as recommended by the manufacturer’s literature. Making a repetitive dive
after a dive requiring decompression is not
generally recommended.
3-42
Three: Knowledge Development
III. Altitude Considerations for Divers
A. Above what altitude should you use special procedures with the Recreational Dive Planner?
1. Diving at altitudes higher than 300 metres/1000 feet requires the use of special tables and procedures to account for decreased
atmospheric pressure. To use a dive computer,
see the manufacturer’s literature—you may
need to put the computer in a special altitude
mode.
2. You need special training for altitude diving.
[Outline specific course procedures for diving at
altitude if open water dives will take place above
300 metres/1000 feet and promote upcoming
Altitude Diver specialty courses.]
B. What are the guidelines for flying after diving?
1. For a single dive within the no decompression
limit, a minimum preflight surface interval of
12 hours is suggested
2. For repetitive dives and/or multiday dives,
a minimum preflight surface interval of 18
hours is suggested.
3. For dives requiring decompression stops, a
minimum preflight surface interval greater
than 18 hours is suggested.
[Show how you used these guidelines on a past
dive trip.]
Emphasis Note: There is currently no recommendation
for driving to altitude after diving. Conservatism is prudent. Also, there can never be a flying after diving rule
that is guaranteed to prevent decompression sickness
completely. These guidelines represent the best estimate
for a conservative, safe surface interval for the vast
majority of divers. The responsibility for diving safely
and proper behavior falls on you. Stay up on procedure
changes over time as new research develops.
[If you are teaching the table version of the RDP, skip the
next segment and go to IV-B.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-43
IV-A. Using The eRDPML – Finding a Minimum Surface
Interval and Calculating a Multilevel Dive
A. How do you find minimum surface interval between two no decompression dives using the
eRDPML?
[Explain that you find minimum surface intervals
when planning repetitive dives with known depths
(from previous dives, boat depth finders, charts, etc.).
This allows one to calculate the least amount of time
(the minimum surface interval) that you must wait
after the first dive to be able to make a second dive for
a desired time.]
3-44
M.
Metric sample problem: Your tropical dive
vacation includes a popular wreck dive. From
the depth finder, the boat captain gives you
the depth, 17 metres, and informs you that
you’ll make two dives on this site. Your first
dive is for 41 minutes. Since you’re anxious
to get back in and see the rest of wreck, you
want to know the minimum time you need
on the surface to make another dive to 17
metres for 41 minutes. [pressure group after
1st dive = Q; pressure group at the beginning
of 2nd dive = C; minimum surface interval
=1:22]
I.
Imperial sample problem: Your tropical dive
vacation includes a popular wreck dive. From
the depth finder, the boat captain gives you
the depth, 52 feet, and informs you that
you’ll make two dives on this site. Your first
dive is for 41 minutes. Since you’re anxious to
get back in and see the rest of the wreck, you
want to know the minimum time you need
on the surface to make another dive to 52
feet for 41 minutes. [pressure group after 1st
dive = P; pressure group at the beginning of
2nd dive = G; minimum surface interval =:46]
Three: Knowledge Development
Emphasis Note: Determining minimum surface intervals
means diving to the limits of the RDP. You can add some
conservatism by using a lower pressure group (more
toward pressure group “A”) at the beginning of the 2nd
dive. You can also determine a minimum surface interval, but then stay a bit longer than that interval when
diving. Another way to be conservative is to limit the
actual bottom time of your second dive to well within the
time you plan. Remember to make a safety stop before
surfacing.
B. How do you plan a multilevel dive using the
eRDPML?
[Review with students, the eRDPML Instructions for
Use booklet.]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
M.
Metric sample problem: The dive boat you’re
on anchors over a beautiful reef with a variety of depth levels. As a PADI Advanced
Open Water Diver, you’re training qualifies
you to dive to the depths at the site. You immediately plan the deepest depth of your dive
for 32 metres. What’s the NDL for this depth?
[NDL = 17 minutes] You decide to stay at 32
metres for 12 minutes. What pressure group
does this yield? [pressure group = H] You plan
to ascend next to 18 metres where you’ve
been told you can find some corals. After the
first level, what’s the maximum time you can
spend at 18 metres? [ML = 23 minutes] After
10 minutes at 18 metres, you plan to ascend
to a third level. What pressure group would
you have now? [pressure group = M] You decide to ascend to 12 metres. What’s the maximum time you can spend at 12 metres? [ML =
76 minutes]
I.
Imperial sample problem: The dive boat
you’re on anchors over a beautiful reef with
a variety of depth levels. As a PADI Advanced
Open Water Diver, you’re training qualifies
you to dive to the depths at the site. You immediately plan the deepest depth of your dive
3-45
for 95 feet. What’s the NDL for this depth?
[NDL = 22 minutes] You decide to stay at 95
feet for 15 minutes. What pressure group does
this yield? [pressure group = J] You plan to
ascend next to 65 feet where you’ve been told
you can find some corals. After the first level,
what’s the maximum time you can spend at
65 feet? [ML = 15 minutes] After 10 minutes
at 65 feet, you plan to ascend to a third level.
What pressure group would you have now?
[pressure group = P] You decide to ascend to
50 feet. What’s the maximum time you can
spend at 50 feet? [ML = 20 minutes]
[If you are teaching the eRDPML, skip the next
segment and continue this presentation with the
topic: Computer Dive Planning.]
IV-B. Using the RDP Table — Finding a Minimum Surface Interval
A. How do you find a minimum surface interval between two no decompression dives with the RDP
Table?
[Explain that you find minimum surface intervals
when planning repetitive dives with known depths
(from previous dives, boat depth finders, charts, etc.) –
3-46
Three: Knowledge Development
Allows one to calculate the least amount of time (the
minimum surface interval) that you must wait after
the first dive to be able to make a second dive for a
desired time.]
1. On table one, first find the pressure group at
the end of the first dive.
2. On table three, locate the depth of the second
dive on the left-hand side. Move horizontally from that depth across the table until
you find the exact time, or next greater time,
of the second dive in a blue box (this time
will be an ANDL). Locate the pressure group
above this time.
3. On table 2, intersect the pressure group found
after the first dive with the pressure group
found from table three. At that intersection
on table two, you will find two numbers. The
top number is the minimum surface interval.
4-M. Metric sample problem: Your tropical dive
vacation includes a popular wreck dive. From
the depth finder, the boat captain tells you
the depth is 17 metres, and informs you that
you’ll make two dives on this site. Your first
dive is for 41 minutes. Since you’re anxious
see the rest of wreck, you want to know the
minimum amount of time you need on the
surface to make another dive to 17 metres for
41 minutes. [pressure group after 1st dive = P;
pressure group at the beginning of 2nd dive =
C; minimum surface interval = 1:17]
4-I. Imperial sample problem: Your tropical dive
vacation includes a popular wreck dive. From
the depth finder, the boat captain tells you
the depth is 52 feet, and informs you that
you’ll make two dives on this site. Your first
dive is for 41 minutes. Since you’re anxious
to see the rest of wreck, you want to know the
minimum amount of time you need on the
surface to make another dive to 52 feet for 41
minutes. [pressure group after 1st dive = Q;
pressure group at the beginning of 2nd dive =
C; minimum surface interval = 1:21]
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-47
Emphasis Note: Determining minimum surface intervals means diving to the limits of the RDP. You can add
some conservatism by using a lower pressure group (more
toward pressure group “A”) at the beginning of the 2nd
dive. You can also determine a minimum surface interval, but then stay a bit longer than that interval when
diving. Another way to be conservative is to limit the
actual bottom time of your second dive to well within the
time you plan. Remember to make a safety stop before
surfacing.
V. Computer Dive Planning
A. What is a dive computer?
1. A dive computer is a specialized calculator
that reads your depth and time and applies
them to a decompression model to provide
you with your no decompression time remaining.
[Show students a few dive computers, discussing
features/benefits.]
2. They also calculate multilevel dives (like the
eRDPML), which extends your no stop time
beyond the no decompression limit of your
deepest depth. Multilevel diving offers more
time because it credits you for slower nitrogen
absorption when you ascend to a shallower
depth.
[Give examples of multilevel dives student divers
might make.]
3. A dive computer’s primary purpose is to tell
you your remaining no decompression time.
All display depth, no decompression time
remaining and elapsed time. Some include
your SPG and calculate the amount of time
remaining based on your air consumption.
B. How do you use a dive computer?
1. Follow the guidelines you learned with the
Recreational Dive Planner (deep dives first,
limit repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet or
shallower, etc.)
2. You and your buddy need your own computers. Don’t attempt to share. A computer
3-48
Three: Knowledge Development
3.
4.
5.
6.
tracks your nitrogen throughout the dive day,
so you can’t swap or share computers between dives, either.
Don’t turn your computer off between dives
or remove the battery. Doing so will make
it lose its memory of your residual nitrogen.
Your computer will shut itself off.
Different computers have slightly different
decompression models and different time limits. Buddy teams should follow the computer
with the more conservative times.
If your computer malfunctions while diving,
ascend immediately according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
a. If there is no recommendation, then
ascend at a rate not exceeding 18 metres/60 feet per minute or the computer’s
ascent rate, whichever is slower, to a
depth of 5 metres/15 feet and make a
long safety stop, perhaps lasting as long
as your air supply permits. Do not dive
again for 24 hours, or as recommended
by the manufacturer’s instructions.
Back up your computer with the Recreational
Dive Planner. Since no dive computer is infallible, it is still important for you to have and
use your RDP. If your computer fails you may
have to quit diving until the next day to clear
residual nitrogen, but then you can resume
using your RDP. You may be able to rent a
dive computer in many places, but don’t
count on it—take your RDP so you don’t miss
out on the diving.
[Suggest the PADI Multilevel Specialty Diver
course as a good way to learn more about
computers, multilevel diving and decompression theory.]
VI. Your Next Adventure
[Show students slides/videos of people having fun diving
with your dive operation.
Take time to get student divers to plan now for what
they’ll do after they become divers. Encourage them
strongly to do one or more of the following:
A. Join your dive operation’s club and the PADI Diving Society
Open Water Diver Course Instructor Guide
3-49
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Sign up for an Adventure Dive.
Sign up for a course (Advanced or Specialty).
Sign up for a dive trip.
Sign up for a local dive with your dive operation.
Invest in a regulator and BCD setup, or an exposure suit.
Emphasize that divers who do one of these right after completing their certification tend to stay in diving, and get from
diving what they want. Those who don’t are more likely to go
a long time without diving, or never dive again, wasting the
time and money they’ve invested.
Encourage student divers to share names and contact information;
this gives them some immediate contacts with others who dive.]
Summary
[Review key points. Also, restate objectives as answers to questions
and restate values.]
3-50
Three: Knowledge Development
Rescue Diver Course
Lesson Guide
Presentation Notes
Rexcue Diver Course Lesson Guide Presentation Notes
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
I. Knowledge Development Presentation One
The first session sets the tone for the course and allows you to
establish rapport with the student divers. It is important to be
well-organized and explain the course requirements clearly. Build
enthusiasm during this session by explaining that the rescue diver
program differs from previous training levels because it expands
their awareness beyond themselves to assisting others. Emphasize
that the course is challenging and deals with a serious subject,
but is at the same time rewarding and fun. Explain that each
Knowledge Development Section develops information to correspond synergistically to the rescue skills and scenarios they will
learn and practice during the rescue training sessions.
The first section of the PADI Rescue Diver Manual supports this Knowledge
Development Section of the course. If possible, have student divers read Section
One, complete the Knowledge Review, and watch the corresponding video
sequence of the PADI Rescue Diver Video before attending.
Overview and Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, the student should be able to answer the questions in
italics:
A. Welcome and Introductions
Course Structure
Performance Requirements
Equipment and Materials Requirements
Schedule, Logistics and Paperwork
Certification
B. The Psychology of Rescue
• What is the most common cause of diver emergencies?
• Do Not Risk Your Life
• What three things should you consider before attempting an
inwater rescue of someone in the water?
• What is diver stress?
• What are seven causes and examples of physical stress?
• What are three examples of psychological (emotional) stress
caused by physical stress?
• What are four causes of psychological stress other than physical
stress?
• What is perceptual narrowing?
• What effects can stress produce in a diver?
C. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
First Aid Kit
• What supplies belong in a well-stocked first aid kit and how are they used?
• What is a pocket mask?
• What are four advantages of a pocket mask?
1
Emergency Oxygen Delivery Systems
• Why is it important to have emergency oxygen available?
• What are the three primary types of emergency oxygen systems?
• How do the three primary types of emergency oxygen systems differ?
• Which two types of emergency oxygen systems are recommended for use by rescue divers?
• How much oxygen should be available?
Automated External Defibrillator (AED)
• What is an AED?
• What is the benefit of having an AED on hand?
D. Accident Management
Managing an Emergency
• What is the difference between a “victim” and a “patient”?
• What are the two possible roles a rescue diver may have at a dive
accident scene?
• What two forms of readiness prepare you to manage an emergency? What are the elements of each?
• What are the six basic steps for emergency management?
• What considerations and procedures are involved with forming a
local emergency assistance plan?
E. Responding to Diver Emergencies
Self-rescue – Looking After Yourself First
• What three areas of preparation increase your self-rescue abilities?
• What three dive procedures help you anticipate and prevent problems while diving?
• What should you do when you encounter a problem while diving?
• What are five skills that increase your self-rescue abilities?
Recognizing Rescue Situations
• What signs and behaviors indicate a diver may have a problem at the surface?
• What are the characteristics that indicate a tired diver?
• What are the characteristics that indicate a panicked diver?
Nonswimming Assists and Rescues
• Why does the rescuer’s safety take priority over the distressed diver’s safety in an
emergency situation?
• What are the four types of nonswimming rescues you can use to help a diver at
the surface?
Assisting the Responsive Diver at the Surface
• What are the two types of responsive diver at the surface rescues?
• Why is rescuing a panicked diver the most hazardous situation for
the rescuer?
2
A. Presentation One –
Speaker Notes: Welcome and Introductions
[Introduce yourself and your staff. Have student divers introduce themselves.
Keep it light and relaxed.]
1. Course Structure – Similar to other PADI courses, the structure of the
Rescue Diver program allows for maximum flexibility.
a. Independent Study - This is the most flexible way to develop knowledge. The PADI Rescue Diver Manual and PADI Rescue
Diver Video provide the foundation you need to progress
and succeed in the course. The text includes study question exercises that confirm your understanding and
knowledge reviews at the end of each section to verify
your mastery of the material. [Assign independent study
topics. If these materials are not available in a language the divers understand, give them the knowledge
development presentation schedule you plan to follow.]
b. Knowledge Development Sessions [Explain how you will organize
review sessions, and provide schedule.]
1. Final Exam – Prior to certification, you will take the Rescue Diver
Exam. This test provides proof that you have grasped the concepts
necessary to become a PADI Rescue Diver. The exam covers topics
you have either studied independently or discussed in class, so you
will be well prepared for it.
c. Rescue Training Sessions [Explain how you will organize Rescue
Training Sessions, whether they will occur in confined water and/or
under open water conditions, and provide a schedule for the five
Rescue Training Sessions.]
1. Skill development and practical application occur during five
Rescue Training Sessions. [It is recommended you begin initial rescue skill development and mastery in confined water.
Explain how skill practice in confined water leads to application
in open water.]
2. There are ten rescue exercises that will be completed during five
Rescue Training Sessions. The rescue exercises introduce skills in a
logical sequence and subsequent exercises build on previous ones.
Your open water experience will consist of four Rescue Scenarios
that require you to draw from earlier sessions and apply skills to
realistic situations.
2. Performance Requirements
a. The PADI Rescue Diver course philosophy is framed
around the concept that there is no single “right” way
to perform a rescue. Because people differ in their physical abilities and attributes, and dive environments can
present unique challenges, rescue divers must adapt
techniques to suit the situation.
3
1. Each course phase has specific performance requirements you must
meet, but how you meet those goals may differ from the methods
your classmates use. The goal is the same – that everyone is able to
perform an effective rescue.
2. The study objectives and skills overview throughout the PADI Rescue
Diver Manual define what you will accomplish during the rescue
training sessions. The PADI Rescue Diver Video shows various techniques used to meet the skill performance requirements for the
course. By reviewing these before your Rescue Training Sessions,
you will be better prepared to practice the skills.
b. Prior to Knowledge Development Two and Rescue
Training Session Two of the PADI Rescue Diver course
you must have completed a sanctioned course in
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)/primary care
and a secondary care/basic first aid course within
the past two years (24 months). The Emergency First
Response Primary Care (CPR) and Secondary Care (First
Aid) courses meet these prerequisites. [If a student needs
to meet these requirements and you are conducting an
Emergency First Response course, explain how the course schedule
could accommodate the student. If not, explain the options student
divers have for meeting this requirement.]
3. Equipment and Materials Requirements
[Discuss diver equipment requirements and other logistical information.
Answer student diver questions regarding the course.]
4. Schedule, Logistics and Paperwork
[Complete required paperwork (Liability Release, Statement
of Understanding, and Medical Form, etc.), ensure that students understand the times, locations and requirements for
all course sessions, etc.]
5. Certification
Upon successful completion of all Knowledge Reviews, Final
Exam, Rescue Training Sessions and the open water rescue training scenarios, you will qualify for the PADI Rescue Diver certification.
B. The Psychology of Rescue
What is the most common cause of diver emergencies?
1. An emergency can happen to anyone in or around the
water, regardless of how good a diver the person is. Trouble
can arise without warning due to medical conditions, sudden changes in the environment or an unexpected variable
that no one can reasonably foresee.
2. The most common cause of diver emergencies, however, is
poor judgment. Remember that planning a dive is, in part, a
risk assessment. Failing to use good judgment when assessing risk can lead to diver emergencies.
4
a. Divers may choose to participate in diving activities
beyond their experience or education.
b. Divers may make poor decisions during a dive, such as
disregarding worsening dive conditions or a seemingly
trivial equipment malfunction.
c. Divers may skip equipment safety checks or basic dive
planning.
d. Noting poor judgment may give you the opportunity to
intervene before an accident occurs.
3. It’s important to recognize the cause of an accident so you don’t make
the same mistakes as those who need your help.
4. Do not risk your life.
What three things should you consider before attempting an
inwater rescue of someone in the water?
a. Knowing how to help others in the water is important.
Always act safely to reduce the risk of becoming a victim yourself.
1. If a diver or person needs rescue, first consider
whether you need to enter the water at all. If you can
extend a line or pole to the person or aid via a boat,
that’s always better.
b. If inwater rescue is required, consider whether you have the equipment and training necessary.
c. If inwater rescue is required, consider whether you can reasonably
expect to accomplish the rescue without getting into trouble yourself.
What is diver stress?
1. Stress is defined as physical or mental tension that results
in physical, chemical or emotional changes in the body.
Stress can induce both positive or negative reactions. For
example, it energizes you to a higher level in a race or
causes you to freeze when confronted with something
frightening.
2. The primary ingredients and sequence of a stress situation
are:
a. Initial cause – an incident, thought, image, fear, perception, etc.
b. Diver’s disposition – whether the cause is viewed as positive, negative
or insignificant
c. How the diver deals with stress. Healthy responses include canceling the dive, getting more information, taking steps to eliminate the
cause, etc. Problematic responses include denial or rationalization,
magnifying a fear through preoccupation (worry) and blind, instinctive response (panic).
What are seven causes and examples of physical stress?
3. Divers sometimes fail to recognize the effects of physical discomfort. Even
5
minor annoyances can cause stress and if left uncorrected,
can lead to more serious problems.
4. Causes and examples of physical stress include:
a. Cold and heat
b. Seasickness
c. Nitrogen narcosis
d. Fatigue
e. Illness or injury
f. Alcohol or drugs
g. Discomfort or impaired function caused by ill-fitted or malfunctioning
equipment
What are three examples of psychological (emotional) stress
caused by physical stress?
5. Psychological stress often results from physical stress.
Physical stress can also result from psychological stress.
6. Possible examples of emotional (psychological) stress
caused by physical stress include:
a. Fatigue – may cause the diver to fear whether he’ll
make it back to the boat.
b. Overexertion – may cause the diver to breathe air faster and to fear
that he might run out of air.
c. Task loading – the diver becomes faced with more tasks to manage
than the diver is physically capable of handling, such as being unable
to inflate the BCD at the surface while overweighted by a heavy
object and unable to breathe due to surface chop while swimming
against a current.
What are four causes of psychological stress other than physical stress?
7. Psychological stress results when divers perceive a threat to their safety or
well being.
8. Possible causes of psychological stress include:
a. Individual beliefs and attitudes, including expense of
dive – expense and travel time may cause pressure to
dive even though the diver would rather not.
b. Task loading (mental)
c. Peer pressure (threat to self image) – the diver may
make the dive to avoid looking like a coward or to
avoid peer pressure.
d. Perception that risk is greater than normal
9. Psychological stress stimuli can be either real or imagined.
However, the stress that results is very real to the diver
experiencing it.
What is perceptual narrowing?
10. When the body prepares for emergency action, it releases
epinephrine (a.k.a. adrenaline). This increases the breath-
6
ing rate, which when using dive gear can cause decreased breathing efficiency. This may feel like suffocation or air starvation to the diver, which
can lead to panic.
11. A diver under high stress (especially one who panics) may experience perceptual narrowing – a decrease in broad awareness through
close focus on a perceived problem or a single (ineffective) response.
Perceptual narrowing reduces the diver’s ability to see other solutions or
to perceive other potential problems arising.
What effects can stress produce in a diver?
[Have student divers reference the Stress Management Chart in their
PADI Rescue Diver Manual.]
12. When a problem arises, the diver feels stress.
13. Stress evokes a physical and psychological response.
14. Depending on the diver’s disposition, the stress can either cause anxiety
or help the diver to recognize the problem and begin formulating a plan
to correct it.
15. If the diver fails to react or the reaction doesn’t solve the
problem, the diver’s anxiety may increase and stress may
continue to increase. The
next step in the cycle depends upon the diver’s state of mind
and training.
16. If the diver’s reaction does not solve the problem and the
diver feels unable to correct the problem, the result may
be sudden, unreasoned, instinctive panic, and the need for
rescue. Panic takes two forms:
a. Active behavior – mask off, regulator/snorkel out, grabbing, struggling
or bolting.
b. Passive behavior – frozen, trancelike, unaware or unresponsive.
17. If the diver’s reaction does not solve the problem but the diver remains
confident that the problem can be solved, panic may be avoided. If the
diver stops, breathes, thinks, and then takes alternative corrective action,
panic is not immediately likely.
18. Whether an individual will panic depends upon individual factors, such
as how much threat the person perceives from the situation, and how
much control the person feels to remedy the situation. The more threat
and helplessness perceived, the more likely the diver will panic. The less
threat and the more control the diver perceives, the less likely the diver
will panic and the more likely the diver will apply solution thinking.
Training, staying within experience limits and personal disposition are
the major factors for avoiding panic.
C. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
1. First Aid Kit
What supplies belong in a well-stocked first aid kit and how
are they used?
7
[If possible, have a complete first aid kit available for student divers to
examine.]
a. Make a well-stocked first aid kit a regular part of your dive gear. A
first aid kit useful for the most commonly encountered diving injuries
and conditions is useful for emergencies beyond diving.
1. Most basic items in a typical first aid kit are meant to manage
minor problems or to stabilize a major problem until definitive
care is available.
2. There are many organizations that have first aid kits available
that are fairly well equipped for most emergencies.
b. Consider your own safety first. Follow procedures to
reduce risk of hepatitis, HIV, meningitis and other infections as you learned in Emergency First Response (or
other first aid course). Avoid direct contact with blood
or other bodily fluids, mucus membranes, wounds, or
burns.
c. The following equipment is essential for protection and
should be included in your first aid kit:
1. Good-quality disposable latex or vinyl gloves.
2. A pocket mask with a one-way valve for rescue breathing an unresponsive nonbreathing diver.
3. Eyeglasses or other eye protection wide enough to protect from
splashing fluids.
4. A face mask to avoid inhaling infectious organisms in airborne
moisture.
d. Include a manual and/or slate in your kit that describes the treatments for the common injuries or conditions. The Emergency First
Response Participant Manual and the PADI Accident Management
Workslate are good examples. Keep a pad of paper or blank slate for
recording the steps you take. Include reference materials with first aid
specific to aquatic life injuries.
1. Use an emergency manual and/or slate to follow recommended
protocols and document the event. This helps ensure that the diver
experiencing difficulty receives optimum care.
2. A detailed and complete record of what was done and when it was
administered will help medical personnel. It may also help accident investigators.
e. Build a well-stocked first aid kit using these items:
1. Durable noncorrosive case – to protect first aid equipment
2. Emergency phone numbers/coins/phone card – to
have emergency contact information immediately
available and the means to use a pay phone; power
adapter or spare cell phone battery may be useful
3. Gloves – to protect you against blood borne pathogens
8
4. Ventilation barriers – to protect you against disease transmission
5. Large absorbent dressings (various sizes) – used to help stop
bleeding
6. Sterile gauze pads (various sizes) – to help stop bleeding and dress
wounds
7. Clinging rolled bandages (various sizes) – to dress wounds
8. Adhesive bandages (various sizes) – to dress wounds
9. Adhesive tape – to dress wounds
10. Nonadherent, dry pads – to dress burn wounds
11. Triangular bandages – to immobilize dislocations and fractures
l2. Sterile cotton – to dress wounds
13. Cotton tipped swabs – to clean wounds
14. Bandage scissors – to cut bandages and dive apparel
15. Tongue depressors – to check vital signs during illness
assessment and can be used as splinting material for
finger dislocations and fractures
16. Tweezers – to assist in removing material
17. Needle – to assist in removing foreign material
18. Safety pins – to attach and secure bandages
19. Penlight – for light and to use as an examination
tool
20. Oral thermometer – to measure temperature as a vital sign
21. Squeeze bottle of water – for hydration and for divers with heat
stroke, for burns, eye or wound wash
22. Splints – to immobilize dislocations and fractures
23. Emergency blanket – for warmth and to cover divers with shock
24. Cold packs – for bruises, strains, eye injuries, stings and dislocations and fractures
25. Hot packs – for venomous bites and stings
26. Vinegar – to neutralize stinging cells of jellyfish
27. Plastic bags – to dispose of gloves and medical waste and may also
be used in lieu of actual gloves as a barrier
28. Small paper cups – for drinking and to cover eye injuries
29. Denatured alcohol – for disinfectant (not to be used
on wounds)
30. Antibacterial soap – to clean wounds
31. Antiseptic solution or wipes – for wounds
32. Antibiotic ointment – for wounds
33. Hydrocortisone ointment – for stings and irritations
34. Aspirin and non-aspirin pain relievers – to reduce
swelling and diver discomfort
35. Antihistamine tablets – for allergic reactions
36. Sugar packs, candy or fruit juice – for low blood sugar
9
37. Activated charcoal – for poisoning
38. Anti-nausea drugs – to reduce seasickness
39. Nasal decongestant spray – useful for divers with difficulty clearing
ears or sinuses
40. Sunscreens – to prevent sunburn
What is a pocket mask?
What are four advantages of a pocket mask?
f. A pocket mask (a.k.a. resuscitator mask or CPR mask)
used for rescue breathing:
1. Simplifies getting an effective seal and head positioning
2. Reduces worries about disease transmission between
you and the injured party
3. Improves inwater rescue breathing effectiveness for rescuing a nonbreathing diver (you’ll practice using the pocket mask during your
rescue training sessions).
4. May be connected to continuous flow oxygen to provide nonbreathing diver with oxygenated rescue breaths
[Explain that they’ll use a pocket mask during their rescue training
sessions and during their open water rescue scenarios. Encourage divers to obtain a pocket mask for their personal dive kits.]
2. Emergency Oxygen Delivery Systems
Why is it important to have emergency oxygen available?
a. Research and case studies show that administering oxygen is one of the single most important first aid steps
for a diver suspected of suffering from decompression
sickness, lung overexpansion injuries or near drowning.
Oxygen is the community standard first aid for these
types of emergencies.
What are the three primary types of emergency oxygen systems?
b. The three main types of oxygen delivery units available include positive pressure (a.k.a. power resuscitation), continuous flow and nonresuscitator demand valve.
1. The PADI Rescue Diver course teaches you the basics
of supplying oxygen to breathing and nonbreathing
divers.
2. You can learn more about oxygen system use in
more advanced diver emergency courses and specialized courses with extra detail on providing oxygen.
3. The focus at this level is effective, community standard, emergency oxygen first aid until emergency
medical services personnel arrive.
How do the three primary types of emergency oxygen systems differ?
Which two types of emergency oxygen systems are recommended for use by rescue divers?
10
c. Positive pressure units require professional training and certification.
Used improperly, these units can cause injury. They’re not considered
appropriate for lay rescuers.
d. Continuous flow units consist of a supply cylinder and a
regulator that delivers oxygen continuously in a steady
flow. This is one of the types of oxygen systems recommended for use by rescue divers. They have drawbacks
and benefits.
1. One primary drawback is that they don’t deliver 100
percent oxygen to the injured diver because the oxygen mixes with air before the diver breathes it. This
results in a lower percentage of delivered oxygen and
is somewhat wasteful.
2. Another drawback is that these units are wasteful because they
flow oxygen at all times, even when the diver is not inhaling.
3. Continuous flow is important, however, for use with a pocket mask
to provide a nonbreathing diver with a higher oxygen concentration during rescue breathing.
4. Continuous flow is also important for a very weak
breathing diver who cannot tolerate a nonresuscitator demand valve system.
e. The nonresuscitator demand valve unit consists of a
cylinder and regulator that supplies 100 percent oxygen
on inhalation, similar to a scuba regulator. This is the
primary oxygen system recommended for use by rescue
divers.
1. Provides the highest concentration of oxygen to the
injured diver.
2. Does not waste oxygen and therefore maximizes the
supply duration.
3. Suitable for accidents in which the diver is breathing.
4. Most nonresuscitator demand valve units also have a
continuous flow setting, and can be used in that setting for nonbreathing or very weak divers.
How much oxygen should be available?
f. You should have enough oxygen available to keep the
diver on pure oxygen until emergency medical personnel arrive.
1. When diving in remote locations, this may not
always be possible, however, you should carry
as much oxygen as you can. [Discuss options, if
applicable to situations student divers are likely to
encounter.]
2. If traveling, be sure to check the local regulations regarding carrying oxygen and administering it.
11
3. If you’ll be diving frequently in remote areas, seek more advanced
training.
3. Automated External Defibrillator (AED)
What is an AED?
a. The automated external defibrillator (AED) analyzes
a nonresponsive diver’s cardiac rhythm and guides
you through the steps to deliver a potential life saving
shock.
b. Some AEDs deliver the shock without any further action
by you if it determines a shock is necessary. (Sometimes
called an automatic AED.)
c. Other AEDs determine whether a shock is necessary, but
you must deliver the shock. (Sometimes called a semiautomatic AED.)
d. In some regions, AED use by laypersons may be restricted.
What is the benefit of having an AED on hand?
e. AEDs can increase the chance of survival in the event of
sudden cardiac arrest by reducing the interval between
cardiac arrest and defibrillation.
1. The shorter the interval, the more likely the heart
will restore a normal heartbeat.
2. However, as with CPR, the AED does not guarantee a
diver with cardiac arrest will survive.
f. Due to training requirements, cost and the relative newness of the
technology, the AED is not currently considered standard first aid
equipment for diving.
D. Accident Management
1. Managing an Emergency
What is the difference between a “victim” and a “patient”?
a. In managing an emergency, you will use the terms victim and patient.
1. A victim is a diver in an accident situation who
either has yet to receive help, or who is receiving
help, but is not yet in a stable, safe environment.
2. A patient is a diver in an accident situation who is receiving emergency medical care (such as your first aid) in a stable, relatively
safe environment.
3. For example, an unresponsive diver floating face
down is a victim. The diver remains a victim during
your rescue, and becomes a patient once aboard a
boat receiving rescue breaths and oxygen.
What are the two possible roles a rescue diver may have at a dive
accident scene?
b. Your role as a rescue diver may vary depending on who
is at the scene and what resources are available.
12
1. When a more qualified person is present, such as an
instructor or divemaster, your role will most likely be
that of a skilled rescue assistant.
2. If you are the most qualified diver present, then you
may coordinate the rescue as an emergency
manager.
What two forms of readiness prepare you to manage an
emergency? What are the elements of each?
c. Personal Readiness - As a rescue diver, you need to consider how prepared you are to face a variety of challenges. Elements of personal
readiness include:
1. Maintaining your overall physical fitness. Staying in shape ensures
that you’ll have the stamina and strength to assist
others, if necessary.
2. Participating in regular training and practice.
Keeping your skills sharp allows you to perform them
quickly and confidently when needed.
3. Having the proper attitude. When you commit
yourself to following safe diving practices and being
aware of other divers, you are better prepared for
emergencies as they arise. Mental rehearsal and visualization help ready you to act quickly and confidently.
d. Equipment Readiness – In addition to first aid equipment and oxygen,
other equipment helps you manage an emergency.
1. Keeping some of these items on hand and/or noting where to find
them can make managing an emergency easier:
• Binoculars – for spotting divers at the surface and for coordinating a missing diver search
• Pen and paper – for recording what happened to whom, where
and when
• Surf/rescue board/torpedo, rescue float, etc. – for
swimming assists
• Rope – to throw to divers at the surface, to lift divers from the water, to assist an underwater search
and other uses
• Circular sweep anchor – to easily mark the center
of a circular search pattern
• Diver compass – for navigating an expanding
square or U-search pattern
• Marker buoys – to mark location for missing diver search
• Flares – to signal help from boat to boat
• Whistle – to alert others at a distance
• Bullhorn – to coordinate a rescue effort over a large area
• Radio (CB/VHF) – for contacting emergency medical care, especially from a boat
13
• Cellular telephone/public phone – for contacting emergency medical care
• UW recall system – if a boat is so equipped, to recall divers or end
a missing diver search
2. Depending on the location, number of divers and access to
Emergency Medical Services (EMS), having some or all of these
items available can help make you more efficient when faced with
a rescue situation.
3. You may find that you can improvise or substitute items if necessary. For example, you can use a surfboard as a backboard. Be
resourceful.
4. Knowing how to use available equipment is just as important as
having it there. If unsure, get training before you actually need it.
What are the six basic steps for emergency management?
e. Before all else, be ready to act:
1. Anticipate what, where and when problems are most likely to
occur.
2. Devise plans to handle those situations.
3. Identify hazards likely to lead to an emergency or
complicate a rescue.
f. Step One – If an emergency arises, assess the situation.
1. Stop, breathe, and think. Stop and look at the situation – who is involved, where is it happening, what
do you have available to assist you? Then, think
about the best solution and get ready to act on your
plan.
2. Because every emergency is unique – you must be
flexible and adapt to changing factors.
g. Step Two – act on your plan.
1. If you assume the role of emergency manager, take
charge and quickly implement a plan of action by
directing others.
2. If you are assisting a more qualified diver, carry out
tasks as appropriate.
h. Step Three – delegate. There are many tasks that others can do. If possible, assign tasks or delegate responsibilities to other divers or bystanders as appropriate.
Assignments may include:
1. Calling for help
2. Assisting other rescuers
3. Observing the victim or directing inwater rescuers
4. Taking notes
5. Accounting for all those not involved in the rescue
6. Controlling bystanders
14
i. Step Four – attend to injuries after the victim is out of the
water.
1. Follow the protocols you learned in your Emergency
First Response training, beginning with a primary
assessment and continuing with a secondary assessment (injury/illness) if no life threatening conditions
are discovered.
2. In more serious accidents, you may need to provide
Basic Life Support (BLS) and other primary care until relieved by
medical personnel.
3. Contact the Divers Alert Network (DAN) or other local diver emergency medical service for information about first aid and to begin
preparation for recompression (if needed).
4. You may delegate first aid to qualified people present.
j. Step Five – if sufficient help is available, your best role
may be to coordinate activities or administrate. This
may include:
1. Providing evacuation personnel with appropriate
information regarding the injured diver and accident. The PADI Accident Management Workslate was
designed for this purpose.
2. Obtaining contact information from all those
involved in the rescue or who witnessed the accident.
3. Making arrangements to contact the diver’s family.
4. Submitting an incident report to local authorities, if appropriate.
k. Step Six – arrange for evacuation of the injured diver in more serious
dive accidents.
1. Get the patient into the care of the local Emergency
Medical Services (EMS). Dive accident patients
require medical stabilization and support prior to
and during chamber treatment.
2. If asked for, provide information about dive accident care so that medical personnel understand the
nature of the injury/illness and requirements for
care.
3. Provide DAN or other local diver emergency service the location
and contact information for where the patient is taken.
l. There are special procedures that must be followed when a helicopter
evacuation is involved.
[Have student divers follow along in their PADI Rescue
Diver Manuals as you review these procedures.]
1. Direct communication between ground and helicopter
is necessary (usually radio).
2. The helicopter pilot will direct boat/ground personnel regarding
direction, speed, clearing, etc.
15
3. Remove, stow and secure objects that may interfere with the helicopter. This includes all dive bags, clothing or other
objects that may be blown around.
4. Prepare the injured diver as directed – with personal
flotation device, oxygen unit, etc.
5. Do not touch or grab a line/basket from helicopter until it touches the ground first (avoid electrical
shock).
6. Load the diver quickly.
7. Never approach a helicopter from the rear. Always wait for directions from the helicopter pilot and/or crew.
8. Never secure a line from a helicopter to anything immobile – for
flying safety, the helicopter must be able to pull away suddenly
and without notice.
What considerations and procedures are involved with forming a local emergency assistance plan?
m. A local emergency assistance plan provides you with
information readiness if an emergency arises. This saves
valuable time in a diver emergency.
1. For areas where Emergency Medical Services (EMS)
are available, most people are familiar with emergency contact numbers – for example, 911. However,
it’s a good idea to have local emergency numbers
written down and easily accessible at the dive site.
Your PADI Accident Management Workslate may be used as a
ready reference; write the contact information on it with a permanent marker. [Discuss local contact information.]
2. If the Divers Alert Network (DAN) provides consultation for your
area, you should also have those numbers handy.
3. Having an Emergency Assistance Plan is especially important
when visiting a new dive site or diving in a remote location.
[Explain to student divers that participants in the PADI Divemaster
course are required to produce Emergency Assistance Plans for
local dive sites. In preparation for moving on to this level of training, they can gain experience in producing plans now.]
E. Responding to Diver Emergencies
1. Self-rescue – Look After Yourself First
To be able to help others, you have to stay out of trouble,
or if a problem arises, effectively rescue yourself.
What three areas of preparation increase your self-rescue
abilities?
a. Physical preparation involves proper health, fitness and
diet. Being in good shape prepares you to deal with
increased physical demands should the need arise.
16
DAN America
DAN Latin America Hotline
TravelAssist (US)
(Outside US)
DAN Latin America Hotline Backup Dr. Cuauhtemoc Sanchez
(Skytel Pager System)
+1-919-684-4326 (may be called collect)
+1-919-684-8111
+1-267-520-1507 (accepts collect calls)
+1-215-245-2461 (may be called collect)
+1-800-326-3822
52-5-227-7979 or 52-5-727-7979
1st Call Paging Code: 5660035 (if no answer try…)
2nd Call Paging Code: 5569893 (if no answer try…)
3rd Call Paging Code: 5560036
(if no answer call DAN USA Emergency Hotline)
DES/DAN SEAP (Australia)
(outside Australia)
DES/ DAN SEAP (New Zealand)
DAN SEAP (Philippines)
DAN SEAP (Malaysia)
Singapore Naval and Medicine
Hyperbaric Center
DAN Japan
DAN Southern Africa
(outside S. Africa)
DAN Europe (Hotline)
(TravelAssist)
+1-800-088-200
+61-8-8212-9242
+64-9-445-8454 (local) 0800-4DES 111
+02-815-9911
(local) 05-930 4114 S
+65-750-5546 (local) 6758 1733
+81-3-3812-4999
+27-11-254-1112
0800-020111
+39-039-605-7858*
*DAN personnel: use this for DAN Europe Accident Referrals
b. Mental preparation involves confidence and a feeling of well-being
about the dive. This includes diving within the limits of your training
and experience.
c. Equipment preparation involves familiarity with the use,
inspection and general recommended service for dive
equipment and emergency equipment.
1. Knowing what equipment you have available and
how it works prepares you to help yourself should a
problem arise.
2. A few emergency accessories that may help you get
noticed in a rescue situation include whistles, small
emergency strobes, flares, dye markers and inflatable signal tubes.
Inflatable tubes are especially helpful if you find yourself drifting
away from a boat. The height of the inflated tube above the water
surface makes you much more visible. These items can fit into a
BCD pocket for easy access.
What three dive procedures help you anticipate and prevent
problems while diving?
d. The best way to self-rescue is to stay out of trouble. Three procedures
will head off the vast majority of problems.
1. Maintain your equipment regularly as recommended by the
manufacturer. This lessens the chance of malfunctions. A predive
17
inspection allows you to catch potential equipment
problems before you get in the water.
2. Think about potential problems as part of your dive
plan. Remember, diving planning involves risk assessment. Anticipate what problems may arise and
devise your dive plan to avoid them.
3. Don’t ignore small problems. Most major accidents
start as small problems. If you can recognize that
a problem is occurring or is about to occur, you’ll be able to take
early action and keep a small problem from becoming a big one.
Recognition of problems is essential to self-rescue ability.
What should you do when you encounter a problem while diving?
e. If you find yourself with a problem, you need to initiate a self-rescue
through the proper action.
1. The procedure is always:
• Stop.
• Breathe. Maintain and/or reestablish and maintain
normal breathing patterns.
• Think. Analyze the problem and plan possible
appropriate actions.
• Act. Take logical action rather than react thoughtlessly. Be prepared to take a different action if the first doesn’t solve
the problem.
2. Visualize problems and proper responses to help you make the
right choices quickly.
3. Practice emergency procedures often to keep your
skills sharp.
What are five skills that increase your self-rescue abilities?
f. There are at least five skills that will increase your ability to rescue
yourself if a problem arises.
1. Good buoyancy control helps you avoid struggling
to maintain your position either at the surface or
underwater. It also helps you stay off the bottom,
reducing risk of aquatic life injuries, while protecting
aquatic life from damage.
2. Proper airway control allows you to breathe past
small amounts of water in your regulator or snorkel,
thus avoiding choking.
3. Proficiency at cramp removal may stop the pain of a cramp from
escalating into a bigger problem.
4. Handling air-depletion is something you practiced in your entrylevel course. To handle an out-of-air emergency without buddy
assistance, consider having an independent alternate air source
such as a pony bottle or self-contained ascent bottle.
18
5. Responding correctly to vertigo prevents an unpleasant experience
from becoming a serious problem.
• Vertigo is losing your sense of balance and orientation, and can
cause nausea as well as stress.
• Reestablish your sense of orientation by making contact with a
fixed object.
• If that’s not possible, watch your bubbles and consult your depth
gauge for up-and-down orientation and whether you’re rising or
descending. Hugging yourself may also help.
2. Recognizing Rescue Situations
What signs and behaviors indicate a diver may have a problem
at the surface?
a. The signs exhibited by a diver needing assistance are
often subtle. An exhausted diver at the surface may suddenly and quietly slip under for no apparent reason. A
diver
with a problem will often fail to ask for help.
b. It is possible that ego threat may keep a diver from
expressing
anxiety, illness, or other distress to dive buddies or to others.
c. Scuba diving equipment often conceals facial expressions and other
gestures that indicate stress or anxiety, and it reduces the possibility
of verbal communication.
d. Signs of distress often are not always easy to recognize, but consider
the following behaviors as trouble indicators:
1. Giving distress signals – raising one arm, whistling, yelling for
help, and so on.
2. Struggling on or just below the surface, especially with vigorous
arm swimming.
3. High treading or finning with sufficient vigor to lift a portion of
the body and equipment out of the water.
4. Rejecting equipment by pushing off the mask and/or the regulator
mouth piece, or both.
5. Clinging and clambering (pulling the body toward the high point
of any object on the surface).
6. Not moving – apparent unresponsiveness.
What are the characteristics that indicate a tired diver?
What are the characteristics that indicate a panicked diver?
e. Responsive divers who need help at the surface may be
either tired divers or panicked divers. Watch for these
characteristics because they affect your safety and how
you assist them.
1. Tired divers – These are divers with a problem, but
who are adequately managing stress. Generally, tired
divers:
19
• Ask for help.
• Respond to directions or questions.
• Do not reject their equipment.
• Can assist with efforts to help them.
• Are called “tired” but may actually have a cramp, some injury
or other problem, but are still in control.
2. Panicked divers – These are divers with a problem
who have become overwhelmed by stress and unreasoned fear. They’ve abandoned rational responses
and react entirely through instinct and fear.
Generally, panicked divers:
• Reject their equipment (mask on forehead, regulator and snorkel out of mouth).
• Fail to establish buoyancy and swim vigorously
with arms until exhausted.
• Do not respond to commands or questions.
• Fixate on a single, ineffective response to the problem.
• Will climb on anything or anyone to get above or out of the
water.
• Will do little to help themselves.
• A tired diver when you start your rescue can become a panicked
diver before you finish. You must constantly assess the victim so
you can alter your rescue technique accordingly.
3. Nonswimming Assists and Rescues
Why does the rescuer’s safety take priority over the distressed
diver’s safety in an emergency situation?
a. Once you recognize that there is an emergency, you
need to determine how to act and do so. This is not as
simple as it sounds.
1. Your first goal is to stay safe yourself. Rushing into
the water to help another diver may lead you to
becoming a victim, too.
2. This is for the victim’s well being as well as your own:
• You cannot help the victim if you’re in trouble, too.
• If you get in trouble, then the rescue resources at hand immediately must divide to help two instead of concentrating to help one.
• Although you may take on some more risk than you otherwise
might to assist someone, if you’re not reasonably confident you
can stay safe, it is usually a better strategy to not attempt a rescue and instead summon additional help.
3. Only after you reasonably ensure your safety do you help the
victim.
20
What are the four types of nonswimming rescues you can use to
help a diver at the surface?
b. Getting in the water to perform a rescue should be your
last response. It is generally faster and safer to assist
from a stable position on a boat or shore. These include
reaching, extension, and throwing assists from the pool
deck, pier, boat deck, or from shore, wading assists in
water no higher than chest deep or watercraft assists if
you have a boat available.
1. Reaching and extension assists – Reaching assists,
although limited to rescues only a metre/few feet
from the pool deck or dock, play an important role.
• Lie on the pool deck or dock to establish a stable
position. Spread your legs apart to increase stability, keeping your center of mass centered over a
wide base.
• Extend only one arm over the water. Grasp the
diver’s arm or a piece of equipment.
• Reaching assists can also be made in the water. Maintain eye
contact and distance from the diver experiencing difficulty and
slip into the water. Establish a firm grasp on a ladder, the side of
the pool, or a dock support. Then extend your other arm or a leg
to the diver.
• If the diver is too far away to use a reaching assist, consider an
extension assist. Use a piece of clothing or equipment for a quick
extension. Remember to establish a firm base of support with
your legs spread and your weight low and away from the victim.
2. Throwing assists – If the distance to a victim is
beyond the range of an extension assist, and if the
necessary equipment is available, the next best
option is the throwing assist.
• The key to success is throwing accuracy, and the
key to accuracy is preparation and practice.
• A rescue bag, a ring buoy with a line, a heaving
line (a line with a weighted knot on the end), or
a heaving jug (a line tied to a plastic gallon jug
with a small amount of water in it for weight) are all acceptable
throwing devices. [Have students design and make their own
throwing assists to try out during rescue training sessions.]
3. Wading assists – A wading assist is more dangerous
than other nonswimming assists because you must
enter the water. Use a wading assist when the victim
is too far away for a reach or extension assist, or you
have nothing for a throwing assist, but the victim is
reachable from water that allows you to go in no further than chest-deep.
21
• Move into the water no more than chest deep.
• Assume a stable position with one foot forward and one foot back
and your weight shifted away from the diver.
• Extend a rescue aid to the diver and after he has grabbed it, slowly
walk to safety. Talk to the diver as you walk.
• Do not attempt in very cold water unless wearing appropriate
exposure protection.
4. Watercraft assists – If you can’t reach, throw or wade
to the victim and you have a small boat or other
watercraft available, use that to assist the victim.
• Do not use an unstable craft that’s easily capsized.
• Approach from downwind so the boat doesn’t blow
over the victim.
• Reach the victim from the boat as previously
described.
5. You’ll practice nonswimming assists in Rescue Training Session Two.
4. Assisting the Responsive Diver at the Surface
What are the two types of responsive diver at the surface rescues?
a. As you learned previously, a responsive diver at the surface can be a tired diver or a panicked diver.
b. A tired diver generally needs an assist more than a rescue.
The victim is usually rational and able to help remedy the
situation.
Why is rescuing a panicked diver the most hazardous situation
for the rescuer?
c. A panicked diver generally needs a rescue because the
victim will likely lose consciousness and drown after exhaustion if not
helped.
1. A panicked diver is not rational, and may hang on to
or climb on a rescuer in an attempt to stay afloat.
2. Driven by fear, a panicked diver can be incredibly
strong and overpower smaller rescuers.
3. For these reasons, rescuing a panicked diver is the most
hazardous situation for the rescuer. Reaches, extensions, throws, wading and watercraft assists are always
preferred, if possible.
d. A tired diver can lapse into panic during a rescue (most typically during
approach before reaching the victim). A panicked diver may come out
of panic and may be able to assist problem solving (most typically after
a rescuer has made contact and established buoyancy). For these reasons, you must continually assess the victim’s state of mind when assisting a responsive diver at the surface.
e. More rarely, a panicked diver will panic passively, not splashing,
climbing or otherwise showing overt signs of panic. However, the passive panicked diver will also not respond to the emergency correctly,
22
and may quietly slip below the surface and drown.
Therefore, if a diver does not respond to you, assume
the person needs help until you establish otherwise.
f. You’ll learn the procedures for assisting responsive divers at the surface during Rescue Training Session One.
23
III. Knowledge Development Presentation Two
By now student divers have a firm understanding regarding the basics of diver
stress. This section furthers their ability to recognize stress and the procedures
that mitigate stress in other divers.
