Understanding Food: Principles & Preparation, 4th Ed.

Licensed to: iChapters User Licensed to: iChapters User The perfect recipe for success. Make the most of your class experience—and increase your odds of success— with the Lab Manual for Understanding Food, 4E. Organized to follow Understanding Food, each chapter of this lab manual reinforces what you learn in the text. Hands-on experiments and recipes, covering all the major food categories in the book, enhance your understanding of the concepts covered and can help improve your performance in the course. ▶ Each lab begins with introduction pre-lab questions, followed by an overview of the objectives, procedures, recipes, and post-lab questions. ▶ NEW! Many photographs throughout help illustrate the lab procedures. ▶ A broad array of recipes encourages culinary creativity and diversity, and introduces you to foods from a variety of cultures. ▶ Study questions for each chapter help prepare you for your next exam. ▶ NEW! Lab exercises include “Sampling of Yogurt Products,” “Preparation of Applesauce— Effects of Apple Variety and Cooking Medium,” “Comparison of Types of Pasta,” and “Chemical Leaveners.” If your book is not bundled with the Lab Manual, you can purchase it online at: CengageBrain.com. Recipe for Success Understanding Food 4E Core Text + Lab Manual ISBN 978-1-111-48535-1 A la Carte Lab Manual standalone ISBN 978-0-538-49795-4 Table of C ontents 1. Sensory Evaluation 2. Food P reparation Basics 3. Meat 4. Poultry 5. Fish an d Shellfish 6. Milk 7. Cheese 8. Eggs 9. Vegeta bles and F ruits 10. Legum es 11. Cerea ls and Flo urs 12. Starch es 13. Quick Breads 14. Yeast Breads 15. Fats a nd Oils 16. Cakes 17. Pastry 18. Candy 19. Frozen Desserts 20. Bevera ges Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Understanding Food Principles and Preparation Fourth Edition Amy Brown University of Hawaii at Manoa Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party may be suppressed. Edition review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the over all learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove the contents from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate format, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation, Fourth Edition Amy Brown Senior Acquisitions Editor: Peggy Williams Developmental Editor: Elesha Feldman Editorial Assistant: Alexis Glubka Media Editor: Miriam Myers © 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Senior Marketing Manager: Laura McGinn Marketing Assistant: Elizabeth Wong Senior Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip Content Project Management: Pre-PressPMG Creative Director: Rob Hugel For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com. Senior Art Director: John Walker Print Buyer: Linda Hsu Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Text: Roberta Broyer Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Image: Dean Dauphinais Production Service: Pre-PressPMG Photo Researcher: Pre-PressPMG Cover Designer: Riezebos/Holzbaur: Bill Alexander Cover Image: © Taillard/photocuisine/Corbis Compositor: Pre-PressPMG Library of Congress Control Number: 2010926934 ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73498-1 ISBN-10: 0-538-73498-1 Wadsworth 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with oﬃce locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local oﬃce at www.cengage.com/global. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Wadsworth, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworth Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Brief Contents PART I FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 1 Food Selection 1 2 Food Evaluation COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS 16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 345 17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 23 18 Starches and Sauces 3 Chemistry of Food Composition 31 19 Quick Breads 367 391 407 20 Yeast Breads 418 PART II FOOD SERVICE 4 Food Safety 64 5 Food Preparation Basics 6 Meal Management 99 120 DESSERTS—REFINED CARBOHYDRATES & FAT 21 Sweeteners 435 22 Fats and Oils 453 23 Cakes and Cookies PART III FOODS PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS 7 Meat 140 8 Poultry 172 24 Pastries and Pies 478 498 25 Candy 518 26 Frozen Desserts 534 WATER—BEVERAGES 27 Beverages 549 9 Fish and Shellfish 188 10 Milk 210 11 Cheese 232 PART IV 12 Eggs 28 Food Preservation 249 PHYTOCHEMICALS—VEGETABLES, FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS FOOD INDUSTRY 574 29 Government Food Regulations 591 30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 609 13 Vegetables and Legumes 270 14 Fruits 298 15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 327 APPENDIXES A Food Preparation Equipment A-1 B Approximate Food Measurements B-1 C Substitution of Ingredients C-1 D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1 E Cheeses E-1 F Common Food Additives F-1 iii Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Preface xiv 2 Food Evaluation About the Author Sensory (Subjective) Evaluation xvii Sensory Criteria Sight 1 Odor 2 Taste 2 Professional Profile Touch 5 Hearing 5 Objective Evaluation 1 Pictorial Summary 28 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 29 References 29 Websites 30 3 Chemistry of Food Composition 4 Six Key Atoms—CHNOPS 32 5 Water Dietary Guidelines for Americans 6 MyPyramid 6 Consumer Dietary Changes 6 10 11 Buddhism 11 Hinduism 11 Seventh-Day Adventist Church 11 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon Church) Judaism 12 Islam 12 Psychological and Sociological Criteria Bioengineering 13 Organic Foods 16 Natural Foods 17 17 Pictorial Summary 18 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 19 References 19 Websites 22 13 33 Water Content in Foods 33 Free or Bound Water 33 Composition of Water 33 Measuring Calories 33 Specific Heat 34 Freezing Point 34 Melting Point 34 Boiling Point 35 Hard vs. Soft Water 35 Functions of Water in Food 35 Chemical Reactions 36 Food Preservation 38 Ethnic Influences 10 Place of Birth 10 Geography and Climate 11 Cultural Influences on Manners 11 Budgetary Criteria 31 Basic Food Chemistry 31 Nutritional Criteria Religious Criteria 26 Physical Tests 26 Chemical Tests 27 1 Cultural Criteria 23 Two Types of Sensory Testing 23 Taste Panels 25 Sample Preparation 25 PART I FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 1 Food Selection 23 11 Carbohydrates 39 Foods High in Carbohydrates 39 Composition of Carbohydrates 39 Monosaccharides 40 Disaccharides 40 Oligosaccharides 41 Polysaccharides 41 Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 46 Lipids or Fats 46 Foods High in Lipids 46 Composition of Lipids 46 Triglycerides 46 Fatty Acid Structure 46 iv Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals in Food 75 Fatty Acids in Foods 47 Fatty Acid Nomenclature 47 Phospholipids 47 Sterols 48 Functions of Lipids in Foods 49 Proteins Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/Shellfish Food Allergy 49 76 Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 77 Preventing Foodborne Illness Vitamins and Minerals 55 Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 55 Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 55 Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in Food 55 56 Food Additives 56 Purposes of Food Additives 56 Plant Compounds 59 84 Types of Thermometers 84 How to Use a Thermometer 84 Calibration of Thermometers 84 Sanitation 89 Food Safety Monitoring 90 PART II FOOD SERVICE Pictorial Summary 94 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 95 References 96 Websites 98 5 Food Preparation Basics 64 What is a Foodborne Illness? 65 Heating Foods What Causes Foodborne Illness? 65 Moist-Heat Preparation Biological Hazards—Living Culprits 77 Location, Location, Location 77 Personnel 77 Vulnerable Foods 78 Purchasing 80 Inspection 80 Storage 81 Preparation 82 Proper Use of Thermometers Pictorial Summary 60 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 61 References 61 Websites 63 4 Food Safety 75 Prevention 76 Most Common Food Allergens 76 Cross-Contamination 76 Protein Quality in Foods 50 Composition of Proteins 50 Amino Acids 50 Functions of Proteins in Food 51 Nonnutritive Food Components v 65 Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne Illness 65 Bacterial Food Infections 68 Salmonella 68 Listeria monocytogenes 68 Yersinia enterocolitica 68 Shigella 69 Bacterial Food Intoxications 69 Staphylococcus aureus 69 Clostridium botulinum 69 Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 69 Escherichia coli 69 Campylobacter jejuni 71 Vibrio 71 Molds 71 Viruses 71 Parasites 72 Prions—Mad Cow Disease 73 New Virulent Biological Hazards 74 Advanced Techniques for Detecting Contamination 74 99 99 99 Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 100 Scalding 100 Poaching 100 Simmering 100 Stewing 100 Braising 100 Boiling 100 Steaming 101 Microwaving 101 Dry-Heat Preparation 101 Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 102 Roasting 102 Broiling 102 Grilling 102 Barbecuing 102 Frying 102 Types of Heat Transfer 103 Measuring Heat 104 Cutlery Techniques 105 Handling Knives 105 Cutting Styles 106 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User vi Contents Measuring Ingredients 107 Approximating the Amount of Required Food 107 Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 108 Using an Accurate Measuring Technique 109 Mixing Techniques 110 Conventional (Creaming) Method 110 Conventional Sponge Method 111 Single-Stage Method 111 Pastry-Blend Method 111 Biscuit Method 111 Muffin Method 111 Pictorial Summary 137 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 138 References 138 Websites 139 PART III FOODS PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS Seasonings and Flavorings 111 Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 111 Adding Seasonings and Flavorings to Food Accessories 136 Centerpieces 136 115 7 Meat 140 Food Presentation 116 Types of Meats Plate Presentation 116 Garnishes 116 Beef 140 Lamb and Mutton 141 Pork 141 Pictorial Summary 117 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 118 References 118 Websites 119 6 Meal Management 120 Food Service Organization 120 Commercial Food Service Organization 121 Hospital Food Service Organization 122 Meal Planning 123 USDA Menu Patterns 123 Hospital Menu Patterns 124 Creating the Menu 124 Buyers 126 Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 126 Keeping Food Costs Down 127 Reading Label Product Codes 131 Reducing Waste Saves Costs 131 141 Structure of Meat 141 Antibiotics and Hormones 144 Pigments 145 Extractives 145 Purchasing Meats 146 Inspection 146 Grading 146 Tenderness of Meats 148 Cuts of Meat 152 Processed Meats 156 160 Changes During Heating 160 Determining Doneness 162 Dry-Heat Preparation 163 Moist-Heat Preparation 165 Carving 166 Storage of Meats 166 Refrigerated 167 Frozen 167 132 Estimating Time 132 Efficient Meal Preparation 133 Types of Meal Service 135 Russian Service 135 French Service 135 English Service 135 American Service 135 Family Service 135 Buffet Service 135 Table Settings Composition of Meats Preparation of Meats Purchasing 126 Time Management 140 135 Cover and Linens 135 Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 136 Pictorial Summary 168 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 169 References 169 Websites 171 8 Poultry 172 Classification of Poultry 172 Chickens 172 Turkeys 173 Other Domestic Poultry 173 Composition of Poultry 173 Pigments 173 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Purchasing Poultry 174 Nutrients 211 Color Compounds 214 Food Additives 214 Inspection 174 Grading 174 Types and Styles of Poultry 174 How Much to Buy 176 Preparation of Poultry Purchasing Milk 176 Preparation Safety Tips 177 Changes During Preparation 178 Determining Doneness 178 Dry-Heat Preparation 179 Moist-Heat Preparation 182 Professional Profile 183 Storage of Poultry Types of Milk 183 Refrigerated 184 Frozen 184 Pictorial Summary 185 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 186 References 186 Websites 187 9 Fish and Shellfish 188 189 Inspection/Grading 191 Shellfish Certification 192 Selection of Finfish 192 Selection of Shellfish 197 224 227 Pictorial Summary 228 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 229 References 229 Websites 231 11 Cheese 232 Classification of Cheeses Preparation of Fish and Shellfish 201 232 Place of Origin 233 Moisture Content 233 Dry-Heat Preparation 201 Moist-Heat Preparation 203 Cheese Production Storage of Fish and Shellfish 204 Fresh Finfish 204 Fresh Shellfish 205 Frozen 205 Canned and Cured 205 Pictorial Summary 206 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 207 References 207 Websites 209 210 234 Milk Selection 234 Coagulation 234 Curd Treatment 236 Curing and Ripening 236 Whey and Whey Products 239 Process (Processed) Cheeses 240 Food Additives in Cheese 241 Purchasing Cheese Grading 241 Forms of Cheese 241 242 Food Preparation with Cheese 242 Functions of Milk in Foods Composition of Milk 224 Refrigerated 227 Dry Storage 227 Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 191 10 Milk Flavor Changes 224 Coagulation and Precipitation Whipped Milk Products 225 Storage of Milk Products Composition of Fish 189 Structure of Finfish Pigments 191 216 Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 216 Fresh Fluid Milks from Animals Other Than Cows 216 Flavored Fluid Milks 217 Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 218 Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 218 Plant-Based “Milks” 219 Canned Fluid Milks 220 Dry Milk 220 Cultured Milk Products 221 Creams and Substitutes 223 Milk Products in Food Preparation 188 Classification of Fish and Shellfish 188 Vertebrate or Invertebrate Salt- or Freshwater 189 Lean or Fat 189 214 Grades 214 Pasteurization 214 Ultrapasteurization 215 Homogenization 215 211 211 Selecting a Cheese 242 Temperatures 243 Cutting Cheese 244 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. vii Licensed to: iChapters User viii Contents Storage of Cheese 244 Structure of Plant Cells 270 Plant Pigments 272 Plants as Functional Foods 273 Additives 275 Dry Storage 244 Refrigeration 244 Frozen 244 Professional Profile 245 Purchasing Vegetables 277 Pictorial Summary 246 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 247 References 247 Websites 248 12 Eggs Grading Vegetables 277 Selecting Vegetables 277 Legumes 285 Textured Vegetable Protein 285 Tofu 285 Fermented Soybean Foods 286 249 Composition of Eggs 249 Structure 249 Yolk 249 Albumen 250 Shell Membranes 250 Air Cell 251 Shell 251 Preparation of Vegetables Purchasing Eggs 251 Inspection 251 Grading 251 Sizing 253 Egg Substitutes 253 Value-Added Eggs 253 Types of Eggs 286 General Guidelines 286 Changes During Heating 287 Dry-Heat Preparation 288 Moist-Heat Preparation 290 Preparing Legumes 290 Preparing Sprouts 291 Storage of Vegetables 292 Refrigerated 292 Freezing 292 Dry Storage 292 Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 293 254 Pictorial Summary 294 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 295 References 295 Websites 297 Functions of Eggs in Foods 254 Emulsifying 254 Binding 254 Foaming 256 Interfering 257 Clarifying 257 Color 258 Preparation of Eggs 14 Fruits 298 Classification of Fruits 258 298 Classification Exceptions 299 Changes in Prepared Eggs 258 Dry-Heat Preparation 259 Moist-Heat Preparation 261 Composition of Fruits 299 Organic Acids 299 Pectic Substances 299 Phenolic Compounds 300 Fruits as Functional Foods 301 Food Additives in Fruits 304 Storage of Eggs 264 Refrigerator 264 Frozen 265 Dried 265 Safety Tips 265 Purchasing Fruits 304 Grading Fruit 304 Selecting Fruits 304 Processed Fruits 312 Dried Fruits 313 Fruit Juices 313 Pictorial Summary 267 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 268 References 268 Websites 269 PHYTOCHEMICALS–VEGETABLES, FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS 13 Vegetables and Legumes Classification of Vegetables 270 Composition of Vegetables 270 270 Preparation of Fruits 315 Enzymatic Browning 315 Changes During Heating 315 Professional Profile 316 Dry-Heat Preparation 317 Moist-Heat Preparation 318 Fruit Spreads 318 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Storage of Fruits 320 Farro and Spelt 354 Millet 354 Sorghum 354 Oats 354 Rye 355 Other Grains 356 Storing Fresh Fruit 320 Storing Canned Fruit 321 Pictorial Summary 322 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 323 References 323 Websites 326 Preparation of Cereal Grains 356 15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins Soups 327 Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/Simmering 356 Microwaving 358 Storage of Cereal Grains 358 327 Types of Soups 327 Stocks 328 Clear and Thin Soups 330 Thickened Soups 330 Dry 358 Refrigerated 358 Frozen 358 Salads Types of Pasta 359 Pasta Nomenclature 359 Pastas 358 332 Salad Ingredients 332 Principles of Salad Preparation Salad Dressings 336 Gelatins 335 Preparation of Pasta 360 Moist-Heat Preparation Microwaving 362 339 What is Gelatin? 339 Is Gelatin Nutritious? 339 Preparation of a Gel 339 Phases of Gel Formation 340 Unmolding a Mold 340 Factors Influencing Gel Formation Storage of Gelatin 341 Storage of Pasta 362 Pictorial Summary 363 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 364 References 364 Websites 366 340 17 Flours and Flour Mixtures Pictorial Summary 342 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 343 References 343 Websites 344 Flours COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS 16 Cereal Grains and Pastas Composition of Cereal Grains 345 Structure 345 Food Additives in Grain Products 347 Uses of Cereal Grains 347 Flour 347 Pasta 347 Breakfast Cereal 347 Alcoholic Beverages 348 Animal Feeds 348 Types of Cereal Grains 349 Wheat 350 Rice 350 Corn 352 Barley 353 360 345 367 368 Gluten 368 Cereal-Grain Allergies 371 Milling 371 Wheat Flour Classifications 372 Types of Wheat Flour 373 Types of Non-Wheat Flour 373 Treated Flours 374 Flour Mixture Ingredients 375 Leavening Agents 375 Sugar 379 Salt/Flavoring 380 Liquid 380 Fat 380 Eggs 382 Commercial Additives 382 Preparation of Baked Goods 384 Doughs and Batters 384 Changes During Heating 385 High-Altitude Adjustments 385 Storage of Flour and Flour Mixtures 385 Dry Storage 385 Cool Storage Temperatures Required 385 Frozen 385 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. ix Licensed to: iChapters User x Contents Pictorial Summary 387 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 388 References 389 Websites 390 18 Starches and Sauces 391 Starches as Thickeners 391 Loaf Breads 428 Rolls 429 Pita Bread 429 Bagels 429 English Muffins 430 Pizza Crust 431 Pretzels and Bread Sticks 431 Raised Doughnuts 431 394 Gelatinization 394 Gel Formation 395 Retrogradation 396 Dextrinization 396 Resistant Starches 396 Modified Starches 397 Sauces 422 Types of Yeast Breads 428 Sources of Starch 391 Starch in Food Products 392 Starch Structure 393 Starch Characteristics Proofing: Fermentation Causes the First Rising Punching Down—Second Rising 423 Shaping 423 Selecting a Baking Pan 424 Second Proofing (Optional) 424 Decorating 425 Baking 425 Storage of Yeast Breads 431 397 Functions of Sauces in Foods 398 Types of Sauces 398 Preparation of Thickened Sauces 399 Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 401 Storage of Starches and Sauces 403 Pictorial Summary 404 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 405 References 405 Websites 406 Fresh 431 Refrigerated 431 Frozen 431 Pictorial Summary 432 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 433 References 433 Websites 434 DESSERTS—REFINED CARBOHYDRATES & FAT 21 Sweeteners 435 19 Quick Breads 407 Preparation of Quick Breads Natural Sweeteners 436 408 The Muffin Method 408 Additives Used in Quick Breads 408 Varieties of Quick Breads Pour Batters 408 Drop Batters 409 Doughs 412 Professional Profile 408 414 Pictorial Summary 415 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 416 References 416 Websites 417 20 Yeast Breads 418 Preparation of Yeast Breads 418 Ingredients 418 Food Additives in Baked Products 419 Mixing Methods 420 Kneading 421 Sugars 436 Syrups 438 Sugar Alcohols 441 Nonnutritive Sweeteners 442 Saccharin 443 Aspartame 443 Acesulfame-K 444 Sucralose 444 Neotame 445 Stevia: Dietary Supplement and GRAS Additive 445 Pending Nonnutritive Sweeteners 445 Other Sweeteners 446 Functions of Sugars in Foods 446 Sweetness 446 Solubility 446 Crystallization 447 Browning Reactions 447 Caramelization 447 Moisture Absorption (Hygroscopicity) Texture 448 Fermentation 448 448 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Preparation of Cakes Preservation 448 Leavening 448 Other Uses 448 Pictorial Summary 449 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 450 References 450 Websites 452 22 Fats and Oils 453 Functions of Fats in Food 454 488 Flat Frostings 488 Decorating Frosting 488 Cooked Frosting 488 Whipped Cream Frosting 488 Ganache 488 Garnishes 489 Types of Cookies 489 Bar Cookies 490 Dropped Cookies 490 Pressed Cookies 491 Molded Cookies 491 Rolled Cookies 491 Icebox/Refrigerator Cookies 492 Cookies as Functional Foods 492 Preparation of Cookies 457 492 Ingredients and Mixing Methods 492 Baking Cookies 493 Butter 457 Margarine 460 Shortenings 461 Oils 461 Lard/Tallow/Suet 464 Cocoa Butter 465 Fat Replacers Frostings/Icings Storage of Cakes 489 Heat Transfer 454 Shortening Power 454 Emulsions 455 Melting Point 456 Plasticity 456 Solubility 457 Flavor 457 Texture 457 Appearance 457 Satiety or Feeling Full 457 Types of Fats 482 Ingredients 482 Other Factors 483 Preparing Shortened Cakes 483 Storage of Cookies 494 Pictorial Summary 495 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 496 References 497 Websites 497 465 Types of Fat Replacers 465 Composition of Fat Replacers 465 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 465 Protein-Based Fat Replacers 465 Lipid-Based Fat Replacers 465 24 Pastries and Pies Types of Pastry 498 498 Frying Care 467 Lower-Fat Preparation Techniques 469 Nonlaminated and Laminated Pastries 498 Plain Pastry (Nonlaminated) 498 Brioche Pastry (Nonlaminated) 499 Choux Pastry (Nonlaminated) 500 Puff Pastry (Laminated) 500 Storage of Fats 470 Preparation of Pastry Rancidity 470 Ingredients of Pastry 500 Mixing 505 Rolling 507 Fillings 509 Toppings 512 Baking 513 Testing for Doneness 513 Food Preparation with Fats 467 Pictorial Summary 474 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 475 References 475 Websites 477 23 Cakes and Cookies Types of Cakes 478 Storage of Pastry 500 514 478 Shortened Cakes 478 Unshortened Cakes 480 Chiffon Cakes 480 Professional Profile 481 Pictorial Summary 515 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 516 References 516 Websites 517 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xi Licensed to: iChapters User xii Contents 25 Candy Carbonated Beverages 518 Classification of Candies 518 Syrup Phase or Fat Phase 518 Crystalline or Non-crystalline (Amorphous) 519 Preparation of Candy 520 Steps to Confectionery Preparation 520 Crystalline Candies 520 Noncrystalline Candies 524 Chocolate Functional Beverages 552 Types of Functional Beverages 552 Coffee 525 554 Coffee Processing 555 Composition of Coffee 556 Types of Coffee 556 Preparation of Coffee 557 Storage of Coffee 559 Chocolate Production 526 Types of Chocolate Products 529 Storage of Candy 530 Shelf Life of Chocolate 530 Pictorial Summary 531 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 532 References 532 Websites 533 26 Frozen Desserts 551 Early Soft Drinks 551 Soft Drink Processing 551 Soft Drink Health Concerns 551 Diet Soft Drinks 552 Food Additives in Soft Drinks 552 534 Types of Frozen Desserts 534 Ice Cream 534 Imitation Ice Cream 536 Gelato 536 Frozen Yogurt 536 Sherbet 537 Sorbet 537 Water Ices 537 Still-Frozen Desserts 537 Preparation of Frozen Desserts 537 Factors Affecting Quality 537 Professional Profile 539 Mixing and Freezing 541 Food Additives in Frozen Desserts 544 Storage of Frozen Desserts 544 Texture Changes 544 Scooping Frozen Desserts 545 Pictorial Summary 546 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 547 References 547 Websites 548 Tea 559 Tea Processing 559 Types of Tea 560 Grades of Tea 561 Composition of Tea 561 Health Benefits of Tea 561 Preparation of Tea 561 Storage of Tea 562 Dairy Beverages 562 Cocoa Beverages 562 Alcoholic Beverages 562 Calorie (kcal) Content Beer 563 Wine 564 Spirits 568 563 Pictorial Summary 570 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 571 References 571 Websites 573 PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY 28 Food Preservation Food Spoilage 574 Biological Changes 574 Chemical Changes 575 Physical Changes 575 Food Preservation Methods WATER—BEVERAGES 27 Beverages Water 549 549 Types of Water 550 Contaminates in Water 551 574 575 Drying 576 Curing 577 Smoking Cured Meats 577 Fermentation 577 Pickling 577 Edible Coatings on Foods 578 Canning 578 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Contents Cold Preservation 579 International Agencies 604 Refrigeration 579 Freezing 579 Heat Preservation The Food and Agriculture Organization 604 The World Health Organization 604 European Regulation 604 581 Boiling 581 Pasteurization 581 High-Temperature Pasteurization 581 Ohmic Heating 581 Other Preservation Methods 581 Irradiation (Cold Pasteurization) 581 Pulsed Light 583 High-Pressure Processing 583 Ozonation 584 Aseptic and Modified Atmosphere Packaging Nutrient Retention Pictorial Summary 605 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 606 References 606 Websites 608 30 Careers in Food and Nutrition Three Major Food and Nutrition Areas Nutrition Science and Dietetics 584 609 609 Nutrition Science 610 Dietetics 612 584 Food Science 616 Pictorial Summary 586 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 587 References 587 Websites 590 29 Government Food Regulations Federal Food Laws Food Scientist 616 Food Science Technician 618 Food Service 591 591 Food And Drug Act (1906) 592 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) 592 Numerous Government Agencies 592 Food and Drug Administration 593 Research/Education 593 The Code of Federal Regulations 593 FDA Inspections 593 FDA Standards 594 Food Labeling 595 Food Allergens 597 FDA Allowed Claims on Labels 597 Food Additives 598 The Bioterrorism Preparedness Act 600 U.S. Department of Agriculture 600 USDA Inspections 601 USDA Grading 601 Irradiated Foods 602 Organic Foods 602 Kosher/Halal Foods 602 Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) 602 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 603 U.S. Department of Commerce 603 Federal Trade Commission 603 Department of the Treasury 603 State Agencies 604 Graduate School 619 Prerequisites 619 Academic Requirements 620 Professional Profile 620 Examination Requirement 621 Graduate Degree Jobs 621 Pictorial Summary 623 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 624 References 624 Websites 625 Appendixes A Food Preparation Equipment A-1 B Approximate Food Measurements B-1 Environmental Protection Agency 603 Other Regulatory Agencies 618 Academic Preparation 618 Types of Food Service Culinary Positions 619 Food Service Certifications 619 603 C Substitution of Ingredients C-1 D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1 E Cheeses E-1 F Common Food Additives Glossary F-1 G-1 Answers to Multiple Choice Index AK-1 I-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 609 xiii Licensed to: iChapters User Preface C omprehensive is the word that describes Understanding Food. It brings together the most current information in food science, nutrition, and food service. Founded on research from more than 35 journals covering these disciplines, the text incorporates the very latest information on food— its science and its application. Understanding Food, 4th edition, provides students with a broad foundation to launch a career in any of these foodrelated fields. ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT Understanding Food is organized according to the various food disciplines. Part I represents information related to food science and nutrition, such as food selection, sensory and physical evaluation, and food chemistry. Part II covers aspects of food service from food safety, food preparation basics, and meal management. Part III covers all of the standard food items arranged into protein (meat, poultry, fish, dairy, and eggs); phytochemicals (vegetables, fruits, soups, salads, and gelatins); complex carbohydrates (cereals, flour, breads); refined carbohydrates and fat (sweeteners, fats and oils, cakes and cookies, pies and pastries, candy, and frozen desserts); and water (beverages) groupings. Part IV relates to the food industry in terms of food preservation, government food regulations, and food careers. The chapter on food careers introduces students to the many careers associated with a basic foods course. In addition, the Professional Profile feature, found in many chapters, spotlights individuals working in various aspects in the food industry, so students really get a hands-on understanding of various career opportunities. Extensive appendixes provide additional key information, including approximate food measurements, weights and measures, storage temperatures, ingredient substitutions, flavorings and seasonings, and more. • Updated Art and Photos providing new and intriguing ways to better illustrate concepts in the book. • Updated Chemistry Corners and How & Why Features expanding on two popular features already in the book. NEW TO THIS EDITION • Calorie Control is a new feature teaching students where the calories are in foods, how many daily calories are recommended, and quick pointers on how to control calories within each food group. Obesity is at epidemic proportions in the United States and yet the public and many health professionals remain calorie challenged. An introductory food textbook is the perfect place to provide this information for future food and nutrition professionals. • New Food Evaluation Chapter responds to reviewers’ requests to create a separate chapter on this topic. Now this topic can be included as part of the basic food course or for a more advanced food course. • Revised Food Safety Chapter responds to readers wanting a more “applied” hands-on approach to food safety. The content was totally revised to teach students practical tips on preventing foodborne illness that follow food flow—purchasing, storage, preparation, cooking, holding, cooling, reheating, and sanitation. • Temperature Danger Zone updated to include both FDA and USDA recommendations. • Updated Information Added on “gluten free” definitions and labeling regulations, stevia sweeteners, irradiation research, and new functional foods. Website links to the latest information have been incorporated, and more opportunities in food service careers have been listed. OTHER FEATURES The unique features of this text allow flexibility in teaching and create a dynamic learning environment for students. • Professional Profile features provide interviews with people in the food arena and give advice to students to help them on their career path. • How and Why inserts answer the questions most frequently asked by students. They are used to spark natural curiosity, trigger inquisitive thought patterns, and exercise the mind’s ability to answer. • Chemist’s Corner features provide information on food chemistry in boxes within the chapters for those students and instructors who wish to further explore the chemistry of food. These Chemist’s Corners create a book with two chemistry levels, allowing for flexibility based on the chemistry requirements of the individual course. • Nutrient Content boxes in each of the foods chapters provide an overview of the nutritional composition of the foods, reflecting the increased emphasis in the food industry on food as a means for health promotion and disease prevention. • Food Additive information has been incorporated throughout the book responding to students’ requests to learn more about this topic. • Pictorial Summaries at the end of every chapter are a proven favorite xiv Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Preface • • • • • • with readers. Instead of a standard narrative summary, these pictorial chapter summaries use a combination of art and narrative text to encapsulate the key concepts in each chapter for student review. Key terms, boldfaced in the text, are defined in boxes on the same page to allow for quick review of the essential vocabulary in each chapter. A glossary at the end of the book assembles all of the key terms in the chapters in one place. Functions of ingredients are highlighted in the introduction to each chapter to aid students in successful food product development and food preparation. They introduce a focus of the food industry that is often missing in other books. Problems and causes tables in various food chapters summarize the problems that may occur when preparing specific food products and describe the possible causes, providing students with a handy reference tool for deciphering “what went wrong.” Numerous illustrations placed throughout the text enhance students’ understanding of the principles and techniques discussed. A 16-page full-color insert displays exotic varieties of fruits and vegetables, salad greens, flowers used in salads, traditional cuts of meats (including the lowest-fat meat cuts), and much more, all with detailed captions describing use and preparation tips. Chapter review questions were changed from 5 to 7 questions at the end of each chapter responding to requests to help prepare students for their class exams and also to help prepare them for the American Dietetic Association Registration Examination. The dynamic world of food changes rapidly as new research constantly adds to its ever-expanding knowledge base. Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation, 4th edition, is designed to meet the needs of this evolving and expanding discipline, and to provide students with a strong foundation in any food-related discipline that they select. ANCILLARY MATERIALS An assortment of student and instructor support materials, thoroughly updated for the fourth edition, are available: • The print Lab Manual, revised by Janelle M. Walter (Baylor University), presents food experiments and recipes to demonstrate the principles discussed in the text. Pretest questions and materials/time needed information for instructors enhance the lab units, which parallel the organization and content of the text. • The Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM delivers several key instructor tools. • PowerPoint® resources include JPEGs of text figures and ready-to-use (or modify) lecture presentations. • An expanded Test Bank by Joan Aronson (New York University) provides multiple-choice, true/false, matching, and discussion/essay items. • The Instructor’s Manual, by Joan Aronson and Cheryl Houston (Fontbonne University), features engaging classroom activities, objectives, recommendations, and lecture outlines. • The text’s Companion Website offers various test preparation exercises for students, including quizzes, and instructor downloads. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals assisted me in the development of this textbook. First and foremost I thank Peter Marshall, Publisher, without whose knowledge and experience this book would never have come to be. I also thank Peggy Williams, who masterfully brought this book to the completion of its fourth edition. I also extend my thanks to the outstanding members of the Cengage nutrition team: Elesha Feldman, Developmental Editor, for helping me revise and enhance the fourth edition; Elizabeth Howe, second edition Developmental Editor, for her excellent skills in working with me to xv create a well-organized manuscript; and Laura McGinn, Marketing Manager, who understands the process of book publishing and marketing to such a high degree that her presence alone is invaluable. My thanks to Yolanda Cossio, Publisher; Alexis Glubka, Editorial Assistant; and Bob Kauser and Dean Dauphinais, Permissions Editors. A thank you also goes to Elizabeth Wong, Marketing for getting the word out about this text. I also thank the tremendous production staff at Pre-PressPMG who worked miracles on this book, especially Kristin Ruscetta, Antonina Smith, and Catherine Schnurr. I gratefully acknowledge Eleanor Whitney and Sharon Rolfes for contributing the Basic Chemistry Concepts appendix in this text. A special thanks goes to the person who kindled my writing career, Nackey Loeb, Publisher of The Union Leader. Your early support and encouragement did far more than you will ever know. Many colleagues have contributed to the development of this text. Their thoughtful comments provided me with valuable guidance at all stages of the writing process. I offer them my heartfelt thanks for generously sharing their time and expertise. They are: Dorothy Addario, College of St. Elizabeth Koushik Adhikari, Kansas State University Gertrude Armbruster (retired), Cornell University Mike Artlip, Kendall College Hea Ran-Ashraf, Southern Illinois University Mia Barker, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Nancy Berkoff, Art Institute of Los Angeles Margaret Briley, University of Texas Helen C. Brittin, Texas Tech University Mildred M. Cody, Georgia State University Carol A. Costello, University of Tennessee Barbara Denkins, University of Pittsburgh Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User xvi Preface Nikhil V. Dhurandhar, Wayne State University Joannie Dobbs, University of Hawaii/Manoa Linda Garrow, University of Illinois/Urbana Natholyn D. Harris, Florida State University Sylvia Holman, California State University/Northridge Zoe Ann Holmes, Oregon State University Alvin Huang, University of Hawaii Wendy T. Hunt, American River College Karen Jameson, Purdue University Faye Johnson, California State University/Chico Nancy A. Johnson, Michigan State University Mary Kelsey, Oregon State University Elena Kissick, California State University/Fresno Patti Landers, University of Oklahoma Deirdre M. Larkin, California State University/Northridge Colette Leistner, Nicholls State University Lisa McKee, New Mexico State University Marilyn Mook, Michigan State University Martha N. O’Gorman, Northern Illinois University Polly Popovich, Auburn University Rose Tindall Postel, East Carolina University Beth Reutler, University of Illinois Susan Rippy, Eastern Illinois University Janet M. Sass, Northern Virginia Community College Anne-Marie Scott, University of North Carolina Sarah Short, Syracuse University Sherri Stastny, North Dakota State University Darcel Swanson, Washington State University Ruthann B. Swanson, University of Georgia M. K. (Suzy) Weems, Stephen F. Austin University Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to the students. Were it not for them, I would not have taken pen to paper. I am grateful to be part of your academic journey. Amy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D. University of Hawaii at Manoa amybrown@hawaii.edu Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User About the Author © 2004 Carl Shaneff Amy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D., received her Ph.D. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1986 in the field of Human Nutrition and Foods. She has been a college professor and a registered dietitian with the American Dietetic Association since 1986. Dr. Brown currently teaches at the University of Hawaii’s John A. Burns School of Medicine in the Department of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Her research interests are in the area of bioactive plant substances beneficial to health and medical nutrition therapy. Some of the studies she has conducted include “Diet and Crohn’s disease,” “Potentially harmful herbal supplements,” “Kava beverage consumption and the effect on liver function tests,” and “The effectiveness of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” Selected research journal publications include: “Position of the American Dietetic Association: functional foods” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “The Hawaii Diet: Ad libitum high carbohydrate, low fat multi-cultural diet for the reduction of chronic disease risk factors” (Hawaii Medical Journal); “Lupus erythematosus and nutrition: A review” (Journal of Renal Nutrition); “Dietary survey of Hopi elementary school students” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “Serum cholesterol levels of nondiabetic and streptozotocin-diabetic rats” (Artery); “Infant feeding practices of migrant farm laborers in northern Colorado” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “Body mass index and perceived weight status in young adults” (Journal of Community Health); “Dietary intake and body composition of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete of the Year” (Clinical Sports Medicine); and numerous newspaper nutrition columns. Feedback welcome, contact: amybrown@hawaii.edu To Jeffery Blanton To the person who saw me through four years of writing the first edition. Four years, four thousand laughs, and only one you. Always Grateful, Amy Christine Brown xvii Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendixes A: Food Preparation Equipment A-1 D: Flavorings and Seasonings D-1 B: Approximate Food Measurements B-1 E: Cheeses E-1 C: Substitution of Ingredients C-1 F: Common Food Additives F-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User A-1 Appendix A Appendix A: Food Preparation Equipment Primarily used for baking and roasting, it is also used for braising, poaching, and simmering. Ovens rely on hot air for heating food, primarily by convection, but conduction and radiation can also occur. Baked foods rely on freely moving currents for the transfer of heat, so it is important to ensure that baking pans are placed on the racks in such a way as to allow the efficient flow of air currents. Figure A-2 shows some of the types of Appendix A provides a brief overview of food preparation equipment—primary equipment, auxiliary equipment, and utensils. PRIMARY EQUIPMENT Primary equipment consists of ranges, ovens (conventional, convection, and microwave), refrigerators, and usually dishwashers. FIGURE A-2 Four types of ovens. Ranges Ranges can have open or flat top surfaces with electrical or gas burners (Figure A-1). Ovens The conventional oven is located below the range, but it can also be a separate unit (Figure A-2). FIGURE A-1 Ranges. Conventional oven Double-deck convection oven Open top Flat top The Vulcan-Hart Co. The Vulcan-Hart Co. Convection oven Stack (or deck) oven (typically installed one on top of another) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment ovens that are available to food service establishments. They include: FIGURE A-4 A-2 Food service refrigerators and freezers. • Stack or deck oven. Each component of the stack has a separate thermostat. • Convection oven. Hot air is circulated by a fan, baking contents more quickly. • Revolving or carousel oven. Trays rotate like a Ferris wheel, ensuring an even temperature. • Impingement oven. Hot-air jets heat food more quickly (5). • Infrared oven. Heat is generated by a very hot infrared bulb. • Brick-lined or hearth oven. • Pizza oven. Reaches very hot temperatures. • Microwave oven. Refrigerators/Freezers FIGURE A-3 Reach-in Walk-in Courtesy of Victory Refrigeration, part of AFE The proper refrigeration and freezing of foods is one of the most important factors in preventing foodborne illness. Refrigerator temperatures should be maintained at or below 40°F (4°C), and freezers or freezer compartments at 0°F (218°C). Household refrigerators are classified by the location of the freezer—above, below, or beside the refrigerator section (Figure A-3). Food service establishments usually have a walk-in refrigerator and freezer, which may range in size from a small closet to a large room. Other types of freezers/refrigerators include reach-ins, roll-ins, and pass-throughs (Figure A-4). Refrigerator-freezers. Roll-in Dishwashers One-door, freezer compartment inside Freezer below food compartment The two categories of dishwashers are household dishwashers and commercial dishwashers. The three basic types of household dishwashers are: Built-in dishwasher.—Integrated under the counter to match the cabinets. Portable dishwasher.—Used as soon as the hoses are attached to the kitchen faucet; one hose drains into the sink. Convertible dishwasher.—Used as a portable or installed permanently as a built-in. Commercial or food service dishwashers are so large that they often require a separate room. Equipment Standards and Safety Freezer above food compartment Side-by-side refrigerator/ freezer The National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) seal of approval assures buyers of food service equipment that certain standards of sanitation and safety have been met in its design and Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix A production. This nonprofit organization is interested in the promotion of public health and has established minimum standards of construction for food service equipment (3). Information about equipment or approved manufacturers can be obtained by writing to NSF Testing Laboratory, Inc., PO Box 130140, Ann Arbor, MI 48113 (or e-mailing info@nsf.org). Another private organization overseeing the safety of electrical equipment is the Under-writers Laboratory (UL), which ensures that an electrical appliance, cord, or plug has passed certain tests for electrical shock, fire, and other related injuries (6). AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT In addition to the primary equipment in a kitchen, auxiliary equipment includes fryers, broilers, steamers, grills, cutting equipment, mixers, and coffee/tea makers. Griddles Griddles supplement range units. Their larger, flat, smooth surfaces are ideal for preparing eggs, hamburgers, pancakes, French toast, and hash browns (Figure A-5). Food service griddles contain a drip cup to collect draining fat. Preparation is easier when grill surfaces are primed by smearing them with oil followed by a brief heating. To maintain the primed surface, griddles are never washed with soap and water, but scraped clean, wiped with a grease mop, and then polished with a soft cloth. Tilting Skillets Found only in large food service operations, the tilting skillet, brazier, or fry pan can be used to make anything from chili to poached eggs. The wide range of temperature settings stretches from low braising to high frying heats. As a result, it can be used as a fry pan, brazier, griddle, stockpot, steamer, or steam table. The entire skillet can be tilted to pour out liquid-based contents (Figure A-6). FIGURE A-5 Griddle. FIGURE A-6 Tilting skillet. Broilers and Grills The difference between broiling and grilling is the heat source: the broiler’s heat is above the food whereas the grill’s is below the food. Temperature control is achieved by moving the grid up or down. Heat for these may be provided by wood, charcoal, electricity, or gas. Steamers Two basic types of steamers are used in food service organizations: cabinet or compartment steamers and steam-jacketed kettles (Figure A-7). Cabinet steamers.—Stacked one above the other with the door of each sealed tight with clamps. Steam-jacketed kettles.—Used more for fluid-type foods such as soups and stews. Range in size from 1 quart to 200 gallons. The steam is not generated inside the kettle, but is circulated between the double-layered metal plates of the kettle’s outer shell. A handle is used to tilt the entire steam-jacketed kettle to pour out the food. Steam heats foods by moist heat. Most steamers in a food service establishment steam under pressure, which is measured by a gauge in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure steamers allow food to heat to temperatures higher than boiling, which decreases cooking time. Vegetables can be cooked at pressures of 10 to 15 psi, reaching a temperature of 250°F (120°C). Lower pressures and temperatures (5 to 10 psi, 225°F/105°C) are used to cook meats, which would fall apart at the higher pressures required for vegetables. Cooked vegetables and even FIGURE A-7 Food service steamers. The Groen Co./Unified Brands A-3 Steam-jacketed kettle Cabinet steamer Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment some fish maintain their texture, color, taste, and nutrients best when they are properly steamed or microwaved. Rice, pasta, poultry, eggs, fish, and shellfish may also be steamed, but the flavor of meats and poultry will usually be diminished by the process. Safety is particularly important with steamers. They should never be run without water, and they should be periodically checked to ensure that safety valves are working. They should never be opened until the pressure has gone down, and then should always be opened away from the face. Deep Fryers Breaded fish and vegetables, fried chicken, and french fries are some of the foods commonly prepared in deep fryers. Frying is similar to boiling, except that in frying the liquid is fat, which can reach higher temperatures than water. Food is loosely placed in a wire basket, which is then submerged in heated oil. When the food floats to the top of the oil, it can be considered cooked. The basket is then removed and set aside so that the oil can drain from the food. The fryers themselves may be small enough to be portable or so large that they are floor mounted (Figure A-8). Most deep fryers have automatic heat controls. Woks This large bowl-shaped pan is central to Chinese cooking. It comes equipped with (1) a metal ring to fit over a range burner (Figure A-9), or (2) self-contained with an electrical cord. The most time-consuming step in using a wok is cutting the FIGURE A-8 Deep fryer. FIGURE A-9 A-4 Wok. foods into many small, uniform pieces. The actual cooking of the foods is a quick process, lasting approximately 5 to 10 minutes. It starts with high heat under the wok, which has been lightly coated with oil (usually sesame or peanut oil). The foods that take the longest to cook are added first. The food is stirred rapidly for a few minutes, for even cooking, and then the heat is lowered and the pan covered so the steam thus generated can complete the process. Crockery Crockery, or electric slow cookers, have been popular for some 40 years and are particularly good for moist-heat cooking of meat and legumes. Crockery cooking is long and slow, with controlled heat that needs little or no supervision. A meal can be started in the morning that will be ready to eat by dinnertime. Because there is some evidence that crockery may not keep food sufficiently hot for the entire duration of cooking, its use has lately been discouraged by some food experts because of the risk of foodborne illness. Cutting Equipment © Frymaster, LLC, 8700 Line Ave., Shreveport, LA 71106. Meat slicers, food choppers, and grinders are common pieces of equipment in food service establishments (Figure A-10). Meat Slicer Carelessness in the use of a meat slicer causes more food service accidents than any other kind of equipment. The following safety tips apply: The machine should always be unplugged when not in use. After the slicer is plugged in, the blade control is adjusted for the desired slicing thickness, and the blade guard positioned. The food, usually boneless meats, but possibly cheese, vegetables, fruits, and even bread, is then placed on the carriage and held there firmly with the guard before the switch is turned on. The carriage is moved back and forth by its handle in a smooth motion. The equipment should be thoroughly sanitized after use and between different types of foods, especially with raw meats. The cord must be removed from the socket and the blade control set at zero before cleaning. Metal utensils should never be used to scrape food from the blade because they may nick the slicer. Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed in removing the various parts and subjecting them to the sanitizing solution and to rinsing and drying. The blade guard should be replaced immediately to prevent any risk of cuts. The use of protective gloves through the whole cleaning process is highly recommended. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix A FIGURE A-10 FIGURE A-11 Cutting equipment. Tabletop mixer and three typical attachments: (a) wire whip—incorporates air, (b) flat beater—general mixing, and (c) dough hook—mixing heavy doughs. Photo courtesy of KitchenAid® Home Appliances A-5 a c 2007 Hobart Corporation b Food Chopper or Cutter Another potentially dangerous piece of food service equipment is the food chopper or cutter. The key to preventing injuries here is to turn the machine off, allow the knife blades to come to a rest, and flip the safety catch on before removing the food with a bowl scraper. The hands should never go into the bowl. The guard can be raised to remove any remaining food. Meats with bones or gristle should not be processed with food choppers because they will damage the gears and knives. For safety’s sake, attachments must be securely in place before the machine is turned on, and it is best to disconnect the power entirely before removing them. Spoons or hands in the bowl during mixing are not recommended, but rubber scrapers can be used occasionally to scrape down the sides of the mixing bowl. Blenders and Food Processors Blenders and food processors allow further refinements to mixing food (Figure A-12). In blenders, the blades or mixing component is on the bottom. They are used for everything from making milk shakes to blending the vegetables used in making gazpacho, a Spanish cold soup. Food processors are more versatile and allow cutting, chopping, grinding, slicing, and shredding foods, and even kneading dough. They come with specialized blades for accomplishing all these tasks, and many even come with a juicing attachment. FIGURE A-12 Blenders and food processors. Mixers are convenient for controlling the rate at which ingredients are combined. They are used to prepare whipped cream, beaten egg whites, and mashed potatoes. In the food service industry, models range in size from tabletop to floor size. Attachments vary from a paddle for general mixing, to whips for cream or eggs, to dough arms for kneading yeast dough (Figure A-11). Additional attachments may be added, including a shredding, grating, or slicing attachment and a grinder for meats and other foods. Some home mixers have similar attachments. Blender Food processor Photos courtesy of KitchenAid® Home Appliances Mixers Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment FIGURE A-13 FIGURE A-14 Coffee makers and tea dispensers. A-6 Common pots and pans. SAUCEPAN SAUCE POT SHEET PAN BAKE PAN KETTLE Electric urn Iced tea dispenser Courtesy of CecilWare Corporation ROASTING PAN STRAIGHT-SIDED SAUTÉ PAN SQUARE BAKING PAN SLOPE-SIDED SAUTÉ PAN LOAF PAN STOCKPOT MUFFIN PAN DOUBLE BOILER Coffee brewer and dispenser Drip coffee maker CAKE PAN SAUCIER Coffee Makers Many homes and food service venues use automatic coffee makers daily (Figure A-13). Food service operations serve coffee from an electric urn or automatic coffee brewer. Electric urns are connected to a hot water source and automatically shut off after the coffee is finished brewing. The hot water running through a coffee brewer stops after the decanter or pot is full. Pots and Pans Pots and pans are distinguished from one another by their size, shape, and handle (Figure A-14). Another defining feature of a pot, pan, or kettle is their capacity defined by (1) the number of quarts, or (2) inches (baking pans and skillets are described in inches; e.g., 8- or 9-inch cake pan) (6). Pots have two handles and are used when preparing large quantities. Saucepans and frying pans have a single long handle and less capacity. Saucepans are usually straight-sided, whereas frying pans can be either straight- or slope-sided. The flattest pans are those used for baking and roasting. The sturdiest, and thickest, pans are used for roasting. A double boiler consists of a bottom pan in which water is heated, and a top pan containing a food item that must be kept below the boiling point. These are used for preparing certain sauces and to keep food hot without burning. CASSEROLES ANGEL FOOD CAKE PAN PIE PAN Pot and Pan Materials Pots and pans are made from a variety of materials (Figure A-15): • • • • Aluminum, copper, and stainless steel Nonstick coatings Cast iron Glass and glass/ceramic combinations Pan Shapes Cakes come in a variety shapes because the pans can be round, square, or oblong. There are special pans for making sponge and angel food cakes; the angel food cake pan usually has a tubular segment in the middle that separates from the sides for easy removal of the cake. Spring-form pans allow one to “spring” open the sides for easy removal of the cake. Cookie sheets, sometimes referred to as baking sheets, have no sides (except one or two that are raised for handling), allowing the hot air to flow evenly over the cookies. Heavy-duty sheet pans with four sides can also be used for preparing cookies and myriad other foods such as Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User A-7 Appendix A FIGURE A-15 Best Heat Conductors Aluminum, copper, and combinations of copper and stainless steel are the best conductors of heat (6). Aluminum accounts for more than half the cookware sold in the United States, but it is very lightweight and prone to denting. Aluminum may also react chemically with many foods, particularly those high in acid, and it is not recommended for storing foods. Copper is an excellent heat conductor, but it is costly and requires special care. A further disadvantage is that excessive copper may dissolve into the food being prepared, causing nausea and vomiting. Therefore, copper pans are usually lined with stainless steel or tin. Stainless steel is known for its durability and easy cleaning; however, it is a poor conductor of heat and tends to generate hot spots, which may scorch the food. To keep this from happening, the bottoms of many stainless steel pans are coated with copper or aluminum. Materials that make the pot. Stainless steel: Poor heat conductor, which is why they are often bottomcoated with copper. Nonstick coatings: Tolerate high heats and eliminate sticking that can occur with stainless steel. Aluminum: Excellent heat conductor and lightweight, but it reacts with foods that are acidic, alkaline, or sulfurous. Nonstick Pans Nonstick pans reduce the amount of fat needed to prevent sticking, but their surfaces are easily scratched, so plastic, rubber, or wooden utensils are recommended. Anodized aluminum: Surface is electrochemically sealed to make it nonreactive. Enameled cast iron: Benefits of cast iron without the maintenance problems; however, enamel coating may chip with abrasion and wear. biscuits, bread, pizza, breadcrumbs, roasted nuts, and even some meats. Full-sheet pans are used in restaurants for bulk baking, whereas half-sheets (half the size of full sheets) are reserved for home use (4). Some of the half-sheets purchased at supermarkets may warp at temperatures over 300°F (149°C) but not pans made of heavy-duty aluminum or steel. The aluminum pans tend to be more popular because their lighter color reflects heat, which helps to prevent overbrowning and baking (4). Also, they do not rust. The darker the pan, as seen in steel pans or those coated with a nonstick surface, the darker the cookies. Pan Colors One advantage of the darker sheet pans is that they absorb heat, resulting in a crisper crust for pizza and fruit pies. Regardless of the color, professional bakers use kitchen parchment on baking sheets to prevent sticking, to move items around with ease, and to protect against burning (4). Digital Works Cast iron: Superb at retaining heat, but slow to heat or cool; needs to be completely dried and primed. Cast Iron Pans Cast iron pots and pans are heavy, heat slowly, rust easily, and are difficult to clean. They do, however, retain high temperatures for longer periods of time, heat evenly, and add extra iron to the diet. Acidic foods such as tomato sauces tend to absorb more iron: 5 mg of iron are absorbed for every 3 ounces of spaghetti sauce cooked in a cast iron pan. Cast iron pots and pans may be cleaned in one of two ways. The first involves a preliminary priming or conditioning of the pan with a very thin coat of vegetable oil, after which it is heated and cooled. A primed pan is cleaned by scraping and wiping away food particles after each use. Reconditioning may be done whenever necessary. The second method is to wash the pan with soap and water, heat it to dry, and then coat it with a minute amount of oil. This second method is more likely to remove any traces of rancid fat, which can impart an off-flavor to any food subsequently prepared in the pan. Glass Pans Heat-proof glass, such as Pyrex, and glass/ceramic combinations, such as Corningware, break more easily than metalbased pots and pans, but have the advantage of not reacting with foods. Most casserole pans, which are usually oval or oblong with low sides, are made of such materials. Baking temperatures should be reduced by 25°F (4°C) when using tempered glass. The newer versions of glass/ceramic materials can be moved from the range or oven to the refrigerator or freezer, and later be taken from the cold and placed directly into the oven or microwave. Glass pots and pans are not allowed in food service operations, however, because of possible breakage and liability problems. Utensils Utensils are vital items needed for cutting, stirring, turning, measuring, and serving food. The utensils covered in this section include knives and utensils used in preparation, measuring, and serving. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment Knife Utensils Knives are to the chef as brushes are to the artist. Some people consider them to be the most important tools in food preparation. Knowing the different kinds of knives, their particular tasks, and how to care for them is crucial to the preparation of foods. The food to be cut determines what type of knife should be used. The basic knife starter set consists of chef ’s, paring, slicing, boning, and utility knives. The first three types of knives often complete the set of many home kitchens. Common knives used in food preparation are shown in Figure A-16. Chef’s Knife The chef’s, or French, knife is one of the largest and serves as an all-purpose knife for cutting meats and for mincing, dicing, and chopping a variety of foods. Chef ’s knives are commonly available in blade lengths of 6, 8, and 12 inches, and the side of their blades can be used to crush garlic cloves, ginger slices, and peppercorns (2). FIGURE A-16 preparation. Common knives used in food A-8 Utility Knife The utility knife is geared toward lighter duties such as cutting tomatoes or carving meat. Paring Knife The smaller, shorter, 2- to 4-inch paring knife is used for more delicate jobs that require close control, such as the trimming of vegetables, fruits, and small pieces of meat like chicken breasts. Boning Knife The slightly curved boning knife is handy for separating meat from bone (e.g., deboning the breast of a chicken), disjointing poultry, cutting between the joints of larger pieces of meat, and dicing raw meats. Slicing Knife Slicing knives are long and flexible enough to portion off thin slices of meat or poultry. Serrated slicers are useful for cutting bread or angel food cake. Steak or Scimitar Knife These knives are used for cutting steaks from the appropriate parts of a carcass. Butcher Knife A variety of butcher knives are available for cutting raw meats. Heavy Cleavers Additional knives that are found in food service arenas include heavy cleavers for cutting through bone. French or chef's knife Utility knife Paring knife Boning knife Slicer Serrated slicer Butcher knife Cleaver Oyster and Clam Knives Oyster and clam knives are used for opening these shellfish. Purchasing Knives Knives can range in price from a few to several hundred dollars. When selecting a knife, qualities to consider include size, weight, balance, the length of the tang, and the materials from which the blade and handle are made. Although the size selected will be determined by the use for which the knife is intended, the other factors depend on more qualitative assessments. Weight and Balance Sometimes the “balance” or the feel of the knife in the hand is a factor in selection. Some knives are blade-heavy, others handle-heavy, and some feel evenly divided between the two. A person should select the knife that feels “right” in his or her hand (2). Tang Another quality that varies among knives is the length of the tang, the part of the metal blade that extends into the handle. Better-quality knives have a tang that extends the full length of the handle. Blade Probably the most important factor in selecting a knife is the type of steel used for the blade: carbon, stainless steel, or high-carbon stainless steel. Carbon blades are almost obsolete because they are highly susceptible to rust and lose their edge quickly. Stainless steel, on the other hand, is rust-resistant but is difficult to sharpen and to keep sharp. Th is steel is actually a combination of metals, including chromium, which is added for its resistance to stains, corrosion, and heat. Despite its name, stainless steel is not stain-proof, but it does stain less than knives not made from stainless steel when it comes into contact with food and beverages, especially salad dressing, vinegar, salt, mustard, tea, and coffee. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User A-9 Appendix A High-carbon stainless-steel knives are usually preferred because, in addition to not staining, they keep a sharp edge and do not rust (2). High-carbon knives are further distinguished by whether they have a stamped or a forged blade. Stamped blades are cut from a sheet of steel, ground, and polished. Because they are mass produced, they are less expensive than forged knives. Forged blades are made from a single piece of steel that has been exposed to extremely high heat, submerged in a chemical bath, and set in a die before being hand-hammered into shape. The resultant blades are more costly, but they are also heavier, tougher, hold their edge longer, and require less pressure when cutting. Handle The knife’s handle may be made of wood, carved bone, plastic, or metal. Wood is easier to hold, but water damage from frequent washing reduces the length of its life. Plastic or metal handles are more durable, but they are slippery. Bone-handled knives are both water- and wear-resistant and, when combined with a high-carbon stainless-steel knife, can last a lifetime or more. FIGURE A-17 Care of Knives Cutting knives should never go in a dishwasher. Strong detergents not only dull the blade but, when combined with hot water and air, can ruin wooden handles. Nicks can occur if the blade bumps against other metal utensils. Instead, knives should be washed immediately after use with soap or detergent, dried thoroughly, and then stored in such a way that their blades do not contact each other to prevent nicks. The blades may be kept separated by slipping them into a wooden knife block (blade turned upward) or a shallow knife block that fits inside a drawer, or by placing them along a magnetic strip. Knives can be sharpened using one of the many electric and mechanical knife sharpeners on the market, but a better result can be achieved by hand. The two basic ways to handsharpen a knife are with a stone or a steel implement. The sharpening stone, also known as a whetstone, is used by rubbing a bit of moisture on the stone and sliding each side of the blade until the proper sharpness is acquired. A sharpening steel looks like a round sword and is held firmly in one hand while the knife, held in the other hand, is brandished against the steel (Figure A-17). Most chefs employ both implements, Sharpening knives using either a stone or steel. STONE Produces a sharp cutting edge* The blade is held at an angle to the stone (rough side up). Pull it gently toward you across the entire surface of the stone, making sure the entire blade is sharpened from the tip to its heel in one stroke. STEEL Maintains a sharp cutting edge The heel of the knife is placed at an angle under the steel’s tip. Firmly holding the steel in the left hand, use one smooth stroke with the right hand to draw the knife (from the blade’s heel to the tip) down to the steel’s base. The knife is turned over and the procedure is reversed in the opposite direction. Four times across the stone on each side (rough and smooth) is usually sufficient to sharpen a knife. * Stones are pretreated prior to sharpening knives— either by first saturating them lightly with vegetable oil (which has to be cleaned off), or soaking them in water (which does not require cleaning). Never sharpen knives on an electric knife sharpener that may tear the steel and shorten the blade’s lifespan. The heel of the knife is placed at an angle on top of the steel’s tip. Retain this angle while moving the knife down the steel (from the blade’s heel to the tip) in one smooth stroke. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment A-10 for different purposes: one for getting an edge and the other for refining it. Cutting Boards Cutting boards are used primarily for cutting meat, poultry, vegetables, and fruits, but they may also be used for kneading and rolling out dough. They may be made of wood, hard plastic, glass, or ceramic tiles; the latter three, however, are hard on knife blades (1). Cutting boards should be carefully scraped and thoroughly washed and dried every time they are used. Preparation Utensils Figure A-18 shows some of the supporting utensils most commonly used in food preparation. Spoons, available in solid, slotted, or perforated versions, are used for mixing and serving. The holes in the slotted and perforated spoons allow liquids to drain. Wire whisks are used for mixing and are categorized by their shapes. Straight (French) whisks are ideal for general purposes or smooth sauces. The very thin wires of balloon whisks are designed for beating the maximum amount of air into thin liquids such as egg whites and cream. Flat whisks are fashioned for creating sauces and gravies when it is important to lift up materials from the corners of a pan (7). Spatulas come in a variety of shapes for their many purposes. Rubber spatulas or scrapers are used to scrape bowls or to fold beaten egg whites or other ingredients into each other. The straight spatula or palette knife is used for measuring ingredients, and it is ideal for spreading icings onto cakes. The sandwich spreader, with a broader blade, is used, as the name implies, on sandwich fillings, butter, and jams. A pie server is an angled spatula used to lift pie, cake, or pizza wedges. Similar in design, but wider and with a larger bend, is the offset spatula, which is used to turn items such as hamburgers, eggs, and pancakes. Other preparation utensils include the bench scraper, for scraping and for cutting dough; the pastry wheel, which is designed to cut pastry dough, but which can also be used to cut pizza; and the pastry brush, which is used to coat pastry with egg white or sugar glaze. Types of Measuring Utensils About five different types of measuring utensils are frequently used in food preparation: liquid and dry measuring cups, measuring spoons, ladles, and scoops (Figure A-19). Liquid Measuring Cups Available in 1-cup, 2-cup (1 pint), and 4-cup (1 quart) capacities. Their volumes are divided into increments of ¼, 1/3, ½, 2/3, and ¾ cup. They are usually glass, have a pouring lip, and are all-purpose. Dry Measuring Cups Fractional, flat-topped (no pouring lip), single-volume cups (¼, 1/3, ½, and 1) are best because they can be leveled with a spatula for a more accurate result. Accuracy is also improved by using the 1-cup measure rather than four ¼ cups. Measuring Spoons Used to measure both liquid and dry ingredients requiring less than ¼ cup, they consist of 1 tablespoon, and 1,½, ¼, and occasionally 1⁄8 teaspoon. A tablespoon equals 3 teaspoons, and 2 tablespoons equal 1 fluid ounce. Ladles Liquids can be measured by ladles that are individually stamped with their capacity in ounces (Table A-1). Scoops or Dippers The various sizes are identified by a scoop number (Table A-2), which indicates the number of portions from a quart (e.g., a number 8 scoop yields eight ½-cup portions from 1 quart). The larger the scoop or dipper number, the smaller the serving. Measured scoops and dippers are used primarily by food service establishments for serving ice cream, mashed potatoes, and other soft foods. TABLE A-1 Ladles—Approximate Measures and Their Uses Ladle Size Measure Use 1 oz 2 oz 3 oz 4 oz 6 oz 8 oz 12 oz 16 oz 24 oz 32 oz 2 tbsp ¼C 1/3 C ½C ¾C 1C 1½ C 2 C (pt) 3C 4 C (qt) Sauces, salad dressings, cream Gravies, sauces Cereals, casseroles, meat sauces Puddings, creamed vegetables Stews, creamed entrées, soup Soup TABLE A-2 Scoops—Approximate Measures and Their Uses Scoop or Dipper Number* Weight 6 6 oz ¾C Soups 8 4–5 oz ½C Luncheon entrées, potatoes 10 3–4 oz 3⁄8 C Desserts, meat patties, ice cream 12 2½–3 oz 1/3 C Vegetables, desserts, puddings 16 2–2¼ oz ¼C Muffins, cottage cheese, croquettes, dessert 20 1¾–2 oz 3 tbs ¾ tsp Muffins, cupcakes, meat salads 24 1½–1¾ oz 2 tbs 2 tsp Cream puffs, ice cream 30 1–1½ oz 2 tbs ¾ tsp Drop cookies 40 ¾ oz 1 tbs 2¼ tsp Whipped cream, toppings, gravy 60 ½ oz 1 tbs Salad dressings, toppings 70 1/3 oz 2¾ tsp Cream cheese, salad dressing, jelly 100 ¼ oz 2 tsp Whipped butter Measure Use *Dipper/Scoop = Servings/Quart Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User A-11 Appendix A FIGURE A-18 Spatulas Food preparation utensils. Used to level off ingredients when measuring, remove food from flat pans, and spread frostings, butter, and other soft foods. Plastic or rubber spatulas are used for scraping bowls. Spoons, skimmers, and strainers Wooden spoons—For stirring, mixing, creaming, tossing, folding, and serving. Solid spoons—To lift foods, including the liquid, out of the pot. They are also used to spoon liquids over foods. Larger offset spatulas or turners— Used to turn meat, pancakes, potatoes, and other foods while browning. The offset or bend keeps the hand away from the hot surface. Turner’s blade— solid or perforated and used as a scraper to remove grease and other materials. Slotted or perforated spoons— To lift foods out of the liquid in which they were cooked. Skimmers—Used to remove scum and grease from the top of stocks, gravies, and other liquids; also used to lift food out of hot liquid. Tongs Used to turn meat while broiling, lift vegetables like corn-on-the-cob from a steamer, serve food, and serve ice cubes. Strainers in a variety of sizes and shapes are used for separating solids and liquid. The mesh varies from fine to coarse. A sieve has similar uses, but is a stainless steel perforated cup with a handle. Forks Used to turn meat while cooking or to hold meat and other foods while being sliced. Colander—Used to drain cooked foods like pasta and to rinse salad greens and berries. Whisks Straight whisk—For general purposes and smooth sauces. China cap—Used to strain liquids from solids when making soups and gravies; also used to purée foods. A pointed wooden mallet is used to force food through the strainer. Balloon whisk—For incorporating air into egg whites and whipped cream. Flat whisk—For sauces and gravies. Flour and dough utensils Sifter—Used to sift flour or powdered sugar, and to blend dry ingredients. Molds Molds in a variety of shapes are used for gelatins and desserts. Pastry blender—Used to cut shortening into flour. Pastry brushes—To spread melted butter or thin mixtures like icings or eggs and water. Grease brushes—To remove grease from soups, stocks, and sauces. Vegetable brushes—To clean vegetables and fruits. Rolling pin—Used to roll out pastry, rolls, and cookies. Dough scraper—Used to scrape the dough from the board. Pastry bags—Used to make shaped pastries and decorations. The bag is used with a variety of tips or tubes designed to create different shapes when a soft food like icing is squeezed through. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Digital Works Brushes Licensed to: iChapters User Food Preparation Equipment A-12 FIGURE A-19 depending on the density, or weight per volume, of the object being measured. For example, half a cup of marshmallows weighs less than half a cup of vegetable oil. Many countries measure ingredients by weight. In the United States, Americans tend to measure using volume measurements such as teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pints, quarts, and gallons. Weight can be measured by a number of different types of scales: spring-type scales, used principally for weighing dry ingredients like grains, beans, dried pasta, vegetables, fruits, and cheese; portion scales and balance scales for weighing ingredients; and the baker’s scale, used primarily for measuring dough ingredients (Figure A-20). Measuring utensils. Liquid measuring cup FIGURE A-20 Various scales used for weighing ingredients. Dry measuring cups Spring-type scale Measuring spoons Balance scale Dipper/Scoop Digital Works Ladles Portion scale Measuring Terms Mass vs. Volume Weight, commonly used to mean mass, is a much more accurate measurement than volume. As a result, many food service operations use weight rather than volume to measure recipe ingredients. Confusion between the two methods of measuring ingredients occurs because ounces can be measured either by volume, known as fluid ounces (fl), or by mass (weight), known as avoirdupois ounces (av). Water is the only substance whose fluid ounce is equal to its avoirdupois ounce. The mass of other substances will vary Baker's scale Source: Texas Tech University Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User A-13 Appendix A Metric vs. Nonmetric Metric measurements of volume are expressed in milliliters (mL). Metric cups come in sizes of 25, 50, 125, and 250 mL, and measuring spoons are divided into 1, 2, 5, 15, and 25 mL. A 250-mL metric cup is close to a nonmetric cup, which holds 236.59 mL. The 15 and 5 mL metric measures are almost equal to the nonmetric tablespoon and teaspoon, respectively. The inside back cover of this book lists the conversions between nonmetric and metric measuring units for volume and mass. Accuracy of Measuring Utensils The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS) has set certain tolerances for measuring the precise volume of household measuring utensils. One way to determine a cup’s precise volume is to fill it with tap water and then pour it into a graduated cylinder. Both the utensil and the graduated cylinder should be on a level surface and the milliliters of water should be read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus (Figure A-21). Any measurement evaluating accuracy should be done three times and then averaged to eliminate error. The resulting number should not deviate more than 5% from the standard set by the AAFCS. According to these standards, a metric cup of 250 mL can deviate 5 percent, FIGURE A-21 Read the meniscus at eye level. Meniscus to 237.5 or 262.5 mL, and still be acceptable (3). Variations within the 5% range do not make any appreciable differences in ingredient proportions or in the quality of the final product. Serving Utensils At last the meal is ready to be eaten, and serving utensils enter the picture. Basic tableware includes salad forks, dinner forks, regular knives, steak knives (optional), soup spoons, and teaspoons. A more extensive “wardrobe” of tableware might include butter knives, small two-tined forks known as seafood forks, dessert spoons, luncheon knives and forks (which are slightly smaller than standard knives and forks), iced-tea spoons, and grapefruit spoons. Eating utensils, for sanitary reasons, should always be touched by the handles. REFERENCES 1. Abrisham SH, et al. Bacterial adherence and viability on cutting board surfaces. Journal of Food Safety 14:153–172, 1994. 2. Albert A. Choosing great knives for confident, skillful cooking. Fine Cooking 24:50–53, 1998. 3. Birchfield JC. Design and Layout of Foodservice Facilities. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988. 4. Middleton S. Pros pick the best baking sheets. Fine Cooking 26:55–57, 1998. 5. Ovadia DZ, and C Walker. Impingement in food processing. Food Technology 52(4):46–50, 1998. 6. Pickett MS, MG Arnold, and LE Ketterer. Household Equipment in Residential Design. Waveland, 1986. 7. Stevens M. Choosing the best whisk. Fine Cooking 19:72, 1997. Meniscus The imaginary line read at the bottom of the concave arc at the water’s surface. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix B: Approximate Food Measurements The quantity to purchase for an approximate yield. Food Quantity to Purchase Approximate Yield DAIRY Cheese Cheddar Cottage Cream Cream 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 1 C (½ pt) 2 C/4 C (grated) 2C 2C 2C EGGS Whole Whites (fresh) Yolks (fresh) 1 lb 8–11 12–14 1¾ C 1C 1C FATS AND OILS Butter/Margarine Vegetable Oil Vegetable Shortening 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 2C 21⁄6 C 2 1/3 C FLOUR All-Purpose Cake Cornmeal Rye Whole Wheat 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 4 C (sifted) 4½ C (sifted) 3½ C (sifted) 3½–5 C 3 1/3 C (sifted) FRUIT Apples Bananas Berries Coconut Dates Lemon 1 lb/3 med 1 lb/3 med 1 quart 1 lb shredded 1 lb whole 1 med Orange 1 med Peaches Prunes Raisins 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 3 C (sliced) 2½ C (sliced) 3½–4 C (sliced) 5C 2¼ C or 2 C (pitted) 1/3–½C juice 1½–3 tsp (grated) 1/3–½ C juice 1–2 tbs (grated) 4 C (sliced) 2 1/3 C 3C NUTS Almonds Pecans Peanuts Walnuts 1 lb shelled 1 lb shelled 1 lb shelled 1 lb shelled 3C 4C 3C 4C SUGAR/SALT Brown Confectioners Granulated Honey Salt 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 2¼–2½ C (firmly packed) 4–4½ C (sifted) 2–2¼ C 1–1¼ C 1½ C (Continued) B-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User B-2 Appendix B Appendix B (continued) The quantity to purchase for an approximate yield. Food Quantity to Purchase Approximate Yield VEGETABLES Beets Cabbage Carrots Celery Corn Dried Beans Green Beans Lettuce Onion Parsley Potatoes 1 lb/4 med 1 lb 1 lb/4 med 1 lb/½ bunch 3 ears 1 lb/2 C 1 lb 1 lb/med 1 med 1 med bunch 1 lb/3 med 1 med 2C 4 C (shredded) 3 C (diced) 4 C (diced) 1 C (kernels) 5–6 C (cooked) 3 C (chopped) 6C ½ C (diced) ½–1 C (finely chopped) 2½ C (diced) 3 C (peeled and sliced) 2 C (mashed) 2 C (French fries) 1 C (chopped) 2 slices 1 lb loaf 1C 10 C 8-ounce pkg 1 lb 8-ounce pkg 1 lb ground ½C 2 C (grated) 4C 8 1-ounce squares 5 C (about 2½ gallons) 10 C 12 18 24 1 envelope 1 C uncooked 1 C (fine crumbs) 1 C (coarse crumbs) 1 C (fine crumbs) 1 T gelatin powder 3–4 C cooked Tomatoes MISCELLANEOUS Bread Crumbs (fresh) Chocolate Baking Cocoa Unsweetened Coffee Crackers Graham Saltines Gelatin Rice Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix C: Substitution of Ingredients If Missing Measurement Substitute DAIRY Whole milk 1C = ½ C evaporated milk + ½ C water = 1/3 C nonfat dry milk + water to make one C + 2 T fat = 4 oz nonfat dry milk + water to make 1 qt + 1¼ oz fat = ½ C heavy cream + ½ C cold water 1 C = ¾ C sugar + 1/3 evaporated milk + 2 T butter = 1 C fresh milk + 1 T fat vinegar or lemon juice (let stand for 5 minutes) = 1 C unflavored plain yogurt 1 quart Sweetened Condensed Buttermilk/Sour Milk 1C 1C 1C Cream Half & Half 1C Heavy (Whipping) Sour Cream 1C 1C EGGS Whole one Whites, fresh Yolks, fresh 1 white 1 yolk FATS AND OILS Butter/margarine 1C = 1 C margarine/butter = 7⁄8 to 1 C hydrogenated fat + ½ tsp salt = 7⁄8 C lard + ½ tsp salt = 7⁄8 C vegetable oil FLOUR All-purpose 1 C sifted = 1 C unsifted all-purpose flour minus 2 T = 1½ C bread flour = 1 C rye = 1 C + 2 T cake flour = 1 C minus 2 T cornmeal = 1 C graham flour = 1 C minus 2 T rice flour = 1 C rolled oats = 1 C + 2 T coarsely ground whole wheat or graham flour or 13 T gluten flour = 1¼ C rye flour = ½ C barley flour = ½ T cornstarch, potato starch, rice starch, arrowroot starch = 1 T quick-cooking tapioca, waxy rice flour, waxy corn flour = 4 C of all-purpose flour + 2 T baking powder, 2 t salt = 1 C = (1 C of all-purpose flour minus 2 t) + 1½ t baking powder + ½ t salt = 7⁄8 C sifted all-purpose flour or 1 C minus 2 tablespoons sifted all-purpose flour 1 T (as thickener) Self-rising Flour 1 lb Cake Flour 1 C sifted = ¾ cup milk + 2 T fat = ½ C milk + ½ C light cream = 3⁄4 C milk + 1/3 C butter or margarine = 1 C yogurt = 2 egg yolks + 1 T water = 2 T dried whole eggs + 2½ T water = 2 T thawed frozen egg white or 2 tsp dry egg white + 2 T water = 3½ T thawed frozen egg yolk or 2 T dry egg yolk + 2 tsp water (Continued) C-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User C-2 Appendix C Appendix C (continued) If Missing Measurement Substitute MISCELLANEOUS Allspice Baking Powder 1T 1t = ½ t cinnamon + ½ t ground cloves = ¼ t baking soda + ½ t cream of tartar = ¼ t baking soda + ½ C buttermilk or sour milk (replaces ½ C of liquid used in recipe) = 1 bouillon C (or 1 envelope powdered broth or 1 t powdered broth) + 1 C boiling water = 1 C tomato sauce + ½ C sugar + 2 T vinegar = 1 C tomato sauce + ¼ C brown sugar + 2 T vinegar + ¼ t cinnamon + dash allspice/ ground cloves Scallion greens Broth 1C Catsup Chili Sauce 1C 1C Chives Chocolate unsweetened baking semisweet Cocoa 1 ounce 1 square 2 ounces 3T Cornstarch Herbs 1T 1 ounce 1 medium clove 1 T (fresh) Lemon Juice Mayonnaise 1T 1C Pumpkin Pie Spice Tomatoes (canned) Tomato Juice Tomato Purée Tomato Sauce 1t 1C 1C 2C 2C SUGAR/SWEETENERS Granulated 1C Garlic Brown 1C Confectioners Honey Corn Syrup Molasses 1C 1C 1C 1C = 3 T cocoa + 1 T fat = 3 T carob powder + 2 T water = 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate + 2 t sugar = 1 oz chocolate if recipe reduced by 1 T of fat = 3 T carob powder = 2 T all-purpose flour = 2 oz all-purpose flour = ½ t garlic salt = 1⁄8 t garlic powder = ¼ t dried ground = 1 t dried leaf = ½ T vinegar = ½ C yogurt + ½ C mayonnaise = 1 C sour cream = 1 C cottage cheese (pureed) = ½ t cinnamon + ¼ t nutmeg + 1⁄8 t allspice + 1⁄8 t cardamom = ½ C tomato puree + ½ C water = ½ C tomato puree or sauce + ½ up water = 1¼ C water + ¾ C tomato paste = 1¼ C water + ¾ C tomato paste = 1 1/3 C brown sugar = 1½ C Confectioner’s sugar = 1 C honey minus ¼ to 1/3 liquid in recipe = 1¼ to 1½ C corn syrup minus ¼ to ½ liquid in recipe = 1 1/3 C molasses minus 1/3 C liquid in recipe = ½ C granulated sugar + ½ C liquid brown sugar = 1 C granulated sugar + 2 T molasses or dark corn syrup = made by grinding 2 C granulated sugar in a processor = 1¼ C sugar + ¼ C liquid = 1 C sugar + ¼ C liquid = ½ C honey 1¼ C melted brown sugar Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix D: Flavorings and Seasonings Name Uses Allspice Allspice combines the flavors of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Whole allspice is used for pickling, gravies, broiled fish, and meats. Ground allspice is used for baked goods, fruit preserves, puddings, and relishes. Almond Almonds can be used in every dish from soup to dessert. Almond extract is used in cookies, confections, and Chinese cuisine. Anise Anise is a popular favorite for a few gourmet dishes such as Oysters Rockefeller. Also, it is used in bakery products, candies (especially licorice candy), certain kinds of cheese, pickles, and many liqueurs and cordials, including anisette and absinthe. Anise-pepper It is one of the ingredients in Chinese Five Spices and is commonly used for fish and strongly flavored foods. Balm Balm has a pleasant lemon scent and can be chopped and combined with other herbs for use in omelets and salads, and in the production of several liqueurs. Also, balm leaves are used to flavor soups and dressings. Bay leaves Bay leaves can be used either fresh or dried. They are one of the ingredients in bouquet garni, and are used in bouillon, marinades, olives, and pickles. They combine well with fish, potatoes, or tomatoes. Bouquet garni This is a French term meaning “bundle of sweet herbs.” The bouquet garni is used in soups and stews, or any dish in which there is sufficient liquid to absorb the flavors. Caper Capers are much used in European cuisine. They are commonly used in making caper sauce, which is usually eaten with boiled lamb. They also go well with fish dishes and with casseroles of chicken and rabbit. Caraway The seeds (actually the dried whole fruits) are used in cakes, cheeses, confections, fresh cabbage, meat dishes, rye bread, salads, and sauerkraut. The chopped green leaves can be used in soups and salads. The roots can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Cardamom seed Freshly ground cardamom has many uses including: breads, cakes, cookies, cheese, curries, custard, liver sausage, meat dishes, pilaus, pork sausage, and punches. Cassia The stick cinnamon can be used in dishes to impart flavor, and then removed before serving; for example, some punches are flavored in this manner. Powdered cassia is used in combination with allspice, nutmeg, and cloves for spicing mincemeat, curries, pilaus, meat dishes, desserts and cakes. It is one of the ingredients of the famous Chinese Five Spices. Cayenne pepper A little goes a long way, but it is a spice that adds considerable interest to egg dishes, fish, and meat recipes. Celery salt This spice is slightly bitter, but it combines well with bouillon, eggs, fish, potato salad, and salad dressing. Celery seed Celery seeds have a slightly bitter taste, but they contribute a useful flavoring. They add special interest to many salads and salad dressings. Chervil, garden Chervil, which has a mild anise-caraway flavor, is one of the ingredients of Fines herbes, a mixture of chopped fresh herbs extensively used in French recipes. Chervil is used in omelets, soups, salads, sauces, and white wine vinegar. It should not be cooked, but must be added at the last minute; otherwise, it loses its flavor. Chinese Five Spices Chinese Five Spices (a blend of anise-pepper, star anise, cassia, cloves, and fennel seed) is an integral part of some of the recipes from the Far East. Also, it can be used to good advantage in flavoring pork dishes. Chives Chives are ideal as a garnish because of their delicate onion flavor and bright green color. Chives add interest and flavor to buttered beets, eggs, cottage or cream cheese, potato and other salads, sliced tomatoes, and soups. Cinnamon Cinnamon has a more delicate flavor than cassia and is more suitable for sweet dishes, cakes, and cookies. Citron Citron peel has a peculiar taste, quite different from other citrus. Is used in the U.S. as candied peel to be added to cakes, cookies, candies, and desserts. Cloves Whole cloves are used in many meat dishes, but a little goes a long way. Cloves are stuck into lemon slices for tea, into onions, and into hams for baking; they are also popular for apple cookery and pickle making. In the East, they go into many of the curry dishes. Whole cloves are also included in recipes for spiced wine and some liqueurs. Ground cloves are used in baked goods, borscht (beet soup), chocolate puddings, potato soup, and stews. Cola Cola is used in many soft drinks, and for coloring and flavoring some wines. Coriander (Cilantro) Coriander leaves are popular in Near, Middle, or Far East recipes, as well as Mexico and South America. The seeds are a principal ingredient of curry. Whole coriander seeds can be used in cakes, cookies, biscuits, gingerbread, green salads, pickles, and poultry stuffing. Ground seeds are added to many meat and sweet dishes. (Continued) D-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User D-2 Appendix D Appendix D (continued) Name Uses Cress Watercress Garden Cress The cresses are primarily used in salads and sandwiches, but they can be used to flavor soup, cooked greens, or sauces for fish dishes, and to garnish meals. Cumin Cumin’s principal use is in curry powder. It is also used to flavor bread, stuffed eggs, meats, rice dishes, and soups. Commercially, it may be found in cheese, chutney, pickles, meats, and sausage. Curry (powder) Curry powder may be added to eggs, chicken, fish, meats, rice, soups, or a salad made of sweet potatoes and pineapple. Dill Dill loses its flavor when cooked, so it should be added at the last minute. Fresh dill leaves can be used for dishes containing chicken, mushrooms, or spinach. The seeds are used in dill pickles and dill vinegar, but they can be added to meat dishes, meat and fish sauces, sauerkraut, salads, and borscht (beet soup). Fennel Fennel has an anise-like flavor and is good with many foods: apple pie, candies, fish, liqueurs, pastries, pork, soups, and sweet pickles. Fenugreek seed Fenugreek seeds are usually used in Indian curries and chutneys. Fines herbes A combination of several herbs such as basil, chervil, chives, marjoram, oregano, parsley, rosemary, sage, tarragon, and thyme. Fines herbes can be used in many dishes such as fish sauces, meat stuffings, omelets, salads, salad dressing, and soups. Garlic Garlic blends with a wide range of dishes such as fish, game, meats, and vegetables. Ginger Ginger is used in numerous foods including beverages, biscuits, cakes, cookies, fish, gingerbread, ginger beer, ginger wine and cordials, puddings, sauces, and spice mixtures. It is used mostly in sweet preparation in European and North American cooking, but the Orient uses it extensively for chutney, fish, meat, and pickles. Horseradish Many cooks limit the use of horseradish to a sauce used on meats, but it can be added to chicken salads, egg dishes, and mayonnaise for use on fish dishes, or tomato combinations. Leek The leek is rather like a very mild onion. It is used mostly in soups and chowders. However, the leek may also be used as a bouquet for pork or lamb. Lemon Lemon juice can be used on salads instead of vinegar, and it is the predominant favorite for serving with most fishes. Grated lemon rind is added to cakes, cookies, desserts, and sauces, to give an added taste dimension. Licorice Licorice is used to flavor candy, chewing gum, and soft drinks. CAUTION: Licorice raises the blood pressure of some people dangerously high, due to retention of sodium. Lime Limes impart a unique taste to dishes, which cannot be replaced by lemons. Fish is often marinated in lime juice before cooking. Mace Mace can be added to apple dishes, beets, cakes, hot chocolate, coffee cakes, cookies, custards, eggnog, gingerbread, and muffins. Marjoram Is related to thyme; hence, they are often used together or to replace each other. It can be added to almost every dish to advantage. It should be added immediately before serving as the flavor is easily lost in cooking. Marjoram is used with egg dishes, lamb, poultry, sausage, soups, stews, and vegetables. Mint, Peppermint, or Spearmint Peppermint flavoring is used mostly for candies, cordials, desserts, icings, and liqueurs. Spearmint is the preferred mint for lamb as well as for iced tea and mint juleps. It can also be used in soups, stews, fish, and meat sauces. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) MSG does not have any flavor of its own, but it intensifies and enhances the flavor in other foods, especially meat and fish. Mustard Black mustard Brown mustard White or Yellow mustard Whole mustard seeds add pungency to many foods, including pickles, meats, and salads. Powdered dry mustard is a common kitchen spice. Its sharp, hot flavor develops when the powder is moistened. It is used for roast beef, mustard pickles, sauces, and gravies. Prepared mustard is a mixture of powdered mustard with salt, spices, and lemon juice, with wine or vinegar to preserve the mustard’s pungency. It may be used with ham, hamburgers, hot dogs, and sandwich spreads. Nutmeg Nutmeg is traditionally used in sweet foods such as cakes, custards, doughnuts, eggnog, pies, and puddings, but it goes very well with meat, sausage, spinach, sweet potatoes, and vegetables. (Continued) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Flavorings and Seasonings D-3 Appendix D (continued) Name Uses Onion Onions are used either as a separate vegetable or as a flavoring for other foods. The leaves of the onion, along with the bulb, are used in salad. Oregano Oregano is used extensively in Italian cooking and can be added to cheese dishes, chili beans, fish, gravies, meats, sauces, sausage, salads, and soups. Paprika Paprika is used in many dishes both for its flavor and as a garnish. It can be added to chicken, sweet corn, fish, meats, sausages, tomato catsup, and tomato juice. Parsley Parsley can be added to fish and fish sauces, meats, sauces, soups, and vegetables. It is commonly used as a decoration for buffet dishes. Pepper Pepper loses much in aroma when ground or cooked, so freshly ground pepper should be used whenever possible. Whole peppercorn can be purchased as well as cracked, and coarsely or finely ground. Except for sweet dishes, pepper can be added to all other dishes. Poppy seed Poppy seeds have a pleasant nutlike flavor and aroma and are used primarily in baked goods, on the tops of rolls and bread, and in cakes and pastries. However, they are also used in confections, fruit salad dressings, and curries. Rosemary Rosemary is good with soups, on broiled steaks, or with other meat dishes, sauces, and vegetables. The taste is aromatic, pungent, and slightly bitter. Saffron Saffron is used as a flavoring and coloring (yellow) spice in biscuits, confections, boiled fish, fish soup, fancy rolls, and rice, and in some European dishes. Sage Sage is available whole, rubbed, or ground. It is used for baked fish, meats, and meat stuffings, sausages, cheeses, and sauces. Savory Savory is available whole or ground, and is often combined with other herbs to flavor meats. Also, it can be used in beans, scrambled eggs, peas, salads, sauces, and sausages. Sesame seed Sesame seeds develop a beautiful nutty taste when sprinkled on buns, rolls, or cakes, and then baked. They are also used in confections. Shallot Shallots can be used in the same way as the onion, although the flavor is much more subtle. Shallots should never be browned, as they turn bitter. Soy sauce Soy sauce can be used in a wide array of dishes, especially with beef, chicken, fish, soups, turkey, and vegetable dishes. Star anise Star anise has a strong flavor similar to anise, but slightly more bitter and pungent. In Chinese cooking, it is used for duck and pork recipes. Sweet basil Basil can be used for green beans, fish, soups, squashes, stews, tomatoes, and vinegar. Sweet cicely The plant smells and tastes somewhere between anise and licorice. The taproot can be boiled and used for salads, and the green fruit can be served with salad dressing. Europeans use the leaves in soups and salads. The plant is also used for flavoring desserts and liqueurs. Tarragon Tarragon is best known for flavoring vinegar, but it is also used for beef, chicken, eggs, fish, pickles, cookies, salads, and tartar sauce. It has a slightly anise flavor. Thyme Thyme is used with fish dishes, meats, poultry, sauces, tomato dishes, and vegetables. Turmeric Turmeric and mustard are inseparable partners (it is used to color mustard); and turmeric is superb for almost every meat and egg dish, for pickles, and for curries. It adds yellow color. Vanilla Vanilla is almost always used in sweet dishes such as bakery products and desserts. Wintergreen Wintergreen is used mainly for candies and lozenges. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix E: Cheeses Name Origin Consistency Flavor Normal Ripening Period American pasteurized process United States Semisoft to soft; smooth, plastic body Mild Unripened after cheese(s) heated to blend Asiago, fresh, medium, old Italy Semisoft (fresh), medium, or hard (old); tiny gas holes or eyes Piquant, sharp in aged cheese 60 days minimum for fresh (semisoft), 6 months minimum for medium, 12 months minimum for old (grating) Bel paese Italy Soft; smooth, waxy body Moderately robust 6–8 weeks Blue, Bleu France Semisoft; visible veins of mold on white cheese; pasty, sometimes crumbly Piquant, tangy, spicy, peppery 60 days minimum; 3–4 months usually; 9 months for more flavor Breakfast, Frühstück Germany Soft; smooth, waxy body Strong, aromatic Little or none (either) Brick United States Semisoft; smooth, open texture; numerous round and irregularshaped eyes Mild but pungent and sweet 2–3 months Brie France Soft, thin edible crust, creamy interior Mild to pungent 4–8 weeks Caciocavallo Italy Hard, firm body; stringy texture Sharp, similar to provolone 3 months minimum for table use, 12 months or longer for grating Camembert France Soft, almost fluid in consistency; thin edible crust, creamy interior Mild to pungent 4–5 weeks Cheddar England Hard; smooth, firm body, can be crumbly Mild to sharp 60 days minimum; 3–6 months usually; 12 or longer for sharp flavor Colby United States Hard but softer and more open in texture than Cheddar Mild to mellow 1–3 months Cottage, Dutch, Farmers, Pot Uncertain Soft; moist, delicate, large or small curds Mild, slightly acidic, flavoring may be added Unripened Cream United States Soft; smooth, buttery Mild, slightly acid, flavoring may be added Unripened Edam Holland Semisoft to hard; firm, crumbly body; small eyes Mild, sometimes salty 2 months or longer Feta Greece Soft, flaky; similar to very dry, high-acid cottage cheese Salty 4–5 days to 1 month Gammelost Norway Semisoft Sharp, aromatic 4 weeks or longer Gjetost Norway Hard; buttery Sweet, caramel Unripened Gorgonzola Italy Semisoft; less moist than blue Piquant, spicy, similar to blue 3 months minimum, frequently 6 months to 1 year Gouda Holland Hard, but softer than Cheddar; more open mealy body like Edam, small eyes Mild, nutlike, similar to Edam 2–6 months Gruyère Switzerland Hard, tiny gas holes or eyes Mild, sweet 3 months minimum Limburger Belgium Soft; smooth, waxy body Strong, robust, highly aromatic 1–2 months (Continued) E-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Cheeses E-2 Appendix E (continued) Name Origin Consistency Flavor Normal Ripening Period Monterey Jack United States Semisoft (whole milk), hard (low-fat or skim milk); smooth texture with small openings throughout Mild to mellow 3–6 weeks for table use, 6 months minimum for grating Mozzarella Italy Semisoft; plastic Mild, delicate Unripened to 2 months Muenster Germany Semisoft; smooth, waxy body, numerous small mechanical openings Mild to mellow, between brick and Limburger 2–8 weeks Neufchatel France Soft; smooth, creamy Mild 3–4 weeks or unripened Parmesan, Reggiano Italy Very hard (grating), granular, hard brittle rind Sharp, piquant 10 months minimum Port du Salut, Oka Trappist Monasteries Semisoft; smooth, buttery Mellow or mild to robust, similar to Gouda 6–8 weeks Primost Norway Semisoft Mild, sweet, caramel Unripened Provolone Italy Hard, stringy texture; cuts without crumbling, plastic Bland acid flavor to sharp and piquant, usually smoked 6–14 months Queso blanco, White cheese Latin America Soft, dry and granular if not pressed; hard open or crumbly if pressed Salty, strong, may be smoked Eaten within 2 days to 2 months or more; generally unripened if pressed Ricotta Italy Soft, moist and grainy, or dry Bland but semisweet Unripened Romano Italy Very hard, granular interior, hard brittle rind Sharp, piquant if aged 5 months minimum; usually 5–8 months for table cheese; 12 months minimum for grating cheese Roquefort France Semisoft, pasty and sometimes crumbly Sharp, spicy (pepper), piquant 2 months minimum; usually 2–5 months or longer Sap Sago Switzerland Very hard (grating), granular, frequently dried Sharp, pungent, flavored with leaves; sweet 5 months minimum Schloss, Castle cheese Germany, Northern Austria Soft; small, ripened Similar to, but milder than Limburger Less than 1 month; less intensively than Limburger Stirred curd, granular United States Semisoft to hard Similar to mild Cheddar 1–3 months Stilton England Semisoft to hard; open flaky texture, more crumbly than blue Piquant, spicy, but milder than Roquefort 4–6 months or longer Swiss, Emmentaler Switzerland Hard; smooth with large gas holes or eyes Mild, sweet, nutty 2 months minimum, 2–9 months usually Washed curd United States Semisoft to hard Similar to mild Cheddar 1–3 months Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Appendix F: Common Food Additives Name Function Food Use and Comments Acetic acid pH control; preservative Acid or vinegar is acetic acid; many food uses. Adipic acid pH control Buffer and neutralizing agent; used in confectionery. Ammonium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed. Widespread food use. Annatto Color Extracted from seeds of Bixa orellana. Butter, cheese, margarine, shortening, and sausage casings; coloring foods in general. Arabinogalactan Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from Western larch. Widespread food use; bodying agent in essential oils, nonnutritive sweeteners, flavor bases, nonstandardized dressings and pudding mixes. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) Nutrient; antioxidant; preservative Widespread use in foods to prevent rancidity, browning; used in meat curing; GRAS additive. Aspartame Sweetener, low calorie Soft drinks, chewing gum, powdered beverages, whipping toppings, puddings, gelatin, tabletop sweetener. Azodicarbonamide Flour treating agent Aging and bleaching ingredient in cereal flour. Benzoic acid Preservative Widespread food use. Benzoyl peroxide Flour treating agent Bleaching agent in flour; may be used in some cheeses. Beta-apo-8 carotenol Color Natural food color. General use not to exceed 30 mg per lb or pt of food. BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) Antioxidant; preservative Fats, oils, dry yeast, beverages, breakfast cereals, dry mixes, shortening, potato flakes, chewing gum, sausage; often used in combination with BHT. BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) Antioxidant; preservative Rice, fats, oils, potato granules, breakfast cereals, potato flakes, shortening, chewing gum, sausage; often used in combination with BHA. Biotin Nutrient Rich natural sources are liver, kidney, pancreas, yeast, milk; vitamin supplement. Calcium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweeds. Widespread food use. Calcium carbonate Nutrient Mineral supplement. Calcium lactate Preservative General purpose and/or miscellaneous use. Calcium phosphate Leavening agent; sequestrant, nutrient General purpose and/or miscellaneous use; mineral supplement. Calcium propionate Preservative Bakery products, alone or with sodium propionate; inhibits mold and other microorganisms. Calcium silicate Anticaking agent Used in baking powder, salt, and food; GRAS for use in baking powder and salt. Canthaxanthin Color Widely distributed in nature. Color for foods; more red than carotene. Caramel Color Miscellaneous and color for foods. Carob bean gum Stabilizer and thickener Extracted from bean of carob tree (Locust bena). Numerous foods like confections, syrups, cheese spreads, frozen desserts, and salad dressings. Carrageenan Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Extracted from seaweed. A variety of foods, primarily those with a water or milk base, especially ice cream. Cellulose Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Component of all plants. Inert bulking agent in foods; may be used to reduce caloric content of food. (Continued) F-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Common Food Additives F-2 Appendix F (continued) Name Function Food Use and Comments Citric acid Preservative; antioxidant: pH control agent; sequestrant Widely distributed in nature in both plants and animals. Miscellaneous use; used in lard, shortening, sausage, margarine, chili con carne, cured meats, and freeze-dried meats. Citrus Red No. 2 Color Coloring skins of oranges. Cochineal Color Derived from the dried female insect, Coccus cacti. Provides red color for such foods as meat products and beverages. Corn endosperm oil Color Source of xanthophyll for yellow color. Used in chicken feed to color yolks of eggs and chicken skin. Cornstarch Anticaking agent; drying agent; formulation aid; processing aid; surface-finishing agent Digestible polysaccharide used in many foods often in a modified form; example foods include baking powder, baby foods, soups, sauces, pie fillings, imitation jellies, custards, and candies. Corn syrup Flavoring agent; humectant; nutritive sweetener; preservative Derived from hydrolysis of cornstarch. Employed in numerous foods, such as baby foods, bakery products, toppings, meat products, beverages, condiments, and confections. Dextrose (glucose) Flavoring agent; humectant; nutritive sweetener; synergist Derived from cornstarch. Major users of dextrose are confection, wine, and canning industries; used to flavor meat products; used in production of caramel. Diglycerides Emulsifiers Uses include frozen desserts, lard, shortening, and margarine. Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate Emulsifier; processing aid; surface active agent Employed in gelatin dessert, dry beverages, fruit juice drinks, and noncarbonated beverages with cocoa fat; used in production of cane sugar and in canning. Disodium guanylate Flavor enhancer Derived from dried fish or seaweed. Variety of uses. Disodium inosinate Flavor adjuvant Derived from dried fish or seaweed; sodium guanylate a by-product. Variety of uses. EDTA (ethylenedi- aminetetraacetic acid) Antioxidant; sequestrant Calcium disodium and disodium salt of EDTA employed in a variety of foods including soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, dressings, canned vegetables margarine, pickles, sandwich spreads, and sausage. FD&C colors: Blue No. 1, Red No. 40, Yellow No. 5 Color Coloring foods in general. Gelatin Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Derived from collagen. Employed in many foods including confectionery, jellies, and ice cream. Glycerine (glycerol) Humectant Miscellaneous and general purpose additive. Grape skin extract Color Colorings for carbonated drinks, beverage bases, ades, and alcoholic beverages. Guar gum Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seeds of the guar plant. Employed in such foods as cheese, salad dressings, ice cream, and soups. Gum arabic Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Gummy exudate of Acacia plants. Used in a variety of foods. Gum ghatti Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Gummy exudate of plant growing in India and Ceylon. A variety of food uses. Hydrogen peroxide Bleaching agent Modification of starch and bleaching tripe; bleaching agent. Hydrolyzed vegetable (plant) protein Flavor enhancer To flavor various meat products. Invert sugar Humectant; nutritive sweetener Primarily used in confectionery and brewing industry. (Continued) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User F-3 Appendix F Appendix F (continued) Name Function Food Use and Comments Iron Nutrient Dietary supplements and foods. Iron-ammonium citrate Anticaking agent Used in salt. Karaya gum Stabilizer and thickener Derived from dried extract of Sterculia urens. Variety of food uses; a substitute for tragacanth gum. Lactic acid Preservative, pH control Normal product of human metabolism. Numerous uses in foods and beverages; a miscellaneous general purpose additive. Lecithin (phospha-tidylcholine) Emulsifier; surface active agent Normal tissue component of the body; naturally occurring in eggs; commercially derived from soybeans. Margarine, chocolate and wide variety of other uses. Mannitol Anticaking; nutritive sweetener; stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Special dietary foods. A sugar alcohol. Methylparaben Preservative Food and beverages. Modified food starch Drying agent; formulation aid; processing aid; surface finishing agent Digestible polysaccharide used in many foods and stages of food processing; examples include baking powder, puddings, pie fillings, baby foods, soups, sauces, candies, etc. Monoglycerides Emulsifiers Widely used in foods such as frozen desserts, lard, shortening and margarine. MSG (monosodium glutamate) Flavor enhancer To enhance the flavor of a variety of foods including various meat products. Papain Texturizer Used as a meat tenderizer. Achieves results through enzymatic action. Paprika Color; flavoring agent To provide coloring and/or flavor to foods. Pectin Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Richest source of pectin is lemon and orange rind; present in cell walls of all plant tissues. Used to prepare jellies and similar foods. Phosphoric acid pH control Used to increase effectiveness of antioxidants in lard and shortening. Polyphosphates Nutrient; flavor improver; sequestrant; pH control Numerous food uses. Polysorbates Emulsifiers; surface active agent Polysorbates designated by numbers such as 60, 65, and 80; variety of food uses including baking mixes, frozen custards, pickles, sherbets, ice creams, and shortening. Potassium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed. Wide usage. Potassium bromate Flour treating agent Employed in flour, whole wheat flour, and fermented malt beverages, and to treat malt. Potassium iodide Nutrient Added to table salt or used in mineral preparations as a source of dietary iodine. Potassium nitrite Curing and pickling agent To fix color in cured products such as meats. Potassium sorbate Preservative Inhibits mold and yeast growth in foods such as wines, sausage casings, and margarine. Proplonic acid Preservative Mold inhibitor in breads and general fungicide; used in manufacture of fruit flavors. Proply gallate Antioxidant; preservative Used in products containing oil or fat; employed in chewing gum; used to retard rancidity in frozen fresh pork sausage. Propylene glycol Emulsifier; humectant; stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Miscellaneous and/or general purpose additive; uses include salad dressings, ice cream, ice milk, custards, and a variety of other foods. (Continued) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Common Food Additives F-4 Appendix F (continued) Name Function Food Use and Comments Propylparaben Preservative Fungicide; controls mold in sausage casings; GRAS additive. Saccharin Nonnutritive sweetener Special dietary foods and a variety of beverages; baked products; tabletop sweeteners. Saffron Color; flavoring agent Derived from plant of western Asia and southern Europe. Used to color sausage casings, margarine, or product branding inks. Silicon dioxide Anticaking agent Used in feed or feed components, beer production, production of special dietary foods; ink dilutent for marking fruits and vegetables. Sodium acetate pH control; preservative Miscellaneous and/or general purpose use; meat preservation. Sodium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed; widespread food use. Sodium aluminum sulfate Leavening agent Baking powders, confectionery; sugar refining. Sodium benzoate Preservative To retard flavor reversion (i.e., margarine). Sodium bicarbonate Leavening agent; pH control Separation of fatty acids and glyceroil on rendered fats; neutralize excess and clean vegetables in rendered fats, soups, and curing pickles. Sodium chloride (salt) Flavor enhancer; formulation acid; preservation Widespread use of salt in many foods. Sodium citrate pH control; curing and pickling agent; sequestrant Evaporated milk; miscellaneous and/or general purpose food use; accelerate color fixing in baking products. Sodium diacetate Preservative; sequestrant An inhibitor of molds and rope-forming bacteria in baking products. Sodium nitrate (Chile Saltpeter) Curing and pickling agent; preservative Used with or without sodium nitrite in smoked, cured fish; cured meat products. Sodium nitrite Curing and pickling agent; preservative May be used with sodium nitrate in smoked, cured fish, cured meat products, and pet foods. Sodium propionate Preservative A fungicide and mold preventative in bakery products, alone or with calcium propionate. Sorbic acid Preservative Fungistatic agent for foods, especially cheeses; other uses include baked goods, beverages, dried fruits, fish, jams, jellies, meats, pickled products, and wines. Sorbitan monostearate Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Widespread food usage such as whipped toppings, cakes, cake mixes, confectionery, icings, and shortenings; also many nonfood uses. Sorbitol Humectant; nutritive sweetener; stabilizer and thickener, sequestrant Occurs naturally in berries, cherries, plums, pears, and apples; a sugar alcohol. Examples of use include chewing gum, meat products, icings, dairy products, beverages, and pet foods. Sucrose (table sugar) Nutritive sweetener; preservative Sugar occurs naturally in some fruits and vegetables. The most widely used additive; used in beverages, baked goods, candies, jams and jellies—an endless list including meat products. Tagetes (Aztec marigold) Color Source is flower petals of Aztec marigold. To enhance yellow color of chicken skin and eggs, incorporated in chicken feed. Tartaric acid pH control Occurs free in many fruits, free or combined with calcium, magnesium, or potassium. In the soft drink industry, confectionery products, bakery products, and gelatin desserts. Titanium dioxide Color For coloring foods generally, except standardized foods; used for coloring ingested and applied drugs. (Continued) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User F-5 Appendix F Appendix F (continued) Name Function Food Use and Comments Tocopherols (vitamin E) Antioxidant; nutrient To retard rancidity in foods containing fat; used as a supplement. Tragacanth gum Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Derived from the plant Astragalus gummifier. Turmeric Color Derived from rhizome of Curcuma longa. Food use in general, except standardized foods; to color sausage casings, margarine or shortening; ink for branding or marking products. Vanilla Flavoring agent Used in various bakery products, confectionery and beverages; natural flavoring extracted from cured, full-grown unripe fruit of Vanilla panifolia. Vanillin Flavoring agent and adjuvant Widespread confectionery, beverage, and food use; synthetic form of vanilla. Yellow prussiate of soda Anticaking agent Employed in salt. Source: Adapted from WHITNEY/ROLFES. Understanding Nutrition, 11E. Copyright © 2008 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage. com/permissions. *A mole is a certain number (about 6 3 1023) of molecules. The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. Thus, if the concentration is 10 –2 (moles per liter), the pH is 2; if 10 –8, the pH is 8; and so on. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Glossary Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) The amount of food additive that can be safely ingested daily over a person’s lifetime. Astringency A sensory phenomenon characterized by a dry, puckery feeling in the mouth. alteration of a gene in a bacterium, plant, or animal for the purpose of changing one or more of its characteristics. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine triphosphate is a universal energy compound in cells obtained from the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, or protein. The energy of ATP, which is located in highenergy phosphate bonds, fuels chemical work at the cellular level. Atoms The basic building blocks of matter; individual elements found on the periodic table. Bisque Traditionally, a cream soup made from shellfish. Marketers sometimes label creamed vegetable soups as bisques. Au gratin Food prepared with a browned or crusted top. A common technique is to cover the food with a bread crumb/sauce mixture and pass it under a broiler. Blanch water. Agglomerate A process in which small particles gather into a mass or ball. In the case of milk, the protein particles regroup into larger, more porous particles. Au jus Served with its own natural juices; a term usually used in reference to roasts. Aging Holding meat after slaughter to improve texture and tenderness. A ripening that occurs when carcasses are hung in refrigeration units for longer periods than that required for the reversal of rigor mortis. À la meunière Fish seasoned, lightly floured, and sautéed in clarified butter or oil and served with a sauce made with butter and parsley. Albedo The white, inner rind of citrus fruits, which is rich in pectin and aromatic oils. Al dente Meaning “to the tooth” in Italian, it refers to pasta that is tender, yet firm enough to offer some resistance to the teeth. Bacteria One-celled microorganisms abundant in the air, soil, water, and/or organic matter (i.e., the bodies of plants and animals). Baking powder A chemical leavener consisting of a mixture of baking soda, acid(s), and an inert filler such as cornstarch. Baking soda A white chemical leavening powder consisting of sodium bicarbonate. Barding Tying thin sheets of fat or bacon over lean meat to keep the meat moist during roasting. The sheets of fat are often removed before serving. Baste To add a liquid, such as drippings, melted fat, sauce, fruit juice, or water, to the surface of food (usually roasting meat) to help prevent drying. Amphoteric Capable of acting chemically as either acid or base. Batter A flour mixture that contains more water than a dough does and whose consistency ranges from pourable to sticky. Antibiotic A substance used to prevent or treat infectious diseases by inhibiting or destroying the responsible microorganism. Beading The formation of tiny syrup droplets on the surface of a baked meringue. Antioxidant A compound that inhibits oxidation, which can cause deterioration and rancidity. Beurre manié (pronounced burr mahnYAY ) A thickener that is a soft paste made from equal parts of soft butter and flour blended together. Aromatic compound A compound that has a chemical configuration of a hexagon. Artesian water Water that has surfaced on its own from an aquifer, rather than being pumped. Bile A digestive juice made by the liver from cholesterol and stored in the gall bladder. Aspic A clear gel prepared from stock or fruit or vegetable juices. Biological value The percentage of protein in food that can be utilized by an animal for growth and maintenance. Highquality, complete proteins are considered to have a high biological value. As purchased (AP) The total amount of food purchased prior to any preparation. Biotechnology Previously called genetic engineering, this term describes the To dip a food briefly into boiling Blind bake To bake an unfilled piecrust. Bloom Cottony, fuzzy growth of molds. Body The consistency of frozen desserts as measured by their firmness, richness, viscosity, and resistance to melting. Boiling point The temperature at which a heated liquid begins to boil and changes to a gas. Bouillon A broth made from meat and vegetables and then strained to remove any solid ingredients. Bouquet garni A bundle of parsley, thyme, bay leaf, and whole black pepper rolled in a leek and tied together with twine. Bran The hard outer covering just under the husk that protects the grain’s soft endosperm. Broth Stock made from meat or meat/ bone combinations and some water with little or no flavoring. Broths are seldom reduced (simmered until much of the water evaporates) and therefore not as strongflavored as stocks. Brown stock The stock resulting from browning bones and/or meat prior to simmering them. Calorie (kcal) The amount of energy required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1°C (measured between 14.5°C and 15.5°C at normal atmospheric pressure). (Small “c” calorie is defined by the amount of energy required to heat 1 “gram” of water.) Candling A method of determining egg quality based on observing eggs held against a light. Caramelization A process in which dry sugar, or sugar solution with most of its water evaporated, is heated until it melts G-1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User G-2 Glossary into a clear, viscous liquid and, as heating continues, turns into a smooth, brown mixture. Carryover cooking The phenomenon in which food continues to cook after it has been removed from the heat source as the heat is distributed more evenly from the outer to the inner portion of the food. Congener Alcohol by-product such as methanol or wood alcohol. Connective tissue A protein structure that surrounds living cells, giving them structure and adhesiveness within themselves and to adjacent tissues. Crumbing A ceremonious procedure of Russian service in which a waiter, using a napkin or silver crumber, brushes crumbs off the tablecloth into a small container resembling a tiny dust pan. Describes a food’s firmness Casein The primary protein (80%) found in milk; it can be precipitated (solidified out of solution) with acid or certain enzymes. Crustacean An invertebrate animal with a segmented body covered by an exoskeleton consisting of a hard upper shell and a soft under shell. Consommé A richly flavored soup stock that has been clarified and made transparent by the use of egg whites. Catechins Flavonoid pigments that are a subgroup of the flavonol pigments. Crystalline candy Candies formed from sugar solutions yielding many fine, small crystals. Convection The transfer of heat by moving air or liquid (water/fat) currents through and/or around food. Crystallization The precipitation of crystals from a solution into a solid, geometric network. Co-op Work-study program with a corporation that is often customized for the student. Culture The ideas, customs, skills, and art of a group of people in a given period of civilization. Country of Origin labeling The required identification of the country of origin on the label for fresh red meat (beef, pork, lamb, veal), marinated products (marinated meats), seafood, produce, and peanuts. Curd The coagulated or thickened part of milk. Chalaza (pl. chalazae) The ropy, twisted strands of albumen that anchor the yolk to the center of the thick egg white. Chemethesis The ability to feel a food’s chemical properties (e.g., cool mints or hot chili peppers). Chiffon cake A cake made by combining the characteristics found in both shortened and unshortened cakes. Clarified butter Butter that will not burn because its milk solids and water have been removed. Clarify To make or become clear or pure. Coagulate To clot or become semisolid. In milk, denatured proteins often separate from the liquid by coagulation. Coagulation The clotting or precipitation of protein in a liquid into a semisolid compound. Codex Alimentarius Commission The international organization that develops international food standards, codes of practice, and other guidelines to protect consumers’ health. Collagen A pearly white, tough, and fibrous protein that provides support to muscle and prevents it from overstretching. It is the primary protein in connective tissue. Colloidal dispersion A solvent containing particles that are too large to go into solution, but not large enough to precipitate out. Complete protein A protein, usually from animal sources, that contains all the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for the body’s maintenance and growth. Compound A substance whose molecules consist of unlike atoms. Conduction The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another that it is contacting. Consistency or thickness. Court bouillon Seasoned stock containing white wine and/or vinegar. Cover The table setting, including the place mat, flatware, dishes, and glasses. Creaming Method A procedure of cake batter mixing in which the shortening and sugar are first combined at slow or medium speed until the mixture becomes aerated, followed by the addition of eggs and, in alternate small portions, of milk and flour while mixing continues. Critical control point (CCP) A point in the HACCP process that must be controlled to ensure the safety of the food. Cross-contamination The transfer of bacteria or other microorganisms from one food to another. Cruciferous A group of indolecontaining vegetables named for their cross-shaped blossoms; they are reported to have a protective effect against cancer in laboratory animals. Examples include broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, mustard greens, rutabaga, kohlrabi, and turnips. Crumb The cell structure appearing when a baked product is sliced. Evaluation is based on cell size (called open if medium to large, or closed if small), cell shape, and cell thickness (thin walls occur in fine crumb, whereas thick walls predominate in a coarse crumb). Cure To preserve food through the use of salt and drying. Sugar, spices, or nitrates may also be added. Curing To expose cheese to controlled temperature and humidity during aging. Cuticle (bloom) A waxy coating on an eggshell that seals the pores from bacterial contamination and moisture loss. Cycle menu A menu that consists of 2 or more weeks, usually 3 or 4, that cycles through a certain order of meals. Cycle menus offer a combination of variety and controlled costs. Deglaze To add liquid to pan drippings followed by simmering/stirring to dissolve and loosen cooked-on particles sticking to the bottom of the pan. Degorge To peel and slice vegetables, sprinkle them with salt, and allow them to stand at room temperature until droplets containing bitter substances form on the surface; the moisture is then removed. Dehydrate To remove at least 95% of the water from foods through exposure to high temperatures. Delaney Clause A clause added to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 stipulating that “no additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by man or animal.” Denaturation The irreversible process in which the structure of a protein is disrupted, resulting in partial or complete loss of function. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Glossary Density The concentration of matter measured by the amount of mass per unit volume. Objects with a higher density weigh more for their size. Dextrinization The breakdown of starch molecules to smaller, sweeter-tasting dextrin molecules in the presence of dry heat. Dextrose equivalent (DE) A measurement of dextrose concentration. A DE of 50 means the syrup contains 50% dextrose. Dietary fiber The undigested portion of carbohydrates remaining in a food sample after exposure to digestive enzymes. Dietitian (registered dietitian or RD) A health professional who counsels people about their medical nutrition therapy (diabetic, low-cholesterol, low-sodium, etc.). Registration requirements consist of completing an approved 4-year college degree, exam, internship, and ongoing continuing education. Distillation A procedure in which pure liquid is obtained from a solution by boiling, condensation, and collection of the condensed liquid in a separate container. Distilled water Water that has been purified through distillation to remove minerals, pathogens, and other substances. Diverticulosis An intestinal disorder characterized by pockets forming out from the digestive tract, especially the colon. G-3 Emulsion A liquid dispersed in another liquid with which it is usually immiscible (incapable of being mixed). Flocculation A partial gel in which only some of the solid particles colloidally dispersed in a liquid have solidified. Endosperm The largest portion of the grain, containing all of the grain’s starch. Foam A colloidal dispersion of a gas in a liquid. Enriched Foods that have had certain nutrients, which were lost through processing, added back to levels established by federal standards. Food additive A substance added intentionally or unintentionally to food that becomes part of the food and affects its character. Enrobe To coat food with melted chocolate that hardens to form a solid casing. Foodborne illness to humans by food. Enzymatic browning A reaction in which an enzyme acts on a phenolic compound in the presence of oxygen to produce browncolored products. Enzyme A protein that catalyzes (causes) a chemical reaction without itself being altered in the process. Essential nutrients Nutrients that the body cannot synthesize at all or in amounts necessary to meet the body’s needs. Essential oil An oily substance that is volatile (easily vaporized), with 100 times the flavoring power of the material from which it originated. Eviscerate To remove the entrails from the body cavity. An illness transmitted Food Code An FDA publication updated every two years that shows food service organizations how to prevent foodborne illness while preparing food. Food cost Often expressed as a percentage obtained by dividing the raw food cost by the menu price. Food group plan A diet-planning tool that “groups” foods together based on nutrient and calorie (kcal) content and then specifies the amount of servings a person should have based on their recommended calorie (kcal) intake. Food infection An illness resulting from ingestion of food containing large numbers of living bacteria or other microorganisms. Food intoxication An illness resulting from ingestion of food containing a toxin. Dough A flour mixture that is dry enough to be handled and kneaded. Extractives Flavor compounds consisting of nonprotein, nitrogen substances that are end products of protein metabolism. Drug A product able to treat, prevent, cure, mitigate, or diagnose a disease or disease symptom. Fermentation The conversion of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast or bacteria. Fortified Foods that have had nutrients added that were not present in the original food. Drupes Fruit with seeds encased in a pit. Examples are apricots, cherries, peaches, and plums. Finfish Fish that have fins and internal skeletons. Free radical An unstable molecule that is extremely reactive and that can damage cells. Fire point The temperature at which a heated substance (such as oil) bursts into flames and burns for at least 5 seconds. Freeze-dry To remove water from food when it is in a frozen state, usually under a vacuum. Flash point The temperature at which tiny wisps of fire streak to the surface of a heated substance (such as oil). Freezer burn White or grayish patches on frozen food caused by water evaporating into the package’s air spaces. Flatware Eating and serving utensils (e.g., knives, forks, and spoons). Freezing point The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid. Flavor The combined sense of taste, odor, and mouthfeel. Fruit The edible part of a plant developed from a flower. Flavoring Substance that adds a new flavor to food. Fumet A flavorful fish stock made with white wine. Flavor reversion The breakdown (oxidation) of an essential fatty acid, linolenic acid, found in certain vegetable oils, leading to an undesirable flavor change prior to the start of actual rancidity. Functional food A food or beverage that imparts a physiological benefit that enhances overall health, helps prevent or treat a disease or condition, or improves physical/ mental performance. Dry-heat preparation A method of cooking in which heat is transferred by air, radiation, fat, or metal. Edible coating A thin layer of edible material, such as natural wax, oil, or petroleum-based wax, that serves as a barrier to gas and moisture. Edible portion (EP) Food in its raw state, minus that which is discarded—bones, fat, skins, and/or seeds. Electrolyte An electrically charged ion in a solution. Emulsifier A compound that possesses both water-loving (hydrophilic) and waterfearing (hydrophobic) properties so that it disperses in either water or oil. Forecast A predicted amount of food that will be needed for a food service operation within a given time period. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User G-4 Glossary Gaping The separation of fish flesh into flakes that occurs as the steak or fillet ages. Gelatinization The increase in volume, viscosity, and translucency of starch granules when they are heated in a liquid. Gene A unit of genetic information in the chromosome. Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list A list of compounds exempt from the food additive definition because they are generally recognized as safe based on “a reasonable certainty of no harm from a product under the intended conditions of use.” Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Plants, animals, or microorganisms that have had their genes altered through genetic engineering using the application of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology. Germ The smallest portion of the grain, and the embryo for a future plant. Glaze A sugar-coated icing poured over pies or pastries that hardens to provide flavor and structure. The word glaze is used both for pastries and soup stocks, but they have different meanings. Glaze A flavoring obtained from soup stock that has been concentrated by evaporation until it attains a syrupy consistency with a highly concentrated flavor. Halal An Arabic word meaning “permissible.” Usually refers to permissible foods under Islamic law. Heat of solidification The temperature at which a substance converts from a liquid to a solid state. Heat of vaporization The amount of heat required to convert a liquid to a gas. Heat shock Repeated cycles of temperature fluctuations from cold to warm and back that cause larger ice crystal growth, reducing frozen dessert quality. Herb A plant leaf valued for its flavor or scent. Hermetically sealed Refers to foods that have been packaged airtight by a commercial sealing process. High-conversion corn syrups Corn syrups with a dextrose equivalent over 58. Homogenization A mechanical process that breaks up the fat globules in milk into much smaller globules that do not clump together and are permanently dispersed in a very fine emulsion. Hops The dried fruit of the Humulus lupulus plant, which grows in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Imitation milk A product defined by the FDA as having the appearance, taste, and function of its original counterpart but as being nutritionally inferior. Incomplete protein A protein, usually from plant sources, that does not provide all the essential amino acids. Induction The transfer of heat energy to a neighboring material without contact. Interesterification A commercial process that rearranges fatty acids on the glycerol molecule in order to produce fat with a smoother consistency. Interfering agent A substance added to the sugar syrup to prevent the formation of large crystals, resulting in a candy with a waxy, chewy texture. Internships Corporate internships are temporary job positions (usually for 3 months during the summer or for 6 months, which includes a summer and a semester) in industry, government, or academia. Dietetic internships are supervised practice experiences that average 12 months (6 to 24 months). Invert sugar An equal mixture of glucose and fructose, created by hydrolyzing sucrose. Ionize To separate a neutral molecule into electrically charged ions. Gluten The protein portion of wheat flour with the elastic characteristics necessary for the structure of most baked products. Hormone A substance (usually a peptide or steroid) produced by one tissue and sent through the bloodstream to another tissue site to act physiologically (growth or metabolism). Good Manufacturing Practices A set of regulations, codes, and guidelines for the manufacture of food products, drugs, medical devices, diagnostic products, and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Humectant A substance that attracts water to itself. If added to food, it increases the water-holding capacity of the food and helps to prevent it from drying out by lowering the water activity. Grading The voluntary process in which foods are evaluated for yield (a 1 to 5 grading for meats only) and quality (Prime, Choice, AA, A, Fancy, etc.). Husk The rough outer covering protecting a grain. Kinetic energy motion. Hydrogenation A commercial process in which hydrogen atoms are added to the double bonds in monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids to make them more saturated. Knead To work the dough into an elastic mass by pushing, stretching, and folding it. Gram A metric unit of weight. One gram (g) is equal to the weight of 1 cubic centimeter (cc) or milliliter (mL) of water (under a specific temperature and pressure). GRE The Graduate Record Examination®, a general test that measures verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, critical thinking, and analytical writing skills. Gustatory Relating to the sense of taste. HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System, a systematized approach to preventing foodborne illness during the production and preparation of food. Hydrolysis A chemical reaction in which water (hydro) breaks (lysis) a chemical bond in another substance, splitting it into two or more new substances. Hydrophilic A term describing “waterloving” or water-soluble substances. Irradiation A food preservation process in which foods are treated with low doses of gamma rays, X-rays, or electrons. Job description An organized list of duties used for finding qualified applicants, training, performance appraisal, defining authority and responsibility, and determining salary. Julienne To cut food lengthwise into very thin, stick-like shapes. Energy associated with Kosher From Hebrew, food that is “fit, right, proper” to be eaten according to Jewish dietary laws. Lamination The arrangement of alternating layers of fat and flour in rolled pastry dough. During baking, the fat melts and leaves empty spaces for steam to lift the layers of flour, resulting in a flaky pastry. Hydrophobic A term describing “waterfearing” or nonwater-soluble substances. Larding Inserting strips of bacon, salt pork, or other fat into slits in the meat with a large needle. Hygroscopic Having the ability to attract and retain moisture. Latent heat The amount of energy in calories (kcal) per gram absorbed or emitted Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Glossary as a substance undergoes a change in state (liquid/solid/gas). Legumes Members of the plant family Leguminosae that are characterized by growing in pods. Vegetable legumes include beans, peas, and lentils. Maillard reaction The reaction between a sugar (typically reducing sugars such as glucose/dextrose, fructose, lactose, or maltose) and a protein (specifically the nitrogen in an amino acid), resulting in the formation of brown complexes. Marbling Fat deposited in the muscle that can be seen as little white streaks or drops. Masa A word that means “dough” in Mexico. It is made by cooking corn in water, after which it is ground into a pourable slurry. Masa is often used to make tortillas, tamales, and many commercial corn-based snacks. Mealy A pastry with a grainy or less flaky texture, created by coating all of the flour with fat. Medical foods A food to be taken under the supervision of a physician and intended for the dietary management of a disease/condition for which distinctive nutritional requirements are established by scientific evaluation. Medical nutrition therapy Dietary therapy that applies the nutrition care process (NCP) in clinical settings to manage nutrition-related diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, renal disease, liver failure, and others. Registered dietitians, as part of the health care team, contribute to the patient’s care by providing this dietary therapy often referred by a physician. Melting point The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid state (liquid/ solid/gas). Meniscus The imaginary line read at the bottom of the concave arc at the water’s surface. Methylxanthine A compound that stimulates the central nervous system. Microorganism Plant or animal organism that can only be observed under the microscope—bacteria, mold, yeast, virus, or animal parasite. Milk solids-not-fat (MSNF) Federal standard identifying the total solids, primarily proteins and lactose, found in milk, minus the fat. Mineral water Water from natural springs having a strong taste or odor due to small amounts of salts of calcium, magnesium, and sodium (sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride), and sometimes iron or hydrogen sulfide. Mirepoix A collection of lightly sautéed, chopped vegetables (a 2:1:1 ratio by weight of onions, celery, and carrots) flavored with spices and herbs (sage, thyme, marjoram, and chopped parsley are the most common). Modified starch A starch that has been chemically or physically modified to create unique functional characteristics. Moist-heat preparation A method of cooking in which heat is transferred by water, any water-based liquid, or steam. Mold A fungus (a plant that lacks chlorophyll) that produces a furry growth on organic matter. Molecule A unit composed of one or more types of atoms held together by chemical bonds. Mollusk An invertebrate animal with a soft unsegmented body usually enclosed in a shell. Monograph A summary sheet (fact sheet) describing a substance in terms of name (common and scientific), chemical constituents, functional uses (medical and common), dosage, side effects, drug interactions, and references. Mother sauce A sauce that serves as the springboard from which other sauces are prepared. Mycotoxin A toxin produced by a mold. Myocommata Large sheets of very thin connective tissue separating the myotomes. Myotomes muscle. Layers of short fibers in fish Noncrystalline (amorphous) candy Candies formed from sugar solutions that did not crystallize. Nonnutritive sweeteners Food additives requiring FDA approval that provide sweetness with no or insignificant amounts of energy (calories/kcal). Also known as alternative sweeteners, sugar substitutes, sugar replacers, and macronutrient substitutes. Nontempered coating A coating resembling chocolate that is not subject to bloom because it is made with fats other than cocoa butter. No-observed-effect level (NOEL) The no-observed-effect level is the level or dose at which an additive is fed to laboratory animals without any negative side effects. G-5 Nuclei Small aggregates of molecules serving as the starting point of crystal formation. Nutraceutical A bioactive compound (nutrients and nonnutrients) that has health benefits. Nutrition Care Process and Model A standardized model to guide registered dietitians and dietetic technicians, in providing high quality nutrition care. Nutrient content claims Food label descriptions communicating the amount of a nutrient or dietary substance contained in a food or beverage. Nutrients Food components that nourish the body to provide growth, maintenance, and repair. Nutrigenomics A field of study focusing on genetically determined, biochemical pathways linking specific dietary substances with health and disease. Objective tests Evaluations of food quality that rely on numbers generated by laboratory instruments, which are used to quantify the physical and chemical differences in foods. Ohmic heating A food preservation process in which an electrical current is passed through food, generating enough heat to destroy microorganisms. Olfactory smell. Relating to the sense of Omega-3 fatty acids A category of polyunsaturated fatty acids in which the first double bond is three carbons from the methyl (CH3) end; examples are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Organizational chart A descriptive diagram showing the administrative structure of an organization. Osmosis The movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane to the side with the higher solute concentration, equalizing solute concentration on both sides of the membrane. Osmotic pressure The pressure or pull that develops when two solutions of different solute concentration are on either side of a permeable membrane. Outbreak Defined by the CDC as the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food. Oven spring The quick expansion of dough during the first 10 minutes of baking, caused by expanding gases. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User G-6 Glossary Overrun The volume over and above the volume of the original frozen dessert mix, caused by the incorporation of air during freezing. Prawn A large crustacean that resembles shrimp but is biologically different. Large shrimp are often called by this name. “weight of the evidence” qualifies them as a health claim, these claims are not held to the standard of significant scientific agreement. Parasite An organism that lives on or within another organism at the host’s expense without any useful return. Prebiotics Nondigestible food ingredients [generally fibers such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and inulin] that support the growth of probiotics. Parboil To partially boil, but not fully cook, a food. Precipitate solution. Pascalization A food preservation process utilizing ultrahigh pressures to inhibit the chemical processes of food deterioration. Prime (season) To seal the pores of a pan’s metal surface with a layer of heatedon oil. Radiation The transfer of heat energy in the form of waves of particles moving outward from their source. Pasteurization A food preservation process that heats liquids to 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds, or 143°F (62°C) for 30 minutes, in order to kill bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Prion An infectious protein particle that does not contain DNA or RNA. Rancid The breakdown of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in fats that results in disagreeable odors and flavors. Patent flour Process (processed) cheese A cheese made from blending one or more varieties of cheese, with or without heat, and mixing the result with other ingredients. The finest streams of flour. Pathogenic Causing or capable of causing disease. Peptide bond The chemical bond between two amino acids. To separate or settle out of a Probiotics Live microbial food ingredients (i.e., bacteria) that have a beneficial effect on human health. Percentage yield The ratio of edible to inedible or wasted food. Product recall Civil court action to seize or confiscate a product that is defective, unsafe, filthy, or produced under unsanitary conditions. Phenolic A chemical term to describe an aromatic (circular) ring attached to one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups. Proof (alcohol) Alcoholic strength indicated by a number that is twice the percent by volume of alcohol present. pH scale Measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance, with 1 the most acidic, 14 the most alkaline, and 7 neutral. Proof (baking) To increase the volume of shaped dough through continued fermentation. Plain pastry Pastry made for producing piecrusts, quiches, and main-dish pies. Plant stanol esters Naturally occurring substances in plants that help block absorption of cholesterol from the digestive tract. Plasticity The ability of a fat to be shaped or molded. Polymerization A process in which free fatty acids link together, especially when overheated, resulting in a gummy, dark residue and an oil that is more viscous and prone to foaming. Polymorphism The capability of solid fats to change into several crystalline forms, each with its own melting point, crystal structure, and solubility. Polyphenol An organic compound with two or more phenols—carbon atoms structured into an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups. Pomes Fruit with seeds contained in a central core. Examples are apples and pears. Proof box A large, specially designed container that maintains optimal temperatures and humidity for the fermentation and rising of dough. Protein complementation Two incomplete-protein foods, each of which supplies the amino acids missing in the other, combined to yield a complete protein profile. Quality grades The USDA standards for beef, veal, lamb, and mutton. Quick bread Bread leavened with air, steam, and/or carbon dioxide from baking soda or baking powder. Reducing sugars Sugars such as glucose, fructose, maltose, and others that have a reactive aldehyde or ketone group. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar. Reduction The process in which a liquid is simmered or boiled until the volume is reduced through evaporation, leaving a thicker, more concentrated, flavorful mass; or the product of this process. Reference protein A standard against which to measure the quality of other proteins. Registered dietitians, as part of the health care team, contribute to the patient’s care by providing dietary therapy often pursuant to a physician’s referral. The patient’s nutrition status is assessed prior to recommending a dietary plan to treat medical conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, renal disease, liver failure, and others. Rennin An enzyme obtained from the inner lining of a calf’s stomach and sold commercially as rennet. Respiration rate The rate of carbon dioxide produced from a given amount of produce over a certain unit of time. P/S ratio The ratio of polyunsaturated fats to saturated fats. The higher the P/S ratio, the more polyunsaturated fats the food contains. Retail cuts Smaller cuts of meat obtained from wholesale cuts and sold to the consumer. Puff pastry A delicate pastry that puffs up in size during baking because of many alternating layers of fat and flour. Retrogradation The seepage of water out of an aging gel because of the contraction of the gel (bonds tighten between the amylose molecules). Also known as syneresis or weeping. Purified water Water that has undergone deionization, distillation, reverse osmosis, or any other method that removes minerals, chemicals, and flavor. Qualified health claims An FDA term describing a relationship between a food, food component, or dietary supplement ingredient and reduced risk of a disease or health-related condition. Although the Rhizome An underground (usually) stem that generates (1) shoots that rise up and/ or horizontally to propagate new plants and (2) roots that grow down to the ground. Rigor mortis Latin for “stiffness of death,” the temporary stiff state following death as muscles contract. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Glossary Ripening The chemical and physical changes that occur during the curing period. Sol A colloidal dispersion of a solid dispersed in a liquid. Rope The sticky, moist texture of breads resulting from contamination by Bacillus mesentericus bacteria. Solubility The ability of one substance to blend uniformly with another. Roux A thickener made by cooking equal parts of flour and fat. Saturated solution A solution holding the maximum amount of dissolved solute at room temperature. Solute Solid, liquid, or gas compounds dissolved in another substance. Solution A completely homogeneous mixture of a solute (usually a solid) dissolved in a solvent (usually a liquid). G-7 Standards of Identity Requirements for the type and amount of ingredients a food should contain in order to be labeled as that food. Standards of Minimum Quality Minimum quality requirements for tenderness, color, and freedom from defects in canned fruits and vegetables. Solvent A substance, usually a liquid, in which another substance is dissolved. Starter A culture of microorganisms, usually bacteria and/or yeasts, used in the production of certain foods such as sourdough bread, cheese, and alcoholic beverages. Scampi A crustacean found in Italy and not generally available in North America. The term is often used incorrectly to describe a popular shrimp dish. Specifications Descriptive information used in food purchasing that defines the minimum and maximum levels of acceptable quality or quantity (i.e., U.S. grade, weight, size, fresh or frozen). Sterilization The elimination of all microorganisms through extended boiling/ heating to temperatures much higher than boiling or through the use of certain chemicals. Score The technique of taking a sharp knife or a special blade called a lame and creating ¼- to ½-inch-deep slashes on the risen dough’s top surface just prior to baking. Specific gravity The density of a substance compared to another substance (usually water). Stock The foundational thin liquid of many soups, produced when meat, poultry, seafood, and/or their bones, or vegetables are reduced (simmered) and strained. Scalloped Baked with milk sauce and bread crumbs. Sear To brown the surface of meat by brief exposure to high heat. Specific heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1°C. Searing Cooking that exposes a cut of meat to very high initial temperatures; this is intended to seal the pores, increase flavor, and enhance color by browning. Spice A seasoning or flavoring added to food that is derived from the fruit, flowers, bark, seeds, or roots of a plant. Seasoning Any compound that enhances the flavor already found naturally in a food. Seed To create nuclei or starting points from which additional crystals can form. Sensory or subjective tests Evaluations of food quality based on sensory characteristics and personal preferences as perceived by the five senses. Shortened cake A cake made with fat. Shortening A fat that tenderizes, or shortens, the texture of baked products by impeding gluten development, making them softer and easier to chew. Silence cloth A piece of fabric placed between the table and the tablecloth to protect the table, quiet the placement of dishes and utensils, and keep the tablecloth from slipping. Simple syrup A basic mixture of boiled sugar and water. Slurry A thickener made by combining starch and a cool liquid. Small sauce A secondary sauce created when a flavor is added to a mother sauce. Smoke point The temperature at which fat or oil begins to smoke. Spore Encapsulated, dormant form assumed by some microorganisms that is resistant to environmental factors that would normally result in its death. Spring water Water that, according to the FDA requirements, flows from its source without being pumped and contains at least 250 parts per million of dissolved solids. Stabilizer A compound such as vegetable gum that attracts water and interferes with frozen ice crystal formation, resulting in a smoother consistency in frozen desserts. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) Established written procedures serving as compulsory instructions to be followed out exactly in carrying out a given operation. SOPs ensure quality control through always carrying out operations in the same correct manner. Storage eggs Eggs that are treated with a light coat of oil or plastic and stored in high humidity at low refrigerator temperatures very close to the egg’s freezing point (29°F–32°F/ –1.5°C–0°C). Straight flour Flour containing all the different types of streams produced during milling. Stream A division of milled flour based on particle size. Streusel topping A crunchy, flavorful topping that can be strewn over the top of pies; it is made by combining flour, butter or margarine, brown sugar, and possibly spices (cinnamon) and chopped nuts (pecans, walnuts, or almonds). Structure/function claims Statements identifying relationships between nutrients or dietary ingredients and body functions. Sublimation The process in which a solid changes directly to a vapor without passing through the liquid phase. Substrate A substance that is acted upon, such as by an enzyme. Standardized recipe A food service recipe that is a set of instructions describing how a particular dish is prepared by a specific establishment. It ensures consistent food quality and quantity, the latter of which provides portion/cost control. Superglycerinated Describes a shortening that has had mono- and diglycerides added for increased plasticity. Standards of Fill The amount of raw product that must be put into a container before liquid (brine or syrup) is added. Surfactant Surface-active agent that reduces a liquid’s surface tension to increase its wetting and blending ability. Supersaturated solution An unstable solution created when more than the maximum solute is dissolved in solution. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User G-8 Glossary Surimi Japanese for “minced meat,” a fabricated fish product usually made from Alaskan pollack, a deep-sea whitefish, which is skinned, deboned, minced, washed, strained, and shaped into pieces to resemble crab, shrimp, or scallops. Suspension A mixture in which particles too large to go into solution remain suspended in the solvent. Sweat The stage of cooking in which food, especially vegetables, becomes soft and translucent. Syneresis The oozing out of the liquid component of a gel. Tannins Polymers of various flavonoid compounds, of which some of the larger ones yield reddish and brown pigments. Temperature danger zone The temperature range that is ideal for bacterial growth; it is 40°F–140°F (4°C–60°C) for consumers and 41°F–135°F (5°C–57°C) for retailers. Tempering The process of heating and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures, making it more resistant to melting and resulting in a smooth, glossy, hard finish. Tenure track The process in which new faculty members are hired as assistant professors and are on probation for approximately 5 years. If their yearly contract is renewed for 5 years in a row based on satisfactory performance, they may apply for tenure (permanent hire) and promotion to associate professor. The next and final step is promotion to full professor. Three-compartment sink A sink divided into three sections, the first for soaking and washing, the second for rinsing, and the third for sanitizing. TOEFL The Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTM measures the ability of nonnative speakers to understand English as it is spoken, written, and heard in colleges and universities. Truss To tie the legs and wings against the body of the bird to prevent it from overcooking before the breast is done. Turgor The rigid firmness of a plant cell resulting from being filled with water. Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) milk Milk that has been pasteurized using very high temperatures, is aseptically sealed, and is capable of being stored unrefrigerated for up to 3 months. Volume A measurement of threedimensional space that is often used to measure liquids. Water activity (aw) Measures the amount of available (free) water in foods. Water activity ranges from 0 to the highest value of 1.00, which is pure water. Ultrapasteurization A process in which a milk product is heated at or above 280°F (138°C) for at least 2 seconds. Weeping (syneresis) The escape of liquid to the bottom of a meringue or the formation of pores filled with liquid. Unqualified health claim An FDA term describing a relationship between a food, food component, or dietary supplement ingredient and reducing risk of a disease or health-related condition. Significant scientific agreement supports these authorized claims. Well water Water pumped from an aquifer, an underground source of water. Unshortened cake A cake made without added fat. Variety meats The liver, sweetbreads (thymus), brain, kidneys, heart, tongue, tripe (stomach lining), and oxtail (tail of cattle). Verification form Documentation provided by the dietetic program director to an individual who has completed the undergraduate ADA course requirements approved by the ADA for that particular academic institution. This form is required for (1) acceptance into an ADA internship and (2) taking the ADA examination. Vinaigrette A salad dressing consisting only of oil, vinegar, and seasoning. Vintage The year in which a wine was bottled; especially, an exceptionally fine wine from a year with a good crop. Virus An infectious microorganism consisting of RNA or DNA that reproduces only in living cells. Viscosity The resistance of a fluid to flowing freely, caused by the friction of its molecules against a surface. Vitelline membrane The membrane surrounding the egg yolk and attached to the chalazae. Volatile molecules Molecules capable of evaporating like a gas into the air. Whey The liquid portion of milk, consisting primarily of 93% water, lactose, and whey proteins (primarily lactalbumin and lactoglobulin). It is the watery component removed from the curd in cheese manufacture. White sauce usually fat. A mixture of flour, milk, and White stock The flavored liquid obtained by simmering the bones of beef, veal, chicken, or pork. Whole grains Defined by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) as “foods made from the entire grain seed, usually called the kernel, which consists of the bran, germ, and endosperm.” Wholesale (primal) cuts The large cuts of an animal carcass, which are further divided into retail cuts. Winterizing A commercial process that removes from vegetable oils the fatty acids that have a tendency to crystallize and make the oils appear cloudy. Yeast A fungus (a plant that lacks chlorophyll) that is able to ferment sugars and that is used for producing food products such as bread and alcohol. Yeast bread Bread made with yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas through the process of fermentation, causing the bread to rise. Yield grade The amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat, bone, and other inedible parts. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Note: Websites are listed at the end of each text chapter. A AATA. See American Art Therapy Association Abalone, 189, 199 ABGC. See American Board of Genetic Counseling Aborio rice, 357 Acai, 311–12 Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), 599 of nonnutritive sweeteners, 442, 443 Acceptable level of filth, 594 Accessory items, in table settings, 136 Accreditation Review Commission on Education for the Physician Assistant (ARC-PA), 611 Accrediting Council for Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE), 611 Acesulfame-K (Sunette), 443, 444, 446, 552 Acetic acid, 89 ACF. See American Culinary Federation Acid(s). See also Amino acids; Fatty acids; pH baking powder and, 378 baking soda and, 378 Clostridium botulinum growth and, 579 effect on milk, 225 in fruits, 299, 319 gelatinization inhibited by, 394–95, 404 in gel formation, 341 meat tenderizing with, 151 organic, 299, 554 oxalic, 299 pH changes and, 37 in soft drinks, 551, 552 in vegetables, 272 vegetable softening and, 287 Acid coagulation, in cheese production, 235–36 Acidity, low, 80 Acidophilus milk, 223, 562 ACOTE. See Accrediting Council for Occupational Therapy Education Acrolein, 467 Acrylamide, 75 Actin, 142 Actinomyosin, 142 ADA. See American Dietetic Association Adams, Janet, 316 Adaptation, 2 Additives, food, 56–59, 157–58, Appendix F, F-1–F-5 anti-staling, 431 in baked goods, 382–84, 419–20, 431 in cakes, 483 in cereal grains, 347 in cheese, 241 color compounds, 58 in cookies, 493 exemptions from definition, 599 in fabricated fish products, 197 flavor compounds, 58 in flour mixtures, 382–84 in fruits, 304 GRAS list, 599 in ice cream, 544 in milk and milk products, 214 in processed meats, 157–58 in processed poultry, 176 purposes of, 56–59 regulation of, 593, 598–600 safety of, 599 in soft drinks, 552 types of, 57–58 in vegetables, 275–76 in wines, 568 in yeast breads, 419–20 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 142 Adipose (fatty) tissue, 143 Advertising federal regulation of, 592, 603, 605 in food selection, 13 misleading, 603 Adzuki bean, 281 Aerated candies, 525 Affective tests for food evaluation, 25, 28 Agar/agar gum, 44, 45, 540, 545 Agglomerate, 221 Aggregate fruit, 298 Aging of dough, 383 of flour, 374, 383 of frozen desserts, 542 of meats, 142, 149–49, 150–51 of wine, 565 Agricultural Marketing Act (1946), 601 Air aerated candies, 525 aeration, 436 as leavening agent, 375 Air-blast freezing, 580 Air cell, 251 À la meunière, 114, 202 Albedo of citrus fruits, 300 Albumen (egg white), 250, 267 foaming capacity of, 256–57, 267 folding, 261 meringues made from, 261 proteins in, 250 whipping, 110 Albumin, 369 Alcohol Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, 603–4, 605 calories (kcal) from, 32 government regulation of, 592, 603–4, 605 used in pastries, 504 Alcoholic beverages, 562–69, 570 amount of alcohol in, 562–63 beer, 563–64 calorie (kcal) content, 563 fermentation and, 448 government regulation of, 592, 603–4, 605 grains used to make, 348 spirits, 562, 568–69, 570 wine, 562, 563, 564–68, 570 Alcohols, sugar, 441–42, 449, 522 Al dente, 360 Alexander the Great, 351, 435 Alfalfa sprouts, 291–92 Algae, red tide, 76 Alginate, 45, 540, 545, 578 Alitame, 443, 446 Alkaloids, 3 Allergies food allergens, 76–77, 597 genetically engineered foods and, 14 Allied health, careers in, 611–12 Allowed claims on food labels, 597–98 Allspice, 113 Almond cookies, 491 Almond milk, 219 Almond oil, 462 Alpha-amylase, 423 Alternative medicine, 6 Altitude, boiling point and, 35. See also High-altitude adjustments Aluminum pans, 424 Amaranth, 281, 356, 374 Amebic dysentery, 73 American Art Therapy Association (AATA), 611 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 610 American Association of Cereal Chemists, 610 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 611 American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences, 610 American Board of Genetic Counseling (ABGC), 611 American Board of Nutrition, 610, 612 American Chemical Society, 610 American College of Nutrition, 610, 612 American Culinary Federation (ACF), 610 American Dietetic Association (ADA), 9, 610, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616 American Institute of Nutrition, 610 American Oil Chemists’ Society, 610 American Orthoptic Council (AOC), 611 American paddlefish, 198 American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), 611 American service, 135 American Society for Hospital Food Service Administrators, 610 American Society of Biological Chemists, 610 American Society of Clinical Nutrition (ASCN), 610, 612 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 611 Amino acids, 50, 51. See also Protein(s) essential and non-essential, 50 in fish, 190 structure of, 50, 51 Ammonium, quaternary, sanitation with, 89 Ammonium sulfate, 420 Amphoteric nature of proteins, 54 Amylases, 52, 315, 368, 383 alpha- and beta-amylase, 423 Amylose/amylopectin, 39, 41, 42, 43 in staling of bread/baked goods, 381 in starches, 393 structure of, 393 sweetness of toasted bread and, 396 Analytical tests for food evaluation, 25, 28 Anchovies, 196 Angel food cake, 479, 480, 486 Animal feeds, grains used to make, 348 Anisakis simplex (herring worm), 72, 73 Anise (fennel), 113, 271 Anna, Duchess of Bedford, 489 Annatto, 483 Anthocyanin, 272, 273, 287, 289 Anthoxanthins, 272, 273, 287, 289 Antibiotics in meat production, 144–45 in poultry production, 175–76 resistance, 144 Anticarcinogens, 59 Antioxidants, 6, 55, 472, 473 added to baked goods, 419 added to cereal grains, 347 added to cured meats, 157 added to functional beverages, 554 in fruits, 302, 315 measuring, 312 qualified health claim for, 598 structure/function claim for, 598 vitamin E, 56 AOC. See American Orthoptic Council AP. See As purchased Appearance, fats, 457 Appert, Nicholas, 578 Apple cider, 80, 562 Applegate, Liz, 620 Apples, 299, 300, 301, 305 coring of, 338 enzymatic browning of, 54 rotten, one spoils the barrel, 321 selecting, 304 storage of, 321 varieties of, 304 Applesauce, 318 Apple wine (hard cider), 562, 566 Appliance thermometers, 86–87 Apricots, 299, 301, 304, 305 APTA. See American Physical Therapy Association Arabinose, 39, 40 Arbroath smokies, 196 ARC-PA. See Accreditation Review Commission on Education for the Physician Assistant Aroma. See Odors Aromatic beverages. See Coffee; Tea Aromatic compounds, 317 Aromatic wine, 566 Arrowroot, 392, 399, 504 Artesian water, 550 Artichoke, 271, 277, 278 I-1 1 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-2 Index Arugula, 278, 334 Ascaris lumbricoides, 73 ASCN. See American Society of Clinical Nutrition Ascorbic acid, 304, 383, 420 Aseptic packaging, 584, 586 Asian noodles, 359, 362, 363 Asparagus, 271, 277, 278, 280 storage of, 292 Aspartame (NutraSweet), 443–44, 445, 552 Aspergillus flavus, 71 Asperigillus niger, 235 Aspergillus oryzae, 423 Aspic, 340 As purchased (AP), 131–32 Astringency, 5 Atomic absorption, 26 Atoms/atomic structure, 32 ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate Attenuation, 564 Au gratin, 286 Au jus, 161, 402 Avidin, 250 Avocado oil, 462 Avocados, 271, 278, 301, 305 cutting, seeding, and peeling, 107 fat content of, 301 selecting, 304 vitamin C in, 302 Azodicarbonamide (ADA), 383, 420 B Baby foods, 584 Bacillus cereus, 66, 67 Bacillus mesentericus, 431 Bacillus subtilis, 423 Bacon, 159, 577 Bacon, Francis, 579 Bacteria, 65–74 in cheese/cheese production, 236, 238 foodborne illness and, 65–74 food spoilage by, 574–75 irradiation and, 582 as leavening agents, 377 pathogenic, 65, 74, 582 probiotics/prebiotics, 222–23 spore form, 82 starter, 377 sugar, dehydrating effect on, 448 temperatures needed to destroy, 82 in yogurt, 222 Bacterial Analytical Manual, 74 Bacterial cultures, 222, 223, 448 Bacterial food infections, 66, 68–69 Bacterial food intoxicants, 67 Bacterial food intoxications, 66, 69 Bacterial toxin-mediated infections, 66, 67, 69–74 Bagels, 429, 430 Baguette, 424 Baked goods. See also Cakes; Cookies; Quick breads; Yeast breads additives in, 382–84, 419–20 eggs in, 382, 387 fats in, 380–82, 387 flour and flour mixtures in, 347, 367, 368, 387 high-altitude adjustments, 385, 427 leavening agents, 375–79, 387 liquid in, 380, 387 lower-fat alternatives, 382 milk in, 380, 387 oven position, optimal, 413 preparation of, 384–85, 387 quick breads, 367, 407–15 salt in, 380, 387 sugar in, 379–80, 387 yeast breads, 418–32 Baked potatoes, 288–89 Baker’s Special sugar, 437 Baker’s yeast, 376, 377 Baking, 101 of cakes, 485 of cereal grains, 358 as convection cooking, 103 of cookies, 493 of eggs, 260–61 of fish and shellfish, 201–2 of fruits, 318 pan color and, 101–2 of pies and pastries, 513 of potatoes, 288–89 of poultry, 179–81 rack position, 101, 102 temperature for, 101 of vegetables, 288–89 of yeast breads, 425–26 Baking chocolate, 529 Baking pans, 424, 483–84, 513 Baking powder, 375, 378–79 carbon dioxide release and, 38 in flour mixtures, 375, 378–79 reactions, 378 types of, 378–79 Baking soda, 375, 377–78 acid and, 378 in baked goods, 420 as cause of mushy vegetables, 44 in flour mixtures, 375 reactions, 377–78 Baking stones, 424 Baklava, 500 Balsamic vinegar, 338 Banana bread, 412 Bananas, 304–5 Barbecue sauce, 398, 402 Barbecuing, 102 Bar cookies, 490 Barding of meat, 161 Barley, 346, 353–54, 363 cooking times, 357 fermentation to beer, 563–64 Barley flour, 429 Barley malt, 563 Barracuda, 75 Bases, pH changes and, 37 Basil, 333 Basmati rice, 346, 351, 357 Bass, 189, 190, 192 Basting, 102, 161 of poultry, 180 Batter method of mixing, 421 Batters, 103, 114–15, 384–85, 387 cake, 482–83 changes during heating, 385 drop, 384–85, 409–12, 415 high-altitude adjustments, 385 pour, 384, 385, 408–9, 415 B-complex vitamins, 420 Beading, 261 Beano, 291 Beans, 271, 278, 280. See also Soybeans; Vegetables coffee, 556–57 dried, 286, 290–91 soaking/cooking times, 290–91 sprouts/sprouting, 291–92 storage of, 292 varieties, 280 Bean sprouts, 291–92 Bean thread noodles, 359 Béarnaise sauce, 161 Beating, 110. See also Mixing techniques of crystalline candies, 522 of egg whites, 256–57 Béchamel sauce, 161, 399 Beef, 140, 168. See also Meat(s) baby beef, 140 bacteria in undercooked, 70 classification of cattle, 140 cooking temperatures, 162, 163 corned beef, 156, 577 dark-cutting, 150 grading of, 146–47 ground beef vs hamburger, 153 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 mad cow disease and, 73–74 marbling of, 143, 147 processed, 156 retail/wholesale cuts of, 152, 153 sauces for, 161 Beef stock, 329 Beef tapeworm ( Taenia saginata), 73 Beers, 448, 563–64, 570 lite/light designation, 563 Beeswax, 578 Beet greens, 271 Beets, 271, 273, 287, 280 Bell peppers, 279, 283 Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream, 4 Benedict test, 27 Benzoic acid, 304, 551, 552 Bercy butter, 161 Berries, 304–5 Besan, 373 “Best used by” date, 131 Beta-amylase, 423 Beta-carotene, 301 Betalains, 272, 273, 289 Beurre manié, 400 Beurre noire (black butter), 161 Beurre noisette (brown butter), 459 Beverages, 549–70. See also specific beverages alcoholic, 562–69, 570 calories, 554 carbonated, 551–52, 570 coffee, 554–59, 570 dairy, 562, 570 functional, 552–54, 570 New Age, 552 tea, 559–62, 570 water, 549–51, 570 BGH. See rBGH; recombinant bovine growth hormone BHA. See Butylated hydroxyanisole BHT. See Butylated hydroxytoluene Bifidobacterium, 222 Bile, 48 Bimetallic thermometer, 85, 86 Binding, 110 eggs and, 254, 256, 267 proteins and, 51 Biocatalysts. See Enzymes Bioengineering, 13–16 Biofilm, 71 Biological food hazards, 65–74, 94. See also Bacteria new virulent, 74 severity of risk, 65 Biological leaveners, 375 Biological value, 339 Biotechnology, 13–16 acceptance/rejection of genetically engineered foods, 14–16 concerns about, 14 foods created with, 14 history of, 13–14 Bioterrorism Preparedness Act of 2004, 600 Birds. See also Poultry Birdseye, Clarence, 579 Birthplace, food choices and, 10–11 Biscotti, 490, 491 Biscuit method of mixing, 111 Biscuits, 384, 407, 412, 413 Bismark herring, 196 Bisque, 331 Bitterness, 3, 53 alkaline pH and, 58 in coffee, 555 in fruits, 300 in vegetables, 287 Bivalves, 198–99 shucking, 198 Blackberries, 306 Black butter, 459 “Black” olives, 308 Black tea, 560 Blanching, 101 green color, 273 of meats, 161 of vegetables, 273, 292 Bleached flour, 374 Blended coffee, 556–57 Blending, 110 Blind bake, 513 Blistering of cheeses, 243 Bloaters, 196 Block fillets, 196 Blocking access, 90 Blocking entrances, 90 Blood orange, 305 Bloom, 71 on chocolates, 527, 528, 529 Blueberries, 301, 302, 306, 312, 554 Bluefish, 190, 191, 195 excessive histamine in, 205 Board-certified dietitian, 615 Body of frozen desserts, 535, 540–41 of wine, 565 Boiling, 100–1, 117. See also Simmering blanching, 101 of cereal grains, 356–58 of eggs, 262 parboiled, 100 of pasta, 360–62 as preservation method, 581 Boiling onions, 283 Boiling point, 35, 104–5 increased by sugar, 436, 447 Bok choy, 271, 278, 280 Bologna, 156, 577 Bombay duck, 196 Bombe, 535 Bones as landmarks for meat cuts, 144 in soups, 329 Bordeaux, 566 Bordelaise sauce, 161 Borscht, 331 Boston brown bread, 411 Boston cream pie, 480 Boston Tea Party, 559 Bottled water, 549–50 Botulism, 67, 69 Bouillon, 330 Bouquet garni, 329 Bourbon whiskey, 569 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 73–74 Bowls, for beating egg whites, 257 Boysenberries, 305 Brains, 155, 156 Braising, 100 of meats, 165–66 of poultry, 182 of vegetables, 290 Bran, 346, 429 oat, 354, 355 rice, 351 wheat, 350 Brandy, 566, 568, 569 Bratwurst, 156 Brazzein, 446 Bread basket, 136 Breadcrumbs, 114 Bread flour, 373 Breadings, 103, 114, 115 Bread plate, 136, 137 Breads, 407–432. See also Flours and flour mixtures; Quick breads; Yeast breads cost of, 127, 130 flat, 412–13 gluten-free, 429 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index leavening, 375–79 loaf, 428–29 multi-grain, 429 nutrient content, 410 pita, 429 quick, 407–15 rolls, 429, 430 specialty, 429 staling of, 381, 431 toasting, sweetening effect of, 396 unleavened, 412–13 yeast, 418–32 Bread sticks, 431 Breakfast cereals, 347–48, 358 sugar in, 379 Breakfast menus/planning, 123–26 Breath mints, 442, 522 Brewer’s yeast, 376, 377 Brewing of beer, 563 of coffee, 557–59 of tea, 561–62 Brining, 178 Brioche pastry, 499 British thermal unit (Btu), 105 Brittle candy, 448, 519, 520, 521, 525 Broccoli, 271, 278, 280 Broiler cook/grillardin, 121 Broiler/fryers, Appendix A, A-3 chicken, 172 Broiling, 102 of fish and shellfish, 202 of fruits, 318 of meats, 163–64 of poultry, 181 Bromate, 420 potassium bromate, 383 Broth, 328 Brown butter, 459 Brownies, 490 Browning, 54, 447, 449. See also Enzymatic browning; Maillard reaction before braising, 165–66 of cheese, 243 microwaving and, 166 sugar and, 436, 447 Brown rice, 349, 351, 357, 358 Brown sauce (sauce espagnole), 161, 399 Brown stock, 328 Brown sugar, 109, 437 Brucella abortus, 66 Brussels sprouts, 271, 278, 280 BSE. See bovine spongiform encephalopathy Btu. See British thermal unit Bubonic plague, 90 Buckwheat, 349, 356 cooking time, 357 Buckwheat flour, 374 Buddhism, 11 Budgetary criteria for food selection, 17, 18 Budgeting food purchasing, 126–30 portion control, 132 Buffering, by proteins, 54 Buffet service, 135 Bulb fennel, 278 Bulbs, vegetables derived from, 270, 271, 294 Bulgur, 349, 350, 357 Bulk. See Fiber Bulking agents, 436, 552 Bulls, 140 Bundt cake, 479 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, 