Being prepared for a diver emergency requires specific
knowledge of first aid rescue equipment covered in Knowledge
Development Presentation One. In addition, this section covers
an understanding of the operation of and the common problems
associated with typical dive equipment.
Accident management ranges from managing several people
available at a dive accident scene to tending to common marine
first aid injuries. Although primary care first aid and CPR are
prerequisites to this presentation, first aid and CPR courses don’t typically cover
common marine injuries. This section builds upon those skills and introduces
students to different aquatic life injuries, the associated signs and symptoms of
distress, as well as the basic treatment for such injuries. Refer students interested
in further training to advanced diver emergency courses.
Students are now competent with the basics of rescuing a responsive diver
at the surface. This section builds upon this knowledge with the foundation concepts that apply to responding to a diver who may be some distance from shore.
Overview and Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, the student should be able to answer the questions in
italics:
A. The Psychology of Rescue
Recognizing Stress in Divers
• What two steps do you apply to recognize stress in a diver?
• What should you do when you recognize diver stress?
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
Equipment Function and Function Related Problems
• How does a regulator function?
• What are the two basic types of alternate air sources?
• What three points does the dive community generally agree upon
regarding alternate air sources?
• What functional problems can occur with cylinders, valves, regulators, SPGs and
BCDs?
Common Equipment Problems
• What are six general causes of equipment-related problems?
• What are the causes, effects and prevention of problems with masks, snorkels,
fins, exposure suits, BCDs, weight systems and scuba units?
24
Release Function and Problems
• What are six types of releases commonly found in scuba systems and what problems may they have?
C. Accident Management
First Aid for Common Aquatic Life Injuries
• What are the three forms of aquatic life injuries?
• What five signs and symptoms indicate venomous aquatic life
injuries?
• What is the common treatment for aquatic life injuries?
• What is the basic first aid for jellyfish stings?
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
More on Responding to Responsive Divers at the Surface
• What are the techniques and considerations for responding to a
responsive diver at the surface from a distance?
• What is a quick reverse, and how do you do it?
• What is the advantage of using emergency flotation when assisting a responsive
diver at the surface?
• What are the procedures for approaching, evaluating and helping more than one
responsive diver in the water?
Exits with a Responsive Diver
• What factors should you consider when removing equipment from a distressed
diver?
• What are the general criteria for tows used to transport a distressed diver in the
water?
• What should you consider when helping a distressed diver exit the water?
Postattendance
• What three concerns do you need to handle with a responsive diver once you get
on the boat or shore?
A. Presentation Two –
Speaker Notes: The Psychology of Rescue
1. Recognizing Stress in Divers
What two steps do you apply to recognize stress in a diver?
a. As a PADI Rescue Diver, you should learn to recognize
stress in other divers and yourself.
b. The first way to recognize stress is direct observation.
Signs of stress may be subtle or they may be overt. Be alert for behavioral changes, especially when a diver’s actions appear
inappropriate or abnormal, such as uncharacteristic
talkativeness, silence, irritability or hesitation.
c. Because you may not always know the other divers (for
example on a dive boat) or because changes in behavior may not be due to diving-related stress, you want
to verify the meaning of behaviors you observe. The
second way to recognize stress is to ask the diver about
what you’ve observed.
25
1. Be careful not to pressure the diver or make the individual feel
uncomfortable. This may cause or add stress, and the diver may
not feel able to answer honestly.
2. The best approach is to ask about your concerns privately in an
open, caring and nonjudgmental manner. A genuine, “Are you up
for this dive?” may be all you need to ask.
What should you do when you recognize diver stress?
d. When stress causes anxiety in a diver, it’s important to break the
stress response cycle before it leads to more severe problems.
e. Do this by encouraging the diver to apply solution
thinking. This includes four steps:
1. Problem recognized – through observation and questions you can help the diver recognize the cause of
stress.
2. Plan of action formulated – by discussing the problem, encourage the diver to think analytically and
form a plan.
3. Plan successfully implemented – allow the diver to act on the plan
and offer assistance if necessary.
4. Problem minimized or eliminated – effective action leads to a solution and prevention of a more serious problem.
f. It’s critical that you, the Rescue Diver, avoid sounding judgmental or
applying peer pressure.
1. Empathy goes a long way – statements like, “I feel (or, have felt)
the same way,” help others recognize that there’s nothing wrong
with their concerns.
2. If it appears other divers aren’t forthcoming about their concerns,
the best course may be to take it on yourself by saying, “You know,
I’ve got some concerns about this dive. Maybe we should . . . “
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
1. Equipment Function and Function Related Problems
How does a regulator function?
a. Being familiar with how various pieces of dive equipment work helps you to more easily recognize a malfunction or decline in function. This may allow you to
act quickly should a minor equipment problem occur
and to prevent a more serious problem altogether. We’ll
look specifically at basic equipment function and potential operational problems.
b. For more information about dive equipment, consider
enrolling in a PADI Equipment Specialist course, reviewing the dive equipment section of the PADI Encyclopedia
of Recreational Diving Multimedia or book, looking at dive
26
equipment manufacturer catalogs, and seeking advice from dive professionals at PADI Dive Centers and Resorts.
c. As you know, a scuba unit consists of a cylinder with
valve, regulator and BCD. Let’s concentrate on the regulator first stage and second stage to start.
1. A regulator first stage attaches to the tank valve and
reduces tank pressure to a “low” (intermediate) pressure. This low pressure air flows through the hoses to
the second stage, low pressure inflator and alternate
air source. The first stage also allows high pressure
air (direct from the cylinder) to flow to the submersible pressure gauge (SPG).
2. As you inhale from the second stage mouthpiece, a diaphragm
moves inward, pushing open a downstream valve that allows air
to flow from the hose. When you exhale, the diaphragm moves
outward, the valve closes and your breath exits via the one-way
exhaust valve into the water. [Use a diagram to explain second
stage function.]
d. The following terms apply to regulator design and function:
1. Balanced refers to a regulator design in which
breathing resistance is unaffected by tank pressure.
2. Fail-safe means that a malfunctioning regulator has
the tendency to free flow, rather than terminating air
delivery.
3. Downstream refers to a valve design in which the
valve opens in the direction of the air flow. This
goes along with the fail-safe feature because a failed
downstream valve will usually open.
What are the two basic types of alternate air sources?
e. Alternate air sources are standard equipment, but there’s a variety
available, so the features and configurations are not standardized.
The two basic types include:
1. Alternate air sources connected to a redundant air
tank that allow a diver to self-rescue.
• A small, compact tank with regulator (pony bottle). These secure to the main cylinder.
• Self-contained ascent bottles are miniature cylinders with built-in regulators. They have just
enough air to reach the surface within the limits of
recreational no stop diving.
2. Alternate air sources that connect to the primary air
tank are the most common type used by divers.
• Extra second stages (a.k.a. octopus regulators) for
use by the out-of-air diver. These have extra long
hoses to make ascents easier by providing the divers with maneuvering room.
27
• Second stages built into low-pressure BCD inflators (alternate
inflator regulators), which require the donor to switch to the
alternate and provide a buddy with the primary second stage.
What three points does the dive community generally agree upon regarding alternate air sources?
f. Although alternate air source types and techniques used
for sharing air differ, there is general agreement on
these three points:
1. The second stage intended for use by the out-of-air
diver should be clearly identified.
2. The additional second stage should not be allowed to
dangle when not in use.
3. The alternate air source should be secured with a
quick release in plain view in the triangular area between the
mouth and the lower corners of the rib cage.
[Ask divers what types of alternate air sources they use. Discuss
placement variations and techniques for use.]
What functional problems can occur with cylinders, valves, regulators, SPGs and
BCDs?
g. You already know that scuba cylinders are either made
of aluminum or steel, and they hold compressed gas.
You also probably remember that there are two basic
types of valves – K and J – and that regulators attach
to the tank with a yoke screw or DIN fitting. The most
common problems with tanks include:
1. Corrosion due to water or moisture entering the
tank. Corrosion may cause structural weakness.
Corrosion can flake off the interior walls and clog valves and
regulators. Corrosion is avoided by regular visual inspections and
proper maintenance.
2. Contamination occurs when poorly filtered or unfiltered gas is
pumped into a scuba tank. Although rare, contaminated air can
be hazardous. As you’ve learned, be alert for air with taste or odor.
Avoid contaminated air by obtaining air only from reputable dive
operations.
3. Improper tank positioning may cause problems both in and out
of the water. Cylinders that are not firmly secured to a BCD may
slip and those that are positioned too high may hit the diver in the
head. Avoid this problem by securing the cylinder properly and
checking its height during predive check.
h. Problems specific to cylinder valves:
1. Not opening the valve – Diver opens the valve to
check air supply, then closes the valve or leaves it
just barely open. Diver begins the dive and immediately “runs out of air” after breathing the one or two
breaths remaining in the regulator.
28
2. Reserve valves – A J-valve must be positioned “up” to work as a
reserve valve and the diver must be able to pull it down to access
the reserve.
• If the valve is not positioned correctly or is accidentally moved to the down position during a dive, the
diver will not have the expected reserve.
• If the valve is in the up position, but there’s no way
to trip the lever, the diver may not be able to access
the reserve (turn the lever) without assistance.
• Proper use, as well as monitoring a submersible
pressure gauge, helps avoid J-valve problems.
• Reserve valves appear to be fading away from the dive community in most areas.
3. O-ring leaks – Worn, dirty, or dislodged o-rings may cause air to
escape from the tank valve. A minor leak is an inconvenience,
but a major leak can reduce air flow to the regulator or cause
rapid loss of tank air. Careful predive inspection and regular valve
maintenance helps avoid O-ring problems.
[Ask divers what other tank or tank valve problems
they’ve seen. Discuss these as appropriate.]
i. Problems with regulators.
1. Although uncommon, hoses can rupture if damaged
or allowed to wear thin. All regulator hoses need to
be inspected often for wear, particularly at the point
of attachment. It’s best to replace hoses at the first
sign of aging.
• A low-pressure hose rupture at the surface will usually flail
about wildly. This is unlikely underwater, but extreme bubbling
indicates a potential rupture.
• Because of the restricted orifice at the regulator first stage, a ruptured high-pressure hose does not flail. However, it may be quite
loud.
2. When observing other divers, watch for hose configurations that
may cause difficulties. Dangling hoses have entanglement potential; dragging alternate air sources fill with mud/sand and become
unusable. Regulator configurations that twist or sharply bend
hoses may cause diver discomfort and contribute to premature
hose failure.
3. Problems associated with scuba regulators are most
often the result of poor maintenance and care. Salt
and mineral deposits will reduce regulator efficiency
or even prevent it from working properly. Always
rinse your regulator thoroughly in fresh water and
have it professionally serviced as recommended by
the manufacturer. Problems with regulator second
stages may include:
29
• Free flowing caused by sand or debris preventing valves from sealing properly.
• The exhaust valve sticking due to deposits or clogging with debris.
• Water leaking in through a torn mouthpiece or diaphragm.
• Free flowing due to improper valve seal caused by poor maintenance.
• Malfunctions due to freezing in cold water caused by lack of, or
inadequate, environmental seals.
[Ask divers what other regulator problems they’ve seen. Discuss
these as appropriate.]
j. Problems with SPGs
1. Divers have several types of submersible pressure gauges to choose
from, including:
• Mechanical gauges measure pressure by routing air through a
flexible, coiled metal tube connected to the gauge needle. The
tube flexes (tends to straighten) under pressure and the needle
registers the pressure.
• Electronic gauges are usually integrated into a dive computer.
They use a transducer that measures electronic resistance as the
air pressure changes.
• Hoseless pressure gauges use a pressure transducer on the first
stage to transmit air pressure to a dive computer on the diver’s
wrist, eliminating the need for a hose.
2. Wear at the first stage connection or other spots along
the hose.
3. Leaking o-rings at either the first stage connection or
where the hose connects to the gauge.
4. With integrated electronic and hoseless gauges, computer or battery failure will cause you to lose all your
dive data, including your air supply information.
5. Failure of the metal tube in mechanical gauges can flood the gauge
with high pressure air. A blow-out plug on gauge back releases the
air so the gauge doesn’t burst.
6. The most common problem is simply failure to monitor the gauge.
7. To avoid problems, have your SPG serviced regularly and inspect it
carefully before a dive. However, it takes a proper attitude and following safe diving practices to avoid the common problem of not
watching the SPG.
[Ask divers what other SPG problems they’ve seen. Discuss these as
appropriate.]
k. Problems with BCDs
1. Because they are less mechanically complex than other scuba
equipment, BCDs present relatively few problems.
2. Over inflation may be caused by the low pressure inflator sticking in the open position. At the surface, a rapidly filling BCD is an
30
inconvenience, but underwater it could cause an
uncontrolled ascent.
• May be caused by poor maintenance, or freezing in
cold water.
• It’s a good idea to practice disconnecting a low
pressure inflator hose while in the water to quickly
handle this problem should it occur.
3. Inability to inflate the BCD may be caused by difficulty locating the inflator mechanism, or it may be caused by failing to secure the inflator.
4. BCD’s quick dumping mechanism and/or overpressure valve may
leak and release air that the diver needs to stay positively buoyant. This is caused by poor maintenance,
tension loss in valve spring or wear on valve seat.
Such a leak is generally slow, but the valve can fail
fully open. If this happens the diver may need to
drop weights.
5. Deflation problems may be caused by the inability
to locate the deflation mechanism or by an improper
body position that traps air. The internal cable on
hose-activated quick dump valves can fail, so that the diver then
has to use the regular deflator.
6. It’s also important that a BCD fit the diver properly and provide
enough lift. Improper fit can make it difficult for the diver to
maintain a comfortable position on the surface.
[Ask divers what other BCD problems they’ve seen. Discuss these
as appropriate.]
2. Common Equipment Problems
What are six general causes of equipment-related problems?
a. Many equipment problems do not result from the equipment’s mechanical function. Diver-caused problems
usually result from one of the following: [Provide local
examples as appropriate.]
1. The diver uses unfamiliar equipment or specialized
equipment without proper instruction and controlled
practice.
2. The diver uses equipment that doesn’t fit properly,
without adjusting it to fit, or that is the wrong equipment for the
environment or type of dive.
3. The diver substitutes standard items with makeshift or homemade
equipment.
4. The diver dives without one or more essential pieces of equipment.
5. The diver modifies equipment to the point that it no longer functions as designed.
6. The diver fails to properly inspect, adjust and maintain the equipment.
31
What are the causes, effects and prevention of problems with masks, snorkels,
fins, exposure suits, BCDs, weight systems and scuba units?
b. There are many small issues with equipment that can
cause or contribute to incidents, ranging from annoyances to major accidents.
[Refer student divers to the Common Problems List in
the PADI Rescue Diver Manual. Supplement list with
local examples and show equipment, as appropriate.
Encourage divers to provide additional examples from
their own experience or observations as you discuss
each of the following.]
1. Mask
4. Exposure suits
7. Scuba unit
2. Snorkel
5. BCD
3. Fins
6. Weight system
3. Release Function and Problems
What are six types of releases commonly found in scuba systems and what problems may they have?
a. Quick release buckles are common weight belt fasteners.
Improper webbing alignment or not fully locking the
buckle may cause a sudden release and uncontrolled
ascent. Putting a crotch strap over a weight belt can prevent it from being discarded easily in an emergency.
b. Quick disconnect fasteners are common on BCDs.
Putting too much strain on one could cause it to release.
c. Touch fasteners join fabrics together – (Velcro™). Sand,
lint and debris may cause these fasteners to be less reliable.
d. Tank band releases snug the webbing holding the tank
in place. Improper threading can cause the cylinder to
slip. Nylon stretches when wet, so that a snug, dry strap
becomes loose when wet.
e. Low pressure inflator hoses connect via a quick disconnect mechanism. These connections are also used for dry suit hoses
and air powered accessories.
f. Integrated weight releases allow a diver to quickly dump weights that
are contained within BCD pouches or weight harnesses.
[Ask divers if they have observed any problems with various releases
and discuss these as appropriate. Discuss prevention and solutions for
each of the above problems and those student divers cite.]
Note to student divers: Do not use unprotected
hands to remove tentacle pieces or other stingers – they
can still sting even detached from the animal. Use forceps
or other tools to gently lift the pieces off or irrigate the
wound with salt water.
32
C. Accident Management
1. Common Aquatic Life Injury First Aid
What are the three forms of aquatic life injuries?
a. Aquatic injuries
1. Bites
2. Abrasions, cuts or
punctures
3. Stings or venomous wounds
What five signs and symptoms indicate venomous aquatic life injuries?
b. Venomous aquatic injuries
1. Venomous aquatic animals can cause a variety of
problems for divers, although serious cases are rare.
Injury signs and symptoms are specific to the type
of creature encountered, however, in general they
include:
• Excruciating pain
• Local swelling, inflammation or welts
• Weakness, nausea, mental confusion and shock
• Spreading numbness, paralysis and convulsions
• Unconsciousness, respiratory or cardiac arrest
• What is the common treatment for aquatic life
injuries?
c. Common local treatments for aquatic life injuries.
[Review treatments specific to the local area.]
1. Always begin with primary assessment.
2. Remove any foreign objects – spines, tentacles, stingers, etc.
3. Soak afflicted area in hot water (43-49°C/110-120°F) for at least 30
to 90 minutes; use hot compresses if soaking isn’t possible.
4. If afflicted area is a limb, keep the limb below heart level.
5. Treat for shock.
6. Continue to monitor the injured diver’s lifeline and transport to
emergency medical assistance as soon as possible.
What is the basic first aid for jellyfish stings?
d. Divers who have encountered jellyfish usually complain of a stinging or burning sensation. Do not let the
affected diver rub or scratch the sting (this worsens and
spreads it). The stung diver may develop hives and have
an allergic reaction with laryngeal swelling that may
lead to airway blockage, respiratory distress, cardiac
irregularities, and loss of consciousness. Basic treatments include:
1. Rinsing the affected area with generous amounts of sterile saline
solution or seawater (not fresh).
33
2. To deactivate any remaining nematocysts, the injured area is
soaked with 5 percent acetic acid until the pain is relieved.
3. If acetic acid is not available, household ammonia diluted three
parts water to one part ammonia can be used.
4. If possible apply shaving cream to the affected area and shave it
clean. Resoak the affected area with the acetic or ammonia solution.
5. Hot packs (if available) are applied to the injured area because the
heat will break down the injected toxin.
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
1. More on Responding to Responsive Divers at the Surface
What are the techniques and considerations for responding to a
responsive diver at the surface from a distance?
What is a quick reverse and how do you do it?
What is the advantage of using emergency flotation when assisting a responsive diver at the surface?
a. In Rescue Training Session One, you learned the basic
procedures for rescuing responsive divers at the surface. Let’s review
and look at some aspects of the procedures in more detail.
b. Entry Considerations
1. Always respond with at least mask, fins, snorkel and some form of
floatation.
2. When and where to don equipment depends on the
circumstance.
• You want to be close to the water, but also not lose
sight of the victim.
• It may be best to don mask and snorkel, enter the
water and then don fins.
• If wearing a buoyant exposure suit, you may need
weights to go down if the victim sinks. You would
drop weights to assure buoyancy after making contact with the
victim.
[Review considerations appropriate to training location.]
3. To reduce swimming distance, try to enter the water at a point
nearest to the distressed diver.
4. Always enter the water in a manner that keeps the victim in view.
• If possible have someone keep an eye on and point to the victim.
Instruct the spotter not to look away for any reason.
• If you lose sight of the victim in waves, look back to see where
the spotter directs you.
• Easing or wading into the water without a splash is usually best.
If you must step into deep water, wear your fins and bring your
legs together as you enter so your face doesn’t submerge.
34
c. You learned that you want to reach the victim as quickly as possible, but with an adequate reserve of energy to
enable you to perform a safe rescue and tow.
1. You set this pace based on:
• the distance to the tired diver, and then to safety.
• the environmental conditions.
• the condition of the tired diver.
• your strength and condition.
2. The crawl stroke allows a quick approach and leaves your legs
more rested. However, use your legs as well, and don’t tire your
arms so much that you don’t have enough strength for the assist.
3. When you stop and evaluate, be prepared with a
quick reverse, which backs you into a position of safety if a potentially panicked diver reaches for you.
• Lean backward and angle your legs towards the
victim.
• This positions you to kick away quickly to stay out
of reach.
4. As you evaluate the diver, check for ample buoyancy
– tell the victim to put air into the BCD and/or release weights.
Assure the victim that you’re there to help.
5. You’ve learned the basics for assisting a responsive
diver at the surface without emergency flotation.
However, having emergency flotation is preferred:
• Greatly simplifies the rescue by providing immediate buoyancy
• Allows you to avoid contact with a potentially panicked diver
• May be easier to tow the diver holding the device
than the diver directly
• Anything with adequate buoyancy and portability will work: PFD,
a spare BCD, gear bag stuffed with wet suits, boat fender, etc.
6. If you have emergency flotation with you, place it between you
and the victim and extend it from a safe distance. Tell the diver to
hold onto it for support. (A panicked diver may grab and climb on
it before you can say anything, or totally fail to recognize it.)
7. If you don’t have emergency flotation or the victim doesn’t take it,
you’ll have to make contact and assist as you’ve already learned,
based on whether the diver is a tired diver or a panicked diver.
What are the procedures for approaching, evaluating and helping more than one
responsive diver in the water?
d. It’s possible you will encounter situations in which more than one
diver needs help at the surface. To rescue multiple divers follow these
principles:
35
1. Remember it is better to reach, throw, wade or take a
watercraft before attempting an inwater rescue.
2. Multiple rescuers for multiple victims is the best
response.
3. If you have to aid multiple divers by yourself, emergency flotation may be almost essential.
4. Enter the water and determine which diver needs the
most help (usually the person who initiated the situation). Ideally, give flotation to the first diver, confirm that solves
the immediate problem, then go to assist the next. Approach and
evaluate each diver like you’ve already learned.
5. It may be necessary to separate two panicked divers. This is usually most effective from underwater or behind; inflate the divers’
BCDs and/or drop their weights.
6. If handling more than one panicked diver presents unacceptable risk, stay clear until one/they exhaust themselves. This may
require an underwater unresponsive diver rescue, but that’s better
than getting into trouble yourself. Remember, you cannot rescue
others if you become a victim, too.
2. Exits with a Responsive Diver
What factors should you consider when removing equipment from
a distressed diver?
a. In Rescue Training Session One, you practiced rescuing
the responsive diver at the surface. Let’s look more at
this situation, with attention to exiting the water.
b. To make transporting and exiting easier, you may need
to remove equipment from the distressed diver (which
you’ve practiced already). You should consider whether to do this or
not, or which pieces you can or can’t remove, based on several factors.
1. How far do you have to go? If you have a short swim to safety or
help, the additional weight and drag from equipment probably
won’t make much difference. If you have a long swim, eliminating
the drag may help you both save strength and energy.
2. What is the environment like? You can eliminate equipment if you are
in flat, warm water with an exit on a calm shore or aboard a boat.
On the other hand, you’ll probably need your mask and snorkel
in choppy seas. If you have to exit through heavy surf, both you
and the distressed diver may need to keep all your equipment, but
through mild surf an exhausted diver might be best off with mask
and snorkel, but no heavy scuba unit or weights.
3. What’s the victim’s condition? If the diver recovers completely, there
may be no need to remove any equipment. With tired, injured or
distressed divers who have trouble recovering and appear weak, it
may be best to eliminate equipment to reduce drag and make it
easier for them to exit the water.
36
What are the general criteria for tows used to transport a distressed diver in the water?
c. You practiced tows in Rescue Training Session One. The
ideal tow meets the following criteria; you’ll practice
different tows because each has advantages and disadvantages with respect to these:
1. The tow keeps the diver’s face out of the water.
2. The tow reduces drag by letting you and the tired
diver move through the water horizontally.
3. The tow gives you control.
4. The tow doesn’t restrict your swimming.
5. The tow allows you to communicate with the tired diver, preferably
with eye-to-eye contact, so you can continue to reassure the diver
as you swim.
d. Effective tows include:
1. Underarm tow – grasp the tired diver under the
arm and continue to swim to shore while your face
remains close to his.
2. Modified tired swimmers carry – use your shoulders
to push the tired diver’s feet.
3. Tank value tow – grasp the tired diver’s tank value
and swim to shore or boat. [Ask students if they have tried other
types of tows in swim courses.]
What should you consider when helping a distressed diver
exit the water?
e. Conditions such as terrain, proximity to medical assistance, your own
size and strength, the assistance available and the distressed diver’s
size and condition influence the type of exit you use.
1. For a shore exit, you may need to assist a weak distressed diver to safety. Stand at the diver’s side with
the near arm across your shoulder, secured by grabbing the wrist with your far hand. Support with your
free arm around the waist or tank. You should be
able to walk the tired diver to safety.
2. You may decide the diver is too weak to walk ashore
or climb aboard a boat with equipment on. In this
case, and if environmental conditions allow, remove the victim’s
equipment before exiting.
3. With a difficult shore exit, or one where it’s best to wear gear due
to conditions, you may opt to have the diver crawl out.
4. In many instances, a seemingly difficult exit with a weak, tired
diver may be simplified by allowing adequate time for the victim
to rest and recover enough to manage the exit with relatively little
assistance from you (though you should stay at hand in case
needed).
37
3. Postattendance
What three concerns do you need to handle with a responsive
diver once you get on the boat or shore?
a. Once out of the water, you have three concerns to handle with a responsive diver.
1. Assess for injury/illness as you learned in your EFR
courses.
2. Contact emergency medical care if necessary.
3. Be sensitive – don’t play hero. Some divers may
experience self-esteem loss and residual fear. Don’t
minimize the situation, but do reassure by citing the
diver’s correct actions.
38
V. Knowledge Development Presentation Three
Emergencies and potential emergencies happen at all dive sites.
Being prepared for common emergencies reduces the guesswork
and stress when a rescuer must respond to one. The most successful emergency responses result from effective emergency action
plans. This section discusses the essentials to include in an emergency action plan.
Handling an emergency requires implementing emergency
action plans and providing basic life support to sustain the patient
until emergency medical care arrives. Students will review Basic
Life Support (BLS), which they learned in the EFR course (or other CPR and basic
first aid course), with the concept applied to the specifics of dive accidents.
Although most emergencies manifest themselves on the surface, problems
do occur underwater. In this section, students learn to identify divers having
problems underwater, and effective ways of handling the problems. It’s possible
that a diver may become separated from a buddy underwater and then have a
problem, or separate because of a problem. Although it doesn’t happen often,
when it does the PADI Rescue Diver will need to implement missing diver procedures. This section discusses those procedures.
Overview and Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, the student should be able to answer the
questions in italics:
A. The Psychology of Rescue
Emergency Action Plans
• What is an emergency action plan?
• What five areas of information may an emergency action plan
include?
• What are the benefits of practicing emergency procedures regularly based on your
emergency action plan?
B. Being Prepared for an Emergency
Basic Life Support for Dive Emergencies
• What is meant by “Basic Life Support”?
• What types of dive accidents can require BLS?
• How does time affect BLS?
C. Accident Management
Emergency Care
• What are the recommended steps, in order of priority, for conducting a primary
assessment?
• How do diving circumstances affect primary assessment?
• What is shock?
• What are the nine signs and symptoms for shock?
• How may shock occur in a dive accident?
• What is the procedure for treating shock, and how may dive accident circumstances affect it?
39
• What are the procedures for conducting a secondary assessment of a responsive
ill or injured diver?
• What are the differences between heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and how do
you treat each?
• What are seven signs and symptoms of hypothermia?
• What is the proper procedure for rewarming a patient with hypothermia?
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
Managing an Emergency Underwater
• What signs indicate a diver may have a problem underwater?
• What do you do to help a diver with these underwater problems: overexertion,
uncontrolled descent, excessive buoyancy, cramps, entanglement, entrapment,
passive panic and active panic?
Missing Diver Procedures
• What steps should you take if you discover that a diver is missing?
• Why is time critical in a missing diver situation?
• What four search patterns may be useful for finding a missing diver?
• What considerations should you take into account when implementing a search for
a missing diver?
A. Presentation Three – Speaker Notes:
The Psychology of Rescue
1. Emergency Action Plans
What is an emergency action plan?
a. The most effective emergency responses result from
effective teamwork, which reduces the risks for both rescuers and victims. Preparation increases the speed and
efficiency with which you handle an emergency situation.
1. An emergency action plan is simply the information, for where
you’re diving, that you will need in the event of a dive accident .
2. Have an emergency action plan for the sites you
visit, and practice using these plans for handling
a variety of emergencies with other Rescue Divers
and higher level divers. Practice with an emergency
action plan helps identify hazardous areas where
problems are most likely, refine your responses to
them, and confirm the completeness of your plan.
b. Your emergency action plan should consider your team:
yourself, other divers, the local emergency response team (EMS or
local fire department), and appropriate local medical services. To the
degree feasible, involving these in forming emergency action plans
makes them more efficient and more effective. [You might consider
arranging for your group to have an in-service training session with
outside emergency personnel to practice procedures.]
40
What five areas of information may an emergency action plan include?
c. A thorough emergency action plan considers likely required measures
before you need them, and may include some or all of the following:
1. The sequence of steps to follow as required by the
local environment.
2. A list of emergency phone numbers. [Remind students that these include the numbers discussed in
Knowledge Development Session Two.]
3. A script for what to say when calling in emergencies – especially helpful when delegating untrained
bystanders to make a call for you.
4. The procedures for responding to, moving and transporting an
injured diver out of the area to within reach of emergency medical
care.
5. Procedures for completing accident and incident reports.
What are the benefits of practicing emergency procedures
regularly based on your emergency action plan?
d. It’s beneficial to practice emergency procedures regularly and systematically based on your plan(s).
1. Regular practice refines your emergency response
skills.
2. Practice makes emergency situations less stressful because divers become familiar with their roles.
Familiarity makes divers more confident and more
effective if the need arises.
3. Following practice based on emergency action plans, evaluate the
performance to identify areas to improve, which may mean plan
revisions or additional training/practice.
e. Emergency action plans are not necessarily complex or difficult to
complete.
1. In many areas, such as urban areas with emergency medical services, the contact information may be as simple as the local EMS
number and diver emergency service number. A transport plan may
be as simple as “up the stairs to the street.” In this case, a formal
written plan may not be necessary.
2. Most resort operations maintain an emergency action plan for their
area; when diving with such an operation, as a PADI Rescue Diver,
if requested your most likely role would be as part of the team carrying out their plan. Or, you may be asked to stay clear and be
ready to assist if asked.
3. The more remote your dive site, and away from a dive operation,
the more thought and information your plan requires. Seek
further training in courses that teach you to form emergency
action plans for areas outside of immediate access to emergency
medical services.
41
B. Being Prepared for an Emergency
1. Basic Life Support for Dive Emergencies
What is meant by “Basic Life Support”?
What types of dive accidents can require BLS?
a. As you know, Basic Life Support (BLS) includes monitoring and enacting emergency procedures for patient
respiratory and/or cardiovascular system failure, which
cuts off oxygen to the body, making death imminent.
1. Dive accidents involving drowning, decompression
sickness and lung overexpansion injuries can cause
respiratory and/or cardiac arrest. Heavy exposure
suits in hot weather can cause heat stroke and heat
exhaustion. Prolonged exposure to cold water can
cause hypothermia.
2. Diving is a physical activity with physical stress. For
predisposed individuals exerting beyond their physical limits, this can lead to heart attack or stroke.
These are not dive accidents per se, but the activity of diving can
be the trigger just like any other sport.
3. BLS in dive accidents requires rescue breaths for a nonbreathing diver using mouth-to-pocket mask, mouth-to-mouth or other
ventilation methods. As you’ll practice, rescue breathing may be
started in the water.
4. For a diver with no heartbeat, BLS requires CPR chest compressions. Compressions cannot begin until you remove the victim
from the water.
How does time affect Basic Life Support?
b. As you recall, you want to begin BLS as soon as the
need is recognized. Time is critical because without oxygen, brain damage can occur in four to six minutes.
After six minutes, brain damage is likely and after 10
minutes it is almost certain.
c. In diving circumstances, one challenge is that the need
for BLS may not be recognized as quickly, and you may
not be able to begin it immediately due to the need to
exit the water, and due to possible difficulties when exiting the water.
d. Because time is critical, as a Rescue Diver keep time in mind when
you formulate plans for helping a diver who needs or may need BLS.
1. Focus action on beginning rescue breaths/CPR as soon as possible,
without compromising your own safety.
2. Part of BLS procedures includes contacting the local Emergency
Medical Service (EMS) system as soon as possible. In a diving context, you may have a delay before you can begin CPR, but not in
contacting EMS. For example, you may be a ten minute swim from
shore with a victim, but able to yell for someone to contact EMS.
This brings emergency medical care to the site ten minutes faster.
42
C. Accident Management
1. Emergency Care
What are the recommended steps, in order of priority, for conducting a primary assessment?
How do diving circumstances affect primary assessment?
a. As you know, primary assessment is the process of
assessing a victim/patient’s situation and condition. In
dive accidents, you follow the same steps you’ve learned, but the environment may affect your assessment.
b. Primary assessment steps include:
1. Assess the situation – look for hazards that may
cause further harm to you or the injured diver.
• Was the victim stung by an organism that could
sting you?
• Be aware of boat traffic, waves, current or other
diving hazards.
• If entering the water, beware of submerged objects
or other
hazards.
2. Establish responsiveness.
• Shake the diver. Turn a face down diver who does not respond
face up.
3. Call for help as soon as possible if the diver does not respond, or if
it’s clear help’s needed.
4. Establish an airway if the diver is unresponsive. In
the water this calls for special techniques that you’ll
learn and practice later.
5. Check for breathing. If the diver is not breathing,
start rescue breaths. In the water this calls for special
techniques that you’ll learn and practice later.
6. Check for circulation (heartbeat). If the diver has no
heartbeat, begin CPR. However, it’s difficult to determine heartbeat in the water, so this step differs from primary care
when you’re out of the water.
• You must get the diver out of the water onto a hard surface to
perform CPR.
• Because it’s difficult to determine heartbeat in the water, the
protocol is that you don’t try until out of the water. If the victim
isn’t breathing, you will begin rescue breaths and tow the victim
to boat or shore as quickly as possible to further the assessment,
including checking for circulation, and begin CPR if necessary.
(More about these procedures later in the course.)
7. Check for bleeding – if the diver is breathing and has a heartbeat,
determine if there is any serious bleeding that must be controlled.
43
• In dive contexts, a responsive victim will usually
know if and where there’s a substantial injury
(bite, cut, etc.); check these for serious bleeding.
• Direct pressure will work in the water. It may
be difficult or impossible to use pressure points
through an exposure suit. Elevation of an arm may
be effective for short periods.
• For bleeding from the leg, it may be most effective
for the victim (if responsive) to apply pressure (if
possible) while you tow.
• The body’s clotting mechanism may be slowed by water, so getting the victim out of the water is a priority.
8. Manage shock – the previous steps are part of shock management.
Out of the water, shock management continues as you learned in
the EFR course.
c. Out of the water, continue rescue breathing, CPR and/or first aid and
monitor the patient’s ABCD’S until a medical professional takes over.
What is shock?
d. As you recall, shock is a state in which profound depression of vital body processes occurs. Severe, sustained
shock is a critical condition that can have permanent
effects, even death.
What are the nine signs and symptoms for shock?
How may shock occur in a dive accident?
e. There are nine signs (something you observe about the
injured diver) and symptoms (something the injured
diver describes to you) for shock.
1. To review, signs and symptoms of shock may include:
• Rapid, weak pulse
• Pale or bluish tissue color
• Moist, clammy skin – possibly with shivering
• Mental confusion, anxiety, restlessness or
irritability
• Altered consciousness
• Nausea and perhaps vomiting
• Thirst
• Lackluster eyes, dazed look
• Shallow, but rapid, labored breathing
2. Shock may occur in a dive accident as a response to
decompression sickness, lung overexpansion injuries,
marine life injuries, heat stroke or exhaustion, hypothermia or near drowning.
44
What is the procedure for treating shock, and how may dive
accident circumstances affect it?
f. Procedure for treating for shock includes:
1. Primary assessment
2. Maintain body temperature.
• This may require removing a wet exposure suit.
With a very weak patient, you may have to cut it
off.
• In hot climates, you may need to provide shade to protect a
patient from sun exposure and overheating.
3. Keep the diver lying down.
• This not only treats for shock, but is a first aid step specific to
treating decompression sickness and lung overexpansion injuries.
(More about this later in the course.)
4. Elevate the diver’s legs, except when head or chest injury, heart
problem, stroke or fractures are present.
5. Give nothing by mouth.
• Responsive patients with suspected decompression sickness or
lung overexpansion injury may drink water to maintain hydration.
• Do not allow the patient to sit or stand. Have the patient drink
small sips lying down.
6. Contact emergency medical care (if not done already).
7. Continue to monitor the ABCD’S.
What are the procedures for conducting a secondary assessment
of a responsive ill or injured patient?
g. Just as you learned for general first aid, in dive accidents you perform a secondary assessment on a responsive diver only after a primary assessment determines
that no life-threatening conditions exist. [Review how
to conduct secondary assessments, as covered in the
Emergency First Response Secondary Care (First Aid)
course.]
h. Follow these guidelines for an injury assessment on a
diver:
1. If necessary, have someone contact local emergency medical care.
2. If applicable, keep the injured diver in the position found. Tell the
patient not to move unless it is absolutely necessary. In diving, this
situation is most often in circumstances such as a hard fall wearing dive gear. It can also occur when a diver gets injured by waves
while entering/exiting the water, but is not at immediate risk from
the waves.
3. Examine the diver from head to toe as you’ve learned. Ask the
diver to tell you if an area hurts when you touch it. Look for deformity, fluid, swelling or a reaction to pain.
45
• An exposure suit may interfere with an injury assessment. However, if you suspect spinal injury the patient should not try to
remove the suit. If you suspect spinal injury and the suit must
come off to prevent overheating while waiting for EMS, carefully
cut the suit away without moving the patient.
4. Begin first aid treatment of any injuries discovered
during this assessment.
i. Monitor the ABCD’S of the diver’s lifeline until medical
personnel arrive.
2. Thermal Problems
What are the differences between heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and how do
you treat each?
a. The body maintains its core (internal) temperature at approximately
37°C/98°F.
1. The body uses mechanisms to promote cooling or generate heat as
necessary to main this temperature.
2. If conditions exceed the body’s ability to maintain temperature,
the diver may suffer from hyperthermia (too much heat) or hypothermia (too little heat).
b. Hyperthermia generally occurs before a dive when a diver wears a
heavy exposure suit in a hot climate. Exercise can compound the
problem.
c. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body’s ability to cool
becomes taxed.
1. Symptoms include profuse sweating, nausea, dizziness, weakness and faintness. The body temperature
will be near normal with cool, clammy skin.
2. For suspected heat exhaustion, begin with primary
assessment. Move the patient into a cool, shaded
area. Have the patient remove the exposure suit,
drink water (up to a litre/quart). If symptoms don’t subside within
30 minutes, contact emergency medical care.
d. Heat stroke occurs when rising temperatures exceed the body’s ability
to cool.
1. Symptoms include hot, dry, flushed skin. The patient
is hot to the touch and does not perspire.
2. Heat stroke is like a high fever that can destroy tissue
and cause permanent disability. Consider it immediately life threatening.
3. Begin with primary assessment. Get the patient into
a cool area, remove the exposure suit and immerse
the patient in cool water or apply cool wet towels. Contact emergency medical care while monitoring the patient’s lifeline.
46
What are seven signs and symptoms of hypothermia?
What is the proper procedure for rewarming a patient with hypothermia?
e. Hypothermia occurs when the body cannot maintain its internal temperature and begins to cool.
1. Hypothermia usually results from diving in cool water with insufficient exposure protection, but can occur from failing to wear
adequate protection before or after a dive in cold climates.
• Heat loss is inevitable in all but the warmest water.
• Exposure suits slow, but do not entirely stop heat loss.
• Heat is lost through breathing as well as into water.
2. Signs and symptoms begin with shivering, numbness and blueness in fingers, lips and toes (may be
difficult to see underwater). As hypothermia worsens, the diver loses coordination, becomes weak and
confused. In severe cases, body systems fail, shivering
stops and the patient loses consciousness.
3. Short of immediately life threatening symptoms,
hypothermia has three effects that concern diving.
• Cold distracts the diver from safety related tasks.
• Extremity numbness impairs manual dexterity.
• More advanced hypothermia impairs mental
processes.
4. In some instances, hypothermia can occur or become more severe
after a diver leaves the cold environment.
• This is believed to be caused by flow of cooled blood to core as
circulation restores.
• Can be just as severe as hypothermia that occurs on the dive.
• First aid is the same.
5. First aid begins with primary assessment. Keep the
patient lying down and don’t let the patient walk or
exercise.
• Take an alert patient with mild hypothermia to
warmth, remove the exposure suit and dry the person, rewarming by covering the head and applying
heat to the neck, armpits and groin.
• For severe hypothermia, contact emergency medical care and
protect the patient from further cooling, but leave rewarming to
EMS because doing so is medically complicated and can cause
further injury to the patient if handled incorrectly.
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
1. Managing an Emergency Underwater
What signs indicate a diver may have a problem underwater?
a. Underwater, trouble signs tend to be more subtle than
on the surface. Watch for rapid breathing, awkward
47
kicking, dog paddling (swimming frantically with hands) or other
signs indicating exhaustion and tiring.
b. A panicked diver or near-panicked diver underwater
may have wide eyes, breathe rapidly and tend to maintain a vertical posture. Such a diver is usually about to
attempt to bolt for the surface. Jerky movements, using
arms to swim, and sinking while swimming upward all
indicate that a diver is having a problem underwater.
c. Although rare, some divers experiencing a problem
underwater will freeze into a trance-like state (passive
panic), just as you learned can happen at the surface. This diver may
be totally unaware of the surroundings and will require help to make
it to the surface safely.
What do you do to help a diver with these underwater problems: overexertion,
uncontrolled descent, excessive buoyancy, cramps, entanglement, entrapment,
passive panic and active panic?
d. How you help a diver with an underwater problem varies with the circumstances.
1. Overexertion – Have an overexerted diver stop all
exertion and rest. Preferably, make contact and have
the diver hold onto something stationary. Encourage
the diver to relax and resume breathing normally by
signaling or writing on your slate.
2. Uncontrolled descent – You can often stop an uncontrolled descent by signaling the diver to add air to the BCD and
level off. If this doesn’t work make contact with the diver and
arrest the descent by grasping the BCD or tank valve, then adding
air to the BCD.
• If a diver has extreme negative buoyancy, such as with a flooded
dry suit, you may need to drop the diver’s weights.
• A properly weighted recreational diver in a wet suit or skin suit
should not have an uncontrolled descent, even with a failed
BCD. However, it can occur with an overweighted diver.
• Tec divers generally tend to start a dive with significant negative
buoyancy due to the extensive equipment and gas required. For
this reason, a properly equipped tec diver has at least two means
of buoyancy control.
3. Excessive buoyancy
• Escort an underweighted diver to the surface and
get the right amount of weight.
• If you are close to a diver when a runaway ascent
begins, make contact and correct the problem
quickly. Use the quick dump on the diver’s BCD if
possible, and reduce your own buoyancy by dumping air from your own BCD.
48
• If the diver’s inflator is stuck, disconnect the low pressure hose.
• If you can’t stop or reasonably control the ascent, let the diver
go. Try to signal to the diver to flare out the arms and legs and
remain horizontal to create drag to slow the ascent.
4. Cramps – For a cramp, stop and have the diver rest the cramped
muscle. Help the diver stretch and gently massage it
to increase circulation and pull out the cramp.
• You learned how to assist another diver relieve
cramps during your PADI Open Water Diver
course. You apply the techniques you learned at
the surface or underwater.
• Cramps occur most commonly in the calf; you can
stretch a calf cramp yourself by grasping the fin
tip and pulling it toward you while you push with
your leg. You can assist a cramped diver by holding the fin tip
for the diver to push against.
• After releasing a cramp, have the diver rest for a few moments,
then continue at a slower, less forceful pace. Abort the dive if
necessary.
5. Entanglement – Signal the diver to hold still while you disentangle.
Cut the diver free only if necessary, and be cautious.
6. Entrapment – Entrapment is rare, but possible.
• Your first concern will be ensuring adequate air
supply for the diver while working to free the diver.
• If you believe you won’t be able to free the diver
before you run out of air, it may be best to ascend
and get more air, if possible, while the victim still
has the most air remaining. If you decide to do
this, mark the site so you can return easily with additional tanks.
• You may also consider leaving your scuba unit with the trapped
diver and make an assisted or emergency ascent.
• An improperly trained and improperly equipped diver(s) may
also enter an overhead environment (cave or wreck) and lose his
way out. Unless you’re both properly trained and properly equipped for the particular overhead environment,
do not, under any circumstances, attempt to rescue a
diver believed lost in an overhead environment. Doing so
is more likely to result in a double fatality than a rescue.
7. Passive panic – If you suspect passive panic,
approach from the front and signal, “Okay?” If you
get no response, go behind the diver and, holding
the regulator in place, take the diver to the surface.
Help the diver from behind because passive panic
may change to active panic without warning. Once
you reach the surface, establish buoyancy for yourself and the victim. Tow the diver to safety.
49
8. Active panic – A diver with active panic underwater will likely bolt
for the surface.
• You want to prevent a rapid, breath-hold ascent.
• For a breathing diver (regulator in place) simply
hanging on and flaring out will usually suffice to
control the ascent rate.
• If the diver is breath-holding, a delay is your best
bet at getting him to resume breathing before
ascending too far.
• If the victim is out of air, delaying the ascent may get the diver
to signal you for an alternate regulator, or the diver may simply
go for the one in your mouth.
• A panicked diver who has dropped the regulator is
probably breath-holding. Slow the ascent as much
as possible while giving your alternate air source.
A panicked diver doesn’t usually respond rationally, so you may have to push the mouthpiece
into the victim’s mouth while lightly depressing the
purge button so the second stage remains clear.
• Once you reach the surface with a panicked diver,
establish positive buoyancy for the diver. Monitor the diver
because lung overexpansion injuries are possible and may
require further rescue and care. If the diver doesn’t calm down,
use the procedures you’ve learned for rescuing a panicked diver
at the surface.
2. Missing Diver Procedures
What steps should you take if you discover that a diver is missing?
a. How you respond to a missing diver depends on the
resources you have, but upon realizing that a diver is
missing, put the following steps in motion as practical:
1. Have someone call for emergency help (EMS, coast
guard, etc. as appropriate for the area) while you
find out where anyone last saw the missing diver.
2. Assign spotters to look in that area for bubbles and
to direct rescuers to the area if they spot bubbles.
Have them use binoculars if available.
3. Try to determine if the missing diver may have left
without telling anyone. Have someone check for the
diver’s clothes, gear bag, automobile, etc.; call the
diver’s cell phone.
4. Immediately assign qualified divers to don scuba
equipment and head to the area where the diver was
seen last to begin an underwater search.
5. If available and appropriate to the conditions, send
out snorkeling teams to search from the surface (fast-
50
er than scuba divers). They can search while others prepare scuba,
and can mark the search area with buoys if appropriate.
Why is time critical in a missing diver situation?
b. As you recall, if an injured diver isn’t breathing, permanent brain damage is likely after six minutes, and death
is imminent. You must assume a missing diver is unresponsive and respond quickly so rescue breathing and
CPR can begin.
What four search patterns may be useful for finding a
missing diver?
c. If you completed the Search and Recovery Adventure Dive, you know
that random searches are slower and less effective. A search pattern
allows a systematic search. The most effective pattern depends on
environmental conditions, but you’ll usually find one of the following
four patterns appropriate.
1. U-Pattern – The U-pattern works well for covering
a large area using minimal equipment. It’s a good
choice when you have several search teams, each
conducting a U-pattern in a different direction away
from where the missing diver was last seen.
2. Expanding Square – The expanding square works
well when you have only moderate visibility and
you believe the missing diver hasn’t gone far. It’s a
good choice when you have only a single search team. The pattern
begins where the diver was seen last and expands outward.
3. Circular Search – The circular search allows you to
search effectively in poor visibility. However, because
it requires a line, it takes longer to set up than the
U-pattern or the expanding square. Also, you can
only make a search over a relatively unobstructed
bottom. From a fixed center point, search a progressively widening circle. The distance from the center
point of each circular sweep depends on the water
clarity. Expand the circle with each revolution, and
make certain that a marker is placed at the starting point to assure
complete coverage of the circle.
4. Surface Led Search – If you need to cover a large complex area, a
surface led search allows the rescue team to look for the missing
diver while a skin diver or small boat controls the pattern from the
surface. You can search a large area relatively quickly with this
method, so it’s a good choice for many situations and relatively
shallow water.
d. You’ll practice these search patterns during Rescue Training Session
Three, and later during the Rescue Scenarios.
51
What considerations should you take into account when implementing a search for a missing diver?
e. When searching for a missing diver, keep in mind the
following considerations:
1. Have a way to recall searchers to save time when
someone finds the missing diver – this is especially
important aboard a boat that must leave to get a
diver to emergency medical care.
2. Permit searches by buddy teams only. Also make sure searchers
have ample air and no decompression time to perform the search.
Rescuer safety takes priority; don’t permit search divers to jeopardize themselves. Have someone keep track of searchers to account
if they’re all back when the victim comes out of the water.
3. Begin the search based on the best guess of where anyone last saw
the missing diver. Currents don’t usually move an unresponsive
diver very much on the bottom.
4. If you don’t have qualified divers present for the
search, you may need to choose a buddy and begin
the search yourself.
5. Search for 30 minutes, until you reach the safe limit
of air supply, no decompression time or exposure for
the searchers, or until relieved by professional assistance.
6. If the missing diver has not been found, turn the
search over to professionals.
52
VII. Knowledge Development Presentation
Four
Divers involved with a rescue are subject to great stress as a result
of their need to react to the emergency and the risks faced in doing
so. Well-trained professionals generally can respond to emergencies without stress interfering with rescue efforts. Similarly, it is
vital for PADI Rescue Divers to remain calm while carrying out
emergency procedures. After the emergency is over, how-ever –
especially one in which a severe injury or death occurred – emotional stress may
overwhelm the rescuer. This section discusses actions divers can take to relieve
the psychological effects following a rescue.
Many dive incidents involve pressure-related injuries. Students learn that
being prepared for a diver emergency requires understanding pressure-related
injuries and the associated first aid. For a more detailed understanding about the
identification of and care for pressure-related injuries, students may want to continue their education by taking specialized training in the subject.
Accident management for pressure-related injuries can involve rescue
breathing. Students will learn different techniques and the proper steps for
administering rescue breaths in dive accidents. A diver may become unresponsive underwater or at the surface. Students learn the techniques and the procedures for handling the unresponsive diver underwater and at the surface.
Overview and Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, the student should be able to answer the
questions in italics:
A. The Psychology of Rescue
Critical Incident Stress
• What is critical incident stress?
• What are 12 signs of critical incident stress?
• What actions should be taken to reduce critical incident stress?
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
Pressure-related Injuries
• What is meant by “decompression illness”?
• What are the signs and symptoms of decompression illness?
• What are the differences between air embolism and decompression sickness?
• What is the most common cause of lung overexpansion injuries?
• What are the causes of and signs/symptoms of air embolism, pneumothorax, subcutaneous emphysema and mediastinal emphysema?
C. Accident Management
First Aid for Decompression Illness
• What first aid steps should you take for a patient with suspected decompression
illness?
• Why should a diver with suspected decompression illness remain lying down?
54
Near Drowning
• What is the difference between “drowning” and “near drowning”?
• What is the primary first aid for a serious near drowning accident?
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
Managing Unresponsive Diver Accidents at the Surface
• What are the procedures to follow when rescuing an unresponsive diver at the
surface?
• Why do you give rescue breaths to an unresponsive diver with no
apparent heartbeat?
Rescue Breathing Techniques
• What are the techniques for mouth-to-pocket mask, mouth-tomouth and mouth-to-snorkel inwater rescue breathing?
• What should you do if you think a diver has no pulse while in the
water?
Unresponsive Diver Underwater
• What are the procedures for bringing an unresponsive diver to the surface?
Equipment Removal
• Where does equipment removal fit as a priority in a rescue?
• What are the suggested procedures and techniques for removing equipment from
an unresponsive diver?
• What should you consider when removing equipment from yourself while dealing
with an unresponsive diver at the surface?
• What circumstances would limit the removal of equipment from an unresponsive
diver or yourself at the surface?
A. Presentation Four – Speaker Notes:
The Psychology of Rescue
1. Critical Incident Stress
What is critical incident stress?
a. A critical incident is an emergency involving a serious
injury or death. The acute stress it causes an individual
may overcome or impair a person’s ability to cope emotionally. This acute stress is called critical incident stress.
1. Some effects of critical incident stress may appear
right away and others after days, weeks, or even
months have passed.
2. After being involved with a dive emergency, you may
experience critical incident stress. It is most likely
if the victim/patient dies or remains disabled as a
result.
What are 12 signs of critical incident stress?
b. Signs of critical incident stress include:
1. confusion
2. lowered attention span, restlessness
55
3. denial
4. guilt or depression
5. anger
6. anxiety
7. changes in interactions with others
8. increased or decreased eating (weight gain or weight
loss)
9. uncharacteristic, excessive humor or silence
10. unusual behavior
11. sleeplessness
l2. nightmares
What actions should be taken to reduce critical incident stress?
c. Do not leave critical incident stress untreated.
1. Critical incident stress requires professional help to
prevent post-traumatic stress disorder.
2. A process called critical incident stress debriefing
brings together a group of people experiencing critical incident stress with some of their peers and a
trained mental health professional. This process
helps those with critical incident stress share and
understand their feelings while learning to cope.
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
1. Pressure-related Injuries
What is meant by “decompression illness”?
What are the signs and symptoms of decompression illness?
What are the differences between air embolism and decompression sickness?
a. There are differences between decompression sickness
and lung overexpansion injuries.
1. Decompression sickness (DCS) results when nitrogen dissolved into
the tissues comes out of solution and forms bubbles. The bubbles
block blood flow and have other damaging effects to the body.
DCS usually results from pushing or exceeding dive
table or dive computer limits.
2. Lung overexpansion injuries result when a diver
ascends while holding the breath. The lung ruptures,
forcing air into the bloodstream and/or other areas.
b. It is often difficult to distinguish between the two conditions at an accident scene because the signs and symptoms are very similar. The first aid for both is the same
as well.
56
c. The term decompression illness encompasses both
decompression sickness and lung overexpansion injuries. Since emergency procedures for handling both are
the same, there is no need to determine specifically
which of the two caused the accident. Signs/symptoms
of decompression illness include:
1. pain in the joints, fatigue
5. unconsciousness
2. dizziness
6. cardiac arrest
3. extreme fatigue
7. nausea
4. paralysis
What is the most common cause of lung overexpansion injuries?
What are the causes of and signs/symptoms of air embolism, pneumothorax,
subcutaneous emphysema and mediastinal emphysema?
d. Lung overexpansion injuries result from breath-holding
during ascent while on scuba or when air is trapped
in part of the lung during ascent. The most common
cause is a panicked ascent caused by running out of air.
Checking your SPG frequently and getting to the surface
with a reserve is the easiest way to reduce this risk.
e. Lung overexpansion can result in four distinct injuries
either independently or together.
1. Air embolism – results when expanding air forces
through alveoli into pulmonary capillaries. Bubbles
go to the heart and then on to the body, with the
most serious injury blocking blood flow to the brain.
Symptoms are usually sudden and rapid. It causes
stroke-like symptoms including sudden unconsciousness, paralysis (usually one side of the body), blurred
vision, dizziness, bloody froth from the mouth,
coughing, personality changes, cardiac arrest.
2. Pneumothorax – expanding air forces its way between the lung
and the chest wall (pleural cavity), partially or completely collapsing the lung. It causes severe chest pain and extreme difficulty
breathing.
3. Mediastinal emphysema – expanding air finds its
way into the chest cavity between the lungs, constricting the heart and lungs. It causes difficulty
breathing, fainting, shock and cyanosis.
4. Subcutaneous emphysema – expanding air accumulates under the skin around the neck and collar
bone, causing neck swelling, voice changes and difficulty swallowing.
57
C. Accident Management
1. First Aid for Decompression Illness
What first aid steps should you take for a diver with suspected
decompression illness?
a. The initial care of an injured diver is a combination of
care and assessment.
1. Begin with a primary assessment. Contact emergency care. While providing and giving priority to BLS,
assume an unresponsive diver has DCI.
2. Encourage a responsive diver to lie down and relax.
3. If possible, ask the diver questions to complete the
PADI Accident Management Workslate. [Review slate
with student divers.]
4. Have a breathing diver breathe oxygen.
Breathing Diver – If using a nonresuscitator demand
valve unit, place the mask on the diver’s face and
instruct the diver to breathe normally.
Nonbreathing Diver – If giving rescue breaths/CPR to
a nonbreathing diver with a pocket mask, hook the mask oxygen
inlet to the system’s continuous flow outlet.
5. Protect the diver from excess heat or cold – manage shock.
6. Arrange for emergency evacuation and medical care.
Note to student divers: Do not attempt to recompress a diver in the
water. This procedure is only used rarely, where recompression is many hours
away, and requires special equipment, training and supervision. Attemptimg
this without meeting these requirements may worsen the situation, delay medical care and jeopardize the safety of the patient and other divers. Even with the
equipment, training and supervision, inwater recompression isn’t used when
there’s access to a hyperbaric chamber within a reasonable interval.
Why should a diver with suspected decompression illness remain lying down?
b. Field experience has shown that some divers’ symptoms worsen significantly after sitting up or standing.
Remaining lying down is believed to assist blood flow
to the brain and to minimize bubbles migrating to the
brain.
2. Near Drowning
What is the difference between drowning and near drowning?
a. A drowning victim is someone who suffocates (or is
asphyxiated) underwater and cannot be revived. Near
drowning occurs when a diver suffers asphyxiation
underwater, but is revived.
1. A near drowning victim may display coughing,
shortness of breath, rapid breathing, cyanosis (blueness) of lips, convulsions, unconsciousness, vomiting,
58
cessation of breathing or cardiac arrest.
2. Regardless of the length of submersion, begin emergency care
immediately.
What is the primary first aid for a serious near drowning accident?
Note to student divers: Medical treatment after near drowning is important because water may have entered the diver’s lungs. The water can cause slow
damage that, if left untreated, will eventually cause the lungs to fill with fluid
and lose their ability to obtain oxygen. This is called secondary drowning and
can be fatal. For this reason, a near drowning patient should always be professionally examined, even if the patient appears completely recovered.
b. The steps for near drowning first aid are:
1. Primary assessment
2. If nonbreathing, begin rescue breaths
3. If breathing, administer oxygen; keep the patient
lying down.
4. Treat for shock and continue to monitor the diver’s
lifeline.
5. Transport as soon as possible to nearest medical
facility – even if the diver appears fully recovered.
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
1. Managing an Unresponsive Diver at the Surface
What are the procedures to follow when rescuing an unresponsive
diver at the surface?
a. Approach an apparently unresponsive diver by calling
out, splashing, etc. to get attention. Make contact and
confirm that the diver is unresponsive.
b. Turn a face down diver face up. One way to do this is
from above the unresponsive diver’s head. Cross your
arms with your stronger arm on top, grasp his wrists
and then uncross your arms. This will spin the diver
over.
c. Establish buoyancy for you and the victim, and call for
help.
d. Remove the victim’s mask and regulator, open the airway and check for breathing.
1. You may need to remove your mask, too, depending on the mask and the method you use for rescue
breathing.
2. Look, listen and feel for breathing for 10 seconds.
3. In case of a suspected back or neck injury, check
breathing before extending the unresponsive diver’s
neck. This would be relatively rare in diving, but
could be possible if the diver fell, struck something
59
during an entry or were thrown by a wave. If suspecting back injury and there is no breathing, open the diver’s airway with the chin
lift only (sometimes called “jaw thrust”) technique. Tip the head to
extend the neck only if nothing else works to restore the airway.
e. If the victim is breathing, hold the airway open and
protect it from splashes/water while towing to safety.
1. Be cautious to avoid turning the diver or pushing the diver’s face
underwater.
2. Continue to monitor for breathing.
f. If you establish that the diver isn’t breathing, give two rescue breaths.
1. In the water it can be difficult to determine if a diver with very
weak breathing is actually breathing.
2. Giving rescue breaths to a diver breathing that weakly is unlikely
to cause further harm.
3. Giving rescue breaths to a diver in respiratory arrest, on the other
hand, may revive the victim shortly, such as in near drowning
cases.
g. Give rescue breaths and evaluate how long it will take to get to safety
(boat or shore) .
1. If it appears you are less than five minutes from
safety, tow the diver to safety while continuing to
provide rescue breaths. Get the diver out of the water,
continue rescue breaths and perform a heart check.
Begin CPR if necessary according to your CPR/first
aid training.
2. If it appears you are more than five minutes from
safety, ventilate for one more minute while checking
for movement or other reaction to the ventilations. If present, continue providing rescue breaths while towing to safety.
3. If there is no movement or reaction to the rescue breaths, the diver
is probably in cardiac arrest. Discontinue rescue breaths and tow
the victim to safety as quickly as possible, exit the
water, perform a heart check and begin CPR/resume
rescue breathing as you learned in your CPR/first aid
training.
h. You need to evaluate the environmental conditions, the
victim’s condition, your condition and other factors. If
attempting to give rescue breaths in the water would
present additional hazard to you or the victim, you
may need to rapidly tow the diver to a safe area (in the
water, or on a boat or shore) to begin.
60
Why do you give rescue breaths to an unresponsive diver with no
apparent heartbeat?
i. Earlier you learned that in the water, it’s difficult to
determine whether a diver has a heartbeat. If there’s no
heartbeat, rescue breaths don’t do any good. However,
the protocol is to give breaths (if not yet out of the
water) for several reasons:
1. A heartbeat may be present.
2. Respiratory arrest often precedes cardiac arrest. If you correct respiratory arrest, cardiac arrest may not occur. The survival rate for
respiratory arrest is much higher than the survival rate for full cardiac arrest.
3. In dive scenarios where the victim has only respiratory arrest, without rescue breaths the time before
exiting the water would likely be long enough to trigger cardiac arrest.
4. If the diver is in cardiac arrest, there will be a delay
in giving CPR, early defibrillation, and other critical interventions. However, the brief time involved
in trying to immediately restart breathing, it is still
the best approach. Research indicates that in a majority of cases
breathing is restored in the first minute by mouth-to-mouth ventilation, hence the justification of attempting inwater resuscitation
immediately.
2. Rescue Breathing Techniques
What are the techniques for mouth-to-pocket mask and mouthto-mouth inwater rescue breathing?
a. You will learn and practice two methods of performing
inwater rescue breathing: mouth-to-pocket mask and
mouth-to-mouth.
1. Mouth-to-pocket mask rescue breathing is the preferred method because it’s the easiest and has the
added benefit of lowering communicable disease risk.
2. However, the risk of communicable disease via mouth-to-mouth
rescue breathing is extremely small, while the chances of helping
the victim may be high (depending upon what caused the diver’s
condition).
3. Regardless of the rescue breathing technique used, if rescue breaths
need to be interrupted (such as for exiting on to a boat), precede
the interruption with two breaths, interrupt no longer than 30 seconds, and resume regular ventilations with two breaths.
b. Mouth-to-pocket mask rescue breathing
1. As you approach the unresponsive diver retrieve your pocket mask
from your BCD pocket (or wherever you store it) and prepare it for
use.
61
2. Turn the victim face up (if necessary), open the airway and check for breathing as you’ve learned. If
the victim’s not breathing, from above the diver’s
head, place the mask on the diver’s face, thumbs on
the mask and fingers on the bony part of the jaw.
Tip the head back to open the airway.
3. Administer two rescue breaths. If the diver does not
resume breathing, give rescue breaths every five seconds as you tow the diver to safety.
c. Mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing
1. After finding the victim is not breathing, from the
victim’s side, open the airway by taking your arm
closest to the diver’s feet and sliding it up under the
diver’s arm and reach up and grab the diver’s BCD,
hood or hair.
2. Place your other hand on the diver’s forehead to tilt
the head and open the airway, while pinching the
nose. Using a rolling action, bring the diver toward
you to provide rescue breaths. This is called the do-si-do method.
3. There are varying methods of opening the airway for mouth-tomouth rescue breathing. If you are a lot smaller than the victim
or if the victim is wearing a bulky exposure suit, it may be easier
to place the hand closest to the diver’s feet under the neck and put
the other hand on the diver’s forehead to tilt the head and open
the airway, while pinching his nose. This is called the head cradle
method.
4. Mouth-to-nose is a variation of mouth-to-mouth
rescue breathing and used when choppy water conditions or equipment configurations make mouth-tomouth ineffective. The victim’s mouth is held closed
and ventilations are made by sealing your mouth
around the victim’s nose.
d. Mouth-to-snorkel rescue breathing (optional)
1. Begin mouth-to-snorkel rescue breathing with two
full mouth-to-mouth rescue breaths. If you decide to remove any
of your or the victim’s equipment, do so while using mouth-tomouth rescue breathing.
2. When you are ready to begin the tow, move above the diver’s head
and make sure the snorkel is drained of water.
Note that it must be a snorkel without a self drain valve.
3. Place the snorkel mouthpiece into the diver’s mouth and hold it
firmly in place between your middle and ring finger. Use your
index finger and thumb to block the nostrils, while your hand
seals around the mouthpiece.
62
4. Make sure the tip of the snorkel remains out of the water at all
times by holding it up with your other hand. Give
rescue breaths through the snorkel.
What should you do if you think a victim has no pulse while in the
water?
e. Remember that you do not check for pulse or attempt
CPR compressions while in water. These are difficult and
ineffective, and will slow the rescue process.
3. Unresponsive Diver Underwater
What are the procedures for bringing an unresponsive diver to the
surface?
a. When you find an unresponsive diver underwater, getting the diver to
the surface takes priority over everything except your personal safety.
b. Circumstances will dictate the most effective steps in
bringing up the diver. The following procedures work in
most situations:
1. Note the condition in which you find the diver:
Is equipment in place? Is the regulator out of the
mouth? Is the mask off ? Are there any clues of how
the accident occurred? Don’t take too much time in
gathering this information, but make an effort to
remember details of what you find.
2. If you find the regulator in the diver’s mouth, place your hand
over it and hold it in place, even if the diver isn’t breathing. If
the regulator is out, don’t waste time trying to put it back in.
Expanding air may prevent water from entering his lungs upon
ascent.
3. Position yourself behind the diver so that you can keep the regulator in the mouth (if in). Hold the victim’s head in a normal position so expanding air in the lungs will escape naturally. Hold the
BCD inflator hose up so you can vent it.
4. Ascending with control is of utmost importance.
Protect yourself so you can continue to be a rescuer.
Start the ascent by adding just enough air to your
BCD to become slightly positively buoyant. You’ll
probably have to vent your own and the diver’s
BCDs to control the ascent. If the diver is too heavy,
you may need to release the diver’s weights.
5. If you can’t control the ascent, let the diver ascend
and regain contact at the surface. You may have to flare out to control your ascent.
6. As you ascend think about the steps to take once you reach the
surface. Mental rehearsal can save time and make your rescue
efforts more effective.
7. At the surface, drop the diver’s weights if you haven’t already done
so. This will make your surface rescue efforts easier.
63
4. Equipment Removal
Where does equipment removal fit as a priority in a rescue?
a. During the rescue of an unresponsive diver, equipment
removal from you or the victim has a low priority.
1. Exceptions are dropping weights, yours and/or
the victim’s as necessary, to establish buoyancy.
Discarding anything that hinders effective rescue
efforts is also a priority.
2. Priority goes to maintaining an open airway, providing rescue
breaths and getting the victim to safety as quickly as possible.
b. Remove equipment from the victim and/or yourself only as a means
to an end.
1. Equipment removal slows down towing, so it only makes sense to
do so if the reduced drag and tow speed would more than offset
the delay. This typically involves a long tow distance.
2. You may need to remove your and the victim’s equipment to get
the diver ashore or on a boat. However, it may be faster to wait
until you can do so standing in shallow water (for shore diving) or
where you have help on the swim step (for boat diving), both of
which make gear removal faster and easier.
What are the suggested procedures and techniques for removing
equipment from an unresponsive diver?
c. What to remove and when depends on the circumstances; just as it does when rescuing a responsive diver.
1. Think buoyancy – Don’t ditch anything you need to
maintain adequate buoyancy for either you or the
victim.
• In warm water the diver may not be wearing an
exposure suit, so you may need to keep the diver’s BCD for support, but you might discard the tank to reduce drag.
• If the diver is wearing a buoyant exposure suit you might discard both the BCD and the victim’s tank to streamline the swim.
2. Logical order – You’ll use one hand to remove equipment with
the other hand always keeping the airway open. A hand should
always be on the airway.
• The order isn’t important, providing you progress logically. If
necessary for adequate buoyancy, remove weight
systems before deflating and removing the BCDs.
Remember
to disconnect dry suit low pressure hoses before
removing the scuba units.
3. Keep a rhythm – If you must give rescue breaths,
remove equipment in between breaths.
• Remove your and the victim’s equipment in small
steps; don’t try to do too much at each step.
64
• Keep your rescue breaths rhythmic – removing a BCD, for example, may take several steps with rescue breaths interspersed.
4. Keep moving – Continue to tow as well as provide rescue breaths
while you remove your and the victim’s equipment.
What should you consider when removing equipment from yourself while
dealing with an unresponsive diver at the surface?
d. The equipment you decide to remove or retain for yourself may differ from the equipment you remove from
the victim. Once again you’ll consider the distance of
the tow, securing adequate buoyancy, a logical order for
equipment removal, maintaining an open airway and
giving rescue breaths.
1. You will most likely drop the diver’s weights, but if
you’re wearing a buoyant exposure suit, you may
want to keep your weights if they make it easier to
orient your body for rescue breaths.
2. If wearing little or no exposure protection, dropping your weight
assures buoyancy and has little effect on your inwater positioning.
What circumstances would limit the removal of equipment from an unresponsive
diver or yourself at the surface?
e. Apply judgment based on the circumstances to determine which equipment to remove. Remember your first
priority is to maintain an open airway and to provide
rescue breaths. Conditions may make it wiser to retain
your and/or the victim’s gear.
1. As already mentioned, a short swim to safety is usually faster without removing equipment.
2. Surface conditions like choppy seas may make it better to retain your mask and snorkel. You may also need these for
an exit through surf.
3. You obviously need fins to swim while aiding the victim with your hands, but you may have to abandon
them at your exit point.
[Explain to student divers that they will practice surfacing the unresponsive diver, inwater rescue breathing and equipment removal techniques in Rescue
Training Session Four.]
65
IX. Knowledge Development Presentation Five
At this point, from previous knowledge development sessions, student divers should have a rudimentary understanding of the first
aid equipment and procedures for diver emergencies. This section
builds upon this with the details related to the administration of
emergency oxygen.
A rescuer’s role may not end when the injured person reaches medical care. This section outlines procedures for recording and
reporting what happened, and how to responsibly answer questions that may arise. This includes documenting what was done
for the injured diver, and what information to send along with the injured diver
upon the arrival of Emergency Medical Services (EMS).
When rescuers reach the boat or shore with an unresponsive diver,
they have to get themselves and the diver out of the water as quickly as possible and begin first aid without interrupting rescue breathing if in progress.
Environmental conditions, the strength of the rescuer and the condition of the
injured diver may all affect how to accomplish this. This section discusses
several techniques and the circumstances in which to apply them.
Overview and Learning Objectives
A. The Psychology of Rescue
Postaccident Reports
• When should you write up a report?
• What are eleven questions to answer, if you can, when making a
report?
• What statement can you make regarding the incident that will
allow you to avoid questions from the media?
• What should you avoid doing on a report or when answering questions?
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
Use of Emergency Oxygen
• Why is administering emergency oxygen to a diver with suspected decompression
illness crucial?
• What are six procedures to follow when handling oxygen?
• How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured diver and to a nonbreathing injured diver?
C. Accident Management
Managing the Scene Until Help Arrives
• After beginning primary care, secondary care, oxygen and other first aid as needed for a patient, what do you do for the diver while waiting for emergency care
to arrive?
• What information should you collect to send with the injured diver upon the
arrival of Emergency Medical Services?
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
Exiting with the Unresponsive Diver
• What are six techniques for exiting the water with an unresponsive diver?
• How can circumstances affect your exit with an unresponsive diver?
66
PADI Rescue Diver Instructor Guide
Three: Course Outline
A. Presentation Five – Speaker Notes:
The Psychology of Rescue
1. Postaccident Reports
When should you write up a report?
a. Following an accident that requires first aid and summoning emergency medical care or other emergency
personnel, you may be asked by authorities to file an
accident report.
b. By providing as much factual information as possible,
an accident report can help investigators determine how
to prevent or better respond to similar accidents in the
future.
c. Be aware that accident reports are legal documents that
could be used in litigation as well as an investigation.
What are eleven questions to answer, if you can, when completing
a report?
d. Answer the following questions when completing a report, if you have
the information. However, do not guess or speculate.
Only information that you personally witnessed and
can attest to belongs in a report.
1. How did you become aware of the problem?
2. Where was the victim (depth, location, etc.)?
3. Was any of the victim’s equipment out of place or
unusual (regulator out of mouth, etc.)?
4. How soon were you able to respond to the emergency?
5. What did you do when you responded to the emergency situation?
6. Were you able to identify the person you helped?
7. What did you personally see happen?
8. What first aid was administered?
9. Was emergency oxygen necessary? Was the individual responsive or unresponsive? Was the person
breathing or not breathing?
10. Was EMS called? At what time? When did they
respond? What action did you see EMS take?
11. Was the victim’s gear recovered? If so, and you personally checked
it, how much air was in the cylinder and was the air delivery system functioning properly?
What statement can you make regarding the incident that will
allow you to avoid questions from the media?
e. Be prepared for media in any emergency involving divers or when an accident or incident has been reported to
EMS personnel or the police.
1. Though reporters probably wish no ill will, they may
have a tendency to sensationalize.
67
2. Do not speculate or give opinions to the media. These are often
taken out of context and may also be used in legal circumstances.
Well meant thoughts may seem insensitive and cause further hurt
to the patient and the patient’s loved ones.
3. You seldom have all the facts and are generally in an emotionally stressed state following an accident, so the best response is to
politely decline to answer questions to anyone other than police or
other government authorities.
4. Refer media questions to the proper authorities. Say something
like: “Accident investigation is underway and I’m not in a position
to answer questions. Please get a statement from the authorities
when they have completed their investigation.”
What should you avoid doing on a report or when answering
questions?
f. When answering questions or making statements on a
report, avoid speculation and guesses. Stick with facts
– what you personally witnessed. If you didn’t witness
what caused an accident, for example, don’t give your
opinion about what caused it.
B. Being Prepared for a Diver Emergency
1. Use of Emergency Oxygen
Why is administering emergency oxygen to a diver with suspected
decompression illness crucial?
a. Administering oxygen for suspected decompression illness is the dive community standard of care.
1. Experience with administering emergency oxygen
shows that it provides significant benefit in many
(but not all) cases of decompression illness.
2. Medical case histories show that prompt oxygen first
aid can improve the effectiveness of recompression
treatment and improves the overall probability of
complete recovery.
3. However, not all types of decompression illness
respond well to oxygen, and there are no guarantees.
It’s important to provide oxygen in an emergency,
but it’s not a magic potion that instantly cures divers.
4. Recall that you also give emergency oxygen to a near drowning
patient.
What are six procedures to follow when handling oxygen?
b. Although nonresuscitator demand valve oxygen equipment shares
characteristics with scuba equipment, it has handling considerations
that differ from your dive gear.
c. This is because pure oxygen can make normally nonflammable
materials combustible or even explosive.
68
d. With proper handling, oxygen systems are safe to have around, provided you keep these points in mind:
1. Keep your unit clean and protected in its box until needed.
Particularly avoid putting the system in contact with greases, oils
or even silicone grease.
2. Never attempt to lubricate oxygen equipment or use standard
scuba parts in it. Pure oxygen requires that only special lubricants
and materials come in contact with the system.
3. Always open valves on oxygen equipment slowly, so
as to pressurize the unit slowly. Rapid pressurization
creates heat, which can spark a fire if any flammable materials have contaminated the equipment.
4. Keep your unit assembled to minimize the possibility of contaminants getting into it, as well as to save
time in an emergency. Wash your hands if possible
before handling your equipment; in an emergency,
at least try to wipe off any oils or grease (including
suntan lotions and oils).
5. Never attempt to clean or service the equipment yourself. Oxygen
servicing requires special cleaners and procedures. If your equipment gets wet or contaminated in any way, it needs professional
servicing by someone specifically trained to work on medical oxygen systems. Have it serviced regularly as required by the manufacturer, just as you would scuba equipment.
6. Always extinguish any source of flame (such as cigarettes) before
deploying oxygen. Use the equipment as far away as possible from
engines, gasoline or anything combustible, preferably in a ventilated area.
How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured diver and to
a nonbreathing injured diver?
e. Give a breathing injured diver 100 percent oxygen supplied by a nonresuscitator demand valve unit. Follow
these steps:
1. Open the oxygen kit. The kit should be set up in
advance according to manufacturer’s instructions.
2. Slowly turn open the valve and then test the unit by
inhaling from the mask. Do not exhale into the mask.
3. Secure the tank and protect it from being knocked over or rolling
loose. The best place for it is cradled in its box.
4. Say to the injured diver, “This is oxygen. It will help
you. May I give it to you?”
5. Assuming agreement, place the mask on the diver’s
face and instruct the person to breath normally. A
responsive diver can hold the mask in place. This
makes the patient feel more in control and frees you
to do other things.
69
6. If the diver is unresponsive and breathing, assume that the diver
would want oxygen, and supply it (called implied consent) with
the nonresusitator demand valve unit.
7. Monitor the oxygen pressure gauge. Don’t let the unit run empty
with the mask still on the diver.
f. If the injured diver is breathing very weakly, use the
continuous flow outlet and setting with a nonrebreather
mask. Follow these steps:
1. Open the kit and attach the tube from the nonrebreather mask to the continuous flow outlet on the
regulator (if this is not done in advance).
2. Slowly turn open the valve and set the continuous
flow rate to 15 litres per minute.
3. Using a nonrebreather mask, hold your thumb over the inlet
inside the mask and allow the reservoir bag to inflate.
4. Say to the injured diver, “This is oxygen. It will help
you. May I give it to you?”
5. Assuming agreement, place the mask on the diver’s
face and instruct the person to breath normally. Use
the head strap and be sure the mask fits snugly. You
may assume implied consent with an unresponsive
diver.
6. If the reservoir bag collapses completely when the
diver inhales, increase the flow rate to 25 litres per minute.
7. Monitor the oxygen pressure gauge. Don’t let the unit run empty
with the mask still on the diver.
g. If you have an unresponsive nonbreathing diver, you’ll use a pocket
mask with oxygen inlet valve and continuous flow oxygen.
1. Have someone open the kit while you continue rescue breaths and attach the oxygen tube from the
continuous flow outlet to the pocket mask (if not
already done). Don’t let this interfere with rescue
breathing or CPR procedures.
2. Slowly turn open the valve and set the flow rate at
15 litres per minute.
3. Give rescue breaths through the pocket mask as usual. Each rescue
breath will carry in extra oxygen from the continuous flow.
4. If the diver begins to breathe, switch to the demand or nonrebreather masks as above.
70
C. Accident Management
1. Managing the Scene Until Help Arrives
After beginning primary care, secondary care, oxygen and other
first aid as needed for a patient, what do you do for the diver
while waiting for emergency care to arrive?
a. In any diver emergency requiring first aid and summoning emergency medical care, maintain a vigilant watch
over the primary ABCD’S.
1. An injured diver’s conditions can easily change from breathing to
nonbreathing and from responsive to
unresponsive.
2. Protect the diver from excess heat or cold.
3. Control bystanders to keep the area open and unconfused for emergency medical personnel.
4. Pressure-related injuries usually require recompression in a hyperbaric chamber. Maintain contact with
your local diver emergency service.
5. Keep the diver as comfortable as possible, but lying down.
6. Provide oxygen until you get the diver to emergency care.
• If you find yourself in a situation where you won’t
have enough oxygen, give the highest concentration possible for as long as it lasts. This benefits the
diver with a
pressure-related injury more than trying to extend
the oxygen by reducing the flow rate or switching
it on and off.
• If the oxygen runs out, but there’s enriched air
nitrox available at the site, a responsive diver can
breathe it from a scuba regulator. This isn’t as beneficial as pure
oxygen, but may offer more benefit than breathing air.
7. Remember, do not attempt to recompress someone in the water.
What information should you collect to send with the injured diver upon the
arrival of emergency medical services?
b. Information that should be collected and written down
to be sent with the injured diver (use the PADI Accident
Management Slate) includes:
1. Diver’s name and contact information
2. Significant medical history
3. First aid procedures initiated
4. Dive profile information
5. Comments relative to emergency care received
6. Contact information for local diver emergency system and name of
doctor or personnel you’ve spoken with.
71
D. Responding to Diver Emergencies
1. Exiting with the Unresponsive Diver
What are six techniques for exiting the water with an unresponsive diver?
a. The method you use to get an unresponsive diver out
of the water will depend on where you’re diving, your
strength, and whether you have help. Use the following
techniques as appropriate:
1. Saddleback carry – the injured diver is stretched
across the rescuer’s back. Normally used as a shore
exit.
2. Fireman’s carry – the injured diver is swung across
the rescuer’s shoulders. Normally used as a shore
exit.
3. Packstrap carry – the injured diver is draped over the
rescuer’s back and arms are pulled over the rescuer’s
shoulders. This is the most preferred method of exiting with an injured diver. Usually a shore exit.
4. Roll up technique – blanket, net or tarp can be lowered from a pier or boat deck to roll up an injured
diver. One end is secured to pier/boat deck and the
other lower end is placed under victim, who lies in
the tarp parallel to the deck. Rescuers roll victim up
by pulling up far end of tarp (ropes may be secured
to the lower end if necessary for length).
5. Lifeguard exit – place the injured diver’s hands on
the deck. Lift yourself from the water with one hand
on the victim’s hands so the victim doesn’t slide back
in. Hold the diver by the wrists and stand, bring victim’s waist to dock level. Lower the diver face down
on the deck, then roll the victim over. Drag the rest
of the way from the water if necessary.
6. Ladder exit – the injured diver is straddled over the
rescuer’s high thigh and shoulder cradled between
the rescuer’s arms as the rescuer climbs the ladder.
Rescuer steps up one rung with high thigh (with victim), then brings other foot to same rung and continues up ladder.
72
How can circumstances affect your exit with an unresponsive diver?
b. Environmental conditions and other circumstances will
affect which technique to use when exiting the water.
Here are a few suggestions:
1. For shore exits without help, give two breaths and
then carry the diver ashore using the saddleback
carry, fireman’s carry or the packstrap carry. If the
diver is too heavy to carry, simply drag the victim
ashore by the two wrists. Resume rescue breathing
with two breaths within 30 seconds.
2. When you exit through surf, do your best to protect the victim’s
airway from crashing waves (a pocket mask is the easiest way). If
you have trouble standing, crawl out with the diver rather than
walk.
3. Exits over rock can be difficult. Proceed cautiously
and allow the water to carry you and the injured
diver up the rocks in stages. Brace yourself for the
next wave. Avoid exits with rock if at all possible; a
longer swim to an easier exit may prove the fastest
way to get the victim out of the water.
4. If you expect help shortly, consider staying in the
water, maintaining the airway and/or giving rescue
breaths until help arrives. This may be more effective
than attempting a difficult exit alone.
5. Exits onto swim steps, low docks and small, stable boats may be
easiest using the lifeguard exit. For a tall dock, boat or pier, you
might be able to use the roll up technique with a tarp, net, rope or
even several lengths of fire hose.
6. A second rescuer can help with any portion of the
rescue, but especially the exit. One rescuer can continue rescue breathing while another goes ahead
and prepares exit equipment, or the strength of two
people may be applied to lift a victim ashore. Always
ask for help if it’s available.
7. The priorities are maintaining rescue breathing and
contacting emergency medical care (if you’ve not
been able to do so already). In some situations, it
may be impossible to exit the water without interrupting rescue breaths more than 30 seconds (for
example, you’re alone and have to carry the victim
up a tall ladder). In this case, do the best you can
and resume rescue breathing/start CPR as soon as
possible. The victim has a better chance out of the
water than in it.
73
E. Final Exam.
74
[See Knowledge Assessment guidelines in Section One of this
guide. Explain to student divers how you’ll implement the
exam and how the exam will be marked and corrected.]
Divemaster Course
Lesson Guide
Presentation Notes
Divemater Course Lesson Guide Presentation Notes
© PADI 2009
Published by PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 USA
Printed in U.S.A.
Topic 1 – Course Introduction
The Role and Characteristics of a
PADI Divemaster
Recommended Materials and Methods for
Covering This Topic
This is the first presentation for the PADI Divemaster course and
must be conducted before any other course components. It’s most
effective for you to use the following outline to present the information in a
classroom-like setting.
Much of this presentation sets the tone for the course and lays the
groundwork for developing professionalism and desired attitudes in candidates. Encourage discussion and interaction in your group, which not only
assists in attitude development, but will help develop familiarity between
your candidates, you and your staff.
The first chapter of the PADI Divemaster Manual supports this topic. If
possible, have candidates read the chapter and complete the Knowledge
Review before attending. However this presentation covers additional material specific to the logistics that apply to your divemaster candidates and the
local area, and therefore aren’t covered by the manual.
The PADI Divemaster Video also strongly supports this presentation. It’s
recommended that you have candidates watch the video prior to this presentation, or immediately after it.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Introductions
Overview
II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster
1. What three broad characteristics may divers expect
in a PADI Divemaster?
2. What five criteria define “professionalism” as it applies to the PADI Divemaster?
3. What is a “role model”?
■
■ The
The Role
Role and
and Characteristics
Characteristics �
of
of aa PADI
PADI Divemaster�
Divemaster�
■
■ Benefits
Benefits and
and Responsibilities
Responsibilities of
of
PADI
PADI Divemaster
Divemaster Membership�
Membership�
■
■ How
How to
to Succeed
Succeed in
in This
This Program�
Program�
■
■ Course
Course Logistics
Logistics –– Assignments,
Assignments,
Responsibilities,
Responsibilities, Schedule
Schedule and
and
Administration
Administration
DM
DM 11 -- 22
4. What are the characteristics and attributes of a
good role model PADI Divemaster?
5. What are the characteristics and attributes of a
poor role model divemaster?
6. How may role model behavior affect other divers?
7. How may role model behavior affect your ability to
function as a divemaster?
8. How may good role model behavior benefit student
divers when you assist with training?
3-
Three: Knowledge Development
III. Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster
Membership
9. What are the benefits and responsibilities of a PADI
Divemaster?
IV. How to Succeed in This Program
V. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule and
Administration
Outline
I. Introduction
A. Introductions
[Introduce yourself and have your staff and candidates
introduce themselves. Encourage a relaxed, light atmosphere and try to get everyone interacting. This gets
the course off to a good start.]
B. [Paperwork]
II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster
What is a PADI Divemaster?
The Role and Charact eristics
of a PADI Divemast er
What is a PADI
Divemaster?
DM
DM 11 -- 33
What criteria define
professionalism?
■
■ Exper tise�
tise�
■
■ Judgment �
■
■ Appearance and manner
�
■
■ Interpersonal skills �
■
■ Exemplar y rescue skills
DM
DM 11 -- 44
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. The goal of this course is to qualify you as a PADI
Divemaster. This raises the question, “What is a PADI
Divemaster?”
[Use the question to launch a five minute class discussion about what a PADI Divemaster is. Write the answers down as you go, and treat answers as a basis for
further discussion.]
B. What three broad characteristics may divers
expect in a PADI Divemaster?
[Use the candidates’ answers to note the characteristics
that divers expect in a PADI Divemaster.]
1. professionalism
2. role model behavior
3. ability to assist with supervising dive activities and
dive training
C. What five criteria define “professionalism” as it
applies to the PADI Divemaster?
1. “Professionalism” means different things depending
upon the activity. Specific to a PADI Divemaster, a
professional is someone who:
a. has expertise in diving: dive theory, dive skills
and dive management.
3-
b. has good judgment. The PADI Divemaster follows
responsible diving practices when conducting/assisting with PADI-sanctioned programs, follows
PADI Standards, and errs to the conservative
when making decisions that could affect diver
safety.
c. maintains a professional appearance and manner.
d. has good interpersonal skills.
e. has exemplary rescue skills.
[Ask the candidates why people expect these qualities.
Encourage a five minute discussion about this topic,
with you confirming and elaborating on appropriate
candidate responses.]
D. What is a “role model”?
1. A “role model” is someone who other people base
their behavior on because they respect and identify
with the role model.
2. What are the characteristics and attributes
of a good role model PADI Divemaster?
a. good dive skills
b. commitment to beliefs – there’s no question that
the divemaster believes in responsible dive practices and PADI Standards because the individual
follows them consistently.
c. uses up-to-date, well maintained dive equipment.
d. maintains self – stays physically fit for diving and
stays up-to-date on dive trends, theory, equipment, etc.
e. agrees with the PADI training philosophy and
supports the instructor with that philosophy when
assisting with student divers in training.
f. accepts and empathizes with divers and
students in supervisory situations.
g. inspires other divers to pattern their dive habits
after the divemaster.
h. supports the business needs of the dive
operation.
i. easily establishes rapport with divers and customers.
j. earns and maintains respect, trust and confidence
of divers and customers.
3-
Three: Knowledge Development
What is a role model?
■
■ Negative behavior�
behavior�
◆
◆ Lacks
Lacks conviction
conviction and
and commitment
commitment
�
◆
◆ Disregar
Disregards
ds personal
personal fitness
fitness �
◆
◆ Uncaring,
Uncaring,
contradictor
contradictor y,
y, �
and
and unsuppor
unsuppor tive
tive
DM
DM 11 -- 6
6
How does role
model behavior
affect other divers?
DM
DM 11 -- 77
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3. What are the characteristics and attributes of
a poor role model divemaster?
a. hypocrisy and lack of conviction – pays lip service
to responsible dive practices and standards by saying one thing and doing another, or only following those practices and standards when compelled
to do so by standards or an employer. Doesn’t appear to stand for anything that’s not convenient
at the moment – may take a “do as I say, not as I
do” approach.
b. disregards personal fitness and does not keep current on dive information and practices.
c. uncaring and unempathetic of other divers and
their skill levels. Behaves in ways that causes
other divers to not respect the individual.
d. contradicts or disagrees with an instructor in front
of student divers or other assistants.
e. not a “team player” and fails to support the customer service and equipment counseling aspects
of the dive operation’s business needs.
4. How may role model behavior affect other
divers?
[Ask the class, based on the above attributes, “How
might good and poor role modeling make you more
and less effective as divemasters?” Encourage a five
minute discussion, elaborating on appropriate candidate comments. The following summarizes the conclusions the class should reach – fill in any missing
concepts.]
a. How may role model behavior affect your
ability to function as a divemaster?
1. Good role model behavior can aid other divers by giving them a behavior pattern to follow
with respect to responsible dive practices and
habits. Poor role model behavior can cause
them to question these practices and habits.
People follow your example as much as (sometimes more than) what you say.
2. Alternatively, poor role modeling can cause divers to question you and your suggestions. Divers
may be less likely to act on your advice. Good
role modeling is more likely to give you credibility and encourages divers to follow accepted
dive practices and consider your suggestions.
3-
b. How may good role model behavior benefit
student divers when you assist with training?
1. Good role model behavior helps student divers,
who learn much by watching the instructor and
assistants. Consistency between you and the
instructor reinforces what student divers learn.
Good role model behavior earns student respect,
which means they listen and learn from you
better when you’re assisting in training.
III. Benefits and Responsibilities of the
PADI Divemaster Membership
What are the benefits of
becoming a Divemast er?
[If possible, show the This is PADI video to start this subject.]
A. Benefits
1. As a PADI Divemaster you’ll be a member of PADI,
the world’s largest and most respected diver training
organization.
2. As a PADI Member, you:
a. receive regular mailings of information, standards
changes and industry alerts. [Identify the publications they get from the applicable PADI Office instead of or in addition to The Undersea Journal, etc.
If PADI Divemasters for your area receive Assisting
and Divemastering, either as part of the Journal or
separately, call attention to this publication dedicated specifically to their duties.]
b. have access to certain PADI materials at the PADI
Divemaster rate as well as access to educational
consulting at your PADI Office.
c. have access to Professional Liability Insurance
and to the dive industry’s most experienced legal
defense team. You’ll learn more about this later in
the course.
d. may earn income or benefits by assisting with
PADI Diver courses, and by conducting some PADI
programs independently (more about these later).
Divemaster also have access to PADI’s job placement information service.
B. Being a PADI Divemaster has responsibilities:
1. Adhering to PADI Standards when assisting with
and/or conducting PADI programs as identified in the
PADI Instructor Manual or other PADI materials. Much
of what you learn in this course applies to this.
3-
■
■ PADI
PADI Membership�
Membership�
◆
◆ Receive
Receive pub
pub lications
lications and
and updates
updates �
–– The
The Under
Under sea
sea Journal
Journal
◆
◆ Access
Access to
to P
PADI
ADI materials
materials and
and
educational
educational consultation
consultation �
◆
◆ Access
Access to
to pr
pr ofessional
ofessional �
liability
liability insurance
insurance �
■
■ Earn
Earn income
income by
by conducting
conducting
PADI
PADI programs
programs
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 11 -- 8
8
2. Staying current with PADI Standards by reading the
quarterly Training Bulletin.
3. Representing the PADI organization favorably as
you conduct yourself professionally.
4. Maintaining your PADI Membership. [Review renewal requirements as listed in the Introduction of
this instructor guide, page 1-4.]
5. Keeping PADI informed of your current address so
that you will receive important mailings, and so you
can connect with the appropriate PADI Office for
service.
V. How to Succeed in This Program
How to Succeed
■
■ Start
Start independent
independent study
study
EARLY�
EARLY�
◆
◆ Read
Read man
man ual,
ual, watch
watch video
video and
and
complete
complete Kno
Kno wledg
wledgee Reviews�
Reviews�
■
■ Seek
Seek more
more information
information �
–– don’t
don’t limit
limit yy our
our self
self
■
■ Practice,
Practice, practice,
practice, practice�
practice�
■
■ Ask
Ask for
for help
help –– help
help other
other
ss
DM
DM 11 --10
10
A. Success in this program comes through applying yourself to the assignments and exercises consistently and
as directed by your instructor. Like any learning process, you get out of this course what you put into it.
B. Candidates usually find that the following suggestions
benefit their learning at this level:
1. Read each appropriate PADI Divemaster Manual
chapter, watch the PADI Divemaster Video and complete the Knowledge Reviews enough ahead of
schedule to do so without rushing. Write in your
books as you study – make notes, highlight important concepts to review, etc.
2. Start independent study and projects as soon as
they’re assigned. Take advantage of all study media
available – video, multimedia products, manuals,
etc. Each type has different advantages in learning;
the more you use, the more effective your learning.
3. Don’t limit yourself. If you’re interested in something, find out all you can about it, even if it’s beyond the course requirements.
4. Practice outside scheduled sessions with classmates.
This is useful with physics problems, demonstration
skill practice, rescue and other skills.
5. If you’re having trouble mastering or understanding
something, let the instructor know as soon as possible.
6. Help your fellow candidates and let them help you.
You learn by helping and being helped.
[Note to instructor: The professional edition of the PADI Divemaster
Video provides you with suggestions and techniques for conducting the
program.]
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-
VI. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule and
Administration
A. Assignments
1. [Tell candidates about assignments and due dates,
including independent study assignments. It’s recommended that you give independent study assignments for Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8 as early in the course
as possible. You may assign the Emergency Assistance Plan, tell candidates the locations they should
prepare their plans for, the date due and the criteria
for a complete plan. You may also discuss the Mapping Project]
2. [Advise candidates to watch the PADI Divemaster Video, read the PADI Divemaster Manual and complete
the Knowledge Review at the end of each chapter to
hand in.]
B. In this course, you’re responsible for:
1. Completing assignments on time.
2. Conducting yourself in a professional manner.
3. Following instructions from the instructor and staff.
4. Providing equipment and materials [list all equipment and materials candidates must provide].
C. Schedule
[Give candidates the course schedule, including session times and locations, integrating assignment and
Knowledge Review due dates.]
D. Monitoring progress
[Give candidates a copy of the Skill Development Score
Sheet and Practical Application Record Sheet. Explain
that you’ll be tracking their progress and critiquing
their performances regularly using these.]
E. Administration
[Finish any paperwork, collect remaining course fees,
additional fees not covered by the course fee (such as
boat fees) etc.]
F. [It’s recommended that you finish this session with a
break that allows social interaction and a chance for
candidates and staff to get to know each other.]
3-10
Course Log istics
■
■ Assignments �
■
■ Materials and Equipment
�
■
■ Schedule�
Schedule�
■
■ Administrative Requirements
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 11 -- 11
11
Topic 2 – Supervising
General Diving Activities for
Certified Divers
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering This Topic
The PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of the material in this topic. Preferably, have candidates see the video, read Chapter 2
and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation. Your presentation is important in this topic because it includes discussions to begin
establishing problem solving skills, judgment and attitudes.
This is a long topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presentation,
or deliver the presentation in two or more sessions. Use of independent study
materials will allow you to go more quickly through much of the material,
since candidates will already be familiar with it.
The following PADI materials support this topic: Adventures in Diving,
(manual and video) Underwater Navigator Manual, Deep Diver Manual, Deep
Diving video, Night Diver Manual, Night Diving video, Enriched Air Diver Manual,
Enriched Air Diving video.
Presentation - Part 1
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. The Divers You Supervise
1. Why do certified divers want the assistance of a
PADI Divemaster?
2. What individual differences in divers does a divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?
3. What are six characteristics of responsible diver behavior?
Overview — P art 1
■
■ The
The Divers
Divers You
You Supervise�
Supervise�
■
■ Dive
Dive Planning�
Planning�
4. What are four ways to encourage responsible diving?
■
■ Dive
Dive Management�
Management�
■
■ Helping
Helping Divers
Divers Manage
Manage �
Predive
Predive Stress�
Stress�
II. Dive Planning
■
■ Mapping
Mapping Dive
Dive Sites
Sites
DM
DM 22 -- 22
5. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?
6. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through the
dive”?
7. What aspects of dive planning are and are not the
divemaster’s responsibility?
8. What aspects of dive planning and diving must
each diver retain responsibility for?
9. How do you assess divers before a dive for experience level, possible stress and possible equipment
problems?
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-11
10. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is it intended?
11. How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and
how do conditions affect diving?
12. What are three aspects of planning dives for remote areas?
III Dive Management
13. What are four aspects of supervision in managing
dives?
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out of water supervision, and the advantages and disadvantages of supervision vantage points
inwater versus out of water?
15. What eight types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?
16. What is the primary purpose of diver accounting procedures?
IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress
17. What are the characteristics of predive stress, and
how do you help divers deal with it?
V. Mapping Dive Sites
18. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site,
and what elements do you include in a dive site map?
Why do cer tified divers
want the assistance of a
PADI Divemast er?
Outline
■
■ Guidance�
Guidance�
■
■ Safety�
Safety�
I.The Divers You Supervise
■
■ Handling
Handling logistics�
logistics�
A. Why do certified divers want the assistance of a
PADI Divemaster?
1. Although there may be some situations in which divers
need supervision, the primary reason they dive under
divemaster supervision is they want the services, education and benefits a divemaster provides. Practices vary
greatly from one area to another and the successful
divemaster recognizes that neither supervisory recommendations nor procedures apply to all locales and
circumstances.
a. The divemaster makes the dive more fun by guiding
divers to the best diving.
b. The divemaster can help divers improve their safety
by providing information such as local dive conditions and protocols/techniques, and by being available to manage and assist with a dive accident.
3-12
■
FUN
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 -- 33
Demand for you
as a divemaster
= Success
DM
DM 22 -- 44
What individual differences
might you encount er?
■
■ Skill
Skill level�
level�
■
■ Physical
Physical and
and
intellectual
intellectual �
challenges�
challenges�
■
■ Cultural
Cultural differences�
differences�
■
■ Responsible
Responsible behavior
behavior
DM
DM 22 -- 6
6
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
c. The divemaster often assists with boat handling
and logistics, freeing the divers to simply relax
and enjoy the trip.
d. The divemaster can help divers assess whether
their skills and experience level match the
planned dive, by being available to answer questions, and by helping them brush up on skills
when they feel it necessary.
e. The divemaster adds to the enjoyment by being a
fun person – friendly, approachable, warm, and
someone others like to be around. The divemaster
adds to the fun by giving local area information
or history of a dive site.
B. Being a person other divers want as a divemaster is
important to your success and the success of the dive
operation you represent.
C. What individual differences in divers does a divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?
1. As a professional divemaster, you need to accept divers you supervise as they are.
[Ask candidates: Why? Encourage a brief discussion about this before continuing. How candidates
answer is less important than that they think about
this and come up with their own reasons.]
2. Divers will vary in several ways:
a. Skill level — adapt your interaction based on
general skill levels. (e.g., known skill levels may
influence where you take the boat, or suggested
techniques or courses to follow.)
[Ask candidates: If everyone had leadership-level
dive skills, would there be any need for divemasters?]
b. Physical/intellectual challenges — individuals
with special challenges may need your assistance
with unusual, but acceptable, dive techniques.
c. Different cultures — culture affects how people
approach the social interaction side of diving. Be
sensitive to cultural needs of those you supervise,
and the local culture where you work.
d. Responsible behavior — a divemaster can encourage responsible behavior in divers. The divemaster is alert for the appropriate behavior or lack of,
and tries to encourage it, but this doesn’t imply
that the divemaster is responsible for the behav3-13
ior of trained and certified divers. This would be
neither realistic nor appropriate.
D. What are six characteristics of responsible
diver behavior?
1. Stays within personal limits – plans dives within limits of training and experience for diver and buddy.
2. Properly equipped – uses the equipment generally
accepted as required for a dive.
3. Equipment care – maintains equipment properly
and checks it before diving.
4. Conservative air supply management – checks air
supply frequently and ends dive with an appropriate
reserve.
5. Conservative computer/table use – stays well within
no stop limits, avoids “sawtooth” profiles and makes
safety stops.
6. Environmental awareness – avoids contact with
sensitive aquatic life, dives in an environmentally
sensitive manner.
E. What are four ways to encourage responsible
diving?
1. Role modeling – ensure that your dive habits reflect
the characteristics of a responsible diver.
2. Dive planning and briefings – it may be appropriate
at times to suggest or remind of responsible diving
behaviors during dive planning and briefings (You’ll
learn more about dive planning next and briefings
shortly).
3. When practical make responsible behaviors easier
logistically (e.g., in some situations, a bar at 5 metres/15 feet assists safety stops, etc.)
4. Reward responsible behaviors (e.g., after a guided dive,
acknowledge appropriate behavior and skills, etc.)
What is responsible
diver behavior?
■
■ Knows
Knows and
and abides
abides b
b yy personal
personal limits
limits �
■
■ Uses
Uses pr
proper
oper equipment
equipment �
■
■ Maintains
Maintains equipment
equipment
�
■
■ Manages
Manages air
air suppl
suppl yy conser
conser vatively
vatively �
■
■ Uses
Uses dive
dive computer
computer or
or tab
tab
le
le
conser
conservatively�
vatively�
■
■ Remains
Remains en
en vironmentall
vironmentall yy aware
aware
DM
DM 22 -- 77
How can you encourage
responsible behavior?
■
■ Role modeling �
■
■ Dive planning and briefings
�
■
■ Logistical arrang ements �
■
■ Reward and ac knowledgment
DM
DM 22 -- 8
8
II. Dive Planning
A. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning for a group of certified divers?
1. Your role as a divemaster is to provide broad planning for the group – basic logistics and emergency
preparation, and helping divers plan their own
dives.
B. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through
the dive”?
1. Thinking through the dive is an effective way to
3-14
Dive Planning
What is the
divemaster’s role
and responsibility?
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 -- 99
plan a dive. Imagine everything on a dive – predive
preparation, loading, diver check in, on the boat/at
the beach, postdive, etc. – make a list of what needs
to be done, in order. Think through possible incidents or emergencies that you should prepare for
and add them to the list.
2. Think through the information that individual divers need to plan their own dives (conditions, depth,
training requirements, etc.) so you can provide as
much as reasonably possible to the divers.
3. Thinking through a dive gives you a list of what to
do, in order, preparations for possible emergencies,
and information to gather for divers. Much of what
you learn in this course teaches you how to find,
gather and use information for dive planning.
Divemaster’s Role
■
■ Basic
Basic logistics
logistics and
and site
site orientation�
orientation�
■
■ Emergency
Emergency preparation�
preparation�
■
■ Help
Help diver’s�
diver’s�
plan
plan their
their
individual
individual
dives
dives
Dive Planning
DM
DM 22 --10
10
Diver’s Responsibility
■
■ Planning
Planning and
and implementation
implementation of
of �
own
own dive
dive plan
plan
Dive Planning
DM
DM 22 -- 11
11
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
C. What aspects of dive planning are and are not
the divemaster’s responsibility?
1. Your responsibility – plan a dive envelope the group
stays within and that prepares for reasonably foreseeable diving emergencies. Advise divers of known
unusual hazards. Orient divers to site.
2. You are not normally responsible for planning the
individual dives of certified divers.
D. What aspects of dive planning and diving must
each diver retain responsibility for?
1. Divers’ responsibility – Each diver must retain responsibility for planning the individual characteristics of the dive within the limits you set and implementing the plan.
a. Divers will bear the consequences of the dive
plan, so they must accept responsibility for it.
b. Conditions change, – divers may have to revise
dive plan accordingly within their personal limitations.
c. You cannot control a diver; divers are responsible
for their own actions.
d. You cannot know divers’ comfort/training/experience levels as well as they do – they have to set
their own limits.
E. Although divers are responsible for their plans, you
can assist them with their individual plans. If asked,
you can help them choose responsible courses of action. The information you provide assists them to plan
their individual dives.
3-15
F. How do you assess divers before a dive for experience level, possible stress and possible equipment problems?
1. Diver assessment – while it’s often impossible for a
divemaster to assess the skill and review the equipment of all divers, the following techniques may be
used to estimate skill level, stress and equipment
concerns during normal interaction with divers. If
you observe possible problems, you should alert the
diver and provide opportunities to rectify the problems. General observations may assist with recommendations for group planning and individual plans.
2. Indirect assessment – observations include:
a. Equipment condition, configuration and age. For
example, all rental gear may indicate a novice or
infrequent diver. Inappropriate or missing gear
for the dive may require your counsel. Old gear
may indicate a rusty diver returning to diving.
Dangling equipment may indicate inexperience
or lack of familiarity with environmentally sensitive dive techniques.
b. Behavior. For example, withdrawal, excessive
talking, excessive time preparing may indicate
stress or concerns about the dive. Overdependence
on a dive buddy for planning, gear setup, etc.
may indicate inexperience.
c. Signs or symptoms of illness or injury.
3. Direct assessment – depending on circumstances, the
following may be useful techniques:
a. Check log books and certifications.
b. Have divers fill out contact, certification, experience and other emergency contact information
when they register for the dive.
c. Interview – if practical, ask the diver about concerns, experience, etc., particularly if indirect assessment raises a question.
G. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is it
intended?
1. Discover Local Diving, an environmental orientation,
is a briefing that covers the unique aspects of a particular dive environment so divers can include these
in their dive plans.
2. It is intended for certified divers who have little or
no experience in the local environment.
3-16
Diver Assessment
■
■ How
How do
do you
you assess
assess divers
divers �
before
before aa dive?
dive?
Indirect
Direct
equipment
equipment �
behavior�
behavior�
log
log book
book �
registration
registration �
signs
signs of
of illness
illness �
or
or injur
injuryy
interview
interview
Dive Planning
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --12
12
3. You can include an environmental orientation in
your supervision when your assessment suggests divers may benefit from it, or when asked.
4. Discover Local Diving is PADI’s environmental orientation program. You’ll learn more about this in a
later presentation.
Dive Conditions
■
■ How
How do
do you
you evaluate
evaluate general
general dive
dive
conditions
conditions and
and how
how do
do conditions
conditions
affect
affect diving?�
diving?�
◆
◆ What’s
What’s acceptab
acceptab
le
le?�
?�
◆
◆ Weather
Weather�
◆
◆ Tides
Tides and
and current
current �
◆
◆ Visibility
Visibility
Dive Planning
DM
DM 22 --14
14
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
H. How do you evaluate general dive conditions,
and how do conditions affect diving?
1. Dive conditions affect diving, and therefore are an
important part of dive planning.
a. Determining “acceptable” conditions may depend
partly on the skill and experience of the divers.
Your briefings and recommendations help divers
determine whether the conditions are acceptable
for them.
b. It helps divers plan their own dives when you tell
them your observations and conclusions regarding the conditions. It also teaches them about
evaluating conditions.
c. There is a broad range of acceptable conditions.
You advise divers of the conditions, but divers
must accept the responsibility of assessing their
own skills and deciding whether or not to dive.
2. Weather
a. Information sources include:
1. TV, radio and newspaper
2. Government radio broadcasts, such as National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) National Weather Service broadcasts
on VHF-FM (marine) radio in North America
3. Telephone services
4. Your experience with local weather behavior
b. Effect of weather on dive conditions:
1. Wind – can cause waves, surf and surge, plus
poor visibility. Offshore wind can calm surf
and cause an upwelling and good visibility.
2. Rain – runoff can cause poor visibility or poor
water quality. Prolonged rain can cause rivers
to back up into lakes and springs.
3. Temperature – can cause discomfort before
or after dive. Air temperature can sometimes
change water temperature in a couple of days.
3-17
3. Tide and currents
a. Information sources include:
1. Tide charts
2. Local weather reports may provide tide and
current information.
3. Local dive reports may provide tide and current
information.
4. Your experience with local conditions – you
can often observe tides and currents from an
elevated vantage point – watch boats at anchor and drifting flotsam (note that wind and
current may be from different directions, affecting where a boat sits at anchor).
b. Effect of tides and currents on dive conditions:
1. Major currents may have eddies that run counter to the main current direction.
2. Long shore currents – caused by eddies or
waves striking shore at an angle – creates water flow down the coast.
3. Tidal currents flow in and out of restricted areas (bays, etc.) – strength depends on time during tidal cycle, how restricted the flow, and the
amount of water entering or exiting the area.
4. Ideal dive time is usually slack tide when high
tide peaks.
4. Visibility
a. weather – as mentioned, rain runoff and surge
due to wind or waves can stir up sediment.
b. season – warm temperature can cause plankton
blooms. Some seasons associated with more wind
and rain
c. bottom composition – the finer the bottom, such
as mud or silt, the easier it is disturbed.
d. waves – can reduce light that penetrates the surface, and stir up sediment.
e. time of day – affects the amount of light. Proportionately more reflects off surface when sun is low
in sky.
f. oceanic currents – can affect the amount of nutrients in water and therefore, plankton blooms.
g. tides – incoming (rising) tides usually bring in
clear water; outgoing tides (falling) tides usually
pick up sediment and have poorer visibility.
3-18
Three: Knowledge Development
h. location – determines the prevailing nature of the
aquatic environment (e.g., warm clear current,
silty lake, clear spring water, etc.)
I. What are three aspects of planning dives for
remote areas? (e.g., those that are hours away from
dive services, emergency medical personnel, etc.)
1. Plans need to cover more logistics – food, sleeping
arrangements, compressors for filling tanks, etc.
2. Emergency procedures – may need to plan for complex evacuations, having appropriate medical supplies available and people who can use them (e.g.,
several hours worth of emergency oxygen).
3. Think in terms of self-sufficiency. (e.g., What would
you do if the boat engine broke down?)
What are three aspects
of dive planning for
remote areas?
■
■ More
More involved
involved logistics�
logistics�
■
■ More
More complex
complex �
emergency
emergency procedures�
procedures�
■
■ Increased
Increased self-sufficiency
self-sufficiency
Dive Planning
DM
DM 22 --15
15
III. Dive Management
Dive Management
Supervision of
certified divers
DM
DM 22 --16
16
What are four aspects
of supervision in
manag ing dives?
■
■ Preparation
Preparation �
■
■ Communication�
Communication�
■
■ Vantage
Vantage Point�
Point�
■
■ Recognition
Recognition
Dive Management
DM
DM 22 -- 17
17
Choosing a V antage Point
■
■ Inwater
Inwater supervision�
supervision�
◆
◆ Advantages?�
Advantages?�
◆
◆ Disadvantages?�
Disadvantages?�
■
■ Out
Out of
of water
water supervision�
supervision�
◆
◆ Advantages?�
Advantages?�
◆
◆ Disadvantages?
Disadvantages?
Dive Management
DM
DM 22 --18
18
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Dive management involves supervision of certified divers.
1. It is difficult or impossible to exercise direct, physical
control of certified divers (though it may be appropriate when supervising student divers).
2. Therefore, supervision means nonphysical influence,
by providing adequate and appropriate information
and advice.
B. What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?
1. Preparation – adequate dive planning as just discussed, having appropriate equipment, and being
ready to respond to problems.
2. Communication – informing the divers about procedures, the dive plan, and other information, usually
in a dive briefing (discussed shortly).
3. Vantage Point – putting yourself in the most effective position to see and assist divers.
4. Recognition – anticipating and identifying possible
problems so you can prevent, correct or respond to
them.
C. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
inwater versus out of water supervision, and
the advantages and disadvantages of supervision vantage points inwater versus out of water?
1. Choose your vantage point for supervising certified
divers by considering:
a. Your ability to spot and respond to a problem.
3-19
1. You want to be in the most advantageous spot
to see or be aware of divers’ locations.
2. You want to be at the most advantageous spot
to lend assistance – anticipate likely problem
areas based on diver skill level, environment,
etc.
3. These may conflict (e.g., the best place to
watch isn’t always the best place to respond
from) – you may need to compromise.
b. The skill and experience level of divers
c. Number of divers and diver groups or buddy
teams
d. Environmental conditions
2. Inwater supervision – you dive with the group, or
escort on surface by snorkel, etc.
a. Advantages:
1. Puts you close to divers to respond to or prevent
problems.
2. Minimizes problems such as divers accidentally exceeding their maximum depth, making navigation errors or running low on air
because you’re there to guide and remind them
to check air, etc.
3. Diving with group adds to interest because you
can guide divers to best spots, etc.
b. Disadvantages:
1. You can only watch one group, so may not be
appropriate with multiple groups or buddy
teams diving independently (depends on diver
experience, environment, etc.) unless there are
other supervisors at the surface.
2. Some divers don’t like diving in a group. It
may reduce their enjoyment if they prefer to
explore independently.
c. Procedures:
1. Identify most likely problem sources – diver, environmental effects, etc. and accompany group
where you can best prevent or respond to these
problems.
2. Brief divers so they know where you will be in
relation to the group, and your role (guide,
escort following their lead, etc.)
3. Out of water supervision – you supervise from boat
or shore.
3-20
Three: Knowledge Development
What types of equipment
can assist in supervising
certified divers?
■
■ Management
Management equipment
equipment –– rr oster
oster ,,
binocular
binocular s,
s, site
site maps
maps
■
■ Emergency
Emergency equipment
equipment –– oo xyg
xyg en,
en,
fir
fir st
st aid
aid kit,
kit, float,
float, radio/phone
radio/phone
■
■ Other
Other dive
dive equipment
equipment –– tool
tool kit,
kit,
fla
fla gg and
and float,
float, scuba
scuba equipment
equipment
DM
DM 22 --19
19
Dive Management
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
a. Advantages:
1. Usually most effective way to supervise multiple buddy teams and groups at once.
2. Usually puts you close to emergency related
equipment (oxygen, first aid, radio, etc.) for
rapid deployment.
3. Often gives diver teams more individual options in where they go during the dive.
b. Disadvantages:
1. You’re not on hand to remind divers of their
responsibilities to follow appropriate dive procedures.
2. You can’t show divers around the points of interest on the site.
c. Procedures:
1. Choose the best vantage point for visibility and
ability to respond as previously discussed.
2. Have appropriate emergency and response
equipment at hand.
3. During the briefing, tell divers where you’ll be
and establish surface signals, recall procedures,
etc. (more detail about briefings shortly)
D. What eight types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?
1. Management equipment – may be useful depending
upon the environment.
a. clipboard/dive roster
b. binoculars
c. dive site maps
2. Emergency response equipment (see also Chapter 3
of the PADI Rescue Diver Manual)
a. emergency oxygen
b. first aid w/pocket mask and barriers
c. rescue float or life ring with line
d. marine radio/cellular telephone
3. Other useful equipment
a. tool kit with spare o-rings/fin straps, weight belt
buckles, etc.
b. dive flag/float
c. spare regulator, BCD and other equipment (in
case of malfunction or loss)
3-21
d. spare equipment specific to conditions (e.g., dive
lights for night diving, inflatable signal tube for
diving in currents, etc.)
E. What is the primary purpose of diver accounting procedures?
1. When supervising more than a handful of divers,
the primary concern is making sure each diver is back
aboard/ashore after a dive.
2. Procedure – Names usually recorded on dive roster
as divers arrive on board/at dive site, and as they
enter and exit water. Typically, you call roll after
each dive with all divers visually present to confirm
everyone is out of the water.
3. When practical in some situations, it may be useful
to record additional information, which may assist
in selecting subsequent dive sites.
a. time entered water
b. time exited water
What is the primary
purpose of diver
accounting procedures?
Dive Management
DM
DM 22 --20
20
Note that certified divers are responsible for tracking their
own dive profiles.
F. Integrating customer service and management.
1. Divers come to you for convenience and to
enhance their fun as well as the safety benefits.
They’re customers.
2. Dive management requires influencing and advising divers to dive safely without ignoring the enjoyment of the dive.
3. Customer service dive management tips:
a. Explain the basis for guidelines and procedures so
they don’t seem arbitrary.
b. Be open to alternative ways to accomplish something, such as an entry, to accommodate individual preferences.
c. Be flexible within the limits of responsible diving – the supervision procedures you apply with
novices may not be appropriate or necessary with
a very experienced Rescue Diver, for example.
d. Give as much attention to assuring convenience,
fun and adventure as you do to assuring safety.
3-22
Customer Service T ips
■
■ Explain
Explain the
the basis
basis for
for �
guidelines
guidelines —
— wh
wh y?
y?
■
■ Be
Be open
open to
to �
alternative
alternative �
methods�
methods�
■
■ Be
Be flexible
flexible �
■
■ Consider
Consider convenience,
convenience, fun
fun and
and
adventure
adventure along
along with
with safety
safety
Dive Management
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --21
21
IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress
Helping Divers Manage Stress
Stress Management Chart
Problem
Stress
Recognition
Stop
Think
Brea the
Action =
Solution
Response
Panic
Anxiety
Reaction
Rescue
Requir ed
DM
DM 22 --22
22
[Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual –
Chapter 1]
A. What are the characteristics of predive stress,
and how do you help divers deal with it?
1. You may notice physical and/or psychological stress
in a diver. Signs and symptoms include:
a. Behavior change – diver becomes withdrawn, irritable, talkative, distracted, etc.
b. Perceptual narrowing – diver focuses on an action
or task to the exclusion of alternative actions or
considerations; often associated with distracted or
irritable behavior
c. Physical signs or symptoms – sweating profusely,
exhaustion, vomiting or nausea
d. Diver expresses concerns about the dive to a
buddy or to you.
e. A diver may report stress observed in another
diver.
B. Consequences of stress
[Refer to Stress Management Chart]
1. Stress response cycle
a. Stress causes psychological and physical stress
responses.
b. If the diver recognizes stress, the diver will reduce
activity, think and begin problem solving. This
usually solves problem and ends stress.
c. If the diver doesn’t recognize stress, anxiety results. Anxiety produces psychological and physical stress and adds to original stress.
d. Raised stress increases stress responses. This begins an uncontrolled cycle of rising stress until
stress is excessive.
e. Eventually, stress exceeds the diver’s ability to selfcontrol emotions. The diver reverts to instinctive
reactions and uncontrolled behavior (panic).
f. In the water, this can cause an accident requiring
a rescue.
2. Therefore, it is best to handle stress as much as possible prior to a dive.
C. Some stress is normal; it is how the mind and body
activate mechanisms for handling perceived threats.
It benefits divers by helping them focus on equipment
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-23
preparation, dive planning, etc. Certified divers are responsible for expressing concerns and monitoring their
own psychological/physical state, but if you observe
possible excessive stress, you may be able to assist the
diver cope with it.
1. Try to confirm that the diver is stressed – usually it’s
simplest to ask the diver about the signs observed.
2. Try to determine cause of stress.
a. May be obvious, such as physical stress caused by
overheating.
b. If willing, the diver may tell you what the stressor
is.
c. In some instances, you may not be able to determine the stressor and the diver may not tell you
– use your best judgment as to what the stressor
may be.
D. Relieving stress. Stress is relieved by either removing
the stressor, or by changing the diver’s perception of
the stressor so that it’s no longer threatening, or changing the perception of the diver’s ability to cope with the
stressor. The dive briefing often helps, but sometimes
you may be able to individually assist divers manage
their stress.
1. Physical stressors – simple actions may relieve these.
(e.g., diver overheated in exposure suit, offer to
spray with water, suggest slowing activity, or opening suit to cool a bit.)
2. Explain procedures – stress about dive often comes
from lack of information about how to handle a
perceived threat or concern; providing information
may reduce or relieve stress. (e.g., divers concerned
about strong currents may feel better if you review
current diving procedures and explain what to do if
the current carries them past the boat.)
3. Offer choices – you may be able to offer alternatives that relieve stress. (e.g., diver who is concerned
about successful navigation during a dive may
appreciate the option to make a guided dive. Diver
concerned about making a deep dive may appreciate option to swim in shallows along top of wall.)
4. Provide information – new or accurate information
may reduce stress by removing perception of threat.
(e.g., diver hears that nurse sharks are common at
dive site and may experience stress through fear of
shark attack. Telling the diver that nurse sharks are
3-24
Three: Knowledge Development
docile and not associate with attacks (except when
molested) may greatly reduce stress.)
5. Let them off the hook – make it clear to all divers
that if someone doesn’t feel up to a dive for any reason, it’s okay not to dive.
V. Mapping Dive Sites
Mapping Dive Sit es
■
■ Why?�
Why?�
◆
◆ Use
Use during
during briefings
briefings �
◆
◆ Provide
Provide na
navigation
vigation ref
ref erence
erence�
18
◆
◆ Orient
Orient diver
diver ss �
12
8
to
to site
site�
◆
◆ Note
Note cchanges
hanges to
to
�
site
site over
over time
time
DM
DM 22 --23
23
Mapping Tools
■
■ How?�
How?�
◆
◆ Tools�
Tools�
✚
✚ Compass,
Compass, slate
slate,, marker
markerss and
and line
line ,,
graph
graph paper
paper,, protractor
protractor and
and ruler
ruler �
◆
◆ Steps�
Steps�
✚
✚ Define
Define area
area �
✚
✚ Use
Use appr
appropriate
opriate sear
sear ch
ch pattern
pattern �
✚
✚ Record
Record depth
depth and
and ff eatures
eatures�
✚
✚ Plot
Plot data
data on
on graph
graph paper
paper
DM
DM 22 --24
24
A. There are several reasons to map a dive site.
1. as a briefing tool
2. to provide you a navigation reference when leading
dive tours
3. to provide divers you supervise with a navigation
reference when diving independently
4. to show divers local facilities, entry and exit points,
and points of interest
5. to have a reference against which to observe changes in the dive site over time
B. Mapping tools – the following will be necessary or
helpful in mapping.
1. dive compass
2. large slate
3. buoys/markers with lines and weights
4. graph paper
5. protractor and ruler
C. What are the general steps for mapping a dive
site, and what elements do you include in a dive
site map?
[see also the PADI Underwater Navigator Manual]
Note to instructor: This is one technique. There are others you
may wish to recommend. Consider drawing a sample map to
illustrate these steps for candidates.
1. Identify a central point, or place a buoy from which
to gather data, and determine the map boundaries.
2. Swim a large search pattern, such as a U-pattern,
that covers the map area, away from the point. You
may need to use several sets of patterns to cover the
whole area.
3. Count kick cycles and record depth and features as
you go, noting the pattern leg and distance when
you find features.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-25
4. On each leg, record the kick cycle where you hit
specified depths to show contour (e.g., 3 metre/10
foot increments).
5. Draw the pattern on graph paper in pencil. Use protractor to keep heading angles accurate, ruler and
graph lines to maintain scale. Include depths and
features noted on the pattern.
6. Connect same depths with lines to show contour,
and fill in headings and distance from shore reference to points of interest.
7. Fill in shore line, facilities and topside features.
8. To finish map, use ink on parts of map you wish to
keep and erase the pencil portions. Or, use blue pencil and blue graph paper to draw map, then black
ink for final version and photocopy through blue
gelatin.
D. [Mapping Project – If you have not given mapping
project assignments, you may want to do so now. If
necessary, review search pattern procedures and have
candidates practice a U-pattern in open water prior to
beginning the Mapping Project.]
Part 1
Questions?
Supervising Diving A ctivities
for Certified Divers
DM
DM 22 --25
25
3-26
Three: Knowledge Development
Topic 2
Presentation - Part 2
Overview and Learning Objectives
Overview — P art 2
VI. Dive Briefings
■
■ Dive
Dive Briefings�
Briefings�
19. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
■
■ Problem
Problem Management
Management
and
and Judgment�
Judgment�
■
■ Divemaster’s
Divemaster’s Role
Role in
in
20. What predive suggestions can you give to help divers interact responsibly with the environment and
aquatic life?
Accident
Accident Management�
Management�
■
■ Supervising
Supervising Specialized
Specialized
Dive
Dive Activities
Activities
DM
DM 22 --26
26
VII. Problem Management and Judgment
21. How do you prepare to handle problems that may
occur at a dive site?
22. What are the general steps for handling a novel
dive problem?
23. When does dive supervision and problem management call for your judgment, and how do you develop good judgment?
VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management
24. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in
the event of a dive accident?
IX. Supervising Specialized Dive Activities
25. What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising each of the following activities:
• deep diving?
• boat diving?
• altitude diving?
• drift diving?
• shore/surf diving?
• night diving?
• cold water diving?
• enriched air and technical diving?
Outline
Dive Briefings
Enhance diver safety
and increase fun
VI. Dive Briefings
DM
DM 22 --27
27
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
[Begin this section by giving a typical dive briefing for
your local area. As you cover the following topics, refer to
the relevant components in your example.]
3-27
A. A dive briefing has two main goals: to enhance diver
safety, and to make the dive fun.
B. Treat the briefing as an overview of your thinking
when you planned the dive.
1. This gives credibility to your recommendations.
2. It cues divers to adapt if conditions change.
3. It provides a basis for alternative recommendations
when necessary.
C. On a dive boat, boat-specific information (rules, offlimit areas, personal flotation devices, etc.) isn’t technically part of the dive briefing, but may be combined
with the briefing.
D. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
(Order may vary and you may need to include additional information depending upon the circumstances)
1. Dive site name
2. Site description: topography, points of interest, hazards to avoid, water conditions, depth range, facilities (a map helps, when available), where to locate
emergency equipment, etc.
3. Your role (topside supervisor, guide, etc.) May want
to tell divers how to recognize you (e.g., you always
wear a ball cap or bright colored fins.)
4. Entry and exit techniques
5. Dive procedures – suggested course to follow, problem avoidance in local conditions, safety stops, air
reserves, group control, etc.
6. Emergency procedures
a. Discuss protocols, and review problems unique
to dive site and those most likely to occur in the
conditions.
b. Buddy separation
c. Low-on-air/out-of-air procedures
d. If appropriate for local practices, diver recall procedures.
7. Signal review – review signals that you’ll use with
the group (surface or underwater). It may be appropriate to remind buddy teams to review their own
signals.
8. Roster/buddy check – you can do this apart from
the briefing, but you may find it convenient to do
this while everyone’s together. Check that you have
3-28
What ten points does a
briefing usually include?
1 – Site
Site name�
name�
2 – Site
Site description�
description�
3 – Divemaster’s
Divemaster’s role�
role�
4 – Entry
Entry and
and exit
exit techniques�
techniques�
5 – Dive
Dive procedures/group
procedures/group control
control
Dive Briefings
DM
DM 22 --28
28
Ten briefing points...
6 – Emergency
Emergency procedures�
procedures�
7 – Signal
Signal review�
review�
8 – Roster/Buddy
Roster/Buddy check�
check�
9 – Environmental
Environmental awareness�
awareness�
10 – Predive
Predive safety
safety check
check
Dive Briefings
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --29
29
Make briefings positive,
interesting and short!
Remind divers to plan
their own dives
Dive Briefings
DM
DM 22 --30
30
everyone on the dive roster and everyone has a buddy.
Identify those without buddies so they can choose buddy
teams among themselves.
9. What predive suggestions can you give to help
divers interact responsibly with the environment
and aquatic life?
Environmental interaction suggestions:
a. Identify organisms divers need to respect and be cautious about.
b. Tell divers how to avoid damage to sensitive organisms (e.g., maintain buoyancy control, stay well off
reef, avoid touching, etc.); suggest techniques in a
positive context and remind divers to be AWARE divers.
c. If divers will be hunting, require any necessary licenses and ask divers to take only what they will eat.
d. Discourage feeding by destroying organisms to do so
(e.g., cutting up urchins to feed fish)
e. Leave the environment as you find it (e.g., don’t turn
over rocks, don’t leave anything behind, etc.)
10. Predive safety check – remind divers of their responsibility to perform a predive safety check (BWRAF).
a. As divers suit up to enter water, it’s customary to confirm that they have ample air for the dive.
b. Although it is neither practical nor necessary to individually assess certified divers, who are responsible
for their own safely, being alert for the following may
help the diver who makes an error with equipment
setup:
1. Low pressure inflator that isn’t connected or diver
has insufficient air to float in BCD (if floating is appropriate to entry technique).
2. Weight that looks excessive or insufficient.
3. Disconnected releases or the weight system not
clear for release.
4. Equipment not in correct place.
E. Make the briefing fun, interesting and relate each topic to
their needs, experience level and interests (not to yours).
1. Divers pay attention, respond and remember better
when its fun.
2. Divers are there to have fun – this is an important part
of customer service.
F. It’s a good idea to remind divers that your briefing doesn’t
replace their own dive planning – they should plan their
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-29
individual dives with the information and within the
limits you provide, and following responsible diving
practices.
G. Things to avoid in briefings include:
1. Being negative in a way that takes the fun out of the
dive.
2. Overstressing hazards – give realistic appraisals of
possible hazards.
3. Being long, redundant and boring. They’re called
“briefings” because they’re supposed to be brief.
4. Ignoring people’s comfort. Be sensitive to those who
may not feel well on a rocking boat Give briefing
before divers climb into hot exposure suits.
Note to instructor: Remind candidates that they will apply what
they’re learning here by giving briefings during the Practical
Training Exercises. Suggest that they review their notes and the
PADI Divemaster Manual prior to sessions in which they will
practice giving briefings.
VII. Problem Management and Judgment
A. As a divemaster, you’ll be looked upon as a problem
solver. Problems at a dive site can range from inconveniences to emergencies, but you can group them
into two categories – “routine” and those you’ve never
encountered.
2. Routine problems are those for which you already
have a solution, (e.g., a diver breaks a mask strap
and you have spares.)
a. Through experience, you already know how to
handle many routine problems.
b. Assuming you have the resources, you usually
handle routine problems easily.
3. Those you’ve never encountered are called “novel”
problems, (e.g., the boat arrives at the dive site and
for the first time ever, the mooring buoy is missing).
a. You’ll need to determine how to handle these on
the spot.
b. Proper preparation, specific dive skills and following the steps for problem solving increase your
ability to successfully manage novel problems.
c. After handling a novel problem, it becomes part
3-30
Problem
Management and
Judgment
Routine vs. Novel
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --31
31
of your experience; the next time it arises, you already know the solution – this is why experience
as a diver is important to being a professional.
How do you prepare to
handle problems at a
dive site?
■
■ Develop
Develop strong
strong �
knowledge
knowledge base�
base�
■
■ Have
Have equipment
equipment �
and
and tools�
tools�
■
■ Continue
Continue your�
your�
education
education
Problem Management
DM
DM 22 --32
32
B. How do you prepare to handle problems that
may occur at a dive site?
1. Have a strong knowledge base of dive theory – good
problem solvers have a lot of knowledge resources
to draw upon. (More about this in Topic 4 – Dive
Theory Introduction)
2. Have the physical resources to handle problems,
such as spare equipment, tools, first aid kit, oxygen,
etc., that you’ve learned about in this and previous
PADI courses, and through experience
3. Continue your education regularly (PADI Specialty
courses, Assistant Instructor course, equipment repair, seamanship, etc.)
a. Continuing education provides exercise for the
brain – improves your thinking skills and problem solving ability. It gives you more knowledge
and skills that you can apply to solve a problem.
It also provides experience opportunities so you
encounter fewer novel problems.
C. Problem solving is a skill. You normally solve problems
without thinking consciously about the process, much
of which is intuitive. But, to improve, pay attention to
the steps. Improving each step increases problem solving skill. With experience, you go through these steps
quickly and automatically.
What are the st eps for
handling a novel problem?
■
■ Identify
Identify the
the problem
problem precisely�
precisely�
■
■ Inventory
Inventory resources�
resources�
■
■ Create
Create several
several possible
possible solutions�
solutions�
■
■ Choose
Choose aa solution�
solution�
■
■ Assess
Assess and
and revise
revise as
as necessary
necessary
Problem Management
DM
DM 22 --33
33
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
D. What are the general steps for handling a novel dive problem?:
1. Identify the problem precisely. The more specific the
problem, the more specifically you can apply a solution.
2. Inventory your resources. Think about what resources you can apply to the problem, including tools,
hardware, your skills and knowledge and those of
other people who may help.
3. Create several possible solutions. Try to make these
as different as possible.
4. Choose the best. Pick the most feasible and likely to
succeed and devote your energy to that solution.
5. Assess and revise. As you handle the problem, assess your progress and adjust the solution as you go,
3-31
building on the ideas and experience you gain by
applying the solution.
E. When does dive supervision and problem management call for your judgment, and how do
you develop good judgment?
1. Dive supervision and problem management call for
your judgment when you have incomplete information, or when the information doesn’t direct a clear
decision.
2. You apply your judgment to many elements of diver
supervision, such as:
a. Evaluating whether dive conditions are acceptable.
b. Choosing which dive techniques to recommend.
c. Picking a vantage point for supervising dive activities.
d. Choosing the best of several possible solutions to
problems.
3. To develop good judgment:
a. Gain experience with more experienced professionals who can explain their judgments to you
(in this course, instructors and staff members).
b. When in doubt or making decisions that you
have less experience with, decide to the conservative. Being unnecessarily cautious is generally
better than being insufficiently cautious.
c. Be cautious to avoid letting emotions or desires
inappropriately influence your judgment. For
example, you wouldn’t want to continue a dive in
poor conditions just because you don’t want the
divers to be disappointed.
d. As with problem solving, dive experience and
continuing your education provide you with
knowledge that help you make good judgments.
Judgment
■
■ When
When do
do you
you apply
apply judgment?�
judgment?�
■
■ How
How do
do you
you develop
develop �
good
good judgment?�
judgment?�
◆
◆ Gain
Gain experience
experience �
◆
◆ Be
Be conser
conser vative�
vative�
◆
◆ Avoid
Avoid emotional
emotional influences
influences
Note to instructor: Tell candidates that they’ll work on developing good judgment as part of the Practical Application sessions.
VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management
[Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual
and the dive management section of the Rescue Diver
Video as a review for this subject.]
3-32
�
◆
◆ Contin
Continually
ually learn
learn
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --34
34
Accident
Management
Divemaster Roles:
Manage or Assist
DM
DM 22 --35
35
Emergency Management
■
■ Assess
Assess the
the situation�
situation�
■
■ Act
Act on
on your
your plan�
plan�
■
■ Delegate�
Delegate�
■
■ Provide
Provide basic
basic life
life support/first
support/first aid�
aid�
■
■ Control
Control the
the scene�
scene�
■
■ Evacuate
Evacuate the
the patient
patient
Be
Be familiar
familiar with
with emergency
emergency oo xygen
xygen protocols
protocols
Accident Management
DM
DM 22 --36
36
A. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in
the event of a dive accident?
1. If you’re the most qualified person present, you will
probably manage the accident. As a PADI Divemaster,
this would be the expected situation when supervising
certified divers. In these situations, you’ll want to have
a plan ready (Emergency Assistance Plan) to deal with
emergencies.
2. If a more qualified person is present, you will probably
assist under that person’s management. This would be
the expected situation when assisting an instructor with
student divers.
B. Emergency Management Steps
1. Assess the situation — as with any problem, the strategy
is to first consider resources and possible plans of action,
then choose the plan most likely to be successful.
2. Act on your plan — take control of the situation and
start the action.
3. Delegate — assign tasks to suitably qualified individuals. Handle tasks yourself if no one qualified is available.
Even untrained people can help under your direction,
such as contacting emergency medical care– but don’t
ask people to do things for which they’re not trained or
qualified if doing so might put them in a hazardous situation.
4. Provide basic life support (BLS) and first aid as necessary
for the patient. Use barriers to protect yourself and the
patient.
5. Control the scene — keep bystanders under control and
make sure that first aid and BLS continue until emergency care arrives. Do not speculate or draw conclusions
about what caused the accident or assign blame.
6. Evacuate the patient — in a serious emergency, you
need to get the patient to the closest appropriate medical
facility. If not done already, contact the local EMS, and
DAN or DES if the area is served by either. Ideally, refer
to your Emergency Assistance Plan for the area for the
local emergency contact information.
C. Emergency Oxygen
1. Emergency oxygen is the primary first aid for decompression illness (DCI) and near drowning.
2. When supervising divers, if permitted by local law, be
sure that emergency oxygen is available. Be familiar
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-33
with emergency oxygen protocols and stay current
in emergency oxygen recommendations.
Note to instructor: This section is primarily a review of principles candidates will already know from prerequisite training
and experience. Emphasize that now candidates need to think
about specialized dive activities in a supervisory context. Refer
candidates to the PADI Adventures in Diving, Rescue Diver, Deep
Diver, Night Diver, Altitude Diver, Boat Diver, Drift Diver, Ice
Diver and Enriched Air Diver specialty instructor guides, manuals and videos.
IX. Supervising Specialized Dive Activities
A. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when supervising specialized dive
activities?
1. The following discussion covers the equipment, concerns and procedures distinct to various specialized
activities that you should consider along with general supervisory considerations.
2. You can learn more and gain experience by completing the appropriate specialty course.
B. Deep diving activities – generally defined in recreational diving as dives between 18 metres/60 feet and
40 metres/130 feet.
1. Equipment – for deep diving you and the divers you
supervise need to consider:
a. Regulator – in good condition, properly maintained according to manufacturer recommendations.
b. Cylinder – adequate for the planned dive and
safety stop with an adequate reserve.
c. Exposure suit – adequate for the cooler water at
depth; wet suits compress with depth and insulate
less.
d. Emergency air source – it’s common to have a
spare tank and regulator or regulator on a hose
from the surface to assure ample air for safety
stops or emergency decompression stops.
e. Dive computers and tables – divers usually want
to carry dive tables so they can recalculate times
if they accidentally exceed planned time or depth,
or if using a computer, in case the computer fails.
3-34
Three: Knowledge Development
f. Ascent/descent line – if there’s no contour to follow, it’s usually easier and more reassuring to
follow a line down and back up; this may be a
weighted line from the stern, or the anchor/mooring line may suffice.
g. Gauges – if not using a computer, it’s best for each
diver to have a timer and depth gauge.
h. Divers using enriched air – this may help them
stay well within no stop limits for dives between
18 metres/60 feet and 30 metres/100 feet (more
about this consideration later).
2. Concerns
a. Diver training and experience – remind divers to
make deep dives within the limits of their training
or experience, and to increase their experience
under appropriate supervision.
b. Dive site selection
1. Currents can be a problem in deep water sites
and need to be planned for.
2. Dives along walls/slopes have the concern of
accidentally descending below the planned
depth or recreational depth limits.
3. Temperature at depth may be cooler than at
the surface.
c. Decompression sickness
1. Deep diving frequently takes divers closer to
the no decompression limits.
2. Post dive activities – exercise, alcohol consumption may predispose divers to DCS.
d. Nitrogen narcosis – may affect diver judgment.
3. Procedures
a. Choosing a vantage point – inwater supervision
may be a good choice (dive site and diver experience determining factors).
1. Easier to help divers stay above maximum
depth, especially along walls.
2. You’re present if narcosis becomes a factor.
3. You can remind divers to check their air more
frequently.
b. Contingency planning – during briefing, it’s a
good idea to present contingency plans if divers
accidentally exceed planned depth and time to
assist them with their personal plans.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-35
c. Encourage divers who have questions about dive
planning or who are rusty with table use to ask
for your assistance and recommendations.
d. Remind and encourage divers to practice behaviors that reduce DCI risk:
1. Safety stops
2. Remain hydrated, avoid alcohol and caffeine.
3. Avoid strenuous exercise before and immediately after a dive.
4. Avoid sawtooth profiles. Make each dive progressively shallower and start at the deepest
point and work shallower.
5. Avoid rapid ascents.
6. Watch air supply closely to avoid emergency
ascent situations.
e. Provide ascent/descent line and emergency
breathing equipment at 5 metres/15 feet if practical and appropriate.
C. Boat diving activities
1. Equipment
a. The boat itself – style affects diving techniques
and conditions in which it may operate and the
number of divers it may carry.
b. Lines – those used by divers (swim lines, trail
lines, gear lines, safety stop/descent line etc.) and
those used by the boat (mooring line, dock lines,
etc.).
c. Boat safety equipment – personal flotation devices, fire extinguishers, signal devices (horns, lights,
flares) and radio
d. dive safety equipment – dive flags, emergency
oxygen, first aid, life ring, etc., as appropriate for
local diving practices and procedures.
2. Concerns
a. diver familiarity – some divers may have no boat
experience, or may not be familiar with local
boat diving procedures.
b. space – usually at a premium on a dive boat and
dictates equipment setup and stowage procedures.
c. entries and exits – boat configuration (deck
height, presence or absence of ladder/swim step,
etc.) will affect preferred entry and exit methods
and locations.
3-36
Three: Knowledge Development
d. seasickness – advise divers prone to seasickness to
stay on deck in the center of the boat and out of
boat’s exhaust, to avoid greasy food, and to take
seasickness medication prior to departure according to instructions/doctor recommendations. If
seasick, vomit over leeward rail (wind headed
away from boat)
Note to candidates: If your function involves the diving activities
and you’re not part of the boat’s staff, you’re not usually considered part of the boat crew. If you’re employed by the dive boat
and are expected to assist with boat operation, you’re usually
considered crew as well as a divemaster. Since this is a common
divemaster employment opportunity, training in boat handling
and seamanship is an excellent additional skill for a divemaster.
3. Procedures
a. Welcome divers aboard. Have them sign in on
roster and list certification information, sign liability release, and stow/secure equipment before
the boat departs. Reconfirm all aboard by calling
roll from roster before departure.
b. Orient divers to boat facilities and rules (e.g., offlimits areas, where to put cameras, time to dive
destination, where to locate safety equipment.)
Crew may do this if you’re not part of the boat
staff.
c. Equipment setup – may be before boat departs
or underway, depending on boat size and time
to dive site. Remind divers to work in and out of
gear bags to reduce deck clutter.
d. Anchoring/mooring – captain determines when
boat is secure. You may determine whether conditions are suitable for diving.
e. Briefing – include boat specific techniques for
entries, exits, use of swim lines/current lines, surface signals to boat, emergency/recall procedures,
what to do if seasick, etc.
f. Entry – suggest that divers avoid walking around
with fins on
g. Post dive – may need to remind divers exit procedures (e.g., don’t wait under someone climbing
ladder, etc.), keep deck clear of equipment, call
roll and make sure that you actually see each
diver.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-37
h. Before boat leaves the site – assure equipment
stowed properly, conduct final visual roll call.
D. Altitude diving activities – dives above 300 metres/1000 feet to maximum 3000 metres/10,000 feet of
altitude.
1. Equipment
a. Exposure suit – altitude diving is usually cooler
water diving.
b. Depth gauge/computer – older depth gauges/
computers designed for sea level may not read/
compute properly at altitude.
c. Theoretical Depth at Altitude tables – used to
convert depths at altitude to a depth that may be
used on the RDP. You find these tables in Adventures in Diving. (Capillary depth gauges read theoretical depth at altitude and do not need further
conversion.)
2. Concerns
a. Diver training and experience – divers may not
be familiar with altitude diving procedures, or
may not be aware a site is at altitude.
b. Arrival at altitude – diver must wait six hours or
determine a pressure group before diving if using RDP. Many computers account for arrival at
altitude – check manufacturer instructions.
c. Thin air – divers may tire more easily during entries, exits and surface swims.
3. Procedures
a. Confirm diver familiarity with altitude procedures. For those not familiar, assist in dive table
planning/computer use to accommodate altitude
considerations – advise divers that your supervision isn’t a training course.
b. Confirm use of suitable tables, computers, exposure suits, etc.
c. To reduce likelihood of exhaustion at altitude,
recommend a dive plan that minimizes strenuous
activity at the surface.
E. Drift diving activities – diving in which divers drift
with the current and exit downstream
1. Equipment
a. Surface float, descent line, reel or caddie (if used
– depends on technique)
3-38
Specialized Activities...
■
■ Altitude diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment�
Equipment�
◆
◆ Concerns�
Concerns�
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
■
■ Drift diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment
Equipment �
◆
◆ Concerns
Concerns �
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 22 --38
38
Specialized Activities...
■
■ Shore/surf
Shore/surf diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment
Equipment �
◆
◆ Concerns
Concerns �
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
■
■ Night
Night diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment
Equipment �
◆
◆ Concerns
Concerns �
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
DM
DM 22 --39
39
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
b. Surface signal devices (inflatable signal tubes,
mirrors, etc.) recommended for each diver.
2. Concerns
a. Diver training and experience – divers may not
be familiar with drift diving procedures, or the
specific procedures used at the dive site.
b. Depth – drift dives are often deep dives.
c. Group contact – drift diving is often a single
group dive. It’s important for the group to stay
together and know what to do if separated.
d. Change of current direction – can disrupt coordination with boat.
3. Procedures
a. Briefings – brief group on procedures that will be
used on the dive and include what to do if separated from group, unable to descend, etc.
b. Vantage point – consider inwater supervision
and supervision on the boat. Divemaster handles
float/line in the water (if used).
c. Entries and descents – usually made as a group,
quickly with divemaster paying out line that other divers keep contact with and follow to divemaster’s depth. Group then drifts along together.
d. Ascents and exits – techniques vary; everyone surfaces and makes safety stop along line when first
diver reaches low air or teams may surface individually along line and get picked up by boat. In
both cases, advise divers not to swim toward boat
– let boat come to them.
F. Surf diving activities – diving from shore through
waves large enough to cause divers to lose their balance.
1. Equipment
a. Equipment loss – the stronger the surf, the more
potential for equipment loss or damage – a consideration for underwater photographers/videographers.
b. Regulator freeflowing – most models of regulators
are prone to freeflowing if they get sand in them.
c. Equipment caused delays – entries and exits through surf are made by moving quickly
through surf zone – equipment that causes delays
can cause problems.
3-39
2. Concerns
a. Diver training and experience – Divers may not
be familiar with surf diving procedures.
b. Air reserve for exits – divers may accidentally run
low on air before exiting, leaving little to use during exit through surf zone
c. Assessing conditions – need to watch wave pattern long enough to determine how high the largest surf is and when it hits.
d. Large surf – experienced divers may be able to
enter and exit effectively, but diving conditions
usually aren’t worth the effort.
3. Procedures
a. Briefing usually includes entry technique reminders — don all equipment before entering surf (except fins, depending on entry technique), deflate
BCD, breathe from regulator and move rapidly
through surf zone, walk backwards with fins on,
turn sideways, hold mask and lean against waves
or duck through base of tall waves, tow float
behind, as soon as possible either submerge and
swim out on bottom, or inflate BCD and swim
quickly past surf zone.
b. Briefing usually includes exit technique reminder
—save enough air to breathe from regulator
during exit, pause outside surf zone and observe
waves to time exit, swim under waves as close
as possible to shore then exit quickly watching
waves, and if you fall, it’s usually easier to stay
down and crawl out.
c. Vantage point – elevated positioning makes it
easier to see over waves.
d. Supervisory personnel should have equipment
standing by to enter water and assist if necessary.
G. Night diving activities
1. Equipment
a. Dive lights – one dive light per diver, with two
each recommended. Have spares at hand in case
a diver forgets a light, or one doesn’t work.
b. Chemical light/personal marker light – one for
each diver recommended.
c. Surface lights – area lights for gearing up, marker
lights to identify exit point. Avoid anything that
might be confused with navigational markers.
3-40
Three: Knowledge Development
Specialized Activities...
■
■ Cold
Cold water
water diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment
Equipment �
◆
◆ Concerns
Concerns �
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
■
■ Enriched
Enriched air
air and
and �
technical
technical diving�
diving�
◆
◆ Equipment
Equipment �
◆
◆ Concerns
Concerns �
◆
◆ Procedures
Procedures
DM
DM 22 --40
40
d. Underwater markers – strobes or a suspended light
can aid navigation in reasonably clear water.
e. Exposure protection – because it’s easier to bump into
things in the dark, full exposure protection is recommended even in warm water.
f. Descent/ascent line – may make controlled ascent/descents easier, especially if bottom isn’t visible from the
surface.
2. Concerns
a. Light failure – encourage divers to carry backup
lights.
b. Disorientation – easier to lose your way in the dark.
c. Diver familiarity – night diving isn’t difficult, but it
can be stressful to a diver who has never done it.
d. Timing – some divers prefer to enter water with some
daylight so it gets dark during the dive while others prefer a later dive to see nocturnal organisms. It
sometimes helps to plan the dive so everyone sets up
gear during daylight.
3. Procedures
a. Supervision is generally effective from boat or shore
because you can see glow of dive lights a long way.
b. Briefing usually includes these reminders – watch
depth, time, direction and air more frequently than
usual, maintain good buoyancy control to reduce silt,
to avoid damage to the environment and avoid contact with potentially harmful organisms, plan to stay
closer to exit to simplify navigation, be careful not to
shine lights in eyes of supervisors/other divers during
entries and exits.
c. Emergency plans generally need to include assuring
that rescuers have lights/personal markers so they can
be tracked in the water.
H. Cold water diving activities
1. Equipment
a. Exposure protection – full wet suit that double layers
torso area (6 or 7 mm/1/4 in) with hood and boots, or
dry suits with undergarment rated for water temperature and recommended hood. Gloves usually required
in all cases.
b. Weight systems – cold water exposure suits require
lots of weight. Weight system needs to accommodate
weight in a manner that allows dumping enough
quickly to attain positive buoyancy.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-41
c. Pre/post dive wear – maintaining body heat before and after dive requires proper exposure protection for air temperature.
2. Concerns
a. Diver comfort – cold divers aren’t having fun.
b. Hypothermia – divers who over-cool may suffer
hypothermia.
c. Dry suit use – divers who have never used a dry
suit should seek an orientation or training when
using one for the first time.
3. Procedures
a. Briefings usually remind divers to stay warm
before and after dives, and to end the dive if they
begin shivering uncontrollably.
b. If divers seem insufficiently protected, advise
them accordingly.
c. Divers need to be sure that weight systems are
clear for release, and that they won’t release accidentally and cause a runaway ascent.
d. Supervisory personnel who may have to enter
water in an emergency need to account for water
temperature and exposure protection in emergency planning.
e. Emergency planning will generally include how
to handle a diver with hypothermia.
f. Plan dives and surface intervals to allow sufficient
rewarming between dives.
g. It’s a good idea to remind divers to plan cold
water dives with a depth 4 metres/10 feet deeper
than actual on the RDP, or as instructed by their
computer manufacturer.
I. Enriched air and technical diving
[Refer candidates to the PADI Enriched Air Diver course
materials, and the Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving ]
1. For the purposes of this discussion, “enriched air
diving” is the use of enriched air for no stop recreational diving to depths of 40 metres/130 feet or less.
“Technical diving” is noncommercial diving using
extensive equipment and procedures to make dives
beyond the no stop limits or deeper than 40 metres/130 feet.
2. Enriched Air Equipment
a. Dedicated cylinders – Enriched air cylinders are
usually assigned to a specific diver.
3-42
Three: Knowledge Development
b. Manufacturers recommendation – many manufacturers have specific recommendations for using
their equipment with enriched air with respect to
the need for oxygen cleaning.
c. Special tables/computers – tables designed for enriched air use and special enriched air computers
may be used.
3. Technical Diving Equipment – equipment is extensive and varies with the specific technical diving
activity. Commonly includes, but isn’t limited to:
a. Double cylinders (may have helium blends or
enriched air)
b. Stage bottles – single tanks worn on the side, often for decompression purposes
c. Specialized high capacity BCDs
d. Three or more regulators per diver
e. Lift bags, lines, and reels
4. Concerns
a. Separating equipment – keeping divers from inadvertently using enriched air or other cylinders
dedicated to technical divers. Enriched air divers
always personally verify the oxygen content of
the cylinder they will use, so divers can’t grab just
any tank available.
b. Separating activities – recreational divers need
to understand that technical divers follow different and more complex procedures and, therefore,
have differing rules and limits. They should not
attempt to follow technical divers on the dive.
c. Qualifications – enriched air divers are expected
to be certified before using enriched air. Technical
divers may be certified in their particular activity
or have other experience/qualification.
d. Beyond help – technical divers frequently take
themselves into situations in which there is no
practical way to respond (overhead environment,
extreme depth) This is part of the risk they accept
as individuals.
5. Enriched Air Diving Procedures
a. Enriched air divers usually try to buddy together
to take advantage of longer no stop time.
b. Enriched air divers may have shallower depth
limit depending on the blend they use.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-43
c. May be useful to ask divers to be back by a specific time that balances enriched air diver’s longer
no stop time with consideration for other divers
waiting.
d. When diving in multiple groups, it’s common to
get enriched air divers into water first so there’s
less gap between when they return and when
other return.
e. Aside from depth and time limits, and equipment
considerations, other enriched air dive procedures
are the same as those for air recreational diving.
Note to candidates: No dive operation is under any obligation
to accept and supervise technical diving if it doesn’t wish to.
This policy should be clear to potential technical divers well in
advance of the dive. In addition, exceeding recreational diving
limits without using specific equipment and procedures to manage the added risk is not considered technical diving; If your operation caters to technical divers, the operation is not obligated
to accept individuals who want to disregard both accepted safe
diving practices and accepted technical diving practices.
5. Technical Diving Procedures
a. Technical divers may have depth and time limits
very different from recreational divers. It’s common to ask technical divers when to expect to
find them at a certain point, such as decompressing.
b. While its not unusual to confirm a recreational
diver’s tank valve is open, the general practice in
technical diving to not touch any equipment unless asked by the diver.
c. Technical divers may have special support requests, such as having someone check on them
during decompression (within recreational
depths) Both you and the divers need to agree on
what will and won’t be possible in this regard.
d. If technical divers tell you they will be leaving
stage bottles unattended within recreational limits (common for wreck penetration), it’s a good
precaution to remind recreational divers that
such equipment isn’t abandoned and should be
left alone.
3-44
Three: Knowledge Development
Topic 3 – Assisting with
Student Divers in Training
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering This Topic
The PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of the
material in this topic. Preferably, have candidates watch the video, read
Chapter 3 and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation.
Your presentation is important in this topic because it includes discussions
that will be the basis for assisting with student divers in training. This is a
long topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presentation, or deliver
the presentation in two or more sessions.
You’ll introduce and refer to the PADI Instructor Manual in this presentation. Encourage candidates to have personal copies of the manual.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship
1. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an instructional setting?
Overview
■
■ The
The Instructor/Assistant
Instructor/Assistant Relationship
Relationship
�
■
■ The
The Student
Student Diver/Assistant
Diver/Assistant
Relationship
Relationship �
2. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfill as
an instructional assistant in confined and open
water?
■
■ PADI
PADI Cer
Cer tified
tified Assistant
Assistant
Responsibilities
Responsibilities �
■
■ Control,
Control, Super
Supervision
vision and
and Logistics
Logistics �
■
■ Demonstrating
Demonstrating Skills
Skills
�
■
■ Assisting
Assisting Student
Student Diver
Diver
ss with
with Pr
Problems
oblems
3. What is the primary characteristic that makes a
PADI Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant?
DM
DM 33 -- 22
4. What is a “mentor relationship” between the instructor and you?
5. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemaster
benefits by having a personal copy of the PADI Instructor Manual?
II. The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship
6. What is your primary role in the relationship between you and student divers in training?
III. PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities
7. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant by
a “certified assistant”?
8. Under PADI Standards, what can a certified assistant do?
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-45
IV. Control, Supervision and Logistics
9. How does positioning affect your ability to assist
with student diver control?
10. What are two common examples of Open Water
Diver course student arrangement for skill practice and assistant positionings, and what are their
advantages and disadvantages with respect to your
role?
11. What are five examples of logistical functions you
can perform to assist with diver training at the surface, and what are five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with diver training
underwater?
V. Demonstrating Skills
12. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate a
skill, and for what reasons?
13. What are the characteristics of a demonstration
quality skill?
14. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI Skill Evaluation?
15. How do you develop demonstration quality skills?
VI. Assisting Student Divers with Problems
16. What common problems may you encounter as
student divers develop skills in confined and open
water?
17. What four steps can you take to help a student
diver master a dive skill?
18. Where do you find skill performance requirements
student divers must master for PADI courses?
Outline
I. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship
A. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an
instructional setting?
1. PADI Divemasters are not authorized to teach scuba
courses. (You’ll learn about programs you can conduct in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs.)
2. As a PADI Divemaster, you can enhance the efficiency of PADI Diver courses by assisting a PADI Instructor.
3-46
What is the primary role of
a PADI Divemast er in an
instructional setting?
Handling Logistics
Assisting With Students
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 33 -- 33
What functions may a
divemaster fulfill?
■
■ Supervise
Supervise predive
predive and
and �
postdive
postdive activities�
activities�
■
■ Watch
Watch students
students �
not
not under
under the
the �
instructor’s
instructor’s control�
control�
■
■ Handle
Handle logistics�
logistics�
■
■ Conduct
Conduct tours
tours
continued...
continued...
DM
DM 33 -- 44
Divemaster functions...
■
■ Advise
Advise instructor
instructor about
about
student
student performance�
performance�
■
■ Check
Check students
students in
in and
and out
out
of
of the
the water�
water�
■
■ Assist
Assist students
students �
who
who are
are having
having �
difficulty
difficulty
DM
DM 33 -- 55
What charact eristic makes
a divemast er an ideal
instructional assistant?
Anticipate and Provide
DM
DM 33 -- 6
6
What is a mentor
relationship?
DM
DM 33 -- 77
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3. In assisting with a course, you’re part of a team led
by the PADI Instructor. It’s your job to support the
instructor’s decisions and efforts.
4. In an instructional setting, your primary role, under the instructor’s direction, is handling logistics
and assisting with student diver supervision. The
instructor’s primary role is to focus on teaching and
individual student diver learning.
B. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfill
as an instructional assistant in confined and
open water?
1. Supervise the predive equipment distribution to
student divers, postdive equipment collection, and
handling equipment difficulties.
2. Supervise student divers not being immediately
watched by the instructor.
3. Handle logistics and coordinate student diver flow
to keep things moving during training.
4. Conduct the tour for experience portion of dives.
5. Provide the instructor with additional information
about student diver performance.
6. Check divers in and out of the water at a training
site.
7. Help student divers with learning difficulties on an
individual basis.
C. [Ask candidates, based on the previous list, “What is
the primary characteristic that makes a PADI
Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant?”
Start a discussion that identifies characteristics and
leads to the following conclusion:]
The primary characteristic that makes a PADI Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant is anticipating
and providing what is needed by the instructor to meet
the needs of student divers.
D. What is a “mentor relationship” between the
instructor and you?
1. Your relationship with me [the instructor] will be more
of a mentor relationship than simply a teacher-student
diver relationship. This means I’m trying to guide or
coach you toward the ranks of PADI Assistant Instructor and Instructor. This relationship extends beyond
this course and applies to any instructor you may assist.
2. A mentor relationship benefits you by:
3-47
a. Giving you hands-on experience with student divers in training.
b. Helping you learn about decision making and
judgment by giving you access to the instructor’s
experience and thinking.
c. Letting you learn to handle the logistics and other
duties under an instructor’s ultimate responsibility
– the same responsibilities you will have later as
an instructor.
E. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemaster
benefits by having a personal copy of the PADI
Instructor Manual?
1. The manual gives you access to the standards the
instructors you assist follow. This makes you more
effective as an assistant.
2. The manual gives you access to standards for programs you can conduct independently as a PADI
Divemaster (more about these in Topic 9). This gives
you additional opportunities beyond supervising
certified divers and assisting with classes.
3. Becoming familiar with using the manual is a required skill of a PADI Instructor. Starting now gives
you a head start on the process.
4. As a PADI Divemaster, you will receive the Training
Bulletin and other updates to the manual. This permits you to stay current and informed on training
standards.
Why should you have a
PADI Instructor Manual ?
■
■ Access
Access to
to PADI
PADI Standards�
Standards�
■
■ Access
Access to
to guidelines
guidelines for
for programs
programs
you
you can
can conduct
conduct independently�
independently�
■
■ Preparation
Preparation for
for becoming
becoming aa �
PADI
PADI Instructor�
Instructor�
■
■ Staying
Staying current
current –– incorporate
incorporate
changes
changes and
and announcements
announcements
DM
DM 33 -- 8
8
II. The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship
A. What is your primary role in the relationship
between you and student divers in training?
1. The relationship between you and student divers is
similar to, but not identical to, the relationship between student divers and the instructor.
2. Your primary role in this relationship is as a role
model and as an intermediary between the student
divers and the instructor. Fulfilling this role includes:
a. Behaving as a role model consistent with PADI
Standards and the instructor. Student divers learn
as much (or more) by what they see you do as
from what they’re told to do. Make good dive
habits conspicuous so they’re imitated and ideally, don’t have any bad ones.
b. Listening to concerns and problems. As a dive3-48
What is your relationship
with students?
■
■ Act as a r ole model �
■
■ Listen to concerns and pr
oblems�
oblems�
■
■ Keep training enjo yable�
yable�
■
■ Help new divers dive as
�
soon as possib le
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 33 -- 99
master, you’re closer to the student’s level and
may appear less threatening to talk to than the
instructor. You take these concerns to the instructor, as appropriate.
c. Keeping training enjoyable. People learn to dive
to have fun, so you need to help make the training process fun. [Ask candidates to suggest ways
to keep training fun while adhering to the needs
of safety and training requirements.]
d. Doing all you can to get new divers diving as
soon as possible. Diver education is increasingly
emphasizing diving as soon as possible. Independent study helps minimize formal class sessions
and increases interaction with instructional and
dive operation staff to fulfill personal needs.
B. Part of the performance criteria for the Practical Application Internship or Practical Training Exercises 2 and
3 include fulfilling your relationship with the instructor, and with the student divers.
III. PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities
What is a cer tified assistant?
A renewed PADI Instructor,
PADI Assistant Instructor
or PADI Divemaster
DM
DM 3
3 --10
10
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant
by a “certified assistant”?
1. Under PADI Standards, a certified assistant is a renewed PADI Instructor, PADI Assistant Instructor or
PADI Divemaster. Individuals in nonrenewed status,
who are inactive, or who are suspended, expelled
or on administrative hold cannot function as PADI
certified assistants.
2. Instructors, assistants or divemasters from other
training organizations do not qualify as certified assistants.
3. PADI Divemaster candidates do not qualify as certified assistants. [Explain to candidates who will
participate in the Practical Application Internship
that they will work with actual student divers. However, apart from the candidates, there will be fully
qualified instructors or certified assistants present as
required by standards to supervise the student divers.]
B. Under PADI Standards, what can a certified assistant do?
1. As a renewed PADI Divemaster, you will be qualified to act as a certified assistant. Under PADI Standards, certified assistants may be used to increase
3-49
the number of student divers and perform specific
functions, as noted by each course’s standards.
2. [Review the duties of a certified, renewed PADI Divemaster in Section 1 of this guide.]
IV. Control and Supervision, and Logistics
A. Compared with supervising certified divers in general
diving activities, you can usually apply more direct
control when supervising student divers in training.
1. Usually, the instructor is responsible for maintaining
control. You are one of the resources the instructor
uses to do so.
2. In many training situations, your role is to maintain
control and respond to problems for the bulk of student divers while the instructor works with a single
student.
3. Through practice and experience, you learn techniques that let you supervise the group, while permitting the instructor to direct the overall activities.
B. How does positioning affect your ability to assist with student diver control?
1. Positioning affects how close you are to student divers and your ability to see them.
2. Good positioning:
a. Where you can see the entire group, and the instructor.
b. Where you can quickly respond to a student diver
who has problems.
c. Where you can direct student diver movement to
and from the instructor (if required).
d. Where student divers can alert you easily if they
need your assistance.
C. What are two common examples of Open Water Diver course student arrangement for skill
practice and assistant positionings, and what
are their advantages and disadvantages with
respect to your role?
1. Example 1 — student divers form semicircle or line
with instructor centered in front; you supervise
from behind – directly opposite instructor. Typically,
instructor moves from student to student to conduct
exercises.
a. Advantage – you can see entire group and instructor, and you’re close to all student divers.
3-50
Control and Supervision
— Good Positioning CA
CA == Cer
Certified
tified
Assistant
Assistant
SS == Student
Student Div
Div er
er
II == Instructor
Instructor
CA
S
SS
S S CA
SSSSS
S
I
Example #1
I
Example #2
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 33 -- 11
11
Logistical Functions
■
■ What
What logistical
logistical functions
functions can
can you
you
perform
perform at
at the
the surface?�
surface?�
◆
◆ Coordinate
Coordinate students
students �
◆
◆ Enforce
Enforce safety
safety rules
rules �
◆
◆ Assist
Assist with
with equipment
equipment
�
◆
◆ Help
Help students
students prepare
prepare
�
◆
◆ Escor
Escortt students
students in/out
in/out of
of the
the water
water
◆
◆ Handle
Handle paperw
paperw ork
ork
�
DM
DM 33 --12
12
What log istical
functions can you
perform underwat er?
■
■ Lead
Lead or
or follow
follow the
the class�
class�
■
■ Escort
Escort students�
students�
■
■ Check
Check air
air supplies�
supplies�
■
■ Supervise
Supervise students
students while
while the
the
instructor
instructor works
works with
with one
one student�
student�
■
■ Assist
Assist with
with navigation
navigation
b. Disadvantage – student divers can’t see you and
will need to turn around to get your attention.
2. Example 2 — student divers in a line with instructor
at one end, you at the other. Each student completes
exercise and swims to you. You put student at end
of line and line moves down until all student divers
complete exercise.
a. Advantage – you can see entire group and instructor, and they can see you.
b. Disadvantages – you are at one end, putting you far from student divers at other end
(though instructor is there). Student divers
more likely to kick up silt, affecting visibility.
3. There are variations on these arrangements. The
instructor will tell you which system to use.
4. Whatever your position, maintain communication
with the instructor to reduce any delays the instructor may have in giving you directions.
D. What are five examples of logistical functions
you can perform to assist with diver training
at the surface, and what are five examples of
logistical functions you can perform to assist
with diver training underwater?
1. Surface logistical functions:
a. Coordinate student divers – at training site, show
students where to go and what to do (set up
equipment, change into swimsuit, etc.). Direct
student flow during multiple level training.
b. Enforce safety or facility rules – remind students
not to run in pool area, not to practice scuba
skills before the instructor covers them, etc.
c. Equipment – assist with loading and unloading
of vehicles, picking equipment up from a remote
site, handling air fills between dives, etc.
d. Student diver preparation – assist with students
gearing up and performing initial equipment
checks.
e. Escort student divers in and out of the water or to
and from the boat or shore to the float.
f. Handle paperwork – assist by separating groups,
recording scores, etc. under instructor’s direction.
3. Underwater logistical functions
a. Lead or follow – either lead the group with the
DM
DM 33 --13
13
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-51
b.
c.
d.
e.
instructor taking up the rear, or take up the rear
when the instructor leads.
Escort – for training of certified divers in many
activities (specialties), the instructor doesn’t need
to be with student divers. You can escort student
divers.
Air checks – reminding students at regular intervals to check air. Tell instructor how much they
have.
Standby supervisor – staying with student divers if
one separates, such as when the instructor has to
assist someone with unequalized ears and rest of
class continues descending.
Navigation – helping keep track of course to follow back to exit.
V. Demonstrating Skills
A. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate a
skill, and for what reasons?
1. Particularly in the PADI Open Water Diver course,
the instructor demonstrates skills for student divers.
However, there are times and reasons when you will
demonstrate.
a. To assist with a two-person demonstration – skills
such as alternate air source use require a two
people.
b. When helping a student diver with a problem
learning a skill – the student diver would have
already seen the instructor’s demonstration, but
you may demonstrate additional times to help
the student (more about helping student divers
shortly).
c. To maintain instructor control – instructor may
prefer at times to keep an eye on student divers
while you demonstrate. The instructor must be
confident that you have demonstration quality
skills to accomplish this.
B. What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?
1. To someone unfamiliar with a skill, a skill is actually a series of key subskills or steps performed in sequence. The steps are called critical attributes because
without them, the student diver will not be able to
perform the skill correctly.
3-52
Demonstrating Skills
■
■ When
When would
would aa divemaster
divemaster
demonstrate
demonstrate skills?�
skills?�
■
■ What
What are
are the
the characteristics
characteristics of
of aa
demonstration
demonstration quality
quality skill?�
skill?�
◆
◆ Slow�
Slow�
◆
◆ Emphasiz
Emphasiz es
es critical
critical attrib
attrib
utes
utes
◆
◆ Shows
Shows sequence
sequence �
◆
◆ Easily
Easily seen
seen�
◆
◆ Fluid,
Fluid, mastered
mastered and
and automatic
automatic
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 33 --14
14
What 18 skills are part of the
PADI Skill Evaluation?
Equipment
Equipment Preparation
Preparation
Predive
Predive Saf
Saf ety
ety Chec
Chec kk
Remo
Remove/Replace
ve/Replace Scuba
Scuba
Hover
Hover
Buddy
Buddy Breathing
Breathing (stationar
(stationar y)
y)
Deep
Deep Water
Water Entr
Entr yy
Buoyancy
Buoyancy Chec
Checkk
Buddy
Buddy Breathing
Breathing (s
(s wimming)
wimming) �
donor
donor and
and receiver
receiver
Five
Five PPoint
oint Descent
Descent
Mask
Mask Remo
Remo val/Replacement
val/Replacement
Remo
Remove/Replace
ve/Replace Weights
Weights
Alternate
Alternate Air
Air Sour
Sour ce
ce Use
Use
Contr
Controlled
olled Emer
Emer gency
gency �
Swimming
Swimming Ascent
Ascent
Fin
Fin Piv
Pivot
ot
Five
Five PPoint
oint Ascent
Ascent
Snorkel-Regulator
Snorkel-Regulator Exc
Exc hang
hangee
Free
Free Flo
Flow
w�
Regulator
Regulator Breathing
Breathing
DM
DM 33 --15
15
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
2. A demonstration quality skill performance is conducting a skill in a manner that allows student divers to
learn how to perform the skill themselves. It has these
characteristics:
a. Slow – You perform it slowly so that student divers
can see the details of the skill.
b. Critical attribute emphasis – You emphasize critical attributes, especially those that may be easy
to miss by someone who has never performed the
skill.
c. Sequence emphasis – You emphasize critical attribute sequence when it is important to the skill.
d. Adequately seen – You perform it so all student
divers can see it adequately, repeating if necessary
to show more than one angle, or so all student divers in a group can see it.
e. Mastered and automatic – You not only perform
the skill correctly, but fluidly with little or no conscious attention to the steps. The skill is automatic.
D. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI Skill
Evaluation?
1.Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation,
donning and disassembly
2. Predive safety check (BWRAF)
3. Deep water entry
4. Buoyancy check at surface
5. Snorkel-regulator/regulator snorkel exchange
6. Five point descent
7. Regulator recovery and clearing
8. Mask removal, replacement and clearing
9. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use
stationary
10. Freeflow regulator breathing
11. Fin pivot (neutral buoyancy)
12. Five point ascent
13. Remove and replace weight system on the surface
14. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent (CESA)
15. Hovering motionless
16. Underwater swim without a mask
17. Remove and replace weight system underwater
18. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater
19. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface
20. Buddy breathing stationary and swimming (donor
and receiver)
3-53
How do you develop demonstration quality
skills?
1. Watch demonstrations of the skills (instructor, PADI
Open Water Diver Video or Multimedia, etc.) and note
the critical attributes. The Skill Evaluation Slate and
Divemaster slate lists all 20 of the skills for reference
in confined water.
2. Consult the PADI Instructor Manual for the performance requirements of each skill. [Explain to candidates that demonstrations don’t always have to
meet all performance requirements. For example,
student divers perform freeflow regulator breathing
for 30 seconds, but you can demonstrate the skill for
a shorter period.]
3. Practice
a. Only way to master a motor skills is through
repeated practice with knowledge of results (how
well you perform the skill).
b. If you can’t assess your performance (was it slow
enough, etc.), practice with someone who can tell
you how you’re doing.
c. Practice until each skill is fluid and automatic.
E.
How do you develop
demonstration quality skills?
■
■
Observe�
Observe�
■
■
Consult�
Consult�
■
■
Practice
DM
DM 33 --16
16
VI. Assisting Student Divers with Problems
A. Helping student divers with problems is an important
role of a training assistant.
1. You may need to assist student divers with problems
when they occur, especially if the instructor is working with another student diver.
2. You may work with student divers who need additional time to master a skill while instructor continues with the rest of the class.
B. What common problems may you encounter
as student divers develop skills in confined and
open water?
1. Most student diver problems are predictable, so with
training and experience you’ll know appropriate
responses in advance.
2. [Discuss potential student problems with the following skills. Encourage candidates to mention problems they’ve seen during their diving experiences
and refer them to the list in the PADI Divemaster
Manual.]
• Equipment assembly/suiting up
3-54
Assisting Students
with Problems
■
■ What
What common
common problems
problems do
do �
students
students encounter?�
encounter?�
■
■ How
How can
can you
you help
help students
students �
master
master skills?�
skills?�
◆
◆ Evaluate
Evaluate critical
critical attrib
attrib utes�
utes�
◆
◆ Redemonstrate
Redemonstrate skill
skill �
◆
◆ Take
Take it
it slo
slow
w to
to assure
assure earl
earl yy success
success
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 33 --17
17
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Donning scuba/weights
BCD inflation/deflation
Regulator recover and clear
Mask clearing
Fin use
Equalization
Ascents/descents
Controlled seat entry
Snorkel clearing blast method
Snorkel/regulator exchange
No mask breathing
Deep water exit
Giant stride entry
No mask swim
Fin pivot
Alternate air source use
Freeflow regulator breathing
Controlled emergency swimming ascent
Head first skin dive
Snorkel clear – displacement method
Hovering
Buddy breathing
Weight system remove/replace
Scuba unit removal and replacement
Underwater tour
Compass use
C. What three steps can you take to help a student
diver master a dive skill?
1. Helping student divers who have difficulty with a
skill requires patience, but it also gives you experience for when you become an instructor.
2. At the Open Water Diver level, student divers always
begin by seeing the instructor’s demonstration and
practicing with the instructor.
3. To assist the student diver with difficulty, follow these
three steps:
a. Look for missing or improperly performed critical
attributes while having the student attempt the
skill.
1. If the student’s actions create a safety concern
(such as a rapid ascent), tell the student diver
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-55
to stop, or stop the student’s action yourself immediately.
b. Redemonstrate the skill, pointing out the missed
attribute(s). Repeated demonstrations help because student divers see more detail as they become familiar with a skill.
c. Assure early success
1. Failure is discouraging – success is needed for
motivation.
2. Have student diver practice successful attributes and give positive reinforcement first if
necessary to maintain encouragement.
3. Keep the student challenged, but add attributes
slowly enough so the student enjoys success as
the skill develops
4. Continue until the student diver can perform
the entire skill successfully without undue difficulty or stress
4. Remember that after you feel the student diver is
performing the skill adequately, the instructor assesses student skill mastery personally before the student
rejoins the class and begins learning new skills under the instructor’s direction.
D. Where do you find skill performance requirements student divers must master for PADI
courses?
1. The PADI Instructor Manual lists the skill performance requirements student divers must meet in
each course. Keep in mind that there are different
techniques for meeting the same performance requirements. Individuals with physical challenges
may use unusual techniques and still meet the requirements.
3-56
Check your PADI
Instructor Manual
for skill
performance
requirements
Three: Knowledge Development
Professional
Professional Association
Association
of
of Diving
Diving Instructors
Instructors
Instructor
Instructor
Manual
Manual
DM
DM 33 --18
18
Topic 4 –
Dive Theory Introduction
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering This Topic
This section acquaints candidates with why they need to be familiar with
dive theory, and their expected performance requirements. This is important
because divemaster candidates don’t always recognize the usefulness of being familiar with dive theory. Although this is a brief presentation, it shapes
candidate attitudes so that they put serious effort into learning dive theory.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge
1. In a given field, what characteristic allows experts
to more easily solve problems than nonexperts?
2. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemaster
course emphasizes learning dive theory?
Overview
■
■ The
The Need
Need for
for Broad
Broad
Theoretical
Theoretical Knowledge�
Knowledge�
3. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference
library, and what might you include in such a library?
■
■ Dive
Dive Theory
Theory Performance
Performance
in
in This
This Course
Course
4. How does completing specialty training help you
learn dive theory?
DM
DM 44 -- 22
II. Dive Theory Performance in This Course
5. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive theory
for this course?
6. Where will you get the dive theory information you
must learn for this course?
7. How do you continually improve and update your
dive theory knowledge as a dive professional?
Outline
Broad Theoretical
Knowledge
I. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge
■
■ Why?�
Why?�
◆
◆ Exper
Experts
ts identify,
identify, avoid
avoid and
and solve
solve
problems
problems better
better than
than none
none xperts�
xperts�
experts,
experts,
professionals
professionals and
and leader
leader s�
s�
◆
◆ Divemaster
Divemaster ss are
are
◆
◆ You’ll
You’ll apply
apply knowledg
knowledgee during
during the
the
Practical
Practical Application
Application Module
Module
DM
DM 44 -- 33
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. In a given field, what characteristic allows experts to more easily solve problems than nonexperts?
1. Research in cognitive psychology shows that experts
in a given field solve problems better than nonex3-57
perts because they have a large knowledge base to
draw upon.
a. This base helps identify cause/effect relationships
or allows you to make reasonable speculations of
them.
b. You learn to handle some “problems” before you
ever encounter them.
c. Familiarity enables you to more quickly identify a
problem’s cause so you can apply the right solution.
B. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemaster course emphasizes learning dive theory?
[Have candidates briefly discuss why they’re learning
dive theory at this point in their training. Identify the
following three reasons.]
1. A large knowledge base is the mark of an expert,
and expertise is one characteristic of a professional
– the PADI Divemaster level is the first leadership
level in the PADI System.
2. You will need to apply theoretical knowledge within
the Practical Application Module of this course.
3 You will need this knowledge as an instructional
assistant, and later as an instructor. [Explain that
theory isn’t covered in the IDC because you learn it
as a divemaster, but you are tested on it in the IE.]
C. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference
library, and what might you include in such a
library?
1. You benefit because it:
a. Provides a ready place to look up information.
b. Keeps you up-to-date with changing theory.
c. Increases your expertise by broadening your
knowledge beyond what you learn in this course.
2. A dive reference library may include:
a. PADI manuals, books, videos and multimedia
products
b. Technical and scientific dive texts
c. Dive magazine subscriptions
d. Underwater wildlife guides and magazines
e. Dive travel guides and maps
f. Historical nautical references to dive sites and
wrecks
3-58
What should you include in
your diving reference library?
■
■ PADI
PADI Manuals�
Manuals�
■
■ Technical
Technical and
and scientific
scientific texts�
texts�
■
■ Dive
Dive magazines�
magazines�
■
■ Underwater
Underwater wildlife
wildlife guides�
guides�
■
■ Dive
Dive travel
travel guides�
guides�
■
■ Historical
Historical nautical
nautical references
references
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 44 -- 44
D. How does completing specialty training help
you learn dive theory?
1. Specialties often go into more theoretical detail of
a specific area. (e.g., underwater photography and
the behavior of light.)
2. Specialties often give you a chance to apply theoretical knowledge. (e.g., search and recovery and
Boyle’s Law/gas expansion in the lift bag.)
How does completing
specialty training help you
learn dive theory?
■
■ Specialties
Specialties often
often go
go into
into specific
specific
theoretical
theoretical detail�
detail�
■
■ Specialties
Specialties allow
allow you
you to
to apply
apply
theoretical
theoretical knowledge
knowledge
DM
DM 44 -- 55
Note to instructor: As part of this discussion, review the specific
meetings and methods you’ll have candidates use to master dive
theory in the course.
II. Dive Theory Performance in This Course
Dive Theory and You
■
■ How
How will
will you
you learn
learn dive
dive theory
theory
during
during this
this course?�
course?�
■
■ Exam
Exam passing
passing �
score
75%�
score = 75%�
(100%
(100% master
master y)
y)
DM
DM 44 -- 6
6
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive
theory for this course and where will you get
the dive theory information you must learn for
this course?
1. You will study dive physics, physiology, equipment
and decompression theory by:
a. attending class presentations [if applicable].
b. by reading the appropriate sections of the Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and completing the
Diving Knowledge Workbook.
c. You will complete an examination in each of
these areas with a score of 75 percent or better
in each – if lower, you must restudy and take a
makeup exam.
d. You will be expected to successfully and appropriately apply dive theory principles during the
Practical Application Module.
2. You will also take an exam on dive skills and the
environment.
a. There are no particular books or presentations
directed specifically to this exam.
b. You learn these aspects of dive theory through
your previous training and experience, and
through the various training and experience
categories of this course.
c. You must earn 75 percent or better.
d. You will be expected to successfully and appropriately apply dive skills and the environment
3-59
theory principles during the Practical Application
Module.
B. You will also complete exams on supervising certified
divers, supervising student divers, and on PADI programs you can conduct, based on what you learn in
this course.
C. How do you continually improve and
update your dive theory knowledge as a dive
professional?
1. After this course, it’s important to maintain your
dive theory knowledge as a professional – failure to
do so reduces your expertise and skill as a leader:
a. Subscribe to and read dive magazines.
b. Reread and review the Encyclopedia and other materials periodically.
c. Help others who are learning dive theory – teaching helps you learn.
d. Take specialty courses that apply your knowledge.
e. Attend seminars and meetings about diving science, the environment, etc.
3-60
How do you improve and
update your knowledge as
a dive professional?
■
■ Read�
Read�
■
■ Review�
Review�
■
■ Teach�
Teach�
■
■ Continue
Continue your
your education
education �
■
■ Attend
Attend seminar
seminar ss
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 44 -- 77
Topic 5 – The Physics of
Diving
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering This Topic
The recommended method for developing knowledge about dive physics
is to have candidates read the Physics of Diving section of The Encyclopedia
of Recreational Diving and complete the physics section in the Diving Knowledge Workbook. Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of
the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performance
requirements.
After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a
group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook,
then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and
review the material, based on how they completed their workbooks. Use the
presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.
If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop
knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. To aid learning,
use lots of problem examples and have candidates work through them for
you.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Light, Heat and Sound in Water
Overview
1. Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air
does, and at what rate does it do so?
2. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat
have on a diver?
3. What does light do when it passes from air into
water, or vice-versa, and how does this affect a
diver?
4. What is refraction?
5. What is visual reversal, and how does it affect a
diver?
6. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air,
and how much faster is it in water?
7. How does the speed of sound in water affect hearing?
■
■ Light,
Light, Heat
Heat and
and Sound
Sound in
in Water�
Water�
■
■ Buoyancy
Buoyancy and
and the
the Weight
Weight of
of Water�
Water�
■
■ Pressure
Pressure and
and Water�
Water�
■
■ The
The Relationship
Relationship of
of Pressure
Pressure and
and Gas
Gas
Volume
Volume,, Density
Density and
and Temperature
Temperature �
■
■ The
The Beha
Behavior
vior of
of Gases
Gases Underwater:
Underwater: Partial
Partial
Pressure
Pressure �
■
■ The
The Beha
Behavior
vior of
of Gases
Gases Underwater:
Underwater: �
Gas
Gas Absorption
Absorption and
and Elimination
Elimination
DM
DM 55 -- 22
II. Buoyancy and the Weight of Water
8. Given the weight and displacement of an object,
calculate the buoyancy change by adding air or
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-61
adding weight required to either float, sink or
make neutral the object in both fresh and sea water.
III. Pressure and Water
9. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambient pressure?
10. Calculate the absolute and gauge pressure at any
depth in fresh or sea water in atmospheres/bar,
and convert it to another pressure measurement.
IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and
Temperature
11. What is the relationship between changes in absolute pressure and the volume of a gas?
12. Calculate the volume changes that occur to a gas
when raised or lowered in the water in a flexible
container.
13. What is the relationship between depth and the
density of the air a diver breathes?
14. Given a diver’s air consumption rate at one depth,
calculate how that consumption rate changes with
depth.
15. What is the relationship of pressure, volume and
temperature with a gas in a flexible container and
with a gas in an inflexible container?
V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressures
16. What is partial pressure?
17. Given their percentages, calculate the partial pressures of gases in a mixture at any depth.
18. How does the physiological effect of breathing
a given percentage of gas at depth compare to
breathing the same percentage of the gas at the
surface?
19. For a given percentage of a gas in mixture, and the
depth at which a diver breathes that gas, calculate
the percentage of the gas that would produce the
same physiological effects on a diver at the surface.
VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption and
Elimination
20. What happens when you raise the pressure of a gas
in contact with a liquid?
21. What is supersaturation?
22. What happens when you quickly reduce the pressure on a liquid that is saturated with dissolved gas
at a higher pressure?
3-62
Three: Knowledge Development
Outline
I. Light, Heat and Sound in Water
What does light do when
it passes from one
medium to another?
■
■ Speed
Speed of
of light
light depends
depends on
on density
density
of
of medium
medium —
— denser
denser == slo
slo
wer
wer
■
■ Changing
Changing speeds
speeds cause
cause light
light to
to
bend
bend —
— refraction
refraction
■
■ To
To aa diver,
diver, refraction
refraction ma
ma gnifies
gnifies
objects
objects at
at aa ratio
ratio of
of about
about 4:3
4:3
Light, Heat and Sound
DM
DM 55 -- 44
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Why does water dissipate body heat faster
than air does, and at what rate does it do so?
1. Water absorbs tremendous amounts of heat (high
heat capacity). Water conducts heat more
efficiently than air because water molecules are
closer together. Air is, however, a good insulator
because it does not conduct heat efficiently.
B. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate
heat have on a diver?
1. Because of water’s high heat capacity, the human
body when submerged in water loses heat more
than 20 times faster than in still air.
2. This means a diver will become chilled in water at
temperatures that would be considered comfortable
in air.
C. What does light do when it passes from air
into water, or vice-versa, and how does this affect a diver?
1. The speed of light depends on the density of the
medium it is traveling through – the denser the
medium, the slower the speed.
2. When light goes from one medium to another, it
changes speed. This causes the light ray to change
direction, or “bend.”
3. What is refraction? This bending of light is referred to as refraction.
4. Light coming to a diver’s eyes underwater moves
through three different media – water, glass and
air – refracting each time.
5. To the diver, refraction magnifies objects, making
them appear larger/closer. This magnification occurs a ratio of about 4:3 according to their actual
and apparent distance. When viewed underwater,
objects tend to be magnified by a factor of about
33 percent.
D. What is visual reversal, and how does it affect
a diver?
1. Turbidity can partially obscure an object so that it
appears hazy, which in air the eye associates with
3-63
being distant. So, the diver may perceive objects as
farther away than they actually are. This phenomenon is referred to as visual reversal.
E. Why does sound travel faster in water than in
air, and how much faster is it in water?
1. Because sound travels in pressure waves, it travels
faster in more dense mediums such as water than in
less dense mediums like air.
2. Sound travels slightly more than four times faster in
water than in air.
Why does sound travel
faster in water and how
does it affect hearing?
■
■ Sound
Sound (pressure
(pressure waves)
waves) travel
travel faster
faster in
in
denser,
denser, more
more elastic
elastic mediums�
mediums�
◆
◆ Four
Four time
time faster
faster in
in water
water than
than in
in air
air �
■
■ Brain
Brain determines
determines sound
sound direction
direction by
by
delay
delay between
between waves
waves reaching
reaching the
the ears
ears �
◆
◆ Speed
Speed of
of sound
sound underwater
underwater makes
makes
direction
direction difficult
difficult to
to determine
determine
Light, Heat and Sound
DM
DM 55 -- 6
6
Note to instructor: Some candidates may observe that faster
sound speed in a medium is a function of superior elasticity,
not density. This is correct, but most (but not all) mediums that
are denser also have greater elasticity, so it is “loosely” correct
to say sound travels faster in denser materials.
F. How does the speed of sound in water affect
hearing?
1. Your brain determines sound direction by the slight
delay between when a sound reaches one ear or the
other. In water, the faster speed of sound reduces the
delay so much that the brain interprets the sound
as reaching both ears at the same time. This makes
most sounds seem to come from directly overhead,
despite their actual source.
II. Buoyancy and the Weight of Water
A. The Greek mathematician Archimedes determined
that “An object wholly or partially immersed in a fluid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.”
1. An object that weighs less than the water it displaces floats and is positively buoyant. The buoyancy is
expressed as a positive number, such as being “two
kilograms positive.”
2. An object that weighs exactly the same as the water
it displaces neither floats nor sinks. It is called neutrally buoyant, and adding or removing weight will
make it sink or float.
3. An object that weighs more than the water it displaces will sink and is called negatively buoyant. Its
buoyancy is expressed as a negative number, such
as “two pounds negative.”
3-64
Buoyancy
Archimedes determined that:
“An object wholly or par tially
immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by
a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object. ”
Neutral
Positive
Negative WATER
OBJECT
OBJECT
WATER
WATER
OBJECT
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 -- 77
Det ermining Buoyancy
■
■ You
You must
must know:
know:
◆
◆ Weight
Weight of
of the
the object
object
◆
◆ Volume
Volume of
of the
the object
object
◆
◆ Weight
Weight of
of the
the displaced
displaced fluid
fluid
■
■ Constants
Constants –– weight
weight of
of water:
water:
◆
◆ Litre
Litre of
of sea
sea water
water –– 1.03
1.03 kg
kg (1.03
(1.03 kg/l)
kg/l)
◆
◆ Litre
Litre of
of fresh
fresh water
water –– 1.0
1.0 kg
kg (1.0
(1.0 kg/l)
kg/l)
◆
◆ Cubic
Cubic foot
foot sea
sea water
water –– 64
64 lbs
lbs (64
(64 lb/ft
lb/ft33))
◆
◆ Cubic
Cubic foot
foot fresh
fresh water
water –– 62.4
62.4 lbs
lbs (62.4
(62.4 lb/ft
lb/ft33))
Buoyancy
DM
DM 55 -- 8
8
Calculating Changes
in Buoyancy
■
■ Object’s
Object’s volume
volume xx constant
constant
== weight
weight of
of water
water displaced
displaced
■
■ Object’s
Object’s weight
weight –– water
water weight
weight
= up/down
up/down buoyancy
buoyancy
◆
◆ Positive
Positive nnumber
umber == sinks
sinks (downward
(downward force)
force)
◆
◆ Negative
Negative nn umber
umber == floats
floats (buoyant
(buoyant force)
force)
◆
◆ Zero
Zero == neutral
neutral
Buoyancy
DM
DM 55 -- 99
Example #1
You plan to reco ver a 150
kilogram/300 pound outboard
motor in sea water that
displaces 60 litres/2 cubic
feet. How much air must you
put in a lifting de vice to make
the motor neutrall y buoyant?
Buoyancy
DM
DM 55 --10
10
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
B. To determine the buoyancy of an object in water, you
need to know:
1. The object’s weight out of water.
2. How much water the object displaces (the object’s
volume).
3. The weight of the displaced water.
C. The weight of water:
1. 1 litre of sea water weighs 1.03 kg.
2. 1 litre of fresh water weighs 1 kg.
3. A cubic foot of sea water weighs 64 lbs.
4. A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 62.4 lbs.
D. To determine an object’s buoyancy, subtract the weight
of the water the object displaces from its weight.
1. A positive number means the object is negatively
buoyant, a negative number means it’s positively
buoyant, and zero means it is neutrally buoyant.
2. To make a negatively buoyant object neutral, the
buoyancy must increase by the amount it is negative (usually by adding air to a lifting device to
increase the volume displaced). To make it positive,
it must increase by more than that.
3. To make a positively buoyant object neutral, the
buoyancy must decrease by the amount it is positive (usually by adding weight to the object). To
make it negative, it must increase by more than
that.
4. Sample problems:
Given the weight and displacement of an object, calculate the
buoyancy change by adding
air or adding weight required
to either float, sink or make
neutral the object in both fresh
and sea water.
METRIC — Example #1
You plan to recover a 150 kg outboard motor in sea water
that displaces 60 litres. How much air must you put in a
lifting device to make the motor neutrally buoyant?
3-65
METRIC — Answer: 85.6 litres of air.
A 150 kg motor that displaces 60 litres of sea water has a buoyancy the weight of the sea water it displaces less 150 kg.
60 litres of sea water weighs 61.8 kg (60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg)
Answer #1
Metric
Metric == 85.6 litres �
60
60 ll xx 1.03
1.03 kg/l
kg/l == 61.8
61.8 kg
kg �
150
150 kg
kg -- 61.8
61.8 kg
kg == 88.2
88.2 kg
kg �
88.2
88.2 kg
kg ÷÷ 1.03
1.03 kg/l
kg/l == 85.6
85.6 ll �
Imperial
Imperial == 2.68 cubic f eet�
eet�
The motor is 88.2 kg negatively buoyant in sea water
(61.8 kg - 150 kg = -88.2 kg).
22 ft
64 lb/ft
lb/ft 33 == 128
128 lb
lb�
ft33 xx 64
300
300 lb
lb -- 128
128 lb
lb == 172
172 lb
lb �
33
172
2.68 ft
ft33
172 lb
lb ÷÷ 64
64 lb/ft
lb/ft == 2.68
The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 88.2
kg to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the air
and the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weight
of water per litre to get the required litres of air to add.
Buoyancy
DM
DM 55 -- 11
11
You must add 85.6 litres of air to the lift bag.
(88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l).
IMPERIAL — Example #1 You plan to recover a 300pound outboard motor that displaces two cubic feet from
the bottom in sea water. How much water must you displace
by adding air to a lift bag to make it neutrally buoyant?
IMPERIAL — Answer: 2.68 ft3
A 300 lb motor that displaces 2 ft3 of sea water has a buoyancy
that’s the weight of the sea water it displaces less 300 lbs.
2 ft3 of sea water weighs 128 lbs (64 lb/ft3 x 2 ft3 = 128 lb)
The motor is 172 lbs negatively buoyant in sea water
(128 lb - 300 lb = -172 lb).
The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 172
lbs to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the air
and the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weight
of water per cubic foot to get the required cubic feet of air to add.
You must add 2.68 cubic feet of air to the lift bag.
(172 lbs ÷ 64 lb/ft3 = 2.68 ft3).
METRIC — Example #2
You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh
water an object that weighs 50 kg. and displaces 300 litres. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead,
how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to
make it 10 kg negative on the bottom?
3-66
Example #2
You’re
You’re assisting
assisting aa resear
resear ch
ch study
study and
and
must
must sink
sink into
into fresh
fresh water
water an
an object
object that
that
weighs
weighs 50 kilograms //100 pounds
and
and displaces
displaces 300 litres //5 cubic f eet ..
Disregar
Disregarding
ding the
the minimal
minimal displacement
displacement
of
of the
the lead,
lead, how
how much
much lead
lead weight
weight do
do
you
you need
need to
to affix
affix to
to the
the object
object to
to make
make it
it
10 kilograms //20 pounds negative
negative on
on
the
the bottom?
bottom?
Buoyancy
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 -- 12
12
METRIC — Answer: 260 kg
Answer #2
The weight of water displaced is 300 kg (300 l x 1 kg/l = 300 kg)
Metric = 260 kilograms �
300
300 ll xx 1.0
1.0 kg/l
kg/l == 300
300 kg
kg �
(positively
50
�
50 kg
kg -- 300
300 kg
kg == ––250
250 kg
kg (positively
buoyant)
buoyant)
250
250 kg
kg ++ 10
10 kg
kg == 260
260 kg
kg �
Imperial = 232 pounds �
55 ft
62.4 lb/ft
lb/ft 33 == 312
312 lb
lb�
ft33 xx 62.4
(positively
�
100
212 lb
lb (positively
100 lb
lb -- 312
312 lb
lb == ––212
buoyant)
buoyant)
212
212 lb
lb ++ 20
20 lb
lb == 232
232 lb
lb
Buoyancy
DM
DM 55 -- 13
13
The object weighs 50 kg, so it is 250 kg positively buoyant
(300 kg - 50 kg = 250 kg)
Add 250 kg to make it neutral, plus 10 kg to make it 10 kg
negative for 260 kg total lead to add (250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg)
IMPERIAL — Example #2
You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh
water an object that weighs 100 lbs. and displaces 5 cubic
feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead,
how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to
make it 20 lbs negative on the bottom?
IMPERIAL — Answer: 232 lbs
The weight of water displaced is 312 lbs (5 ft3 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 312
lbs)
The object weighs 100 lbs, so it is 212 lbs positively buoyant
(312 lbs - 100 lbs = 212 lbs)
Add 212 lbs to make it neutral, plus 20 lbs to make it 20 lbs
negative for 232 lbs total lead to add (212 lbs + 20 lbs = 232 lbs)
Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as necessary until candidates can easily determine the amount of water
to displace, or weight to add, to make an object negative, positive or neutral in fresh water or sea water.
III. Pressure and Water
Pressure and W ater
■
■ Pressure
Pressure is
is equal
equal �
to
to force
force per
per unit
unit area
area
kg/cm
kg/cm 22 or
or lb/in
lb/in
22
�
P RESSURE =
F ORCE
A REA
■
■ Atmospheric
Atmospheric pressure
pressure �
is
is the
the air
air pressure
pressure at
at sea
sea level
level �
11 atm/bar
atm/bar ,, 760
760 mmHG,
mmHG,
1.03
1.03 kg/cm
kg/cm 22 or
or 14.7
14.7 psi
psi
DM
DM 55 -- 1414
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Pressure is equal to the force over a unit of area, and
may be expressed as kilograms per square centimeter
or pounds per square inch.
1. In diving, the easiest pressure unit to use is the atmosphere or bar. One atmosphere or bar is the pressure equal to the air pressure at sea level. There’s a
slight difference between bar and atmospheres, but
in diving they’re treated as equal.
2. 10 metres/33 feet of sea water exerts 1 atmosphere/
bar of pressure.
3. 10.3 metres/34 feet of fresh water exerts 1 atmosphere/bar of pressure.
3-67
B. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambient
pressure?
1. Gauge pressure is a measurement that ignores the
atmospheric pressure. At sea level with no added
pressure, gauge pressure is zero. Your submersible
pressure gauge is an example.
2. Absolute pressure uses a vacuum as its zero point, so
that it is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
You generally add an “a” or the word “absolute” to
pressure units: “psia” for pounds per square inch
absolute, “ata” for atmospheres absolute, and “bar
absolute.”
3. Ambient pressure means “surrounding pressure,” and
may be expressed as absolute or gauge pressure.
C. Calculating pressures underwater
1. To determine the pressure in ata/bar at any depth:
a. Divide the depth by 10 metres/33 feet for salt
water, or 10.3 metres/34 feet for fresh water. This
gives you atmospheres gauge at that depth.
b. Add 1 to account for the atmosphere of air and
convert to absolute pressure.
Pressure Terminolog y
■
■ Gauge – measured pressure minus
atmospheric pressure �
(atm
(atm gaug
gaug ee or
or psig)
psig)
■
■ Absolute –
total pressure exerted,
gauge plus atmospheric�
atmospheric�
(ata)
(ata)
■
■ Ambient –
surrounding pressure,
same as absolute pressure
Pressure and Water
DM
DM 55 -- 15
15
Calculating Pressure Underwater
SEA WATER =�
1 atm every 10 m/33 ft�
OR .100 ATM per metre �
OR .445 psi per f oot
FRESH WATER =�
1 atm every 10.3 m/34 ft�
OR .097 ATM per metre �
OR .432 psi per f oot
Gauge Pressure
0
1 ft
sea le vel
0
.445 psi
.100 ATM
1m
10 ft
4.45 psi
.500 ATM
5m
20 ft
8.9 psi
33 ft
14.7 psi
Pressure and Water
1 ATM
10 m
Calculate the absolute and
gauge pressure at any depth
in fresh or sea water in atmospheres/bar, and convert it to
another pressure measurement.
Example: How many ata of pressure are there at 18 metres/60 feet of seawater?
Answer: 2.8 ata
METRIC – 18m ÷ 10m/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ata
IMPERIAL – 60ft ÷ 33ft/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ata
2. To convert to another pressure measure, multiply
ata by:
a. 10 for msw (metres of sea water)
b. 10.3 for mfw (metres of fresh water)
c. 1.03 for kg/cm2 (kilograms per centimetre squared)
d. 14.7 for psi (pounds per square inch)
e. 33 for fsw (feet of sea water)
f. 34 for ffw (feet of fresh water)
3-68
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 --16
16
Example #1
What are the gauge and absolute pressures in at a depth of
22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water?
What is the pressure in kg/cm2 / psi?
Example #1
What
What are
are the
the gaug
gaug ee and
and absolute
absolute
pressures
pressures (in
(in atmospheres)
atmospheres) at
at aa depth
depth �
of
in fresh
fresh water
water ?�
?�
of 22.5 metres//74 feet in
Metric
Metric and
and Imperial �
== 2.18
2.18 atm
atm gaug
gaug ee and
and 3.18
3.18 ata
ata �
22.5
22.5 m
m ÷÷ 10.3
10.3 m/atm
m/atm == 2.18
2.18 atm
atm gauge
gauge �
74
74 ft
ft ÷÷ 34
34 ft/atm
ft/atm == 2.18
2.18 atm
atm gauge
gauge �
ad
addd 11 atm
atm == 3.18
3.18 ata�
ata�
Can you find the pressures �
in kg/cm22 or psi?
Pressure and Water
DM
DM 55 -- 17
17
Answer: 2.18 atm gauge/3.18 ata
METRIC — 22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge
2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata
IMPERIAL — 74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge
2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata
METRIC — Answer: 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge/3.28 kg/cm2 absolute
2.18 atm x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge
3.18 ata x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 3.28 kg/cm2 absolute
IMPERIAL — Answer: 32 psi gauge/46.7 psia
2.18 atm x 14.7 psi/atm = 32 psi gauge
3.18 ata x 14.7 psi/atm = 46.7 psia
Example #2
Example #2
The pressure at 18 metres/60 feet in sea water equals the
same pressure at what depth in fresh water?
(Depth = 0 at the surface, so this is a gauge pressure problem.)
The
The pressure
pressure at
at 18 metres //60 feet in
in
sea
sea water
water equals
equals the
the same
same pressure
pressure
at
at what
what depth
depth in
in fresh
fresh water?�
water?�
Metric
Metric == 18.5
18.5 metres�
metres�
18
18 m
m ÷÷ 10
10 m/atm
m/atm == 1.8
1.8 atm
atm gaug
gaug e�
e�
1.8
1.8 atm
atm gaug
gaug ee xx 10.3
10.3 m/atm
m/atm == 18.5
18.5 m
m�
Imperial
Imperial == 61.2
61.2 feet�
feet�
60
60 ft
ft ÷÷ 33
33 ft/atm
ft/atm == 1.8
1.8 atm
atm gaug
gaug e�
e�
1.8
1.8 atm
atm xx 34
34 ft/atm
ft/atm == 61.2
61.2 ft
ft
Pressure and Water
DM
DM 55 --18
18
METRIC — Answer: 18.5 m
18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gauge
1.8 atm x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m
IMPERIAL — Answer: 61.2 ft
60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gauge
1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft
Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as necessary until candidates can easily determine the atmospheres absolute and gauge pressures at various fresh and saltwater depths,
and convert them into other pressure measures.
Pressure, Volume and
Density Relationship
DEPTH
ABSOLUTE
DEPTH
ABSOLUTE
�
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
metres f eet �
0�
1 ATM�
GA
GA UGE
UGE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
0�
AIR
SURF
AIR
SURF ACE
ACE VOLUME
VOLUME EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
VOLUME
EQ
VOLUME
EQ UIVALENT
UIVALENT��
1
1�
60 litres
�
�
10
33�
2 ATM�
1 ATM�
1/2
2�
30
66�
3 ATM�
2 ATM�
1/3
3�
20
3 ATM�
1/4
4�
4 ATM�
1/5
5
�
�
20
�
�
30
99
4 ATM�
�
�
40
132� 5 ATM�
IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume,
Density and Temperature
15
12
DM
19
DM 55 --19
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. What is the relationship between changes in
absolute pressure and the volume of a gas?
1. As absolute pressure increases on a gas, the volume
of the gas will decrease proportionately.
3-69
For example, at 2 ata (10 m/33 ft in sea water) the
volume is 1/2 the surface volume; at 3 ata (20 m/66
ft in sea water), 1/3 the surface volume, etc.
Formula: pressure (atm) x volume = new pressure x new volume
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
2. As absolute pressure decreases on a gas, the volume
will increase proportionately. For example, bring
a gas volume to the surface from 2 ata the volume
will be twice volume it was at depth; from 3 ata,
three times the volume at depth, etc.
3. By determining ata/
bar at depths, you can
Calculate the voluse this relationship to
ume changes that
determine how much a
occur to a gas when
gas volume changes in
raised or lowered in
a flexible container (lift
the water in a flexbag, BCD, balloon, etc.)
ible container.
when taken from one
depth to another.
Formula: new volume = original ata ÷ new ata x original volume
V2 = P1 ÷ P2 x V1
Example #1: You take a gas volume of 14 litres/3 cubic
feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet in sea water. What
will the new volume be?
Example #1
If
If you
you take
take aa gas
gas vv olume
olume of
of �
14 litres//3 cubic feet at
at the
the surface
surface
to
to 30 metres//99 feet sea
sea water,
water,
what
what will
will the
the ne
ne w
w volume
volume be?
be? �
Metric
Metric == 14
14 ll ÷÷ 44 = 3.5 litres�
litres�
METRIC — Answer: 3.5 litres
Original pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)
New pressure = 4 ata (30 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4
(30
(30 metres
metres is
is 44 ata)
ata) �
Imperial
Imperial == 33 ft
ft 33 ÷÷ 44 == .75 ft33�
(99
(99 feet
feet is
is 44 ata)
ata)
Pressure and Volume
ata)
DM
DM 55 --20
20
New volume = (1 ata ÷ 4 ata) x 14 l
New volume = 3.5 l
IMPERIAL — Answer: .75 cubic feet
Original pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)
New pressure = 4 ata (99 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4
ata)
New volume = (1 ata ÷ 4 ata) x 3 ft3
New volume = .75 cubic feet
3-70
Example #2
If you take a gas v olume of �
METRIC — Example #2 : You take a gas volume of 27
litres from 32 metres to 17 metres in fresh water. What will
the new volume be?
27 litres fr om 32 metres to 17
metres in fresh water, what will the
METRIC — Answer: 41.8 litres
new volume be?
Pressure and Volume
new volume be? �
If you take a gas v olume of �
17 cubic f eet from 122 f eet to 58
feet in fresh water, what will the
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 -- 21
21
Original pressure = 4.1 ata
Answer #2
Metric
Metric == 41.8
41.8 litres
litres �
Initial
Initial pressure
pressure –– 32
32 m
m ÷÷ 10.3
10.3 m/atm
m/atm �
== 3.1
3.1 atm
atm gaug
gaug e;
e; ad
addd 11 atm
atm == 4.1
4.1 ata
ata �
New
New pressure
pressure –– 17
17 m
m ÷÷ 10.3
10.3 m/atm
m/atm �
== 1.65
1.65 atm
atm gaug
gaug e;
e; ad
addd 11 atm
atm == 2.65
2.65 ata
ata �
(4.1
(4.1 ata
ata ÷÷ 2.65
2.65 ata)
ata) xx 27
27 ll == 41.8
41.8 ll �
Imperial
Imperial == 29
29 ft
ft 33�
Initial
Initial pressure
pressure –– 122
122 ft
ft ÷÷ 34
34 ft/atm
ft/atm �
== 3.6
3.6 atm
atm gaug
gaug e;
e; ad
addd 11 atm
atm == 4.6
4.6 ata
ata �
New
New pressure
pressure –– 58
58 ft
ft ÷÷ 34
34 ft/atm
ft/atm �
== 1.7
1.7 atm
atm gaug
gaug e;
e; ad
addd 11 atm
atm == 2.7
2.7 ata
ata �
(4.6
29 ft
ft33
(4.6 ata
ata ÷÷ 2.7
2.7 ata)
ata) xx 17
17 ft
ft 33 == 29
Pressure and Volume
(32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 3.1 atm;
3.1 atm + 1 atm = 4.1 ata)
New pressure= 2.65 ata
(17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 1.65 atm;
1.65 atm + 1 atm = 2.65 ata)
New volume = (4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 l
New volume = 41.8 litres
DM
DM 55 --22
22
IMPERIAL — Example #2: You take a gas volume of 17
cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water. What will
the new volume be?
IMPERIAL — Answer: 29 cubic feet
Original pressure = 4.6 ata (122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 3.6 atm;
3.6 atm + 1 atm = 4.6 ata)
New pressure = 2.7 ata
(58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 1.7 atm;
1.7 atm + 1 atm = 2.7 ata)
New volume = (4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft3
New volume = 29 cubic feet
Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as necessary until candidates can easily determine new volumes.
B. What is the relationship between depth and
the density of the air a diver breathes?
1. As volume decreases with pressure increase, air molecules squeeze closer together taking up less space,
increasing the density of air within the space. For
example, at 2 ata, air is 2 times denser than at the
surface; at 3 ata it is 3 times denser, etc.
2. This increase in density
affects the diver’s rate of air
Given a diver’s air
consumption because as depth
consumption rate at
and pressure increase, within
one depth, calculate
each breath the diver inhales
how that consumpmore molecules of air to fill
tion rate changes
the same lung volume. This is
with depth.
why the deeper the dive, the
faster the diver uses air.
3. You can calculate density changes based on changes in absolute pressure (ata), and use the changes to
determine changes in a diver’s air consumption.
4. Simplify depth-to-depth density/air consumption
problems by converting to surface density first:
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-71
Example #1: A diver’s air consumption rate is 2 bar per
minute (200 kPa/min)/25 psi per minute at the surface.
What will the air density be at 30 metres/99 feet compared
to the surface, and what will the diver’s air consumption be?
Example #1
A
A diver’s
diver’s air
air consumption
consumption rate
rate is
is �
22 bar
bar//25
25 psi
psi per
per min
minute
ute at
at the
the surface
surface ..
What
What is
is the
the diver’
diver’ ss air
air consumption
consumption rate
rate
likely
30 metres
metres//99
99 feet
feet?�
?�
likely to
to be
be at
at 30
Metric
Metric == 22 bar/min
bar/min xx 44 == 8
8 bar/min�
bar/min�
(30
(30 metres
metres is
is 44 ata)�
ata)�
METRIC — Answer: 4 times as dense; 8 bar/min (800 kPa/min)
30 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 3 atm
3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense).
4 x 2 bar per min (200 kPa per min) = 8 bar per min (800 kPa per min)
Imperial
Imperial == 25
25 psi/min
psi/min xx 44 == 100
100 psi/min�
psi/min�
(99
(99 feet
feet is
is 44 ata)
ata)
Pressure and Density
DM
DM 55 --24
24
IMPERIAL — Answer: 4 times as dense; 100 psi/min
99 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm
3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense)
4 x 25 psi/min = 100 psi/min.
Example #2: If a diver’s air consumption rate is 8 bar per
minute (800 kPa/min)/100 psi per minute at 10 metres/33
feet, what will it be at 40 metres/132 feet?
METRIC — Answer: 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)
Find surface consumption rate:
10 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1 atm
1 atm +1 atm = 2 ata
8 bar/min (800 kPa/min) ÷ 2 ata = 4 bar/min surface rate (400 kPa/min)
Determine rate at new depth:
40 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 4 atm
4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata
5 x 4 bar/min (400 kPa/min) = 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)
Answer #2
Metric = 20 bar/min �
Find
Find surface
surface rate
rate –– 88 bar/min
bar/min at
at 22 ata
ata �
== 44 bar/min
bar/min at
at 11 ata�
ata�
44 bar/min
x
5
(40
m
is
5
ata)
=
20
bar/min�
bar/min x 5 (40 m is 5 ata) = 20 bar/min�
Imperial = 250 psi/min �
Find
Find surface
surface rate
rate –– 100
100 psi/min
psi/min at
at 22 ata
ata �
== 50
50 psi/min
psi/min at
at 11 ata�
ata�
50
50 psi/min
psi/min xx 55 (132
(132 ft
ft is
is 55 ata)
ata) == 250
250 psi/min
psi/min
Pressure and Density
IMPERIAL — Answer: 250 psi/min
Find surface consumption rate:
33 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1 atm
1 atm + 1 atm = 2 ata
100 psi/min ÷ 2 ata = 50 psi/min surface rate
Determine rate at new depth:
132 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm
4 atm+ 1 atm = 5 ata
5 x 50 psi/min = 250 psi/min
Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as
necessary until candidates can easily determine gas consumption rates.
3-72
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 --26
26
C. What is the relationship of pressure, volume
and temperature with a gas in a flexible container and with a gas in an inflexible container?
1. Heat is the energy of molecular motion, therefore,
if you heat gases in a nonflexible container and the
volume remains unchanged (as in a scuba tank),
the molecules move more rapidly.
2. This causes molecules to impact the interior of the
container with more force – thereby increasing the
pressure.
3. Cooling means the molecules lose heat and slow
down, reducing their impact and decreasing the
pressure.
4. Pressure changes are calculated using absolute
temperature, but for diving purposes, as a rule of
thumb with scuba cylinders, the pressure change is
0.6 bar per 1° C/5 psi per 1° F.
What is the relationship
of pressure, volume and
temperature with gas in both
flexible and inflexible containers?
BEFORE
Heat is the
energy of
molecule
motion
AFTER HEAT
ADDED
DM
DM 55 --27
27
Pressure and Temperature
■
■ As
As general
general rule
rule of
of thumb,
thumb, the
the
pressure
pressure change
change is
is 0.6
0.6 bar
bar per
per
1°C/5
1°C/5 psi
psi per
per 1°F�
1°F�
■
■ Example:
Example:
If
If aa scuba
scuba tank
tank is
is filled
filled to
to 200
bar //3000 psi at
at 20°C //70°F then
then
placed
placed in
in aa freezer
freezer at
at 0°C //32°F,,
what
what is
is the
the likely
likely new
new pressure?
pressure?
Example: A scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20°
C/70° F. What would happen to the pressure in that tank if
it were put into a freezer at 0° C/32° F?
DM
DM 55 --28
28
METRIC — Answer: The pressure would drop to 188 bar.
20° C - 0° C = 20° C change
20° C x .6 bar = 12 bar
200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar
Answer
Metric = 188 bar �
20°C
20°C -- 0°C
0°C == 20°
20° cc hange�
hange�
20
20 xx 0.6
0.6 bar
bar == 12
12 bar
bar �
200
200 bar
bar -- 12
12 bar
bar == 188
188 bar
bar �
Imperial = 2810 psi �
70°F
70°F -- 32°F
32°F == 38°
38° cc hange�
hange�
38
38 xx 55 psi
psi == 190
190 psi
psi �
3000
3000 psi
psi -- 190
190 psi
psi == 2810
2810 psi
psi
Pressure and Temperature
DM
DM 55 --29
29
IMPERIAL — Answer: 2810 psi
70° F - 32° F = 38° F change
38° F x 5 psi = 190 psi
3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi
D. Gas pressure, volume and temperature are interrelated. For a given quantity of gas, if you change one,
either or both of the others must change proportionately.
1. You can predict diving-related changes to gas pressure, volume and temperature.
2. If you increase pressure by adding gas to a fixed
volume, the temperature will rise (such as a scuba
tank being filled).
3. If you decrease pressure by releasing gas from a
fixed volume, the temperature will fall. This explains why a tank cools when you let the air out
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-73
rapidly, and why manufacturers recommend special
modifications so that regulators won’t freeze when
ice diving.
V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressures
A. What is partial pressure?
1. In a mixture of gases, such as air, each gas exerts
its individual pressure independent of other gases in
the mixture (Dalton’s Law). The independent pressure of a gas is its partial pressure – that is, the part of
the pressure exerted by the gas.
B. If you take a gas mixture underwater (the air you
breathe, for example), the pressure increases with
depth. The partial pressure of each gas in the mix also
increases proportionately to its fraction in the mix.
1. You can easily determine partial pressure
Given their percentby multiplying the gas
ages, calculate the
percentage in the mixpartial pressures of
ture by the total absogases in a mixture at lute pressure.
any depth.
Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen in air at
a depth of 40 m/132 ft?
Behavior of Gases Underwater
■
■ What
What is
is par
par tial
tial pressure
pressure
?�
?�
◆
◆ In
In aa gas
gas mixture
mixture ,, each
each gas
gas eexerts
xerts its
its
individual
individual pressure
pressure independent
independent �
of
of other
other gases
gases in
in the
the mixture
mixture
NNN N
NON N
O
O
N
N N
NNNN
NN N
NN N
O
N N
NONO
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
PRESSURE
PRESSURE �
OF
OF O
OXYGEN
XYGEN
(21%)
(21%)
+
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
PRESSURE
PRESSURE �
OF
OF NITR
NITR OGEN
OGEN��
=
TOTAL
TOTAL
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
OF
OF AIR
AIR��
(79%)
(100%)
(100%)
DM
DM 55 --30
30
Partial Pressure
■
■ What
What is
is the
the partial
partial pressure
pressure of
of
oxygen
oxygen (in
(in atmospheres)
atmospheres) at
at 40
40
metres/132
metres/132 feet?�
feet?�
Answer: Oxygen partial pressure (abbreviated “PO2”) =
1.05 ata
The absolute pressure is 5 ata
40 m ÷ 10 atm/m = 4 atm / 132 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm
4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata
Air consists of 21% oxygen.
5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata.
◆
◆ PO
PO2
2
== 55 ata
ata xx .21
.21 == 1.05
1.05 ata
ata �
■
■ The
The bod
bodyy responds
responds to
to aa gas
gas
�
based
based on
on its
its par
par tial
tial pressure
pressure —
— �
the
the higher
higher the
the par
par tial
tial pressure
pressure ,,
the
the greater
greater the
the potential
potential
ph
physiological
ysiological eff
eff ect
ect
DM
DM 55 -- 31
31
Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen when
breathing 100% oxygen at the surface?
Answer: PO2 = 1.0 ata. The absolute pressure is 1 ata. The gas is
100% oxygen. 1 ata x 1.00 = 1 ata. (This illustrates that with a
pure gas, the absolute pressure and the partial pressure are the
same.)
3-74
Three: Knowledge Development
C. How does the physiological effect of breathing
a given percentage of gas at depth compare to
breathing the same percentage of the gas at
the surface?
1. The body responds to a gas you breathe based on its
partial pressure – not on the percentage of the gas in
the mix. This means that as pressure increases, the
physiological effect increases.
2. The increased partial pressure of nitrogen (also
called “PN2”) causes nitrogen narcosis.
3. The increased partial pressure of oxygen can cause
oxygen toxicity (more of a concern when diving
with enriched air nitrox than with air within recreational limits).
4. The body’s response to partial pressure is important
regarding contaminated air because contamination
levels that are harmless at the surface may become
toxic under elevated partial pressures at depth.
5. In the previous examples, the physiological effect
of oxygen from breathing air (21% oxygen) at 40
m/132 feet (PO2 = 1.05 ata) is approximately the
same as breathing 100% oxygen at the surface (PO2
= 1.0 ata)
D. Surface equivalency is the fraction of a gas you would
have to breathe at the surface to produce the same effect at a particular depth. To find surface equivalency,
use the gas partial
For a given percentage of
pressure at depth as
a gas in mixture, and the
the fraction of the gas
depth at which a diver
at the surface.
breathes that gas, calcu1. Note that if the
late the percentage of the
partial pressure at
gas that would produce the depth exceeds 1.0
same physiological effects
ata, there can be no
on a diver at the surface.
surface equivalency
because the partial
pressure would exceed the total pressure available
at the surface (1.0 ata).
Example
An
An air
air mixture
mixture has
has 0.5%
0.5% carbon
carbon
monoxide.
monoxide. Breathing
Breathing this
this air
air at
at 40
40
metres/132
metres/132 feet
feet would
would be
be the
the
equivalent
equivalent of
of breathing
breathing what
what percent
percent
at
at the
the surface?�
surface?�
Answer
Answer == 2.5%�
2.5%�
55 ata
ata xx .005
.005 == .025;
.025; 2.5%
2.5% surface
surface equivalency�
equivalency�
NO
xic
NOTE:
TE: This
This le
le vel
vel of
of CO
CO is
is considered
considered to
to
xic
Partial Pressure
Example: An air mixture has .5% carbon monoxide (CO).
Breathing it at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent
of breathing what percent at the surface?
DM
DM 55 --32
32
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-75
Answer: 2.5%. (this level of CO would be considered toxic).
Absolute pressure = 5 ata
40m ÷ 10 m/atm = 4 atm / 132 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm
4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata
5 ata x .005 = .025 partial pressure
.025 = 2.5% surface equivalency
Example: Central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity is
only expected with oxygen partial pressures above 1.4 ata.
Would CNS toxicity ever be likely breathing any gas mixture with oxygen at the surface?
Answer: No. The highest fraction of oxygen you can have
is 100%. Breathing 100% oxygen at the surface is a PO2 of 1.0
ata. – the highest partial pressure you can have at the surface.
Therefore, you cannot reach the 1.4 ata required for CNS toxicity.
VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption
and Elimination
A. What happens when you raise the pressure of a
gas in contact with a liquid?
1. Gases in contact with a liquid dissolve into the liquid proportionately to the pressure.
2. If the pressure increases, more gas dissolves into the
liquid.
3. If the pressure decreases, the gas dissolves out of the
liquid (Henry’s Law). Carbonated beverages are a
good example of this.
4. Because the human body is comprised mainly of
water, this is the principle underlying decompression sickness and the basis for dive tables/computers.
B. Gases dissolved in a liquid still exert pressure, which is
referred to as gas tension.
C. Gas does not dissolve instantly into or out of a liquid
when the pressure changes.
1. It does so gradually over a period that depends on
the liquid, the gas, and the contact area between
the gas and the liquid.
2. Eventually, however, the pressure of the gas dissolved within the liquid will become equal to the
pressure of the gas in contact with it and no more
3-76
Absorption and Elimination
■
■ What
What happens
happens when
when yy ou
ou raise
raise
�
the
the pressure
pressure of
of gas
gas in
in contact
contact �
with
with aa liquid?
liquid? �
◆
◆ More
More gas
gas dissolves
dissolves into
into the
the liquid
liquid �
◆
◆ Equilibrium
Equilibrium or
or saturation
saturation is
is �
reached
reached eventuall
eventually�
y�
■
■ What
What is
is super
super saturation
saturation ?�
?�
◆
◆ Gas
Gas pressure
pressure within
within aa liquid
liquid is
is
greater
greater than
than the
the pressure
pressure of
of gas
gas in
in
contact
contact with
with the
the liquid
liquid
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 55 --33
33
What happens when
you quickly reduce the
pressure on a liquid
that is saturated?
Absorption and Elimina tion
DM
DM 55 --34
34
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
gas will dissolve in or out. This equilibrium is referred to as saturation.
3. If the gas pressure in contact increases (such as
when a diver descends), then the liquid will now be
capable of holding even more gas than before. Gas
exchange will continue as before until the new level
of equilibrium is achieved.
D. What is supersaturation?
1. If the pressure in contact with the liquid is reduced
(as when a diver ascends), gas tension within the liquid will be greater than the pressure in contact with
the liquid.
2. The liquid is then referred to as supersaturated. It will
gradually be less supersaturated as the gas dissolves
out of the liquid and equilibrium returns.
E. What happens when you quickly reduce the
pressure on a liquid that is saturated with dissolved gas at a higher pressure?
1. A liquid can have a moderate degree of supersaturation and still hold gas in solution. If a pressure
reduction takes place gradually, then the gas will
dissolve out of the liquid without forming bubbles.
2. If the pressure reduction is too great causing an
excessive supersaturation, the gas within the liquid
cannot remain in solution and bubbles form.
3. This phenomenon explains the basic mechanism of
decompression sickness and why the condition cannot occur until the diver leaves depth, or reduces the
pressure in contact with the blood.
4. Dive tables/computers help the diver control the
supersaturation to avoid bubble formation. [Explain
that candidates will learn more about this in Topic
6, the Physiology of Diving.]
3-77
Topic 6 The Physiology of Diving
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
The recommended method for developing knowledge about diving physiology is to have candidates read the Physiology of Diving section of The
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and complete the physiology section in
the Diving Knowledge Workbook. Have them consult the related objectives in
the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the
performance requirements.
After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group.
Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the
material, based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation
outline as a guide for a complete review.
If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbook
don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
1. What are the primary purposes of the respiratory
and circulatory systems?
2. What are the organs, structure and functions of the
circulatory and respiratory systems?
3. What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?
Overview
■
■ Circulatory
Circulatory and
and Respiratory
Respiratory Systems�
Systems�
◆
◆ Diving
Diving Problems
Problems with
with These
These Systems�
Systems�
4. How does the body respond when breath-hold diving, and how can you extend breath-hold time?
■
■ Physiological
Physiological Responses�
Responses�
◆
◆ Nitrogen�
Nitrogen�
II. Diving Problems with Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
5. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you avoid
it?
◆
◆ Thermal
Thermal Changes�
Changes�
◆
◆ Pressure
Pressure Changes
Changes on
on Body
Body Air
Air Spaces�
Spaces�
■
■ Problems
Problems in
in Body
Body Air
Air Spaces
Spaces
6. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?
7. What are hypocapnia and shallow water blackout,
and how do you avoid them?
8. What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving, and how do you avoid them?
9. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and how
do you avoid them?
3-78
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 6
6 -- 22
III. Physiological Responses to Nitrogen
10. What are the physiological mechanisms by which
the body absorbs and releases nitrogen (or other
inert gases) while diving?
11. What are silent bubbles, and how do they relate to
decompression?
12. What causes decompression sickness (DCS), and
what are the two types?
13. What is meant by decompression illness (DCI) versus decompression sickness?
14. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
15. What are the recommendations and physiological
rationales for DCS first aid and treatment?
16. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approximately
what depth is it likely, and what are common signs
and symptoms of it?
IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal Changes
17. How does the body respond to excess heat?
18. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and
how do they differ physiologically?
19. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?
20. What causes hypothermia, and what happens
physiologically when it occurs?
V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes on
Body Air Spaces
21. What are the basic functions, organs and structure
of the ears and sinuses?
22. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing
pressure?
23. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?
VI. Problems in Body Air Spaces
24. What are barotrauma and squeeze?
25. What are the causes and physiologies of eardrum
rupture, middle ear squeeze, reverse squeeze, ear
plug problems, round window rupture and sinus
squeeze?
26. What is vertigo, and what may cause it while diving?
27. What is the cause and physiology of lung squeeze?
28. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung
overexpansion injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and subcutaneous
emphysema?
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-79
29. What are the recommendations and physiological
rationales for lung overexpansion injury first aid
and treatment?
30. What are the cause and physiology of mask and
dry suit squeezes?
Circulation and
Respiration �
�
Outline
I. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
A. What are the primary purposes of the respiratory and circulatory systems?
1. The primary, most urgent purpose of these systems
is to supply body tissues oxygen and to remove and
eliminate waste carbon dioxide.
2. The process of using oxygen is oxidative metabolism.
3. Oxidative metabolism turns chemical energy into
usable energy to support life.
B. What are the organs, structure and functions of
the circulatory and respiratory systems?
1. Circulatory System
a. Blood: red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the plasma
(liquid portion of blood) carry oxygen to the tissues via hemoglobin, a protein that easily bonds
and unbonds with oxygen. Plasma carries carbon
dioxide away from tissues.
b. Cardiovascular system - heart, arteries, capillaries
and veins
1. The heart is a four chamber organic pump that
circulates blood.
2. Arteries carry blood away from heart.
3. Veins carry blood toward heart.
4. Capillaries are microscopic vessels between
arteries and veins; gas exchange occurs in the
capillaries.
2. Respiratory system structure and functions
a. What triggers the breathing cycle?
1. Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor
carbon dioxide levels in body.
2. When carbon dioxide rises, they signal the diaphragm, a large muscle below the lungs, to flex
downward, causing lower internal pressure.
3-80
What are the purposes,
structure and functions of
the respiratory and
circulatory syst ems?
DM
DM 6
6 -- 33
Purposes
■
■ Supply
Supply tissues
tissues with
with oxygen
oxygen �
and
and remove
remove and
and eliminate
eliminate �
carbon
carbon dioxide�
dioxide�
■
■ What
What is
is oxidative
oxidative metabolism?
metabolism?
�
—
— the
the process
process of
of turning
turning chemical
chemical
energy
energy into
into usable
usable energy
energy
Circulation and Respir ation
DM
DM 6
6 -- 44
Structure and F unction�
unction�
— Circulatory
Oxygen
carried
to
tissues
Carbon
dioxide
Red Bloo d Cells
Cells��carried
Hemoglo bin
away
from
tissues
DM
DM 6
6 -- 55
Circulation and Respir ation
Plasma�
Cardiovascular Syst em
– a four chamber pump �
that circulates blood�
blood�
■
■ Arteries
carry blood away �
from the heart�
heart�
■
■ Heart
carry blood toward heart�
heart�
– microscopic vessels
between arteries and veins where
gas exchange occurs
DM
6
DM 6
6 -- 6
Circulation and Respir ation
■
■ Veins
■
■ Capillaries
Respiratory Syst em
■
■ What
What triggers
triggers the
the breathing
breathing cycle?�
cycle?�
in
in the
the
brain
brain monitor
monitor the
the body
body ’s
’s carbon
carbon
dioxide
dioxide level�
level�
◆
◆ Reflex
Reflex respiratory
respiratory centers
centers
◆
◆ When
When CO
CO 2
rises,
rises, diaphragm
diaphragm is
is
2
signalled
signalled to
to ff lex
lex downw
downward
ard
Circulation and Respir ation
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 6
6 -- 77
What is dead air space,
and how do you avoid
problems caused by it?
–– does
does not
not pla
pla yy �
aa part
part in
in gas
gas exchange�
exchange�
■
■ Tidal
Tidal volume
volume
■
■ Shallow
Shallow br
br eathing
eathing –– CO
CO
level
22 level
increases,
increases, breathing
breathing rate
rate increases�
increases�
■
■ Avoid
Avoid problem
problem by
by deep,
deep, �
normal
normal br
breathing
eathing
Circulation and Respir ation
DM
DM 6
6 -- 10
10
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3. Air enters through sinuses and mouth past the
epiglottis into the trachea (windpipe), which
branches into the bronchi leading into lungs.
4. Bronchi divide into smaller and smaller bronchi until reaching tiny alveoli, which are air
sacs surrounded by the pulmonary capillaries. It
is here that the blood releases carbon dioxide
and picks up oxygen.
B. Path of blood flow through circulatory and respiratory
systems.
1. Oxygen-rich blood from lungs enters left heart;
heart pumps the blood into the aorta, the body’s
largest artery.
2. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, including
the carotid arteries that supply the brain. Arteries
branch to smaller arteries throughout the body until reaching the capillaries.
3. Blood gives up oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide in capillaries and flows into the venous system
(veins).
4. Veins branch into larger and larger veins until a
single vein returns oxygen-poor blood to the right
heart.
5. The heart pumps oxygen poor blood to lungs via
the pulmonary arteries.
6. Pulmonary arteries branch into pulmonary capillaries
that surround lung alveoli. The blood releases carbon dioxide into alveoli to be exhaled and picks up
oxygen.
7. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left heart via pulmonary veins to begin another cycle.
C. What is dead air space, and how do you avoid
problems caused by it?
1. The portion of tidal volume (volume breathed in and
out on each breath) that plays no part in gas exchange - volume in bronchi, trachea, mouth/sinuses.
2. Dead air space is rebreathed - increases carbon dioxide.
3. Equipment increases dead air space (snorkel/regulator) and therefore further increases carbon dioxide
rebreathed.
4. In shallow breathing, dead air space is proportionately high in tidal volume and carbon dioxide
levels rise, stimulating a higher breathing rate.
3-81
a. If breathing remains shallow, breathing rate will
continue to increase.
b. Rapid breathing requires more effort to overcome
air resistance and this raises carbon dioxide levels
further.
c. May lead to hypercapnia (discussed shortly).
5. In deep, normal breathing, dead air space is proportionately lower in tidal volume and carbon dioxide
levels fall.
a. Breathing rate remains normal.
b. Avoid dead air space problems by breathing slowly
with deep, normal breaths.
D. How does the body respond when breath-hold
diving, and how can you extend breath-hold
time?
1. During apnea (breath holding) the circulatory system
uses oxygen stored in the lungs, muscles and blood to
supply tissues.
a. In cool water, bradycardia (slowing of the heart)
reduces circulation speed, though doesn’t appear to
reduce oxygen consumption in humans (it does in
marine mammals).
2. Accumulating carbon dioxide creates urges to breathe
and eventually it is too great to ignore, forcing the
diver to surface and breathe.
3. You can increase breath hold time by first hyperventilating (breathing deeply and rapidly) three or four
times. Doing so reduces circulatory carbon dioxide
so it takes longer to accumulate enough to stimulate
breathing. Excessive hyperventilation may lead to
shallow water blackout, as discussed shortly.
II. Diving Problems with Circulatory and
Respiratory Systems
A. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you
avoid it?
1. Carotid sinus receptors monitor pressure of arterial
blood reaching brain through carotid arteries.
2. Low blood pressure triggers a higher heart rate, and
high blood pressure triggers a lower heart rate.
3. Receptors interpret pressure from an excessively tight
hood or wet suit constricting neck as high blood pressure.
4. The heart rate slows, reducing blood flow to the brain,
but pressure remains, causing yet slower heart rate.
3-82
What happens during a
breath hold dive?
■
■ During
During apnea
apnea
,, the
the body
body uses
uses
oxygen
oxygen stored
stored in
in the
the lungs,
lungs,
muscles
and
blood�
�
muscles and blood
■
■ Accumulating
Accumulating CO
CO22 creates
creates the
the
urge
urge to
to breathe�
breathe�
■
■ Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation can
can increase
increase
breath
breath hold
hold time
time
Circulation and Respir ation
DM
11
DM 6
6 -- 11
Diving Problems �
�
What is carotid �
sinus reflex?�
reflex?�
�
Do not wear an excessively
tight hood, wet suit or �
dry suit neck seal
Circulation and Respir ation
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
12
DM 6
6 -- 12
Carbon Dio xide
■
■ What
What is
is hypercapnia
hypercapnia ?�?�
◆
◆ Excessive
Excessive CO
CO22�
◆
◆ Caused
Caused by
by skip
skip breathing,
breathing, rapid
rapid �
shallow
shallow breathing,
breathing, overexertion,
overexertion, etc.�
etc.�
◆
◆ May
May cause
cause to
to headache,
headache, confusion,
confusion, �
loss
loss of
of consciousness�
consciousness�
■
■ What
What is
is hypocapnia
hypocapnia ?�?�
◆
◆ Insufficient
Insufficient CO
CO22�
◆
Caused
◆ Caused by
by hyperventilation�
hyperventilation�
◆
◆ May
May cause
cause shallow
shallow water
water blackout
blackout
Circulation and Respir ation
DM
13
DM 6
6 -- 13
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
5. The diver feels uncomfortable and light-headed, but
may lose consciousness if constriction continues unrelieved.
6. Avoid by not wearing excessively tight hoods, wet
suits or dry suit neck seals.
B. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?
1. Hypercapnia is excessive carbon dioxide.
2. It’s caused by dead air space, skip breathing (holding the breath periodically), shallow rapid breathing, overexertion or a combination of these. In very
rare cases, air supply may be high in carbon dioxide.
3. Causes headache and increased breathing. In severe
cases, confusion and loss of consciousness.
4. If involving overexertion, increased work of breathing can increase carbon dioxide, leading to even
greater breathing demand - cycle stops when diver
stops all activity and rests.
5. Avoid by breathing deeply and normally, not skip
breathing, and by avoiding overexertion.
C. What are hypocapnia and shallow water blackout, and how do you avoid them?
1. Hypocapnia is insufficient carbon dioxide.
2. Too little carbon dioxide may interrupt normal
breathing cycle because carbon dioxide stimulates
breathing.
3. May be caused by hyperventilation due to stress or
fright while scuba diving - causes light-headedness.
4. Primarily a concern with breath-hold diving and
excessive hyperventilation (more than three or four
breaths)- causes shallow water blackout.
a. Diver excessively depletes carbon dioxide by hyperventilating excessively.
b. At depth, diver’s body consumes oxygen faster
than carbon dioxide accumulates to stimulate
breathing.
c. Depleted oxygen causes no problem at depth because high partial pressure allows hemoglobin to
bond with remaining supply.
d. Diver ascends, the partial pressure drops and hemoglobin can no longer bond with oxygen; diver
blacks out without warning due to hypoxia - insufficient oxygen.
3-83
D. What are the physiological effects of carbon
monoxide while diving, and how do you avoid
them?
1. It’s caused by contaminated air from using wrong
lubricants or improper compressor system maintenance (fortunately now very rare) Smoking is another source of carbon monoxide.
a. Carbon monoxide bonds with hemoglobin more
readily than oxygen, but doesn’t release as easily.
b. Breathing air contaminated with carbon monoxide at depth, hemoglobin carries less and less
oxygen as carbon monoxide bonds with it.
c. However, at depth blood still carries sufficient
oxygen dissolved in plasma by high partial pressures to meet tissue demands.
d. When diver surfaces, plasma no longer can carry
enough dissolved oxygen - diver blacks out from
hypoxia.
2. Symptoms and signs (when they do occur) include
headache, confusion, narrow vision, bright red lips/
nails (not easily observed underwater).
a. Symptoms of mild cases subside after several
hours of fresh air.
b. Severe cases - give the diver pure oxygen and contact emergency medical care.
3. Avoid by getting air only from reputable air fill stations.
E. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and
how do you avoid them?
1. It’s nearly impossible to suffer oxygen toxicity using
air within recreational diving limits (40 m/130 ft or
less, no stop diving).
2. Using enriched air nitrox (EANx), you can have oxygen toxicity.
3. Two types of oxygen toxicity
a. Central nervous system (CNS) toxicity
1. Caused by exposure to oxygen partial pressures greater than approximately 1.4 ata
(using EANx32 below 33 metres/110 feet, or
EANx36 below 29 metres/95 feet, or pure oxygen below 4 metres/13 feet) to 1.6 ata.
2. Symptoms and signs include visual disturbances, ear ringing, nausea, twitching muscles,
irritability and dizziness.
3-84
What are the physiolog ical
effects of carbon mono xide
while diving?
■
■ CO bonds with hemoglobin more
readily than oxygen�
oxygen�
■
■ May cause hypoxia
= black out�
out�
■
■ Use only air from reputable �
fill stations
Circulation and Respir ation
DM
14
DM 6
6 -- 14
What are the two types
of oxygen toxicity?
■
■ Central
Central nervous
nervous system
system (CNS)
(CNS) �
◆
◆ Exposur
Exposuree to
to PPO
PPO g
g reater
reater �
than
than 1.4
1.4 aa ta�
ta�
■
■ Pulmonary
Pulmonary toxicity
toxicity �
◆
◆ Continuous
Continuous eexposure
xposure to
to
elevated
elevated PPO
PPO
Circulation and Respir ation
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
15
DM 6
6 -- 15
3. Most serious symptom/sign is a convulsion
- usually without warning. Convulsions are not
harmful themselves, but may cause diver to
lose mouthpiece and drown.
4. Avoid by not exceeding a partial pressure of
1.4 ata. [Remind candidates that enriched air
diving requires special training, much of which
covers CNS concerns in more detail.]
b. Pulmonary toxicity
1. Caused by continuous exposure to elevated
oxygen partial pressure.
2. Most likely in recreational diving only following multiple dives using enriched air.
3. Symptoms and signs include burning in the
chest and irritated cough.
4. Usually resolves itself by ceasing diving for several days.
5. Not considered immediately life threatening or
hazardous.
6. Avoid by following oxygen exposure limits of
NOAA and DSAT Oxygen Exposure Table. [Tell
candidates that enriched air training covers
pulmonary toxicity and using tables to avoid it
in more detail.]
III. Physiological Responses to Nitrogen
Nitrogen Absorption
and Elimination �
�
What are the physiolog ical
mechanisms by which �
the body absorbs and
releases nitrogen?
DM
16
DM 6
6 -- 16
Physiolog ical Responses
■
■ Gases
Gases dissolve
dissolve into
into liquids
liquids
proportionately
proportionately to
to the
the pressure�
pressure�
■
■ While
While diving,
diving, nitrogen
nitrogen goes
goes into
into
solution
solution in
in body
body tissues�
tissues�
■
■ Different
Different tissues
tissues absorb
absorb and
and
release
release nitrogen
nitrogen at
at different
different rates
rates
Nitrogen
continued...
continued...
DM
DM 6
6 -- 17
17
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. What are the physiological mechanisms by
which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen
(or other inert gases) while diving?
1. Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the
pressure. This is the basis for decompression.
2. The human body is primarily water, so when exposed to pressure (as in diving), more nitrogen from
the air we breathe goes into solution in body tissues.
a. Oxygen is consumed metabolically, but nitrogen
gas is physiologically inert and is therefore a concern.
b. Other inert gases, such as helium, will dissolve
into body tissues when breathing special mixes in
nonrecreational diving.
c. Nitrogen pressure is higher in alveolar air than in
the blood, so nitrogen dissolves into blood, then
from the blood to the tissues.
3-85
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
d. Dissolved gas still exerts pressure. The pressure of
gas dissolved in the body is called tissue pressure.
Different tissues absorb (and release) nitrogen at different rates. Given enough time at depth, the body
saturates by reaching equilibrium, meaning it has
absorbed all the nitrogen possible at that pressure.
a. Calculating different tissue absorption and release is the foundation of decompression models.
Most dives are too short to reach saturation. The
amount of nitrogen absorbed relates directly to the
depth (pressure) and time of the dive.
Upon ascent after a dive, nitrogen pressure in tissues
is higher than surrounding pressure. This is called
supersaturation.
With higher tissue pressures, nitrogen pressure in
blood exceeds pressure in alveolar air; nitrogen dissolves from blood and is exhaled. This lowers blood
tissue pressure, so nitrogen dissolves from body tissues into blood.
If difference between surrounding pressure and tissue pressure (the pressure gradient) is within limits,
the nitrogen dissolves harmlessly out of the body.
a. Most nitrogen remains within solution and dissolves out slowly.
8. What are silent bubbles, and how do they relate to decompression?
a. According to theory, some nitrogen dissolves into
microscopic gas pockets in the body and form
tiny bubbles that are trapped by the pulmonary
capillaries in the lungs; these then diffuse harmlessly into alveolar air.
b. Doppler ultrasound flow meters detect silent
bubbles after some dives, especially those close to
table/computer limits - these are larger bubbles
than the tiny bubbles theorized to form after most
dives, but are still harmless.
B. What causes decompression sickness (DCS)?
1. If tissue pressure exceeds surrounding pressure excessively, nitrogen comes out of solution faster than
the body can eliminate it harmlessly - bubbles form
in the tissues.
a. Small bubbles accumulate to form larger bubbles.
3-86
Physiological Responses...
■
■ Most dives are too short �
to reach saturation�
saturation�
■
■ Upon ascent, higher nitrogen
pressure in tissues results in
nitrogen dissolving out of the body�
body�
■
■ If
pressure gradient is within limits,
elimination is harmless
Nitrogen
DM
DM 6
6 -- 18
18
What are silent bubbles ?
■
■ Some
Some excess
excess nitrogen
nitrogen dissolves
dissolves
into
into microscopic
microscopic gas
gas pockets
pockets
forming
forming tiny
tiny bubbles�
bubbles�
■
■ Tiny
Tiny bubbles
bubbles may
may �
lead
lead to
to larger,
larger, but
but �
still
still harmless
harmless silent
silent bubbles
bubbles �
■
■ Silent
Silent bubbles
bubbles are
are detectable
detectable by
by
Doppler
Doppler ultrasound
ultrasound flow
flow meters
meters
DM
19
DM 6
6 -- 19
Nitrogen
What causes �
decompression sickness? �
�
�
Symptoms de pend on
amount and loca tion of
bubble formation
Nitrogen
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
20
DM 6
6 --20
b. Larger bubbles cause decompression sickness
(DCS), a.k.a. “the bends.”
c. DCS types and symptoms depend on amount of
bubble formation and where the bubbles end up
in the body.
Decompression Illness (DCI)
vs. �
Decompression Sickness (DC S)
■
■ DCI
DCI —
— rrefers
efers to
to both
both decompr
decompr ession
ession
sickness
sickness and
and lung
lung o
o verexpansion
verexpansion
injuries
injuries (emergency
(emergency first
first aid
aid is
is the
the
same
same for
for both)
both) �
■
■ DCS
DCS —
— rrefers
efers specif
specif ically
ically to
to
conditions
conditions caused
caused b
b yy nitrogen
nitrogen
coming
coming out
out of
of solution
solution in
in the
the body
body
Nitrogen
DM
21
DM 6
6 -- 21
What factors predispose
a diver to DC S?
■
■ Body fat�
fat�
■
■ Excess CO
�
22
■
■ Age�
Age�
■
■ Dehydration�
Dehydration�
■
■ Injuries/Illness�
Injuries/Illness�
■
■ Alcohol
Nitrogen
■
■ Cold water�
water�
■
■ Heavy exercise�
exercise�
■
■ Altitude/Flying
DM
22
DM 6
6 --22
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
What is meant by decompression illness (DCI) versus decompression sickness?
Decompression illness (DCI) is a blanket term for DCS and
lung overexpansion injuries used in describing first aid and
treatment, which is identical for both conditions. However,
it’s improper to interchange “DCI” with “DCS” when talking about the specific condition caused by dissolved nitrogen coming out of solution.
C. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
1. Fat tissue: fat releases nitrogen slowly. A diver with
a disproportionate amount of body fat may have
more nitrogen in solution after a dive.
2. Age: as we age, our circulatory systems become less
efficient, reducing speed of gas exchange.
3. Dehydration: reduces blood in circulation, slowing
nitrogen elimination.
4. Injuries/illness: may alter or restrict circulation leading to localized areas where nitrogen isn’t eliminated quickly.
5. Alcohol before or after diving: alters circulation
patterns, dilates capillaries and promotes dehydration, all of which can alter nitrogen elimination and
bubble formation.
6. Carbon dioxide excess: skip breathing may raise
carbon dioxide levels altering circulation and gas
exchange.
7. Cold water: diver starts warm with normal circulation, but circulation to extremities reduces as diver
cools, slowing nitrogen elimination from those areas.
8. Heavy exercise: during dive accelerates circulation
so more nitrogen than normal dissolves into body.
After a dive, exercise accelerates circulation altering
nitrogen elimination.
9. Altitude/flying: dive tables/computers are based on
surfacing at sea level, thus exposure to lower pressure increases the tissue pressure gradient and may
3-87
cause large bubbles to form - returning to sea level
doesn’t usually alleviate the bubbles once formed.
D. What are the two types of decompression sickness?
1. Type I - identified as “pain only” DCS.
a. Limb pain most common - may be midlimb or
joints; first or second symptom noted in 60 percent of cases.
b. Cutaneous DCS (“skin bends”) - red rashes/patches usually on shoulders/upper chest.
2. Type II - identified as having life threatening or
immediately injurious symptoms; involves brain,
nervous system, lungs.
a. numbness and/or tingling
b. paralysis
c. weakness/fatigue
d. unconsciousness and death
E. What are the recommendations and physiological rationales for DCS first aid and treatment?
1. Treat all DCS as serious, even pain only.
2. Give patient oxygen (preferably 100 percent).
a. Lowers alveolar nitrogen to accelerate elimination from tissues.
b. Raises blood oxygen levels to assist tissues with
blood flow reduced by bubble blockage.
3. Keep a breathing patient lying level on left side,
head supported (recovery position).
a. Helps keep airway clear if patient vomits.
b. Lying level helps ensure blood flow to brain.
c. Advise patient not to sit up, even during transport or if feeling better.
4. Lay nonbreathing patient on back for rescue breathing/CPR.
5. Monitor airway, breathing, circulation, and contact
emergency medical care.
6. Elevating the patient’s feet (modified Trendelenburg
position) is no longer recommended.
F. DCS treatment
1. Except isolated cutaneous DCS, treatment usually
requires putting patient under pressure in a recompression chamber.
2. Recompression reduces bubbles in body to small size
3-88
What are the two
types of DC S?
■
■ Type
Type 1
1 –– “Pain
“Pain Only”�
Only”�
◆
◆ Limb
Limb and
and joint
joint pain
pain �
◆
◆ Cutaneous
Cutaneous -- sk
sk in
in rash�
rash�
■
■ Type
Type 2
2 –– Neurological�
Neurological�
◆
◆ Numbness
Numbness and/or
and/or ting
ting ling�
ling�
◆
◆ Paralysis�
Paralysis�
◆
◆ Weakness/f
Weakness/f atigue�
atigue�
◆
◆ Unconsciousness
Unconsciousness
Nitrogen
DM
23
DM 6
6 --23
What is the treatment
for DCS?
■
■ Recompression in a chamber�
chamber�
◆
◆ Long
Long slow
slow decompr
decompr ession
ession with
with
oxygen
oxygen and
and dr
drug
ug therapy�
therapy�
■
■ The sooner recompression begins,
the more likely patient will recover
without permanent injury
Nitrogen
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 6
6 --25
25
and forces them back into solution - often alleviates
symptoms immediately.
3. Treatment involves a long slow decompression with
oxygen and drug therapy.
a. Duration and need for drugs/oxygen makes attempting recompression in water inadvisable in
vast majority of circumstances.
4. The sooner recompression begins, the more likely
the patient will recover without permanent injury
- don’t delay obtaining medical care. Patients sometimes don’t want to believe they’re suffering from
DCI and object to seeing a doctor - as appropriate,
strongly urge patients to allow medical examination
by emergency medical care.
G. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approximately what depth is it likely, and what are common
signs and symptoms of it?
1. Almost any gas can cause an anesthetic (narcotic)
effect under pressure. Exact mechanism unknown,
but appears related to nerve impulse blockage due
to gas dissolved in nerve cells.
a. Effect of a gas depends upon gas solubility in
nerve cells.
b. Narcosis varies with individual physiology and is
not entirely predictable.
c. Nitrogen/oxygen have about same solubility - are
somewhat narcotic at the deeper range of recreational diving. Using air or enriched air, narcosis
is expected to be noticeable at about 30 metres/100 feet.
d. Helium is not narcotic under even very high pressures - this is why it is used by technical and commercial divers making very deep dives.
2. Ascent relieves narcotic symptoms - usually no after
effects.
3. Not directly hazardous - hazard comes from impaired judgment that may delay reactions or lead to
poor decisions.
Physiological
Responses to
Thermal and
Pressure Changes
IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal Changes
DM
27
DM 6
6 -- 27
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A.
How does the body respond to excess heat?
1. Heat is mainly a problem before or after dive wearing full wet suits or dry suits in hot weather.
2. Body responds to excess heat, progressively by:
3-89
a. Dilating skin capillaries to promote cooling.
b. Perspiring to cool skin through evaporation.
c. Accelerating pulse to circulate blood faster for
cooling.
d. Continuing until diver cools (seeks shade, stops
exercising, etc.) or exhausts physiological ability
to cool
B. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke,
and how do they differ physiologically?
1. Exposure suits interfere with body’s ability to cool
self - perspiration is ineffective in a wet or dry suit.
This is compounded if diver exercises in hot climate,
such as long walk across a hot beach.
2. Heat exhaustion - condition in which body works at
full capacity to cool.
a. weak, rapid breathing
b. weak rapid pulse
c. cool clammy skin
d. profuse sweating
e. dehydration
f. nausea
3. Diver with heat exhaustion should remove exposure
suit, seek shade, drink nonalcoholic fluid and rest
until cool.
4. Heatstroke - condition in which cooling has failed
- an emergency medical condition.
a. pulse strong and rapid
b. no perspiration
c. skin flushed, hot to the touch
d. brain damage, system damage or death possible
5. Diver with heat stroke - remove exposure suit and
put diver in cool environment; contact emergency
medical aid.
C. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?
1. Water conducts heat 20 times faster than air - diver
in 4oC/40oF water will be dangerously cold in half an
hour.
2. Temperatures that are warm in air can lead to excessive heat loss in water.
3. Under many circumstances, an exposure suit greatly
slows heat loss, but does not stop it.
4. Body responds to heat loss progressively by:
a. Vasoconstriction - reduced blood flow to extremities
3-90
How does the body
respond to excess heat?
■
■ Skin
Skin capillaries
capillaries dilate�
dilate�
■
■ Perspiration�
Perspiration�
■
■ Accelerated
Accelerated pulse
pulse
No Relief = Heat Exhaustion �
Heat Stroke
DM
DM 6
6 --28
28
Heat
Exhaustion
Heat
Stroke
weak
weak rapid
rapid breathing�
breathing�
strong
strong rapid
rapid pulse
pulse �
weak
weak rapid
rapid pulse
pulse �
no
no perspiration�
perspiration�
cool
cool clammy
clammy sk
skin�
in�
hot
hot flushed
flushed sk
skin�
in�
profuse
profuse per
perspiration�
spiration�
convulsions
convulsions
nausea
nausea
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
29
DM 6
6 --29
(except head) to reduce heat loss - causes finger/
toe numbness.
b. Shivering to generate heat through muscle activity - signals a losing battle against the cold.
D. What causes hypothermia, and what happens
physiologically when it occurs?
1. Occurs when diver ignores uncontrollable shivering,
numbness and continues to cool.
2. Body temperature regulation mechanisms fail, body
core temperature drops.
a. Shivering stops
b. Vasoconstriction stops - diver may feel warm as
blood rushes to skin - a dangerous condition because diver doesn’t feel cold, but heat loss in now
unchecked.
c. As core temperature drops, mental processes slow
- diver becomes drowsy, uncoordinated, forgetful.
d. Unchecked, hypothermia leads to unconsciousness, coma and death.
e. Advanced hypothermia is a medical emergency
requiring emergency care.
Hypothermia
numbness�
numbness�
37°C
98.6°F
blueness�
blueness�
loss of coordination�
coordination�
confusion�
confusion�
unconsciousness
DM
DM 6
6 -- 31
31
V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes on
Body Air Spaces
A. What are the basic functions, organs and structure of the ears and sinuses?
1. Ears — divided into outer, middle, and inner ear
a. Outer ear consists of external ear, ear canal
- open to air/water pressure - channels sound to
ear drum.
b. Middle ear separated from outer ear by ear drum
- sealed against air/water; - ear drum vibrates and
passes sound to ossicles, small bones that conduct
sound to inner ear.
c. Inner ear consists of vestibular canals (control
balance) and cochlea - turns vibrations from ossicles into nerve impulses sent by auditory nerve to
brain.
1. Ossicles connect to cochlea at oval window,
which flexes in and out with vibrations.
2. Round window on cochlea flexes out when oval
window flexes in to compensate.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-91
B. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing pressure?
1. Middle ear connected by eustachian tube to throat to
maintain equilibrium with outside pressure.
a. Descending, increasing pressure pushes in on ear
drum - diver feels as discomfort.
b. By equalizing, diver forces air up eustachian tube
to equalize pressure in middle ear, alleviating the
discomfort.
c. Expanding air normally exits eustachian tube
easily - seldom need to do anything during ascent.
2. Sinuses
a. Sinuses are spaces in head connected to the nose
that filter and moisturize air before it reaches
lungs.
b. Healthy sinuses have free air flow and normally
equalize naturally during middle ear equalization.
C. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?
1. When scuba diving, normal breathing keeps lungs
equalized to surrounding pressure.
2. When breath-hold diving, increasing pressure compresses lungs and reduces their volume - not normally a problem because they’re intended to change
volume.
D. Mask
1. Not a natural air space, but affects the body.
2. Exhale into mask through nose to keep mask equalized.
3. This is why divers cannot use goggles for diving - no
way to equalize the air space.
VI. Problems in Body Air Spaces
A. What are barotrauma and squeeze?
1. Barotrauma means “pressure injury,” and results
when a body air space isn’t equalized and pressure
continues or increases.
2. An unequalized air space is also called a squeeze .
B. What are the causes and physiologies of eardrum rupture, middle ear squeeze, reverse
squeeze, ear plug problems, round window rupture and sinus squeeze?
3-92
How do the sinuses
and lungs respond to
changing pressure?
DM
DM 6
6 --33
33
Body Air Space
Problems�
Problems�
�
What are barotrauma �
and squeeze?
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 6
6 --34
34
1. Middle ear squeeze - caused by failure to equalize or
inability to equalize due to congestion (diving with a
cold).
a. Eardrum flexes inward from pressure.
b. Hydrostatic pressure forces blood and fluid into
middle ear until equilibrium is restored.
c. Ears feel “full” and hearing is reduced (fluid dampens vibrations).
d. Should be checked by an otolaryngologist (ears,
nose and throat doctor).
e. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent if
unable to equalize.
2. Eardrum rupture - also caused by failure to equalize,
but pressure increases faster than fluids can fill middle ear. Eardrum tears due to pressure.
a. Diver feels momentary sharp pain, then relief.
b. Usually heals without complication, but requires
medical attention to prevent infection and permanent damage because water contaminates ear with
organic matter and dirt.
c. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent if
unable to equalize.
3. What is vertigo, and what may cause it while
diving?
a. When the ear drum ruptures, cold water on vestibular canals may cause momentary vertigo - loss
of sense of direction and dizziness.
4. Reverse squeeze - ears equalize on descent, but congestion at depth prevents air from escaping during
ascent. Eardrum flexes outward.
a. Feels like a squeeze, but happens during ascent.
b. May help to pinch nose and inhale against it.
c. Slow ascent and give air time to work itself out.
d. Usually caused by diving with a cold using decongestants; decongestant wears off during dive causing blockage.
e. Prevent by not diving with a cold.
5. Ear plug problems - ear plugs or a tight wet suit hood
create an airspace between plug and eardrum that
cannot be equalized. During descent, eardrum flexes
toward earplug - unequalized space.
a. Feels like middle ear squeeze.
b. Eardrum can rupture outward if descent continues.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-93
c. In rare cases, ear plug can be forced into ear canal.
d. Prevent by not diving with ear plugs; if unable to
equalize while wearing a hood, pull hood off ear
momentarily and try again in case hood is sealing ear canal.
6. Round window rupture - caused by delayed equalization accompanied by forceful Valsalva equalization (exhaling against pinched nostrils).
a. Pressure on eardrum presses in on ossicles, which
press in on oval window on cochlea; round window flexes outward in response.
b. Valsalva raises pressure in thorax, which causes
increase in pressure in cochlea (connected by
fluid as part of nervous system); this plus transmitted pressure bursts round window outward.
c. This is a serious injury requiring medical treatment to avoid or reduce permanent hearing damage.
d. Symptoms include reduced hearing, vertigo, balance problems, ear ringing, a feeling the ears are
blocked.
e. Prevented by:
1. Equalizing early and often.
2. Not equalizing forcefully - if having difficulty,
ascend a bit and try again.
3. Using the Frenzel maneuver - using throat
muscles to push air against pinched nose
instead of using diaphragm to exhale against
pinched nose.
C. Sinuses
1. Sinus squeeze usually caused by diving with a cold.
2. Unequalized sinuses fill with blood and fluid during
dive - may feel like sharp pain against eyes.
3. Upon ascent, expanding air pushes blood and fluid
into nasal cavity - diver surfaces with blood in
mask.
4. Usually not serious and heals on its own. Medical
attention usually only required if pain is severe or
extended.
D. What is the cause and physiology of lung
squeeze?
1. Lung squeeze - caused by breath-hold descent to a
depth that reduces lung volume below residual vol3-94
Three: Knowledge Development
ume - the lowest volume after exhaling all possible
air.
a. Not a problem if you descend with full lungs unless you go very deep.
b. Can occur shallow if you descend with partially
full or empty lungs.
c. Lung squeeze causes fluid to accumulate in the
lungs, however, this requires some time to become significant.
d. Can be life threatening and require medical attention, but not likely in recreational diving.
E. What are the causes and physiologies of the
lung overexpansion injuries: air embolism,
pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?
1. Lung overexpansion injuries are usually caused by
holding breath during ascent. They may also be
caused by lung congestion when diving with a chest
cold, or by local blockage due to loss of surfactant
(due to smoking) which keeps bronchioles from
adhering shut. In all cases, expanding air overexpands lungs causing lung rupture.
2. Air embolism - also called arterial gas embolism
(AGE). Alveoli and pulmonary capillaries rupture,
air enters bloodstream and flows into arteries.
a. Serious and immediately lifethreatening - bubbles can lodge anywhere, but most common is to
flow through the carotid arteries and cause cerebral air embolism.
b. Signs and symptoms similar to stroke - dizziness,
confusion, shock, paralysis, personality change,
unconsciousness and death.
c. Symptoms can vary depending upon where the
bubbles go.
3. Pneumothorax - air from rupture goes between lung
and chest wall, causing lung to collapse.
a. Also serious. Symptoms include chest pain and
patient may cough up blood.
4. Mediastinal emphysema - air from rupture accumulates in center of chest over heart.
a. Serious, because air presses on heart and vessels,
interfering with circulation.
b. Patient may feel faint or short of breath.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-95
5. Subcutaneous emphysema - air from rupture accumulates in soft tissues at base of neck. The victim feels
fullness in neck and voice may change. The skin
may crackle to the touch.
6. More than one of these injuries can occur simultaneously.
7. Avoid lung overexpansion injuries by breathing normally, not diving with chest congestion and by not
smoking. If unable to quit smoking, avoiding smoking before diving may reduce risk.
F. What are the recommendations and physiological rationales for lung overexpansion injury
first aid and treatment?
1. First aid same as for DCS, hence the common term
“decompression illness” for both.
2. Giving oxygen helps supply tissues deprived of blood
flow by bubbles.
3. Treatment of air embolism requires recompression to
reduce bubble size (as in DCS).
4. Pneumothorax requires removing air and reinflating collapsed lung.
5. Air from mediastinal and subcutaneous emphysemas dissipates over time; oxygen breathing may
help.
G. What are the cause and physiology of mask and
dry suit squeezes?
1. Mask squeeze - caused by failure to equalize mask.
a Tissues swell, forced into unequalized mask by
pressure, capillaries in skin and eyes rupture.
b. Looks very dramatic and severe, but generally
clears without complications.
2. Dry suit squeeze - caused by failure to add air to dry
suit on descent.
a. May raise welts and cause severe pinches.
b. Can constrict breathing and cause shortness of
breath.
3. Avoid by equalizing mask and dry suit during descents.
3-96
What is the first aid and
treatment for lung
overexpansion injuries?
■
■ First
First aid
aid is
is identical
identical to
to DCS
DCS ––
oxygen,
oxygen, lie
lie level
level on
on left
left side,
side, head
head
supported,
�
supported, primary
primary care,
care, etc.
etc.
■
■ Treatment
Treatment may
may involve
involve
recompression
recompression and
and surgery
surgery �
for
for pneumothorax
pneumothorax
DM
DM 6
6 --38
38
What is mask squeeze and
dry suit squeeze?
■
■ Failure to equalize mask�
mask�
◆
◆ Swelling
Swelling ffacial
acial tissues
tissues and
and
�
capillary
capillary rruptures
uptures in
in eyes�
eyes�
■
■ Failure to add air to dry �
suit on descent�
descent�
◆
◆ Welts
Welts and
and pinc
pinc hes�
hes�
◆
◆ Constricted
Constricted br
br eathing
eathing
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
39
DM 6
6 --39
Topic 7 Dive Equipment
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
The recommended method for developing knowledge about dive equipment
is to have candidates read the Equipment section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and complete the equipment section in the Diving Knowledge
Workbook (or The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia). Have them
consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual
to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.
After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a
group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then
answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the
material based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation
outline as a guide for a complete review.
If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop
knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. Have examples of
the equipment you’re discussing as training aids during your presentations.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Scuba cylinders
Overview
1. How do you identify and what are the meanings of
the following scuba cylinder marks: alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, working pressure and overpressurization designation?
■
■ Scuba Cylinder s�
s�
■
■ Valves�
Valves�
■
■ Regulator s�
s�
■
■ Instruments �
2. What are the differences between steel and aluminum cylinder pressures, thickness and capacity?
■
■ Enriched Air Equipment
Considerations
DM
DM 77 -- 22
3. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic
test?
4. How does extreme heat affect a scuba cylinder, and
what should you do if a scuba cylinder is exposed to
extreme heat?
5. Why should a tank be visually inspected annually?
II. Valves
6. What are the different types of tank valves?
7. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder
from exploding, and how does it work?
III. Regulators
8. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semiclosed circuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-97
9. How does an open circuit regulator work?
10. What is meant by fail-safe with respect to regulators, and how does it work?
11. What are meant by upstream and downstream
valves, and balanced and unbalanced regulators?
12. What is the purpose of a regulator environmental
seal?
IV. Instruments
13. What are the proper procedures for using dive computers in a buddy team?
14. What are the different operating principles for
depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
15. What are the options for carrying gauges?
V. Enriched Air Equipment Considerations
16. What special equipment requirements and considerations do you have when diving with enriched
air?
Outline
I. Scuba cylinders
A. How do you identify and what are the meanings of the following scuba cylinder marks:
alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, working
pressure and over-pressurization designation?
1. Scuba cylinders have various markings stamped at
the neck. These vary somewhat internationally, but
typically include: [Have example cylinders present
to show candidates the following marks.]
a. The government agency responsible for supervision/approval of compressed gas containers.
(e.g., in North America - DOT/CTC)
b. The alloy designation. Steel will normally have
a designation 3AA. Aluminum will normally be
designated by 3AL.
c. The working pressure. The specific working pressure is indicated by a numerical designation.
Tanks that have a “+” designation after the current hydrostatic test date can be filled to 10 percent beyond their rated working pressure.
d. The hydrostatic test date indicates both the date
of hydrostatic pressure tests and the testing facility. A plus sign after the test date is the over-pres3-98
Three: Knowledge Development
What are the st eps of a
hydrostatic (pressure) t est?
■
■ Tank
Tank volume
volume measured
measured �
■
■ Tank
Tank pressuriz
pressuriz ed
ed beyond
beyond normal
normal
working
working pressure
pressure �
■
■ Pressure
Pressure released
released and
and tank
tank vv olume
olume
measured
measured aa gain�
gain�
■
■ If
If change
change is
is within
within specified
specified limits,
limits,
tank
tank passes
passes test
test
NOTE:
NOTE: Specific
Specific pr
pr otocols
otocols ma
ma yy vary
vary
from
from countr
countr yy to
to countr
countr yy
Cylinders
DM
DM 77 -- 55
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
surization designation, which means the cylinder
may be filled 10 percent beyond the stamped working pressure.
e. Tanks also have a stamped serial number and
manufacturer’s designation.
B. What are the differences between steel and aluminum cylinder pressures, thickness and capacity?
1. Virtually all scuba cylinders are made from steel alloy
or aluminum alloy.
2. Steel alloys are stronger than aluminum for the same
thickness, so steel scuba tanks have thinner walls and
larger internal volumes for a given external size. This
means that for a given size, they hold more air at a
given pressure than aluminum, or the same air at a
lower pressure.
3. Because aluminum is weaker than steel it requires a
thicker wall and lower internal volume for a given
external size. Typically, aluminum tanks have higher
working pressures so they hold comparable or slightly
more air than steel cylinders. Aluminum’s advantage
is that it is less subject to structural weakening due to
corrosion.
C. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic test? How does extreme heat affect a scuba
cylinder, and what should you do if a scuba cylinder is exposed to extreme heat?
1. Many countries require periodic hydrostatic pressure
testing to determine the structural integrity of cylinders.
a. In the U.S., the test is required every five years.
b. In the U.K., it is required every four years.
2. Although tests procedures vary from country to country, in general:
a. The tester immerses the cylinder in water and measures its volume.
b. The tester next fills the cylinder with water and
pressurizes it to more than working pressure and
measures the cylinder’s expansion.
c. After releasing the pressure, the tester measures its
new unpressurized volume against its original volume.
d. If the tank contracts to within acceptable limits (as
set by the government), the tank passes. [Provide
local protocols if different.]
3-99
D. Certain circumstances can weaken tanks before a hydro test is required. Have tanks hydrostatically tested
after exposure to any of the following conditions:
1. Tumbling (or sandblasting) to remove corrosion
2. Damage due to impact
3. Exposure to heat in excess of 82° C /180° F may affect the metals integrity. Never repaint a cylinder
using a heat painting process such as that used on
automobiles.
4. Left unused for two years or more (especially if with
zero pressure)
E. Why should a tank be visually inspected
annually?
1. Visual inspection - an inspector examines the interior and exterior of a cylinder annually. This is done
to check for damage or wear that may cause the
cylinder to fail between hydrostatic tests.
2. The inspection is not required by law in most countries, but is an industry standard.
3. Removal of the valve during the test also enables lubrication, reducing problems from electrolysis due to
the dissimilar metals of the valve and tank. O-rings
may be replaced as needed, and the valve examined
for overhaul if necessary.
Hydrostatic t ests
are necessary:
■
■ At
At regular
regular inter
inter vals
vals specified
specified �
by
by the
the go
government
vernment �
■
■ If
If tank
tank is
is tumb
tumb led
led to
to remo
remo ve
ve corr
corrosion�
osion�
■
■ When
When aa tank
tank is
is dama
dama ged
ged due
due to
to impact
impact �
■
■ After
After aa tank
tank is
is ee xposed
xposed to
to heat
heat in
in �
excess
excess of
of 82°C/180°F
82°C/180°F �
■
■ If
If the
the tank
tank is
is left
left un
un used
used for
for �
two
two or
or more
more yy ears
ears
Cylinders
Why should a tank be
visually inspect ed?�
ed?�
�
To check for damage or
wear that may cause
cylinder to fail
Cylinders
II.Valves
A. What are the different types of tank valves?
1. The simplest tank valve is simply an on-off valve.
This is referred to as a K valve, which is by far the
most commonly used today.
2. A valve with a mechanical reserve is a J valve. It
contains a spring-loaded mechanism that, if activated (by placing it in the “up” position) restricts the
air flow when the pressure drops to between 20-40
bar (2000-4000kPa)/300-500 psi.
a. This alerts the diver to low air. The diver pulls the
lever into the “down” position, which releases the
restricted air flow. The J valve is a warning device;
it doesn’t provide any additional air volume.
b. With the advent of the submersible pressure
gauge, J valves began to disappear. In fact, when
using a J valve, many divers often disable it by
keeping it in the “down” position.
c. Note that when filling tanks equipped with J
3-100
DM
DM 77 -- 6
6
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 77 -- 77
valves that they cannot be filled if the valve is in
an “up” position.
3. Long popular in Europe, DIN (Deutsche IndustrieNorm) connectors are becoming more common.
With the DIN system, the regulator screws into the
cylinder valve, providing two primary advantages
over the yoke screw design:
a. A better seal between the tank and regulator
valves due to the fact that the o-ring is actually trapped between the two valves. (The tank
valve is “female” and the regulator connector is
“male.”)
b. Because the tank valve and regulator are secured
by threads, the connection is much stronger than
the yoke screw assembly. This makes DIN valves
particularly popular among cave and wreck divers, who may accidentally strike the valve/regulator on overhead obstructions.
c. This system, because of the superior o-ring positioning and strength, enables the use of much
higher air pressures.
B. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder from exploding, and how does it work?
1. A burst disk is required by law in many countries
and installed into every valve to reduce the possibility that an overpressurized cylinder will explode.
2. It is a thin copper disk that ruptures and allows air
to vent from the cylinder when the internal pressure
reaches approximately 125 percent to 166 percent of
the working pressure.
3. Because they weaken over time, you want to have
these disks replaced regularly by a qualified equipment technician. Installing the wrong burst disk
could result in the tank rupturing before the disk.
Valves are equipped
with burst disks �
— a thin copper disk that
ruptures if the tank
pressure greatly exceeds �
its working pressure
Cylinders
DM
DM 77 -- 99
III. Regulators
A. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semiclosed circuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?
1. There are three types of scuba - self contained underwater breathing apparatus.
a. Open circuit scuba - scuba typically used by recreational divers. The diver inhales air from cylinder
via a demand valve regulator and exhales it into
the water, thus the circuit is open because none of
the air is recycled.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-101
b. Semiclosed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from a
breathing bag that receives a steady flow of gas
(usually enriched air). The diver exhales back into
a breathing bag and the gas has carbon dioxide
removed chemically - excess gas from the steady
flow trickles out through a valve. The circuit is
semi-open because part of the gas is recycled and
part of it is released.
c. Closed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from a
breathing bag and diver exhales back into a
breathing bag. The gas has carbon dioxide removed chemically and electronic sensors control
flow of oxygen and other gases as required The
circuit is closed because all gas is recycled and
none released (except to vent expanding gas on
ascent).
2. Though open circuit doesn’t recycle breathing gases,
it is the main stay of recreational diving for several
reasons.
a. It much simpler in design, which makes it reliable
and less costly. Closed and semiclosed are more
prone to malfunctions.
b. It is much easier to learn to use.
c. It requires only a cylinder of air. Closed and semiclosed units require chemicals and access to pure
gases or enriched air.
d. It is much simpler to maintain and service.
B. How does an open circuit regulator work?
1. The first stage reduces the high pressure delivered by
the tank to an intermediate pressure (usually about
10-13 bar (1000-3000 kPa)/140-190 psi above the
ambient water pressure).
a. When the diver inhales, the air pressure in the
first stage drops below the desired ambient pressure. This allows water pressure to flex a diaphragm or move a piston, opening a valve that
releases air from the tank.
b. Air flows as long as the diver inhales, keeping the
first stage from reaching intermediate pressure.
c. When the diver stops inhaling, the pressure rises
in the first stage so that upon reaching intermediate pressure, the valve to the tank closes and air
no longer flows.
2. The second stage reduces the intermediate air pressure to ambient pressure for breathing.
3-102
Three: Knowledge Development
Define these t erms with
respect to scuba regulators:
■
■
Upstream - Downstream�
Downstream�
■
■
Fail-safe�
Fail-safe�
■
■
Environmental seal�
seal�
■
■
Balanced - Unbalanced
Regulators
DM
DM 77 -- 13
13
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
a. When the diver inhales, water pressure pushes in
a diaphragm in the second stage and opens the
second stage downstream valve releasing air flow
from the first stage.
b. As long as the diver inhales, air continues to flow.
c. When the diver stops inhaling, the diaphragm returns to its relaxed position and the valve closes.
d. Exhaled air exits the second stage through oneway exhalation valves.
e. On some second stage models, the diaphragm
opens a small pilot valve, which creates a pressure imbalance that opens the main valve.
1. Advantage - less breathing effort
2. Disadvantage - more complex design difficult
to service and adjust.
C. What are meant by upstream and downstream
valves?
1. Modern open circuit regulator valves have downstream design, meaning they open with the air flow
(the pressure is trying to open the valve) rather than
upstream, in which the valves open against the air
flow (the pressure is trying to close the valve).
2. A malfunctioning downstream valve will permit
continuous air flow (freeflow) rather than cut off air
flow.
3. What is meant by fail-safe with respect to
regulators, and how does it work?
a. Freeflowing during a malfunction gives regulators
a fail-safe design - it would fail in a safe manner
in that it continues to provide air. Obviously the
tank will exhaust quickly so the diver must ascend immediately.
D. What is the purpose of a regulator environmental seal?
1. Normal air flow causes regulator temperature to
drop (expanding gases have a lower temperature).
2. In extremely cold water (such as cold water deep
diving, ice diving, etc.) the temperature drop can
cause water to freeze regulator first stage valves into
the open, freeflowing position.
3. To avoid freeflow in extremely cold water, some
regulator first stages have environmental sealing.
This seals silicone grease or oil, which don’t freeze,
around the first stage. The silicone or oil transmits
3-103
the pressure from the water to the diaphragm or
piston so the regulator operates normally.
E. What are balanced and unbalanced regulators?
1. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure resists
or assists the opening of valves in the first stage is
called an unbalanced regulator.
a. Less costly design
b. Breathing characteristics change with cylinder
pressure
c. No longer commonly found
2. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure neither assists or resists the opening of valves is called a
balanced regulator.
a. Breathing characteristics unchanged with varying
cylinder pressure.
b. Virtually all modern regulators are balanced
regulators.
IV. Instruments
A. What are the proper procedures for using dive
computers in a buddy team?
1. Dive computers calculate remaining no decompression time by comparing the depth/time input to the
limits of a programmed decompression model.
2. Practical considerations for using dive computers:
a. Because buddy pairs are unlikely to dive exactly
the same profile, each diver should have an individual computer.
b. The buddy team should ascend based on the
shortest times shown by any diver in the team.
c. If a computer fails, and the divers have recorded
their dive time, depths and surface intervals, it
may be possible to continue diving using tables.
Otherwise the diver must remain out of the water
for at least 12 hours, or as specified by the computer manufacturer.
d. The same guidelines that apply to dive table use,
such as making deep dives before shallow dives,
starting deep and working shallow, etc. apply to
dive computers.
B. What are the different operating principles for
depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
1. Depth gauges - there are several types, some in common use and some not as common
3-104
What are the procedures
for using dive comput ers?
■
■ Each
Each buddy
buddy should
should �
have
have aa computer�
computer�
■
■ Buddies
Buddies should
should follow
follow �
the
the most
most conservative
conservative dive
dive time�
time�
■
■ All
All dive
dive table
table guidelines
guidelines (deeper
(deeper
dive/depth
dive/depth first)
first) and
and manufacturer
manufacturer
recommendations
recommendations apply
apply
DM
DM 77 -- 14
14
Instruments
Three: Knowledge Development
What are the different
types of depth gauges?
■
■ Capillar
Capillaryy —
— open
open tube
tube �
best
best used
used at
at shallo
shallo w
w depths
depths �
■
■ Open
Open bour
bour don
don tube
tube —
— tube
tube
straightens,
straightens, moving
moving the
the depth
depth needle
needle �
■
■ Oil-filled
Oil-filled —
— sealed
sealed bour
bour don
don tube
tube �
■
■ Diaphra
Diaphragm
gm —
— diaphra
diaphra gm
gm flexes,
flexes,
levers
levers and
and ggears
ears move
move needle
needle �
■
■ Digital
Digital —
— transducer
transducer senses
senses depth
depth
Instruments
DM
15
DM 77 -- 15
How do submersible
pressure gauges work?
■
■ Mechanical
Mechanical
((similar
similar to
to bourdon
bourdon tube)
tube)
—
high pressure
pressure entering
entering the
the tube
tube
— high
moves
moves the
the pressure
pressure gaug
gaug ee needle
needle�
■
■ Electronic
— pressure
pressure transducer
transducer
Electronic —
�
■
■ Hoseless
Hoseless —
— pressure
pressure transducer
transducer
transmits
transmits reading
reading to
to wrist
wrist computer
computer
How do compasses work?
Instruments
DM
16
DM 77 --16
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
a. Capillary depth gauges are a simple piece of clear
tubing, sealed at one end and open at the other,
with depth increments indicated according to
where the water column rests based on Boyle’s
Law. They are inexpensive and reliable, though
hard to read accurately much deeper than 10 metres/30 feet.
b. Open bourdon tube gauges contain a spiral shaped
tube. Water enters the tube end and increasing
pressure causes tube to straighten somewhat. The
straightening moves the depth gauge needle. Because the tube is open, clogging can be a problem
with these devices.
c. Oil-filled gauges also use bourdon tube design, but
using a sealed tube in an oil-filled gauge housing.
Pressure transmitted through the oil causes the
tube to coil more tightly. This moves the depth
gauge needle. The depth gauge is not open to the
water and therefore not clog prone.
d. Diaphragm gauges function by connecting a flexible diaphragm to a series of levers and gears that
move the display needle.
e. Digital gauges are electronic gauges that read
depth via a transducer, which varies the electricity
it transmits depending on the pressure exerted on
it. These provide a digital display. These offer the
highest degree of accuracy, and are used in dive
computers to determine depth.
C. Submersible pressure gauges (SPG)
1. The SPG works based on the same principle as the
bourdon tube gauge - high pressure air from the
cylinder enters a C shaped or spiral tube and causes
it to straighten somewhat, causing the SPG needle to
read the pressure.
2. Electronic SPGs use a pressure transducer similar to
those in dive computers/electronic depth gauges.
3. SPGs may be integrated with dive computers. The
most recent innovation is a transducer on the regulator that transmits the air pressure to a wrist-worn
computer, eliminating the SPG hose.
D. Compasses
1. North needle of compass always points to magnetic
north because the needle is a magnet, aligned by
the field of earth’s geomagnetism.
3-105
2. With most dive compasses, the diver reads direction
directly against the needle, but new electronic compasses read the heading digitally.
3. Divers use liquid filled compasses so the gauge withstands pressure, and to dampen needle movement
for easier reading.
E. What are the options for carrying gauges?
1. Wrist mount - Diver straps gauges to the wrist.
a. Useful for compact instruments.
b. Most accurate placement for compass use other
than hand holding it.
c. More streamlined than console on chest, especially in overhead environments.
d. May be more prone to entanglement in some instances (e.g., kelp diving.)
2. Console - Combines several instruments into a package on the SPG or may integrate several instruments
into one, such as a pressure integrated dive computer.
a. Speeds up dive preparation - no strapping on
gauges.
b. Keeps arms clear for easy donning/doffing.
c. Console requires securing so it doesn’t drag and
damage itself or environment.
3. Retractable mount - Gauge mount clips to BCD with
spring wound retraction cord. The diver pulls out to
read then retracts out of the way.
a. Popular for hoseless computers with divers who
don’t like wrist mount.
b. Makes it convenient to hand-hold compass for
greatest accuracy.
What are the options
for carrying gauges?
■
■ Wrist mount �
■
■ Console �
◆
◆ Retractable
Retractable mount
mount
Instruments
V. Enriched Air Equipment Considerations
A. What special equipment requirements and considerations do you have when diving with enriched air?
1. Because enriched air has more oxygen than air has
oxygen, there is a greater potential for fire or explosion related to improperly cleaned equipment.
2. Diving with enriched air presents oxygen toxicity
hazards not common to diving with air within recreational diving limits Divers must know they’re using
enriched air, and what blend of enriched air they’re
using.
3-106
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
17
DM 77 -- 17
Enriched Air (EANx)
Equipment Considerations
■
■ Equipment
Equipment needs
needs to
to be
be cleaned
cleaned to
to
oxygen
oxygen service
service specifications�
specifications�
◆
◆ Required
Required b
b yy most
most man
man ufacturer
ufacturer ss
when
when using
using more
more than
than 23%
23% O
O
◆
◆ Definitel
Definitelyy required
required with
with
�
22
�
more
more than
than 40%
40% O
O 22
continued...
continued...
DM
DM 77 --18
18
EANx Equipment...
■
■ Cylinders
Cylinders require
require special
special marking�
marking�
◆
◆ Identifying
Identifying band
band
�
◆
◆ Visual
Visual inspection
inspection decal
decal
�
–– oxygen
oxygen cleaned
cleaned�
◆
◆ Content
Content anal
anal ysis
ysis decal
decal �
■
y�
■ Divers
personally
Divers must
must personall
analyze
analyze their
their cylinder
cylinder content
content
DM
19
DM 77 -- 19
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
B. These concerns have led to the following industry guidelines involving equipment used with enriched air.
1. Most manufacturers require their equipment to be
cleaned to oxygen service specifications if it will be
exposed to more than 23 percent oxygen.
2. Some in the dive industry say that up to 40 percent
oxygen requires no special cleaning or materials.
a. This so-called “40 percent rule” is under debate
and has yet to be settled. [Note to instructor:
Inform candidates of the industry’s most current
position on this issue, if different.]
b. Follow manufacturer guidelines with respect to
using equipment with enriched air.
3. Any piece of equipment that will be exposed to more
than 40 percent oxygen requires special cleaning,
lubrication and materials to meet oxygen service
specifications. If such equipment is used with air from
a standard source, it may need to be recleaned.
4. Enriched air cylinders require special marking:
a. A 15cm/6in (approx.) band at the tank shoulder.
The top and bottom of band should be a yellow
2.5cm/1in band with the center 10cm/4in green
with the words “Enriched Air,” “Enriched Air Nitrox,” “Nitrox” or similar. Yellow cylinders need
only the green/label portion.
b. A visual inspection sticker stating the cylinder
has been cleaned to oxygen service specifications, or not if enriched air will not be blended
in the cylinder (partial pressure blending in the
cylinder requires putting pure oxygen in the
cylinder, even if final blend will have less than 40
percent oxygen).
c. A contents sticker or tag identifying the current
blend, the fill date, the blend’s maximum depth,
and the analyzer/diver name.
d. Local laws may alter or add to these requirements.
C. Enriched air cylinders in the dive environment
1. Enriched air divers personally analyze the contents
of their cylinders before using them.
2. On some dive boats, the normal practice is to grab
any full cylinder available for the next dive - this
isn’t appropriate with enriched air, which practice
calls for divers to use the tanks they personally analyzed.
3-107
Topic 8 ‑ Decompression
Theory and the RDP
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
The recommended method for developing knowledge about decompression
theory and the Recreational Dive Planner is to have candidates read:
1. The Physiology section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, (or
The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia).
2. The “Decompression Theory and the RDP” chapter of the PADI
Divemaster Manual.
3. The Recreational Dive Planner section in the Diving Knowledge
Workbook.
Additional sources:
• The Recreational Diver’s Guide to Decompression Theory, Dive Tables and
Dive Computers will help candidates understand decompression models and
the differences between how dive computers apply decompression models.
• The “Decompression Management” section of The Best of the Undersea Journal features articles about decompression theory and the history and
development of the RDP.
After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group.
Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then an‑
swer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the
material based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation
outline as a guide for a complete review.
By the end of the course, candidates should have mastered calculating
dive profiles using both the RDP table and the eRDPML. Have them consult
the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be
sure they can meet all the performance requirements.
This presentation outline includes only a RDP skills review to assess mas‑
tery. Candidates who need to refresh their skills may receive remediation
under your direction. They can also independently use the Open Water Diver
CD-ROM or RDP Instructions for Use booklets.
If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop
knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail.
3-108
Three: Knowledge Development
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. The Haldanean Decompression Model
1. Who is credited with developing the basic decompression model we use today in most computers
and dive tables?
Overview
■
■ The
The Haldanean
Haldanean
2. Describe the structure and operation of a Haldanean model.
Decompression
Decompression Model
Model
■
■ US
US Navy
Navy Tables
Tables and
and Repetitive
Repetitive Diving
Diving
■
■ The
The Recreational
Recreational Dive
Dive Planner
Planner
3. What are meant by compartment, halftime and Mvalue?
■
■ Dive
Dive Computer
Computer ss
■
■ Special
Special Rules,
Rules,
Recommendations
Recommendations
and
and Situations
Situations
■
■ RDP
RDP Table
Table and
and Wheel
Wheel Re
Re view
view
4. Why do you need to know your approximate altitude when diving?
DM
DM 8
8 -- 22
5. What is the relationship between the Haldanean
model and the human body, and how far can you
rely on a model?
II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving
6. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one time the
“standard” for recreational diving?
III. The Recreational Dive Planner
7. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitive diving surface interval credit, and why does the Recreational Dive Planner use a different basis?
8. For whom was the RDP developed, and how does its
testing contrast with the testing of the USN table?
9. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive diving surface
interval credit have compared to the USN tables?
10. Why are there two forms of the RDP?
11. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP be used on
the USN tables or any other tables?
IV. Dive Computers
12. How do modern dive computers apply decompression models to provide more no decompression dive
time?
13. How do computers compare with each other and
the RDP with respect to surface interval credit and
M-values?
V. Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Using the
RDP and Computers
14. What are the general rules and recommendations
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-109
for diving with the Recreational Dive Planner,
including for flying after diving, emergency decompression and omitted decompression?
15. What are the recommendations for diving with
dive computers?
VI. RDP Table and eRDPML Use Review
16. Demonstrate how to find a no decompression limit
for a first and repetitive dive using both the RDP
table and the eRDPML.
17. Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel dive using
the eRDPML.
18. Using both the RDP table and the eRDPML, demonstrate how to calculate dive profiles for three or
more repetitive dives.
Outline
I. The Haldanean Decompression Model
A. Who is credited with developing the basic
decompression model we use today in most
computers and dive tables?
1. Virtually all dive tables and dive computers calcu‑
late no decompression limits and decompression
stops (when needed) based on a Haldanean decom‑
pression model.
2. Haldanean models are named after John Scott Hal‑
dane, credited with developing the first such math‑
ematical decompression model and based on it, the
first dive tables.
a. British Royal Navy assigned Haldane to address
and solve decompression sickness in Navy divers.
b. Haldane knew of Paul Bert’s work, which showed
that dissolved nitrogen causes DCS, but no one
had developed a system for predicting DCS.
c. Haldane experimented and produced his model
and tables in 1906, his work was published in
1908 in the Journal of Hygiene. Modern Haldanean
models differ little conceptually from the original
model.
B. Describe the structure and operation of a Haldanean model.
1. Haldane based his model on experiments and the
following concepts:
3-110
Haldanean Decompression
Model
■
■ Model
Model consists
consists of
of multiple
multiple
theoretical
theoretical tissues
tissues
■
■ What
What is
is aa tissue
tissue compar
compar
◆
◆ What
What is
is
halftime
halftime ?
?
◆
◆ What
What in
in
M-v
M-v alue
alue ?
?
Three: Knowledge Development
tment
tment ?
?
DM
DM 8
8 -- 33
a. Upon descent to a given depth, nitrogen pressure
in breathing air is higher than in the body, so
nitrogen dissolves into body tissues.
b. Given enough time, the body will saturate and
absorb no more nitrogen at that depth.
c. Upon ascent, nitrogen in the body (tissue pres‑
sure) is higher than surrounding pressure, caus‑
ing tissues to release nitrogen.
d. The difference between the dissolved nitrogen
pressure and the surrounding pressure (whether
ascending or descending) is called the pressure
gradient.
e. On ascent, tissues can tolerate some gradient of
high tissue pressure without DCS.
f. If gradient exceeds acceptable limits, bubbles
form causing DCS.
g. DCS can be avoided by keeping the gradient
within acceptable limits.
C. What is meant by compartment, halftime and
M-value?
1. Haldane discovered that different parts of the body
absorb and release dissolved nitrogen at different
rates. To account for the differences, Haldane con‑
structed a model consisting of multiple theoretical
tissues:
a. The tissues did not directly correspond to any par‑
ticular body tissue.
b. Because they’re not actually corresponding to
body tissues, it is more proper to call them compartments, or tissue compartments.
c. Haldane’s original model had five compartments.
Modern versions may have 14 or more compart‑
ments.
2. Each compartment has a halftime for the rate at
which it absorbs and releases nitrogen.
a. Halftime is the time, in minutes, for a particular
compartment to go halfway from its beginning
tissue pressure to saturation at a new depth, in
exponential progression.
b. After six halftimes the compartment is considered
saturated (actually 98.4 percent saturated ‑ close
enough for practical purposes). For simplicity tis‑
sue pressure is often expressed in msw/fsw gauge.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-111
c. Halftimes are assigned in minutes ‑ Haldane’s
ranged from 5 to 75 minutes. Modern models
range from 3 to more than 600 minutes ‑ short
halftime compartments are sometimes called fast
tissues or fast compartments and those with longer
halftimes are called slow tissue/compartments.
Example ‑ A 5 minute halftime compartment will have
how much tissue pressure 5 minutes after taken from the
surface to 18 metres/60 feet in seawater?
Answer: 9 msw/30 fsw of pressure
(in one halftime, compartment goes half distance from begin‑
ning to new pressure).
Example ‑ A 20 minute halftime compartment will have
how much tissue pressure after 40 minutes at 24 msw/80
fsw?
Answer: 18 msw/60 fsw of pressure
40 minutes = 2 halftimes for 20 minute halftime.
After first halftime, pressure goes halfway = 12 msw/40 fsw.
After second halftime, pressure goes halfway from 12 msw/40
fsw to 24 msw/80 fsw = 18 msw/60 fsw.
Example ‑ How long would it take a 60 minute compart‑
ment to saturate to a given depth?
Answer: 360 minutes (60 x 6 halftimes)
3. Besides differing in halftimes, each compartment
has a different M-value.
a. M-value is the maximum tissue pressure allowed
in the compartment when surfacing to prevent
exceeding acceptable gradient. [Note: there’s ac‑
tually different M-values for each compartment at
each depth, but in no stop diving we only use the
one that applies to the surface.
b. The faster the compartment (shorter halftime),
the higher the M-value (the more nitrogen it is
allowed to have when surfacing); the slower the
compartment, the lower the M-value.
c. The M-value is determined by test dives showing
what does and does not result in DCS or Dopplerdetectable bubbles.
3-112
Three: Knowledge Development
4. Why do you need to know your approximate
altitude when diving?
a. The M-value is calculated for surfacing at sea
level; at an altitude higher than approximately
300 metres/1000 feet, the gradient may be too
high unless you use altitude diving procedures.
You need to know your approximate altitude
when diving so you can adjust for the gradient us‑
ing high altitude diving protocols.
5. The model works by determining how much each
compartment absorbs for a given depth and time;
when any compartment reaches its M-value, the
dive ends (or it becomes a decompression dive).
a. On deeper dives, fast compartments usually reach
M-value first ‑ this is why deeper dives have short
no decompression limits.
b. On shallower dives, the depth may be less than
the M-value of some faster compartments. There‑
fore a slower compartment controls the dive and
model allows more no decompression time.
c. Compartment that reaches its M-value first is
called the controlling compartment.
D. What is the relationship between the Haldanean model and the human body, and how far
can you rely on a model?
1. Haldanean models are mathematical extrapola‑
tions.
2. There is no direct relationship between model and
the body. The relationship is implied based on actual
dive data (tests and field experience).
3. Like all models, Haldanean models have limits of
reliability.
4. You can only rely on a model as far as it has been
shown to work in tests and by field experience.
5. Models are imperfect ‑ this is why divers learn from
the beginning that there is always some risk of DCS,
even within computer/table limits ‑ the actual inci‑
dence is less than 1 percent, but there is always some
risk.
US Navy T ables
■
■ Developed
Developed primaril
primaril yy for
for militar
militar yy
decompression
decompression diving
diving
II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving
■
■ The
The “standar
“standard”
d” for
for recreational
recreational
diving
diving until
until mid1980s
mid1980s
■
■ Surface
Surface inter
inter val
val credit
credit based
based on
on
worst
worst case
case –– slo
slo west
west compar
compar tment
tment
halftime
halftime of
of 120
120 min
min utes
utes
DM
DM 8
8 -- 44
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Haldane’s tables were well accepted, but the U.S. Navy
revised the model and tables periodically to meet
changing needs and to keep up with new information.
3-113
B. The 1950s revision (current U.S. Navy tables) had two
important differences from original Haldane model
and tables:
1. Six compartments were used with a longest halftime
of 120 minutes based on Navy data that there were
even slower body areas to consider.
2. Credit for surface interval for repetitive diving added
‑ previously, all dives in 24 hours were added togeth‑
er and treated as a single dive.
C. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one time
the “standard” for recreational diving?
1. The U.S. Navy tables were developed primarily for
military decompression diving, but they became vir‑
tually the standard in recreational diving until the
mid-1980s for several reasons:
a. Before computers, developing a table was a te‑
dious process that had to be computed by hand.
Few outside the Navy had the resources or ability
to produce tables.
b. Many early sport divers began as military divers,
bringing the USN tables with them.
c. The USN tables were widely available and public
domain, allowing publishers to reproduce and
rearrange them.
d. Though they weren’t ideal for recreational divers,
they could be relied on when following accepted
conservative diving practices.
D. Repetitive Diving
1. The rise of Navy scuba diving created a need for
repetitive diving that allowed longer repetitive dives
based on credit for time at the surface.
2. On the Haldanean model, in pure math all com‑
partments would lose nitrogen at their normal half‑
time (e.g., a 5 minute compartment would be free of
nitrogen after 30 minutes or 6 halftimes at surface;
a 10 minute compartment would be free after 60
minutes or 6 halftimes at surface, etc.)
3. However, you can’t make a usable table this way
because any compartment could control a repetitive
dive, depending on the first dive, the surface inter‑
val and the second dive.
4. To solve this, U.S. Navy designed its surface interval
credit based on the worst case ‑ a dive may be pre‑
ceded by a decompression dive, so the slowest com‑
partment (120 minutes halftime) controls.
3-114
Three: Knowledge Development
5. In effect, all compartments turn into 120 minute
compartments at the surface and all repetitive dive
credit is based on this worst-case approach. This is
why it takes 12 hours (720 minutes ‑ 6 halftimes) to
be “clean” with the USN tables.
6. USN tested its tables and repetitive dive procedures
using Navy divers and released them for fleet use.
a. Subjects were male, reasonably fit, primarily in
20s and 30s.
b. Test criteria were bends/no bends.
III. The Recreational Dive Planner
Recreational Dive Planner
(R DP)
■
■ Proposed
Proposed in
in the
the early
early 1980s
1980s
by
by Dr.
Dr. Raymond
Raymond Rogers
Rogers
◆
◆ Believed
Believed 120
120 min
min ute
ute surface
surface inter
inter val
val
credit
credit was
was too
too long
long
◆
◆ USN
USN tab
table
le were
were tested
tested on
on militar
militar yy
personnel,
personnel, not
not recreational
recreational diver
diver ss
◆
◆ Doppler
Doppler Flo
Flo w
w meter
meter sho
sho wed
wed silent
silent
bubbles
bubbles at
at USN
USN tab
tab le
le limits
limits
DM
DM 8
8 -- 55
Working with DS AT (Diving
Science and T echnolog y),
Dr. Rogers developed the R DP
Testing occurred at the Institut
e
of Applied T echnolog y (IAP M)
with Dr . Michael P owell as the
principle investigator
DM
DM 8
8 -- 6
6
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitive
diving surface interval credit, and why does the
Recreational Dive Planner use a different basis?
1. In the mid-1980s, Dr. Raymond E. Rogers, a PADI
Divemaster, recognized that the USN tables, while
having a good track record, might not be ideal for
recreational diving
a. The 120 minute surface interval credit, while
appropriate for repetitive decompression diving,
seemed excessively conservative for recreational
divers, who make only no decompression dives.
b. The USN tables were made for Navy divers, but
this test group didn’t fully reflect the demograph‑
ics of recreational divers, who include females
and ages above and below the Navy’s.
c. Doppler ultrasound flow meters had come into
being and they showed that silent bubbles of‑
ten formed at USN table limits, suggesting lower
M-values (which would reduce single dive no
decompression limits) might be more appropriate
for nonmilitary diving.
B. For whom was the RDP developed, and how
does its testing contrast with the testing of the
USN table?
1. Working with DSAT (Diving Science & Technology
‑ a corporate affiliate of PADI) Rogers developed the
RDP. It was tested in 1987 and 1988 at the Institute
of Applied Physiology and Medicine (IAPM) with Dr.
Michael R. Powell the principal investigator.
2. Testing during 1987 and 1988:
a. Established the 60 minute surface interval credit
concept.
3-115
b. Was first extensive testing of multilevel diving.
c. Included broader demographic test subjects ‑ more
like recreational diver population.
d. Was based on limiting Doppler detectable bub‑
bles, not just bends/no bends.
e. Multiday testing successfully tested RDP making 4
dives daily for 6 days (though diving more conser‑
vatively is recommended)
C. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive diving surface interval credit have compared to the USN
tables?
1. Dr. Rogers found that the 120 minutes halftime for
surface interval was too conservative for no stop div‑
ing, a 60 minute halftime was more appropriate.
a. This means that it offers about twice as much
credit for surface interval time than the USN
tables.
2. The RDP model has 14 compartments ranging from
5 to 480 minute halftimes.
3. Surface interval credit is based on 60 minutes wash‑
out. The WX, YZ rules make sure slower compart‑
ments remain within accepted limits.
D. Dr. Rogers lowered the M-values to match recent Dop‑
pler data. The RDP offers more repetitive dive time, but
its maximum allowed nitrogen loading is lower.
1. Limits sometimes called “Spencer” limits after physi‑
ologist who first proposed them.
E. Why are there two forms of the RDP?
1. Table version introduced for those more comfortable
with a table format.
2. The eRDPML offers multilevel diving, more precision
and is easier to use.
F. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP be
used on the USN tables or any other tables?
1. The RDP has more pressure groups than Navy
tables. Pressure Group letters designate theoretical
nitrogen levels based on the model and since USN
and other tables use different models, letters are not
interchangeable between RDP, USN tables or any
other tables.
2. You can interchange letters between different ver‑
sions of the RDP.
.
3-116
R DP Charact eristics
■
■ Model
Model uses
uses 14
14 compartments
compartments
■
■ Maximum
Maximum allowed
allowed nitrogen
nitrogen loading
loading
(M-values)
(M-values) lower
lower than
than USN
USN tables
tables
◆
◆ Shorter
Shorter initial
initial no
no decompression
decompression limits
limits
■
■ Surface
Surface interval
interval credit
credit based
based
on
on 60
60 minute
minute washout
washout
◆
◆ Longer
Longer allowed
allowed repetitive
repetitive dive
dive times
times
DM
DM 8
8 -- 77
Two V ersions
Multilevel
Multilevel diving
diving
Pressure group designations are NOT
interchangeable with other dive tables
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 8
8 -- 8
8
IV. Dive Computers
Dive Comput ers
■
■ Computers
Computers essentially
essentially write
write
custom
custom dive
dive tables
tables for
for exact
exact dives
dives
◆
◆ Eliminates
Eliminates rr ounding
ounding
◆
◆ Longer
Longer dive
dive times
times
DM
DM 8
8 -- 99
How do dive comput ers
compare to the R DP?
■
■ Three
Three groups
groups
◆
◆ Spencer
Spencer limits,
limits,
EE
EE washout
washout
◆
◆ Spencer
Spencer limits,
limits,
60
60 min
minute
ute washout
washout
◆
◆ Buhlmann
Buhlmann limits,
limits,
EE
EE washout
washout
DM
DM 8
8 --10
10
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. How do modern dive computers apply decompression models to provide more no decompression dive time?
1. Dive computers offer the maximum bottom time es‑
sentially by writing a custom dive table for the exact
dive ‑ eliminates unnecessary rounding and there‑
fore more dive time.
B. How do computers compare with each other
and the RDP with respect to surface interval
credit and M-values?
1. Spencer limits, EE washout
a. Approximately same M-values as RDP
b. All compartments release theoretical nitrogen at
the surface at their underwater halftime rate (EE
stands for “exponential ‑ exponential” ), as com‑
pared to the RDP, which releases theoretical nitro‑
gen at the 60 minute rate for all compartments of
60 minutes or faster.
c. This washout means these computers can permit
dives beyond what has been tested to work ‑ e.g.,
3 dives to 40 metres/130 feet in a row for 10 min‑
utes each with only 30 minutes between them.
d. This washout is not a problem if divers avoid
multiple deep dives with short surface intervals
(generally not recommended whether using a
computer or not).
2. Spencer limits, 60 minute washout
a. Based on data for RDP
b. At surface, all compartments 60 minutes and
faster wash out at 60 minute rate; all slower com‑
partments wash out at their underwater halftime
rate (like the RDP).
c. Dives very similar to what RDP model allows.
3. Buhlmann limits, EE washout
a. Further reduced M-values (based on work of Dr.
Buhlmann).
b. All compartments wash out at their underwater
halftime rate.
c. With reduced M-values, repetitive dives similar to
what RDP data supports, though repetitive deep
dives with short surface intervals may still permit
dives beyond what has been tested to work.
3-117
C. Spencer, 60 minute washout and Buhlmann, EE wash‑
out seem to be the most popular types of computers.
V. Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Us‑
ing the RDP and Computers
Note and Reminder: Because people differ in their susceptibility
to DCS, no decompression table or computer can guarantee that
DCS will never occur, even though a dive is within the limits of
the table. Never “push” any computer or table to or beyond its
limits.
A. What are the general rules and recommendations for diving with the Recreational Dive
Planner, including for flying after diving, emergency decompression and omitted decompression?
1. When planning a dive in cold water or under condi‑
tions that may be strenuous, plan the dive assuming
the depth is 4 metres/10 feet deeper than it actual.
2. Plan repetitive dives so each successive dive is to the
same or a shallower depth. Don’t follow a dive with
a deeper dive. Plan your deepest dive first.
3. Limit maximum depths in consideration of training
and experience. (Scuba Divers: 12 metres/40 feet;
Open Water Divers: 18 metres/60 feet; divers with
greater training and experience: 30 metres/100 feet;
no dive in excess of 40 metres/130 feet.)
4. Multiple Repetitive Dives ‑ use when planning three
or more dives in a day.
a. If the ending pressure group after any dive is W
or X, the minimum surface interval between all
subsequent dives is 1 hour.
b. If the ending pressure group after any dive is Y
or Z, the minimum surface interval between all
subsequent dives is 3 hours.
5. Limit repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet or shal‑
lower.
6. The 42-metre/140-foot designation on the Recre‑
ational Dive Planner is for emergency purposes
only; do not dive deeper than 40 m/130 ft.
7. If you discover you have accidentally descended
below 40 metres/130 feet, immediately ascend (at
a rate not to exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute)
3-118
Special Rules,
Recommendations
and Situations
DM
DM 8
8 -- 11
11
Rules
■
■ Cold/stren
Cold/stren uous
uous dives
dives –– plan
plan as
as if
if
4m/10ft
4m/10ft deeper
deeper than
than actual
actual
■
■ Each
Each successive
successive dive
dive is
is to
to
the
the same
same or
or shallo
shallo wer
wer depth
depth
xperience
xperience
■
■ Multiple
Multiple repetitive
repetitive dives
dives
■
■ Limit
Limit depth
depth to
to training
training and
and ee
◆
◆W
W or
or X
X –– 11 hour
hour surface
surface interval
interval
on
on all
all subsequent
subsequent dives
dives
◆
◆Y
Y or
or Z
Z –– 33 hour
hour surface
surface interval
interval
on
on all
all subsequent
subsequent dives
dives
continued...
continued...
DM
DM 8
8 --12
12
Rules...
■
■ Repetitive
Repetitive dive
dive limit
limit –– 30m/100ft
■
■ Maximum
Maximum limit
limit –– 40m/130ft
◆
◆ Accidentall
Accidentall yy deeper?
deeper?
✚
✚ Make
Make an
an emer
emer gency
gency decompression
decompression
stop
stop for
for 8
8 minutes
minutes at
at 5m/15ft
5m/15ft
✚
✚ Do
Do not
not dive
dive aa gain
gain for
for at
at
least
least 6
6 hours
hours
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 8
8 --13
13
Safety Stops
■
■ Recommended
Recommended after
after every
every dive
dive
■
■ Required
Required after:
after:
◆
◆ Any
Any dive
dive to
to or
or deeper
deeper
than
than 30m/100ft
◆
◆ Any
Any dive
dive made
made within
within
3
pressure
pressure gr
gr oups
oups of
of NDL
NDL
◆
◆ Any
Any dive
dive reac
reac hes
hes any
any limit
limit
on
on the
the RDP
RDP
DM
DM 8
8 --14
14
Emergency Decompression
■
■ 8 minutes
minutes at
at 5m/15ft
5m/15ft
when
when limit
limit is
is exceeded
exceeded by
by
55 minutes
minutes or
or less
less
■
■ 15 minutes
minutes at
at 5m/15ft
5m/15ft (or
(or as
as
long
long as
as air
air supply
supply permits)
permits)
when
when limit
limit is
is exceeded
exceeded by
by
more
more than
than 55 minutes
minutes
DM
DM 8
8 --15
15
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
to 5 metres/15 feet, and make an emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes. If the no decompression
limit for 40 metres/130 feet is NOT exceeded by
more than 5 minutes. Do not dive again for 6 hours.
B. Safety stops
1. You are encouraged to make a safety stop for 3
minutes at 5 metres/15 feet after every dive. (The
time spent at a safety stop need not be added to the
bottom time of the dive.)
2. Always make a safety stop:
a. After any dive to 30 metres/100 feet (or greater).
b. Any time you will surface within 3 pressure
groups of your NDL.
c. When a dive is made to any limit of the RDP.
3. PADI S.A.F.E. (Slowly Ascend From Every dive) Cam‑
paign
a. This project resulted from PADI’s leadership role
in encouraging slower ascent rates among sport
divers. [Refer to sidebar article “Be a S.A.F.E. Div‑
er” in section Four of the PADI Open Water Diver
Manual.]
C. Emergency decompression
1. An emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes at
5 metres/15 feet must be made if a no decompression
limit is accidentally exceeded by 5 minutes or less.
• Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the
water at least 6 hours prior to making another
dive.
2. If a no decompression limit is exceeded by more
than 5 minutes, a 5 metre/15 foot decompression
stop of no less than 15 minutes is required (air sup‑
ply permitting).
• Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the
water at least 24 hours prior to making another
dive.
3. Decompression is considered an emergency proce‑
dure. The RDP should never be used for decompres‑
sion diving purposes or when breathing a gas other
than air or enriched air with special procedures.
4. Inwater recompression ‑ treating DCI by putting
the diver back underwater shouldn’t be attempted.
Recompression requires long durations, oxygen, and
often drug therapy. Normally the required resources
3-119
aren’t available at a dive site, and incomplete recom‑
pression will usually make the diver even worse.
D. Omitted decompression
1. If an emergency decompression stop is mistakenly omit‑
ted, do not reenter the water for at least 24 hours.
2. Rest, be alert for any signs or symptoms of DCS.
3. Breathe pure oxygen.
4. Seek medical assistance if signs or symptoms occur.
E. Altitude considerations
1. Because depth at altitude must be converted into a theo‑
retical equivalent depth at sea level, special procedures
must be implemented when using the RDP at altitudes
over 300 metres/1000 feet.
2. Special training is advised when diving at high altitudes.
F. Flying and ascending to altitude after diving recommenda‑
tions. (These recommendations apply to altitudes between
600-2400 metres/2000-8000 feet.)
1. For a single dive within the no decompression limit, a
minimum preflight surface interval of 12 hours is sug‑
gested
2. For repetitive dives and/or multiday dives, a minimum
preflight surface interval of 18 hours is suggested.
3. For dives requiring decompression stops, a minimum
preflight surface interval greater than 18 hours is sug‑
gested.
G. What are the recommendations for diving with
dive computers?
1. Divers should not attempt to share a diver computer. Use
the same computer throughout the diving day ‑ it must
keep up with all dives and surface intervals.
2. Keep these points in mind:
a. Computers and tables have same theoretical basis
‑ nothing makes one better or safer.
b. Therefore, same guidelines apply (e.g., don’t make
deep dives after shallow dives, etc.)
3. Follow all manufacturer recommendations.
4. End the dive based on the most conservative computer in
the buddy team.
5. If a computer fails:
a. Ascend immediately according to the manufacturer’s
instruction. If there is no recommendation, immedi‑
ately ascend slowly and make a safety stop at
5 metres/15 feet. If there’s any question as
3-120
Omitt ed Decompression
■
■ Do
Do not
not reenter
reenter the
the water
water
■
■ Do
Do not
not dive
dive for
for at
at least
least 24
24 hours
hours
■
■ Monitor
Monitor for
for signs
signs or
or
symptoms
symptoms of
of DCS
DCS
■
■ Breathe
Breathe oxygen
oxygen and
and seek
seek
medical
medical assistance
assistance if
if
signs/symptoms
signs/symptoms occur
occur
DM
DM 8
8 --16
16
Altitude Considerations
Special procedures must
be implement ed when
using the R DP at altitudes
great er than 300m/1 000ft
DM
DM 8
8 -- 17
17
Flying Aft er Diving
■
■ Wait
Wait aa minim
minim um
um surface
surface inter
inter val
val of
of
12
12 hours
hours prior
prior to
to ascent
ascent to
to altitude
altitude
in
in aa commer
commer cial
cial jet
jet airliner
airliner (altitude
(altitude
up
up to
to 2400m/8000ft)
2400m/8000ft)
■
■ Divers
Divers who
who plan
plan to
to make
make dail
dail y,
y, multiple
multiple
dives
dives for
for several
several da
days
ys or
or make
make dives
dives
that
that require
require decompression
decompression stops
stops
should
should take
take aa special
special precaution
precaution
—
an
e
xtended
surface
inter
— an e xtended surface inter val
val
beyond
beyond 12
12 hour
hour ss before
before flight
flight
DM
DM 8
8 --18
18
What should you do if
your comput er fails?
■
■ Slowly
Slowly ascend
ascend to
to 5m/15ft
5m/15ft and
and make
make aa
safety
safety stop
stop —
— ee xtended
xtended ifif necessar
necessar yy
■
■ If
If your
your dive
dive pr
pr ofile
ofile is
is within
within no
no stop
stop
limits,
limits, you
you may
may be
be ab
able
le to
to resume
resume
diving
diving using
using the
the RDP
RDP
■
■ If
If not,
not, stay
stay out
out of
of the
the water
water accor
accor ding
ding
to
to man
manufacturer
ufacturer recommendations
recommendations
—
— usuall
usuall yy 12
12 to
to 24
24 hour
hour ss
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 8
8 --19
19
to whether you may have accidentally exceeded
the no decompression limits, make the stop as
long as possible with the air you have.
b. If you have been tracking your profiles with
tables and are within no stop limits, you may be
able to resume diving using tables.
c. Otherwise, remain out of the water according to
manufacturer recommendations before resuming
diving with tables or another computer. This is
usually 12 to 24 hours.
VI. RDP Table and eRDPML Use Review
R DP
Wheel Review
DM
DM 8
8 --20
20
Note to instructor: Candidates should be familiar with the RDP,
but you may want to review its use to assure leadership-level
mastery. Candidates should be able to perform the following
listed procedures. Work through examples to assess learning, to
review and remediate as necessary.
• Demonstrate how to find a no decompression limit for a first and repetitive dive using
both the RDP table and the eRDPML.
• Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel dive
using the eRDPML.
• Using both RDP table and the eRDPML, demonstrate how to calculate dive profiles for
three or more repetitive dives.
R DP
Table Review
DM
DM 8
8 --21
21
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Find NDL.
B. Find Pressure Group after a dive.
C. Find new Pressure Group after surface interval.
D. Find adjusted NDL and RNT (Table).
E. Find TBT (Table) and new Pressure Group after a re‑
petitive dive.
F. Find all of the above for dive profile with three or more
repetitive dives.
G. Find next level depth for a multilevel dive. (eRDPML)
H. Find NDLs for each level on multilevel dive. (eRDPML)
I. Apply the WX-YZ rules.
J. Find the minimum surface interval required for a re‑
petitive dive of given bottom time and depth.
3-121
Topic 9 – Divemaster
Conducted Programs
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
The recommended method for developing knowledge about programs PADI
Divemasters can conduct independently is to have candidates read sections
of the PADI Instructor Manual that apply to those programs. Then conduct
this presentation, referencing those sections as you highlight standards and
other information needed when conducting the program. Also cover changes announced in the Training Bulletin that may apply and have candidates
write these changes into their PADI Instructor Manual.
Remind candidates that they will be practicing one of these programs
during Required Training Exercise 3 - Divemaster Conducted Program, so
they need to know how to find this material (not necessarily memorize).
The presentation outline suggests points that you can apply to all PADI
Divemaster conducted programs. Repeat the outline for each program. At
this writing, Discover Snorkeling, Skin Diver, Discover Local Diving, Scuba
Review, Discover Scuba Diving and PADI Scuba Diver are the programs
you’ll cover under this topic.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual.
1. Demonstrate how to find standards and related
information in the PADI Instructor Manual.
II. Standards and Ratios
2. In the PADI Instructor Manual, differentiate between requirements (standards) that you must
adhere to when conducting a PADI program, and
supporting material/recommendations.
3. Find the performance requirements and explain
why it’s important to state these for participants.
Overview
■
■ Finding Pr ograms in the
■
■ Standards and Ratios �
■
■ Administrative Requirements
�
■
■ Marketing
DM
DM 99 -- 22
4. Find the maximum ratio of participants to PADI
Divemaster.
5. List materials required and recommended when
conducting the program.
III. Administrative Requirements
6. Complete administrative requirements (Liability
Release and Express Assumption of Risk, PIC, etc.)
7. State the annual renewal requirements for PADI
Divemasters.
3-122
�
PADI Instructor Man ual�
ual�
Three: Knowledge Development
8. State the professional liability insurance requirements for PADI Divemasters conducting the program.
IV. Marketing
9. State who the program is intended for (audience)
and explain the program’s approach and
philosophy.
10. List and explain suggested marketing and
promotional tips for the program.
Outline
What programs can P ADI
Divemasters conduct?
■
■ Skin
Skin Diver
Diver course�
course�
■
■ Discover
Discover Snorkeling�
Snorkeling�
[Go through outline for each program.]
■
■ Discover
Discover Local
Local Diving�
Diving�
■
■ Scuba
Scuba Review�
Review�
I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual.
■
■ Discover
Discover Scuba
Scuba Diving
Diving �
—
— subsequent
subsequent dives
dives �
A. Demonstrate how to find standards and related
information in the PADI Instructor Manual.
B. Identify relevant sections in General Standards and
Procedures.
■
■ PADI
PADI Scuba
Scuba Diver
Diver �
—
— super
super vise
vise recreational
recreational dives
dives
DM
DM 99 -- 33
II. Standards and Ratios
A. Differentiate between requirements (standards)
that you must adhere to when conducting a
PADI program, and supporting material/recommendations.
1. Boldface text
2. Nonbold recommendations
B. Find the performance requirements and explain why it’s important to state these for
participants.
1. Participants must meet these before continuing in
the program.
2. Stating objectives for participants helps them learn
by showing them clearly what they’re trying to do.
a. Not necessary to read objectives verbatim
(though may be acceptable).
b. [Give examples by reading objectives as found in
the Instructor Manual, then stating them as you
would for program participants.]
C. Find the maximum ratio of participants to
PADI Divemaster.
D. List materials required and recommended
when conducting the program.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-123
III. Administrative Requirements
[Have samples of all forms that candidates can practice filling out and reviewing for completeness.]
A. Complete administrative requirements
(Liability Release and Express Assumption of
Risk, PIC, etc.)
B. Form completion practice [Cover filling out PIC
Envelopes for the PADI Skin Diver course in detail.]
C. State the annual renewal requirements for
PADI Divemasters.
1. PADI Members renew their memberships annually
with their PADI Office. They sign an annual renewal
and license agreement and pay annual membership
dues.
D. State the professional liability insurance
requirements for PADI Divemasters conducting
the program.
1. When programs are conducted independently by a
PADI Divemaster, Professional Underwater Liability
Insurance is required in many territories. [Explain
local requirements, emphasizing that insurance is
always recommended even if not required, and that
insurance requirements may change if candidates
relocate.]
You must renew your
PADI Membership and
carry professional
liability insurance
(where applicable) to
conduct these programs
DM
DM 99 -- 44
IV. Marketing
A. State who the program is intended for
(audience) and explain the program’s approach
and philosophy.
1. This information is usually found in the introduction to Instructor Guide.
2. [Review material in PADI Instructor Manual for each
program. Be sure candidates understand the intended participants and the conduct philosophy behind
each program. For example, candidates need to
recognize that Discover Snorkeling differs from the
PADI Skin Diver course, etc.]
B. List and explain suggested marketing and
promotional tips for the program.
1. Developing marketing/promotion methods [Review
material in the PADI Instructor Manual for each program.]
a. Consult The Undersea Journal, The Business of Diving, and other business-oriented material from
3-124
Let’s review the
appropriate sections
in your PADI �
Instructor �
Manual
Three: Knowledge Development
Professional
Professional Association
Association of
of
Diving
Diving Instructors
Instructors
Instructor
Manual
DM
DM 99 -- 55
PADI Skin Diver Course
■
■ Course
Course Goals�
Goals�
■
■ Standards�
Standards�
■
■ Course
Course Overview�
Overview�
■
■ Open
Open Water
Water Dive
Dive �
(optional)�
(optional)�
■
■ Filling
Filling out
out the
the PIC
PIC envelope�
envelope�
■
■ How
How can
can you
you market
market this
this program?
program?
DM
6
DM 99 -- 6
Scuba Review
PADI for general marketing information, and for
information specific to each program.
b. Coordinate with your dive operation. Dive operations often has specific marketing objectives and
strategies that you can draw from in promoting
the programs you can conduct.
c. Think about for whom each program is intended
and pursue groups of such individuals.
2. Examples:
a. Skin Diver course - for serious free divers, people
wanting more vigorous exercise. Also useful for
children too young for scuba certification when
parents take Open Water Diver course. Promote
in health clubs, summer camps, teen organizations.
b. Discover Snorkeling - suitable for travel and tour
groups, popular with all age groups, good as a
relaxing way to enjoy the water and as a swimming activity for exercise Promote in health clubs
and with outdoors-oriented organizations.
c. Scuba Review - bring inactive diving friends or
new divers into diving. Promote in resort destinations where inactive divers discover opportunities
to dive. Also at travel agencies, tour groups, etc.
■
■ Why?�
Why?�
■
■ Divemaster’s
Divemaster’s role�
role�
■
■ Standards�
Standards�
■
■ Knowledge
Knowledge Review�
Review�
■
■ Confined
Confined Water
Water Skill
Skill Review�
Review�
■
■ Recognition�
Recognition�
■
■ How
How can
can you
you market
market this
this program?
program?
DM
DM 99 -- 99
Discover Scuba Diving
■
■ Standards�
Standards�
◆
◆ What
What can
can cer
cer tified
tified �
assistants
assistants do?
do?
PADI Scuba Diver
■
■ Diver
Diver qualifications�
qualifications�
■
■ Depth
Depth recommendation�
recommendation�
■
■ How
How can
can you
you market
market your
your �
services
services to
to these
these divers?
divers?
DM
DM 99 --10
10
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-125
Topic 10 - Risk Management
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
This section introduces candidates to principles of risk management as it
relates to the immediate duties they’ll have as PADI Divemasters. It is recommended that you have candidates read The Law and the Diving Professional, if
available in a language they understand. The risk management and quality
assurance articles in The Best of the Undersea Journal are also good references.
Refer candidates to the Quality Management and risk management discussions in the General Standards and Procedures Guide of the PADI Instructor
Manual.
The presentation outline covers the basic risk management principles
found most commonly in legal systems. As appropriate, cover details specific
to risk management that apply to the local area, or the area where candidates will be functioning as PADI Divemasters.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objectives
I. Definition of Risk Management
1. What is meant by risk management?
II. Legal Risk Management
2. What are meant by duty of care and negligence in
most legal systems?
Overview
3. Why is it recommended that you carry professional
liability insurance, even when you plan to function
exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI
Instructor?
4. What is the most important step you can take to
manage legal risk?
■
■ Definition of Risk Mana
■
■ Quality Mana gement —
Recognition and Assurance �
■
■ Personal Health and Saf ety
DM
DM 10
10 -- 22
5. Why does adhering to standards help you reduce
legal risk?
6. What role does good judgment play in reducing
legal risk?
7. What is the role of proper paperwork and administration in reducing legal risk?
8. In the event of a dive accident, besides giving priority to taking all steps you can to handle the emergency, what should you do from a legal risk management point of view?
3-126
gement�
gement�
■
■ Legal Risk Mana gement�
gement�
Three: Knowledge Development
III. Quality Management - Recognition and Assurance
9. How does the Quality Management process help
you reduce legal risk?
10. What are the steps in the Quality Management process?
IV. Personal Health and Safety
11. What are five suggestions to help you manage risks
to your health and safety as a divemaster?
Outline
What is meant by �
risk management?�
management?�
�
I. What is meant by risk management?
A. Risk management is the process of reducing risks you
face while acting within your capacity as a PADI Divemaster. The goal of risk management is to increase the
safety for divers and you by avoiding accidents for all
involved, and by reducing legal risk for you as a dive
leader.
B. Risk management can be divided into two broad areas
that you need to address:
1. Legal risk - dealing with sources of liability
2. Your personal health and safety
Increasing safety and
avoiding accidents �
to reduce risk
DM
DM 10
10 -- 33
II. Legal Risk Management
What is duty of care ?
■
■ The
The expectation
expectation to
to act
act as
as aa
reasonably
reasonably prudent
prudent divemaster
divemaster
would
would act
act under
under the
the same
same or
or
similar
similar circumstances�
circumstances�
�
�
What
is negligence ?
�
■
■ Failure
Failure to
to meet
meet aa duty
duty of
of care
care
DM
DM 10
10 -- 44
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. Functioning as a leadership-level diver who supervises
others entails some legal risk.
B. What are meant by duty of care and negligence
in most legal systems?
1. Under most legal systems, you have a duty of care
- to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would
act under the same or similar circumstances - to
those you supervise.
a. Since diving is a risk-taking activity, a divemaster doesn’t and can’t ever guarantee diver safety.
There is always some residual risk of serious harm
or death, despite the divemaster’s best efforts, and
divers must accept this risk if they intend to dive.
2. The act of failing to meet a duty of care is negligence
under most legal systems.
3. In the event of an accident, if a lawsuit is filed, the
suit usually alleges that as a divemaster you had a
duty of care and were negligent.
3-127
4. Under most legal systems, if you are found in court
to have been negligent, and your negligence is the
direct cause of an accident that causes injury, property destruction or death, then you are liable and
will owe damages (compensation).
B. Why is it recommended that you carry professional liability insurance, even when you plan
to function exclusively as an assistant working
under a PADI Instructor?
1. Under most legal systems, you can be sued even if
you did nothing wrong - defending yourself can be
costly and liability insurance provides coverage for
your defense.
2. If you are found liable, insurance provides coverage
for damages.
3. If you are assisting an instructor, though the instructor has most of the responsibility, coverage is recommended because:
a. You can still be named in the suit.
b. You can be found responsible for your own actions or what part you may have played in an
accident, even with an instructor present.
c. Instructor’s insurance does not cover assistants.
d. You can be added to a suit already in progress.
4. Within the U.S. and territories and many other
regions, professional liability insurance is required
when engaging in PADI Divemaster conducted programs independently. [Explain local requirements.]
5. Note that professional liability insurance does not
normally provide liability coverage for your personally owned scuba equipment you might provide a
diver or student diver (such as when something malfunctions or is forgotten).
a. Instead, provide equipment from a dive center/
resort’s normal rental/class scuba equipment,
which will be covered under the operation’s store
insurance.
b. If necessary, you can obtain special coverage as
part of your professional liability insurance to
provide liability coverage for personal equipment
you might provide a certified diver or student
diver.
3-128
Why is professional liability
insurance impor tant?
■
■ You
You can
can be
be sued,
sued,
even
even ifif you
you �
did
did nothing
nothing wr
wr ong�
ong�
■
■ Insurance
Insurance ma
ma yy cover
cover def
defense
ense costs
costs
and
and dama
dama ges,
ges, ifif necessar
necessar y�
y�
�
not
not cover
cover assistants
assistants
NOTE:
NOTE: Professional
Professional liability
liability insur
insur ance
ance does
does not
not
normally
normally cov
cov er
er personally
personally owned
owned equipment
equipment
■
■ Instructor’
Instructor’ss insurance
insurance does
does
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 10
10 -- 55
What is the most
important step you can
take to manage legal risk?�
risk?�
�
Adhere to conservative
diving, supervisory and
assisting practices
DM
6
DM 10
10 -- 6
Reducing Legal Risk
■
■ Follow
Follow standards�
standards�
■
■ Use
Use good
good judgment�
judgment�
■
■ Have
Have documentation�
documentation�
— proper paperw ork�
ork�
◆
◆ Liability
Liability release
release �
◆
◆ Medical
Medical fform�
orm�
◆
◆ Other
Other student
student or
or
�
participant
participant documents
documents
DM
DM 10
10 -- 77
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
C. What is the most important step you can take
to manage legal risk?
1. The primary way to manage legal risk is to prevent
accidents in the first place by adhering to conservative diving, supervisory and assisting practices.
a. This is professional judgment and basic human
compassion and caring - not just a legal tool.
b. You’re not likely to face a suit for an accident
that doesn’t happen.
2. Why does adhering to standards help you
reduce legal risk?
a. Standards stipulate your duty of care - by sticking
to standards, you go a long way to proving you
met your duty.
b. PADI defends the appropriateness of standards so
you don’t have to.
3. What role does good judgment play in reducing legal risk?.
a. Good judgment and being conservative reduces
your legal risk.
b. Even when following standards, you need to use
good judgment in their application - example:
reducing ratios when conditions aren’t ideal.
c. Ties in to primary risk management - reduces
possibility of an accident in the first place.
4. What is the role of proper paperwork and
administration in reducing legal risk?
[Ask candidates how paperwork might relate to risk
management. Have them discuss this briefly before
presenting the following points as elaborations on
conclusions they reach, or to cover ideas they missed.]
a. Paperwork is very important - suits have been dismissed based on proper paperwork alone!
b. Paperwork and administration help you document that you followed standards.
c. The Liability Release and Express Assumption of
Risk form shifts legal responsibility to program
participants - they assume risk where allowed by
law [explain local laws].
1. Informs participants of risks.
2. Forms a contract between you and participants
that they accept risks, including the risk that
you may do something that could be held negligent by a court.
3-129
3. This is one of the most important documents;
have it completed and keep it on file.
d. Medical form
1. Helps prevent accidents by screening those
medically ineligible to dive.
a. Those who answer “yes” to any condition
must receive physician approval before
participating.
b. In some countries, all participants must
see a physician prior to enrolling in scuba
activities.
2. Accidents resulting from a medical condition listed on form helps shift responsibility to
participant (for incorrectly filling out form) or
physician who signed form.
e. Review paperwork closely to be sure all blanks are
filled, that it is signed, dated and legible.
f. Keep all paperwork at least seven years, or longer
if local statute of limitations is longer.
D. In the event of a dive accident, besides giving
priority to taking all steps you can to handle
the emergency, what should you do from a legal
risk management point of view?
1. Your first priority is handling the emergency, contacting authorities and emergency medical care,
showing compassion and doing everything possible
for the well being of victim.
2. Do inform the victim’s family about the accident
and show compassion and care.
3. Do cooperate with authorities and give them the
facts of the incident.
4. Do not assign, admit or speculate on causes or
blame.
a. Distracts from managing the accident and helping the victim.
b. Facts are seldom complete, so speculations are
usually inaccurate.
c. Statements made about causes may appear in the
press and in court (if a suit is filed) even if subsequent investigation proves these inaccurate.
5. Do collect the victim’s equipment to turn over to
authorities.
a. Have someone (a diver) not connected with the
3-130
In the event of an accident,
what should you do?
■
■ Handle
Handle emergency
emergency and
and tend
tend to
to victim�
victim�
■
■ Provide
Provide the
the victim’s
victim’s family
family and
and
authorities
authorities with
with facts�
facts�
■
■ Do
Do not
not assign,
assign, admit
admit to
to or
or speculate
speculate
on
on causes
causes or
or blame�
blame�
■
■ Collect
Collect the
the victim’s
victim’s equipment
equipment �
for
for authorities�
authorities�
■
■ File
File an
an incident
incident report
report with
with PADI
PADI
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 10
10 -- 8
8
accident confirm in writing whether it appears to
be working normally and how much air is in the
cylinder.
b. Record person’s contact information - equipment
may sit unrinsed for months and not work properly when checked later.
6. File an incident report with your PADI Office.
III. Quality Management - Recognition and Assurance
A. How does the Quality Management process help
you reduce legal risk?
1. All PADI Offices conduct random surveys of PADI
student divers and program participants, and follow up on reports from the field to ensure that PADI
programs are conducted to PADI Standards. This
process also confirms that PADI professionals understand those standards. This proactive process helps
you reduce legal risk.
2. It creates documentation that you follow standards
to support your paperwork and statements.
3. It gives standards that defend your credibility by
showing that PADI enforces them.
4. If you are found to be accidentally not following
standards:
a. Provides opportunity to correct problem before a
related accident occurs.
b. Documents the correction so that, in the event of
an accident later, no one can successfully allege
you violated standards based on witness reports
of earlier standards violations.
B. What are the steps in the Quality Management
process?
1. Procedures are primarily corrective. Most standards
problems result from misunderstandings.
2. [Review the Quality Assurance procedure steps in
the General Standards and Procedures section of the
PADI Instructor Manual.]
How does PADI’s quality
management process work?
■
■ Students
Students and
and pr
pr ogram
ogram par
par ticipants
ticipants
are
are randoml
randoml yy surveyed�
surveyed�
■
■ Repor
Reports
ts received
received fr
fr om
om customer
customer ss
and
and PADI
PADI Member
Member s�
s�
■
■ Proactive
Proactive pr
process
ocess ensures
ensures that
that
PADI
PADI programs
programs are
are conducted
conducted per
per
PADI
PADI Standar
Standar ds
ds
DM
DM 10
10 -- 99
Members who provide excellent
instruction and customer
service are recognized�
recognized�
�
When necessary, corrective
action is taken to ensure PADI
Members understand and
follow PADI Standards
DM
10
DM 10
10 --10
IV. Personal Health and Safety
A. Functioning as a divemaster can raise several potential
health and safety concerns.
1. Supervising duties may require long periods of being
active and alert, despite being tired.
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-131
2. You may need to make multiple dives in a relatively
short period.
3. Your duties may call for physical labor, stamina and
continuous exertion.
B. Maintaining your health and safety is a matter of following common health guidelines and conservative
diving practices.
C. What are five suggestions to help you manage
risks to your health and safety as a divemaster?
1. Stay physically fit by exercising regularly, getting
adequate rest and eating properly.
2. When making multiple repetitive dives, plan your
dives so that you make the deepest dive of the day
first and work progressively shallower, staying well
within the no decompression limits. Make a safety
stop at the end of all dives. Take a day off from diving every few days.
3. Stay hydrated. Tropical heat depletes body fluids, as
do caffeine and alcohol consumption.
4. When ill or injured, moderate your activities accordingly. Pressing on may delay healing and may
compromise your abilities.
5. Pay attention to your mental health - dive for fun,
not just for work, so you avoid burnout, and engage
in other pastimes.
3-132
Personal Health and Safety
■
■ Stay
Stay physically
physically fit�
fit�
■
■ Make
Make the
the deepest
deepest dive
dive of
of the
the
�
day
day first
first and
and sta
sta yy well
well within
within �
no
decompression
limits
�
no decompression limits
■
■ Remain
Remain h
hydrated
ydrated�
■
■ When
When ill
ill or
or injured,
injured, moderate
moderate �
your
your activities
activities �
■
■ Pay
Pay attention
attention to
to yy our
our mental
mental health
health �
—
— HAVE
HAVE FUN
FUN
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
11
DM 10
10 -- 11
Topic 11 The Business of Diving
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
This section introduces candidates to their function in the business aspects
of a dive operation. It is recommended that you have candidates read The
Business of Diving book, and business related articles in The Best of the Undersea Journal and the IDC Candidate Workbook, if available in a language they
can read. It’s also recommended that you encourage candidates to begin
developing business skills by viewing PADI business-related programs such
as Positive Approach Selling and Advanced Strategies for Recruiting and Retaining
Enthusiastic Divers.
Focus your elaboration on specific examples of how this information
pertains to the dive business in your local area.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objective
I. The Dive Consumer
1. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where does
the dive consumer find them?
2. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have in
helping dive consumers with the three Es?
Overview
■
■
The Dive Consumer�
Consumer�
■
■
Equipment Counseling
II. Equipment Counseling
3. What is the role of leadership-level divers with respect to equipment counseling?
4. What are four attributes of a positive sales process?
DM
DM 11
11 -- 22
Outline
I. The Dive Consumer
[Ask candidates what they need to be a diver. Write
their answers on the board in three columns according to equipment, education or entertainment (experiences), but don’t label columns. After getting several items in each column, ask candidates to name
each column. Transition into discussion of three Es.]
A. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where
does the dive consumer find them?
1. The “three Es” are characteristics needed by all dive
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-133
consumers, without which there would be no dive
industry.
a. Education - To dive safely initially, and to progress to more challenging types of dive activities,
divers need dive training.
b. Equipment - Without it diving is impossible. Dive
consumers need access to equipment to buy or
rent.
c. Entertainment (experience) - Education and
equipment have no value if divers can’t do something with them. Entertainment is the reason
people become divers.
1. Travel, local diving, clubs, and other events all
qualify as entertainment - reasons to dive and
to be involved with diving.
2. The need for entertainment is the reason to get
new student divers diving in confined water as
quickly as possible. Beginning divers often perceive the conventional long-classroom-sessions
as an obstacle or delay, and this stops some
people from learning to dive.
2. A fourth E sometimes mentioned is environment.
Divers need a healthy dive environment, and we
all need a healthy environment to live. As the dive
community grows, we take on increasing responsibility to act together as advocates for aquatic environments.
B. The dive center and dive resort, where the three Es
come together under one roof, is the focus of the dive
industry.
C. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have in
helping dive consumers with the three Es?
1. As a leadership-level diver, it is your role to help divers meet their education, equipment and entertainment needs.
a. May be direct involvement, such as leading a trip
or assisting with student divers in training.
b. May be indirect assistance, such as providing recommendations or advice to divers who ask about
travel, equipment, etc.
2. Certified divers will seek your supervision for guided
diving partly because you help assure that all three
Es are met.
3-134
How can you help
customers fulfill
their needs?
■
■ Direct
Direct involvement
involvement
�
■
■ Indirect
Indirect assistance
assistance
Three: Knowledge Development
DM
DM 11
11 -- 55
a. You handle the entertainment by knowing where
the best dive sites are and by making the experience fun.
b. You help divers assess whether they have the education needed to make a particular dive.
c. You help divers assess whether they’re properly
equipped for a dive, and may have spare equipment from the dive operation rental stock if
there’s an equipment related problem.
II. Equipment Counseling
[Ask candidates what they think about salespeople.
Next ask candidates to think of a salesperson who
they felt was genuinely helpful and tell you what
made the person effective. Take the resulting description and make the point that divemaster duties are
likely to involve equipment sales or counseling, so
they need to recognize the effective aspects of the
sales process.]
What about sales
and salespeople?�
salespeople?�
�
Become an �
equipment counselor
DM
DM 11
11 --6
6
Positive Sales Approach
■
■ Give
Give recommendations
recommendations that
that are
are
good
good for
for building
building long
long term
term
customer
customer relationships�
relationships�
■
■ Listen
Listen carefully
carefully to
to customer
customer needs�
needs�
■
■ Do
Do not
not make
make assumptions�
assumptions�
■
■ Provide
Provide the
the advice
advice you
you �
would
would like
like to
to receive
receive
A. What is the role of leadership-level divers with
respect to equipment counseling?
1. Divers, especially student divers, come to leadershiplevel divers for advice about equipment.
2. It is entirely appropriate for you to give advice on
equipment purchases.
a. Diving is a technical activity and learning about
equipment is part of the education each diver
goes through.
b. Divers appreciate the recommendations of those
they respect - think about when you were at their
level in diving.
3. The dive operation you work with relies on equipment sales as part of how they stay in business.
a. If you don’t help, divers may go elsewhere.
b. Or they may get advice from a less qualified
source.
c. Or they may not continue with diving - everyone
loses.
B. What are four attributes of a positive sales process?
1. Your goal is to give the best recommendations so the
diver will be happy with the equipment to promote
a long term relationship.
DM
DM 11
11 -- 77
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
3-135
a. You don’t need to “push” anything when your
goal is a long term relationship.
b. Long term relationships bring in the most business in the end - best for the dive operation, best
for the customer.
2. You listen to the divers who come to you for advice
and help them based on what they tell you.
a. They will usually tell you what they want and
need, but you may have to ask about their interests, planned uses, etc.
b. Try not to assume - it’s surprising how often what
they tell you differs from what you thought they’d
say.
3. You don’t make assumptions about price:
a. Recommend the equipment that best addresses
their needs and wants without worrying about price.
b. People often want more than they need. Give them
the facts and let them decide - buying higher performance equipment may cost more, but it is often cheaper in the long run, even if the individual
doesn’t need that performance level immediately.
4. You give all the advice you’d like to get.
a. Don’t forget the little things that make the big difference (e.g., a bottle of defog with a mask purchase, etc.).
b. Suggest ways (courses, trips, etc.) divers can enjoy
their new investment.
3-136
Three: Knowledge Development
Topic 12 - Your Diving Career
Recommended Materials and Methods
for Covering this Topic
This topic is intended to aim candidates toward a satisfying and successful
career in the dive industry, whether they’re pursuing leadership training as a
vocation or as an avocation. During this topic, your main emphasis will be
on progressing to the Assistant Instructor and Instructor levels, and on additional skills and training that can give individuals a competitive advantage
in the industry.
Presentation
Overview and Learning Objective
I. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career
Overview
1. What are six reasons why you should consider continuing your training through the PADI Open Water
Scuba Instructor level?
■
■ PADI Training to Fur ther
Your Dive Career �
■
■ Other Training That Can
Aid Your Career �
2. How does it benefit you to complete the PADI Assistant Instructor course prior to enrolling in the
PADI OWSI Program?
■
■ The Role of Emer ging
Technologies
DM
DM 12
12 -- 22
3. How does diver-level specialty training help your
career as a PADI Divemaster?
II. Other Training That Can Aid Your Career
4. What are six skills, outside of diver training, that
can make you more valuable in the dive industry?
III. The Role of Emerging Technologies
5. How will emerging technologies affect your career,
and what should you do in response?
Outline
Why continue
your education?
I. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career
■
■ Gaining
Gaining new
new skills
skills �
and
and qualifying
qualifying to
to �
conduct
conduct additional
additional �
courses
courses makes
makes �
you
you more
more versatile�
versatile�
■
■ Versatility
Versatility is
is what
what �
employers
employers look
look for
for
DM
DM 12
12 -- 33
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. What are six reasons why you should consider
continuing your training through the PADI
Open Water Scuba Instructor level?
1. Because they’re fully qualified to teach classes, instructors have more versatility as employees.
2. The majority of dive boat professionals supervising certified divers are instructors, which gives them
more versatility as employees because they can train
divers.
3-137
3. Most individuals who move into other areas of the
dive industry (e.g., manufacturer representatives)
begin as instructors - this experience lets them understand their customer’s needs.
4. Even if you’re primarily interested in leadership as
an avocation, not a full time vocation, certification
as an instructor creates more opportunities.
5. Increasingly, institutions of higher learning recognize the quality of PADI Instructor training. This
recognition may apply to opportunities and careers
beyond diving.
6. There are more opportunities for PADI Instructors
than for any other professional in the industry. The
demand for PADI Instructors exceeds the demand for
instructors of all other organizations combined.
B. How does it benefit you to complete the PADI
Assistant Instructor course prior to enrolling in
the PADI OWSI Program?
1. Much of the AI course comes from the IDC, so the
AI course reduces your instructor training program
load.
2. The AI course applies directly to what you learn in
the OWSI Program, gives you more time and practice that will help you be successful in the Instructor
Examination (IE) and as a certified instructor.
3. You need 100 logged dives to become a PADI Instructor. If you’re short that number, the AI course gives
you more opportunities to dive and gain experience.
4. The AI course gives you teaching and income opportunities by qualifying you to conduct additional
PADI courses and programs, including some nondiving PADI Specialities.
5. As an AI, you can enroll in PADI Specialty Instructor
courses. When you successfully complete the IE and
have ten dives in the specialty, you’ll be qualified to
teach the specialties in which you took these courses.
C. How does diver-level specialty training help
your career as a PADI Divemaster?
1. Providing more dive opportunities.
2. Helping you gain specialty experience that applies
when you qualify to teach the specialty at the Assistant Instructor and/or instructor levels.
3-138
Three: Knowledge Development
3. Giving you experience you can apply when assisting
specialty diver training.
II. Other Training That Can Aid Your Career
Why take specialty
diver courses?
A. Like any industry, the dive industry needs a variety of
skills. Becoming a PADI Divemaster, Assistant Instructor and Instructor provides the base for a successful
career, but additional skills and training can help your
chances of finding rewarding full time or part time
positions.
B. What are six skills, outside of diver training,
that can make you more valuable in the dive
industry?
1. Boat handling/captain’s license - useful at resorts
and boat-intensive operations.
2. Retail sales training - useful in virtually any dive
operation.
3. Sales management training - valuable for growth
within a retail dive operation.
4. Manufacturer equipment repair technician - certification to repair specific equipment expands a dive
operation’s services.
5. Compressor and/or diesel engine mechanics - virtually all dive operations have compressors, many
have diesel engines (in boat); these skills are especially valuable at remote destinations.
6. Writing/word processing/layout/photography - producing store newsletters/brochures.
■
■ Learn
Learn ne
new
w skills
skills
�
and
and gain
gain ad
ad ditional
ditional �
diving
diving oppor
oppor tunities
tunities�
■
■ Gain
Gain experience
experience
�
to
to apply
apply when
when �
assisting
assisting with
with specialty
specialty training
training
DM
DM 12
12 -- 55
What other training will
aid your diving career?
■
■ Boat
Boat handling/captain’s
handling/captain’s license�
license�
■
■ Retail
Retail sales
sales training�
training�
■
■ Sales
Sales management
management training�
training�
■
■ Equipment
Equipment repair
repair technician�
technician�
■
■ Compressor/diesel
Compressor/diesel mechanic�
mechanic�
■
■ Writing
Writing and
and photography
photography
DM
DM 12
12 --6
6
What should you know about
emerging technologies?
■
■ Chang
Changee is
is ine
inevitable
vitable and
and
III. The Role of Emerging Technologies
�
usually
PACE�
usually rapid
rapid — KEEP PACE�
■
■ Stay
Stay current
current �
◆
◆ Read
Read dive
dive periodicals
periodicals and
and watching
watching
diving-related
diving-related programs�
programs�
◆
◆ Attend
Attend dive
dive trade
trade shows�
shows�
◆
◆ Continually
Continually learn
learn about
about computers�
computers�
◆
◆ Put
Put new
new technologies
technologies to
to use�
use�
◆
◆ Be
Be open
open to
to change
change
DM
DM 12
12 -- 77
Divemaster Course Instructor Guide
A. How will emerging technologies affect your career, and what should you do in response?
1. Technology changes rapidly in diving just as in
other industries, and the pace continues to accelerate.
2. Much of what you know today will be obsolete in
only a few years.
a. Medical advancements are likely to rescue and
first aid recommendations.
b. Closed and semiclosed circuit scuba may become
more common in recreational diving.
c. Electronics may revolutionize navigation.
d. Physiology may learn more about DCI, leading to
new approaches to dive computer modeling, and
DCI treatment.
3-139
e. Instruction continues to become more convenient
and more efficient by using new technologies
such as multimedia computer-based training,
online training via the internet, etc. These will
expand.
B. A professional-level diver must remain current and up
to speed with technology.
1. Failure to do so obsoletes you - you may have difficulty competing with new professionals entering the
dive industry.
2. In some areas, failure to follow the most current
standards-of-care may have potential liability.
C. Ways to stay up to date.
1. Read a wide variety of dive periodicals and watch
dive videos and television programming.
2. Attend dive trade shows.
3. Keep up with changes in computer technology - they
affect virtually all industries, including diving.
4. Put new technologies into use. The best way to be
familiar with them is through hands-on application.
5. Never accept nor reject something just because it’s
new. Be open to change (you can’t stop it anyway),
but use your experience to evaluate the merits of
emerging technologies. Some will bring significant
improvements to diving; others will be short-lived
fads with little practicality.
3-140
Three: Knowledge Development