603–4 Burgundy, 566 Butter, 457–59, 471 color of, 214 flavor of, 459 grades of, 459, 460, 602, 605 production, 458, 474 types of, 459 Butter cake, 479 Butter cookies, 491 Buttercream frosting, 488 Butter knife, 136 Buttermilk, 212, 213, 214, 221–22, 562 storage of, 227 Butter sauce, 398, 402 Butterscotch, 521 Butters, fruit, 318, 322 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), 59, 158, 347 carcinogenicity of, 600 in flours, 384 structure of, 473 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 59, 158, 347 carcinogenicity of, 600 in flours, 284 structure of, 473 Butyric acid, 47 Buyer, 126 B vitamins added in baked products, 420 in enriched flours, 350 in meats, 147 nutrient retention, 585 qualified health claim for, 598 Byrd, Willie, 481 C CAAHEP. See Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs Cabbage, 271, 278, 280 Chinese, 271, 280 coring and shredding, 337 red, 273 Cabernet, 566 Cacao tree, 525, 526 CACREP. See Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs CADE. See Commission on Accreditation of Dietetics Education Café au lait/café con leche, 557 Café brulot, 557 Caffeine, 59 in coffee, 555 decaffeination, 555–56 in energy beverages, 554 excessive intake of, 59 in soft drinks, 551, 556 structure of, 556 in tea, 561 Caffè latte, 557 Caffè mocha, 557 Cake flour, 373 chlorinated, 482 Cakes, 478–95. See also Cookies additives in, 483 classification, 479 cooling, 485 frostings/icings, 488–89 high-altitude adjustments, 485 high-ratio, 482 ingredients, 482–83 nutrient content, 484 from pour batters, 384 preparation of, 482–88, 495 problems and their causes, 486 shortened, 478–80, 483–88 storage of, 489, 495 testing for doneness, 485, 488 types of, 478–80, 495 unshortened, 480, 486–88 Calcium in canned fruits, 317 in nutraceutical beverages, 554 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 structure/function claim for, 598 in water, 549 water hardness and, 35 Calcium benzoate, 551 Calcium carbonate, 35 Calcium chloride, 113 Calcium lactate, 493 Calcium peroxide, 420 Calcium propionate, 419, 420, 431, 483 Calcium sorbate, 551 Calcium sulfate, 420 Calibration, thermometers, 84–89 Calories (kcal), 6, 7, 31, 32, 105 in alcoholic beverages, 563 balanced, 128–30 in cakes, 484 in candies, 523 in cereal grains, 349, 363 in cheese, 235, 246 control of, 116 in cookies, 494 daily needs, 7 in eggs, 253, 267 as energy source, 32 in fats, 32, 474 in frozen desserts, 538 in ice creams, 536, 537, 538 measuring, 33–34, 105 in milk and milk products, 212–13 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 in pies, 503 in quick breads, 411 recommended daily amounts, 6, 7 in soft drinks, 552 in starches, 391 in sugars, 437, 438, 449 in sweeteners, 438, 442 uses in body, 31 in vegetables, 274 in yeast breads, 427, 428 Calves, 140 CAM. See Complementary and alternative medicine Camellia sinensis, 559, 561 Camel, meat from, 140 Campylobacter, 91 Campylobacter jejuni, 66, 67, 71, 74 proportion of poultry carrying, 178 Canadian whiskey, 569 Cancer carcinogens used on raw agricultural commodities, 603 conventional foods and, 9 cyclamates and, 443, 445–46 DNA damage, 275 fats and, 459 food additives and, 599, 600 fruits and, 301 legumes and, 274 nutraceuticals and, 554 phenolic compounds and, 561 phytochemicals and, 274 qualified health claims about, 598 saccharin and, 443 smoked meats and, 577 Candelilla wax, 578 Candied fruit, 519 Candies, 518–31 chocolate, 525–30, 531 classification of, 518–20, 531 crystalline, 519–23, 531 crystallization and, 447, 520–23 dietetic, 442 functions of dairy ingredients in, 524 noncrystalline (amorphous), 519–20, 524–25, 531 nutrient content, 522 preparation of, 520–25, 531 problems, causes, and solutions, 528 storage of, 530, 531 I-3 syrup (fat) phase, 518–19, 520–23, 531 temperatures and doneness tests, 521 Candles, 136 Candling of eggs, 251–52 Candy/jelly/fryer thermometer, 87 Canned milk, 220 Cannelloni, 359 Canning, 578–79 Clostridium botulinum and, 579 meats, 157 metal salts in canned foods and juices, 315 nutrient retention and, 585 Cannoli shell (cookies), 491 Canola oil, 47, 461, 462, 471 Cantaloupes, 301, 302, 304, 305, 308 CAP. See Cellular antioxidant capacity Capellini, 359 Capons, 173 Cappuccino, 557 Capsaicin, 5 Capsicum peppers, 113 Caramelization, 379, 387, 436, 447–48 Caramels, 448, 519, 521, 525 Carbohydrate(s), 39–46, 60, 129. See also Carbohydrate content; Saccharides; Starch(es); Sugar(s) calories (kcal) from, 32 chemistry of, 39–46 complex, 126, 130, 348 composition of, 39 dietary guidelines/ recommendations, 6 disaccharides, 40–41 foods high in, 39 indigestible, 291 nutrient retention of processed foods, 584–85 refined, 437 sources, 129–30 Carbohydrate-based fat replacers, 465, 466 Carbohydrate content of cakes, 484 of cereal grains, 348, 363 of cheese, 236, 246 of cookies, 494 of fish, 195 of fruits, 301 of meats, 147 of milk, 211 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 of pastas, 359, 362, 363 of poultry, 175 of starches, 391, 404 of vegetables, 274–75 of yeast breads, 427 Carbonated beverages, 551–52, 570 Carbonated water, 551 Carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages, 551–52 in leavening process, 375–79, 426, 448 in photosynthesis, 436 release, 38 Carboxymethyl cellulose, 45, 552 Cardiovascular disease risk qualified health claims about, 598 sodium intake and, 113 Careers in food and nutrition, 609–22 allied health careers, 611–12 contacting companies, 617 food science, 610, 616–18, 623 food service, 610, 618–19, 623 graduate school, 619–22, 623 internships/co-op, 613–14, 617 nutrition science and dietetics, 609–16, 610, 623 professional associations, 609, 610 three major areas, 609, 610, 623 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-4 Index Caries, dental soft drinks and, 552 sugar and, 438 Carnauba wax, 493, 578 Carnitine, 553 Carob bean gum, 483 Carotenes, 272 Carotenoids, 59, 272, 274, 289 in durum flour and pastas, 359 in fruits, 301 Carp, 191 Carrageenan, 45, 271, 455 applications in food products, 45 as edible coating, 578 in frozen desserts, 540, 545 in meats, 158 in sour cream, 223 Carrot cake, 479 Carrots, 271, 278, 280 grating, 337 Carving of meats, 166 of poultry, 181, 185 Casein, 211, 212, 225, 228 Caseinates, 211 Cassava (tapioca), 392 Catalysts (enzymes), 52–53 Catechins, 561 Catecholamines, 5 Catecholase, 300 Catfish, 189, 190, 191 Catsup, 437 Cauliflower, 271, 273, 278, 280 Caviar, 196, 197 storage of, 205 Cavities, dental, 438, 552 Cayenne pepper, 113 CCPs. See Critical control points CDA. See Commission on Dental Accreditation CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDE. See Certified Diabetes Educator C. diff., 145 CDR. See Commission on Dietetic Registration Celeriac (celery root), 271, 278 Celery, 271, 280 Celiac disease, 371, 429 Cellular antioxidant capacity (CAP), 472 Cellulose, 43, 271, 545 carboxymethyl cellulose, 552 as edible coating, 578 gum, 45, 483 Cell wall, 270–71 Celsius (centigrade) scale, 104, 105 Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, 125 Centerpieces, 136 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 64, 603 Emergent Infections Programs (EIPs), 74 regulation by, 602, 605 Centigrade (Celsius) scale, 104, 105 Cephalopods, 189 Cereal grains, 345–63, 363. See also Flours and flour mixtures additives in, 347 common cereal crops/world production, 346 composition of, 345–47, 363 cost of, 127, 130 determining doneness, 357 enriched, 350 inspection of, 601 nutrient content of, 347, 348–49, 363 preparation of, 356–58, 363 processing, 347–48, 352, 353 refined, 349 in salads, 336 sprouting, 291–92 storage of, 358, 363 structure of, 345–47, 363 types of, 346, 349–56, 363 uses of, 347–48, 363 whole vs refined grains, 349–50 Certified Diabetes Educator (CDE), 615 Certified Nutrition Support Dietitian (CNSD), 615 Ceviche, 204 CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations CGMPs. See Current Good Manufacturing Practices Chablis, 566 Chaff (husk), 346 Chalazae, 250 Chamomile tea, 561 Champagne, 566 Chapatis, 413 Chard, 271, 278, 281, 334 Chasseur sauce, 161 Chayote, 278, 281 Cheddar cheese, 234, 239, 242, 243 Cheese, 232–46, Appendix E, E-1–E-2 additives in, 241 blistering of, 243 classification of, 232–34, 246 coagulation, enzyme or acid, 234–36 common cheeses, 233 cost of, 127 curd treatment, 236 curing and ripening, 236–39, 584 cutting, 244 fat content of, 214, 235–36, 242, 243 food preparation with, 242–44, 246 forms of, 242 grading of, 241, 242, 246 imitation, 241 lower fat, 236 measuring, 110 mold, 244 nutrient content of, 235–36, 246 process (processed) cheeses, 240–41 production of, 234–41, 246, 448 purchasing of, 241–42, 246 in salads, 336 storage of, 244–45, 246 texture, 235, 236 varieties, 233, 237, Appendix E, E-1–E-2 whey and whey products, 239–40 Cheesecake, 479 Cheese sauce, 398, 399, 400 aseptic packaging of, 584 troubleshooting problems with, 401 Chef, 99, 618, 619 professional profile, 414 Chef’s knife, 105, 106 Chemethesis, 5 Chemical hazards, 75–76, 94 Chemical leaveners, 375 Chemical nomenclature, 48 Chemical sanitizers, 89 Chemical tests for food evaluation,27–28 Chemistry of food composition, 31–60 basic, 31–33 carbohydrates, 39–46 food additives, 56 key elements of living things (CHNOPS), 32 lipids or fats, 46–49 nonnutritive food components, 56–59 proteins, 49–54 summary, 60 vitamins and minerals, 55–56 water, 33–39 Cherries, 299, 305, 306 storage of, 321 Chewing gums, 519, 522 Chianti, 566 Chicken, 172–73, 185. See also Poultry carving, 181, 185 classification/types of, 172–73, 185 cutting up, 177 fat content of, 175 nuggets, 175 preparation of, 176–83 in salads, 336 Chicken eggs, 255 Chicken Kiev, 176 Chickpea flour, 373 Chiffon cakes, 479, 480, 487–88 Chiffon pies, 512 Chikuwa, 197 Chili peppers, 113 Chili powder, 113 Chili salsa, 161 Chinese cabbage, 271, 278 “Chinese Restaurant Syndrome,” 114 Chirashi, 204 Chitosan, 578 Chives, 271 Chlorine, 89 Chlorine, sanitation with, 89 Chlorophyll, 272–73, 289 in chloroplasts, 272 in photosynthesis, 436 Chloroplasts, 272 Chocolate(s), 519, 525–30, 531 “chocolate binges”, 526 chocolate liquor, 519, 526, 529 coating, 529 dipping, 528, 529 functional, 530 grayish film (bloom) on, 527 hot chocolate, 562 nontemp, 529 production of, 526–29 shelf life of, 530 tempering, 527–29 trends, 530 types of products, 529–30 Chocolate chip cookies, 2, 490 Chocolate icing, 529 Chocolate milk, 217 Chocolate sauce, 398 Cholera, 71 Cholesterol, 48, 130 absence in vegetables, 274 in eggs, 253, 267 in egg substitutes, 253 fats and, 458 in milk, 213 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 in pastas, 362 in poultry vs meat, 175 Chondroitin sulfate, 554 Choose Your Food: Exchange Lists for Diabetes, 128 Choron sauce, 161 Choux pastry, 500, 506, 507 Chowders, 330 Chromatography, 27 Chromium, 554 Chromium picolinate, 598 Chromoplasts, 272 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon Church), 11–12 Churning, of frozen desserts, 542–43 Chymosin. See Rennin Cialde, 490 Ciambellone, 479 Cider apple, 80, 562 hard, 562, 566 Cider vinegar, 338 Ciguatera fish poisoning, 75 Cilantro, 113, 283, 333 Cinnamon, 113, 304 Cis-trans configuration, 48, 49, 456 Citric acid, 299, 483, 545, 551, 552 in candies, 525 Citrus fruits, 306, 308, 322. See also specific citrus albedo of, 300 juices from, 314 rind, 300 storage of, 321 zest, 317 CJD. See Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease Clabbering, 222 Claims allowed on food labels, 597–98 Clams, 189, 190 clambakes, 204 purchasing, 199, 603 Claret, 566 Clarified butter, 459 Clarifying egg whites used for, 257–58, 267 of fruit/vegetable juices, 314 Cleanup, 89–90 Clear diet, 122 ClearJel, 505 Clear soups, 330–32 Climacteric fruits, 320 Climate, food choices and, 11 Clinton, Bill, 443 Clones, 14 Clostridium botulinum, 66, 67, 69 canned goods and, 579 Clostridium difficile, 145 Clostridium perfringens, 66, 67 Cloudiness of fruit juices, 300 Cloves, 304 Club soda, 551 CNSD. See Certified Nutrition Support Dietitian Coagulation, 52, 215 in cheese production, 234–36 of milk, 215, 225 Coating chocolate, 529 Coatings chocolate, 529 edible, 292, 392, 578 Coca-Cola, 551 Cocaine, in soft drinks, 551 Cockroaches, 90 Cocoa, 529–30. See also Chocolate(s) Cocoa beverages, 562 Cocoa butter, 465, 474, 527 Coconut fat content of, 301 milk, 219 shredded, 442 Coconut flour, 374 Coconut macaroons, 491 Coconut oil, 46, 47, 461, 463, 471 Cod, 189, 190, 191 Coddling, of eggs, 263 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 21, 593 Codes, product/label, 131 Codex Alimentarius Commission, 604 Codworms (Pseudoterranova dicipiens), 72 Coffea arabica, 555, 556 Coffea liberica, 555 Coffea robusta, 555, 556 Coffee, 554–59, 570 brewing equipment, 558 composition of, 556 decaffeination of, 555–56 factors influencing quality of, 570 instant, 555, 556, 570 preparation of, 557–59 processing of, 555–56 roasting/grinding of, 555 storage of, 559 types of, 556–57 Coffee cakes, 384, 412, 479 Coffee cup, 136, 137 Cognac, 566, 568 Cognitive function, qualified health claims about, 597, 598 Cohen, Ben, 4 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Cola drinks, 551, 596 Colbert sauce, 161 Cold pasteurization (irradiation), 581–84 Cold preservation, 579–80, 586 freezing, 579–80 refrigeration, 579 Cold water test, 521 Collagen, 142 in fish, 189, 190 in meats, 142 structure of, 142 Collards, 271, 278, 281 Collets, 353 Colloidal dispersion, 36 Color(s). See also Pigments certified colors, 58 changes in egg preparation, 259 color compounds added to foods, 58, 60, 596, 600 effect of oxygen on, 145 of egg yolks, 249–50, 258, 262 of fish, 191, 197 in food selection, 1 of fruits, 315 of honey, 440 of maple syrup, 441 of meats, 145 of milk and milk products, 58, 214 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 of poultry, 173 of soft drinks, 552 of vegetables, 271, 272–73, 287–88 of wines, 568 Columbus, Christopher, 435 Commercial food service, 121–22 Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), 611 Commission on Accreditation of Dietetics Education (CADE), 611 Commission on Dental Accreditation (CDA), 611 Commission on Dietetic Registration (CDR), 613, 615 Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 611 Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), 6–8 Complete protein, 50 Complex carbohydrates, 126, 130, 348. See also Carbohydrate(s) Composed butter, 459 Compound butter, 459 Compounds, 32 Compression test for flours, 385 Conalbumin, 250 Concentration measurement, 26 Conch, 189 Conching, in chocolate production, 527–58 Condensed milk, 214 Condiments, 115 Conduction, 103, 104, 117 Confectioners’ sugar, 109 Confectionery coating, 529 Confections. See Candies Congeners, 565 Connective tissue, 142 Conserves, fruit, 318, 322 Consistency, 5 Consommé, 330 Contact freezing, 580 Contamination advanced techniques for detecting, 74 testing for, 68 Contaminants allowable, 594 in water, 551 Continental service, 135 Continuing professional education units (CPEU), 613 Controlled atmosphere storage, 293, 294 Control point, 91 Convection, 103, 104, 117 Convection oven, 103 Conventional foods, 9 Converted rice, 351 Cooked-fruit filling method, 511 Cooked ice cream, 541–42 Cooked-juice filling method, 510–11 Cookies, 489–92, 495 additives in, 493 baking, 493 batters, 384 nutrient content of, 494 preparation of, 492–92, 495 problems and their causes, 493 storage of, 494, 495 testing for doneness, 493 types of, 489–92, 495 vs cakes, 490 COOL. See Country of Origin Cooling/reheating temperatures, 82, 83, 88, 94 Cooperatives, food (co-ops), 127 Co-ops (food cooperatives), 127 Co-op work-study program, 617 Copper, 273 as heat conductor, 103 Coq au vin, 177 Cordials (liqueurs), 569 Coriander, 113 Corico, 491 Corn, 271, 278, 280, 346, 352–53 classification of, 352, 363 cooking times, 357 forms of, 352–53, 363 percentage of world grain production, 346 tortillas, 412 Corn bread, 411, 412 Corn chips, 353 Corned beef, 156, 577 Corn flakes, 347 Corn flour, 429 Cornish game hens, 173, 180 Cornmeal, 352, 413 Cornmeal flour, 374 Corn oil, 353, 462, 471 Corn on the cob, 352 Cornstarch, 43, 353, 392, 395 as additive in cakes, 483 as additive in cookies, 493 syrups made from, 438, 449 as thickening agent, 399, 504–5 Corn syrup, 40, 158, 353, 393, 438–39 as additive in confections, 520 high-conversion, 439 high-fructose, 439, 483, 551 Corn tortillas, 349, 412 Cortez, Hernando, 525 Cortisol, 48 Costs, 127–30 keeping costs down, 127–30 price comparisons, 130 reducing waste to save, 131–32 Cottage cheese, 233, 243 Cottonseed oil, 462, 471 Cough drops, sugar-free, 442 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 611 Council on Rehabilitation Education, 611 Country ham, 159 Country of Origin (COOL), 602–3 labeling, 601 Court bouillon, 203 Couscous, 359, 363 Covalent bonds, 32 Cover, 135–36, 137 Cows, 140. See also Beef CPEU. See Continuing professional education units Crabs, 189, 190 canned, 201 purchasing, 201 types of, 191 Cracked wheat, 350, 357 Cranberries, 299, 304, 306, 312 Cranberry juice, 299, 312, 553 Crayfish, 189, 190, 191 purchasing, 201 Cream, 213, 214, 223–24 calorie and fat content, 213, 214, 226 color of, 214 heavy, 223–24 pasteurization/ultrapasteurization, 214–15 substitutes (creamers), 214, 224 whipping, 224, 225–27 Cream cheese, 233, 243 Cream fillings, 511 Creaming method of mixing, 110 Cream of tartar, 289, 378, 486 Cream puffs, 384, 385, 407, 506 Cream sauce, 399 Cream soups, 331–32 lower-fat, 331–32 Cream substitutes (creamers), 214, 224 Crepes, 409 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), 73–74 Crisp flat breads, 413 Critical control points (CCPs), 91, 601 Croaker, 191 Crockery, Appendix A, A-4 Croissant pastry, 500 Croissants, 427 Cross-contamination, 76, 83, 94 Cruciferous vegetables, 274, 287, 288 Crumb, 368, 378 acids and, 378 in cakes, 484 cell size and, 426 defined, 368, 426 fat and, 380, 381 function of, 368 problems and their causes, 427 starches and, 355 in yeast breads, 426 Crumb coatings, 114 Crumbing, 135 Crumb toppings, 512–13 Crustaceans, 189. See also Shellfish Crusts. See Pies and pastries Cryogenic freezing, 580 Cryphonectria parasitica, 235 Cryptosporidium, 72, 92 Cryptosporidium parvum, 73 Crystalline candies, 519–23, 531 cooling and beating, 522 heating the syrup, 520–21 stirring, 521–22 syrup solution for, 520 types of, 522–23 Crystallization, 436, 440, 441, 447, 449 in candy preparation, 520–23 heat shock and, 541 interfering agents and, 524 nuclei for, 520 preventing, 447 recrystallization, 580 seeds for, 521 Crystallized fruit, 519 Cucumbers, 271, 278, 280 pickles, 578 Culture defined, 10 food selection based on, 10–11, 18 genetically engineered foods and, 14 manners and, 11 Cultured milk products, 221–23, 562 Cultured whey, 420 Cultures, bacterial, 222, 223, 448 I-5 Cumin, 113 Cup cakes, 479 Cup, unit of measurement, 108 Curd, 221. See also Cheese treatment, in cheeses, 236 Curdling, 332 Cured fish, 196, 205 Curing, 577 of cheese, 236–39 of meats, 156–60, 577 Currants, red, 306 Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs), 77 Curry, 113, 399 Custard fillings, 511–12 Custards, 79, 263 baked, 263 frozen, 535 stirred, 263 sweet and savory, 263 Custard sauce, 398 Cuticle (bloom), 251 Cutlery techniques, 105–7, 117 Cuts of meat, 152–56 Cutting boards, 90 Cutting equipment, Appendix A, A-4–A-5 Cutting food, styles of, 106–7 Cyclamates, 443, 445–46 Cycle menus, 124, 125, 126 Cyclospora, 72, 92 D Dacquoise, 480 Daikon, 281 Daily Reference Values (DRV), 596 Daily values, 596. See also Recommended daily amounts Dairy beverages, 562, 570 enhanced, 553 Dairy products. See also Cheese; Milk cost of, 127 dietary fat and, 213, 214 Dandelion, 281 Danish pastry, 500 DATEM. See diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides Dates, 306, 321 Dates, product/label, 131 Decaffeination of coffee, 555–56, 557 of tea, 561 Decorating frostings/icings, 488–89, 495 piecrust edges, 508 yeast breads, 425, 432 Deep fryers, Appendix A, A-4 Deep-frying, 103, 467, 468 as convection cooking, 103 of fish and shellfish, 202 frying care, 467–69 heat transfer in, 454 of meats, 165 oils used in, 467–69 of poultry, 182 of vegetables, 289 Defrosting. See Thawing Deglazing, 402 Degorge, 287 Degreasing, 402 Dehydrate, 575 Dehydrated foods, 575–77 Dehydrogenases, 52 Deionized water, 550 Delaney Clause, 599–600, 603 De minimis non curat lex, principle of, 594 Denaturation, 52 Density, 26 Dental caries. See Caries, dental Dent corn, 352 Department of Treasury, alcohol regulation, 592, 603–4, 605 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-6 Index DEs. See Dextrose equivalents Descriptive tests, 24 Dessert sauces, 448 Devil’s food cake, 479 Dextrinization, 396 Dextrose, 40, 392–93, 438, 520. See also Glucose equivalents, 439 polydextrose, 522 Dextrose equivalents (DEs), 392, 439 Diabetes Certified Diabetes Educator (CDE), 615 exchange calculation on food labels, 596 qualified health claims about, 598 Diacetyl, 461 Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides (DATEM), 420 Dial oven-safe thermometer, 85, 86 Dial thermometer, 85 Diarrhea, foodborne illnesses and, 65, 66–67, 70 Dicing, 106, 107 Diet current concerns/focus in, 6 factor in meat tenderness, 149 hospital diets, 122 Dietary clerk/dietary aide, 616, 623 Dietary fiber, 43 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 6, 18, 125. See also Recommended daily amounts Dietary manager, 619 Dietary Managers Association, 610 Dietary supplements, 598 Dietetic candies, 442 Dietetics, careers in, 612–16, 623 Dietetic technician, registered (DTR), 612–13, 616, 623 Dietitians, 612–16, 623 ancillary career options, 616 Board-certified specialization, 615 certificate of training, 615 Certified Diabetes Educator (CDE), 615 Certified Nutrition Support Dietitian (CNSD), 615 continuing professional education units (CPEU), 613 Dietetic Practice Groups (DPG), 615 internships, 613 licensure, 615 medical nutrition therapy, 610, 612, 623 payment/funding specifics, 612 professional profile, 245 registered dietitian (RD), 122, 612–16, 623 specializations, 615 types of, 614–15 verification form, 613 Diets, hospital, 122 Diet soft drinks, 443, 552 Difference tests, 24 Digital (instant-read) thermometer, 85 Dihydrochalcones, 446 Dill, 333 Dilution test, 24 Dinner menus/planning, 123–26 Dinnerware, 136, 137 Diphenylisatin, 301 Diphylliobothrium latum (fish tapeworm), 73 Dipolar molecules, 33 Dipping, chocolates, 528, 529 Disaccharides, 39, 40–41 Discriminative tests, 24 Dishwasher, Appendix A, A-2 Dishwashing, 89 Dispersion phase of gel formation, 340 Disposable temperature indicators, 86 Disposable thermometer, 86 Distillation, 36, 568 Distilled spirits, 562, 568, 569, 570 Distilled water, 550 Diverticulosis, 43 Divinity, 521, 523 DNA analysis, 68 Docosahexaenoic acid, 554 Dog, as meat source, 10, 140 Doneness, determining of cakes, 485, 488 of candies, 521 of cereal grains, 357 of cookies, 493 of dough, 422 of fish, 202 of meats, 162–63, 168 of pies and pastries, 514 of poultry, 178–79, 185 of yeast breads, 426–27 D or L nomenclature of saccharides, 40 Dough, 379, 380, 384–85, 387. See also Cookies; Flours and flour mixtures; Pies and pastries; Yeast breads chilling, 507 conditioners, 382 cookie, 489–92 enzymes in, 423 excessively firm or soft problems, 421 first rising of, 422–23 kneading, 369–70, 421–22 mixers, 421 pastry, 500–5 problems and their causes, 421, 427 punching down and second rising of, 423 quick breads made from, 412–14, 415 rolling, 507–9, 510 testing for doneness, 422 for yeast breads, 418–27 Doughnuts, raised, 431 Draft beer, 564 Drawn fish, 192 Dredging, 114 Dressed fish, 192 Dressed poultry, 174 Dressings, salad, 336–39, 575 Dried eggs, 265 Dried fruits, 313, 318 Drip, 580 Drip coffeemaker, 559 Drop batters, 384–85, 409–12, 415 overmixing, 410 undermixing, 410–11 Dropped cookies, 490–91 Drug, 598 Drupes, 291, 322 DRV. See Daily Reference Values Dry aging, 150 Dry-heat preparation, 101–3, 117 of eggs, 259–61, 267 of fish and shellfish, 201–2 of fruits, 317–18 of meats, 163–65 of poultry, 179–83, 185 of vegetables, 288–89 Drying of dishes/utensils, 89 food preservation method, 38, 576–77 Dry milk, 220–21 Dry sausage, 159–60 Dry wines, 564, 566 DTR. See Dietetic technician, registered Duck, 173, 180, 185 Duck eggs, 255 Dumplings, 412 Duo-trio test, 24 Durum flour (semolina), 359, 373 Durum wheat, 350, 359 Dysentery, amebic, 73 E EAFUS. See Everything Added to Food in the United States Echinacea, 553 Éclairs, 506 E. coli. See Escherichia coli Econa oil, 463 Edible films/coatings, 292, 392, 578 Edible portion (EP), 131–32 EEC. See Enterovirulent Escherichia coli Eels, smoked, 196 Egg drop soup, 331 Eggnog, 79, 213, 215, 218 Egg noodles, 359, 363 Eggplant, 271, 274, 279, 280–81 storage of, 292 Egg Products Inspection Act (1970), 601 Eggs, 249–67 as a high-risk food, 79–80 “boiled”, 262 in cakes, 483 candling, 251–52 clarifying, 257–58 color (yolk), 249–50, 258, 262 color changes, 259 complete protein from, 50 composition of, 249–51, 267 cutting tools, 262 in flour mixtures/baked goods, 382, 387 foaming/beating, 256–57 folding eggs whites, 261 functions in foods, 254–58, 267 grading of, 251–52, 601, 602, 605 Haugh units, 252 inspection of, 251, 601, 602 measuring/equivalent amounts, 109 nutrient content of, 253 pasteurized, 264–65 in pastry, 504 poaching, 100 preparation of, 258–64, 267 proteins, 250 purchasing, 251–54, 267 safety tips, 265–66 Salmonella and, 68 separation of, 257 shell, 250, 251, 267 size/sizing, 109, 253, 267 storage eggs, 264 storage of, 264–66, 267 substitutes, 253, 265 types of, 254, 267 value-added, 253–54 in yeast breads, 419 yolk, 249–50, 267 Egg whites. See Albumen Einkorn, 350 Elastin, 142–43 Electrical stimulation, meat tenderizing with, 151 Electrolytes, 39, 65, 552 Electromagnetic waves, 104 Electrons, 32 Electrophoresis, 27 Elements, six key (CHNOPS), 32 Elevation. See High-altitude adjustments Emmer, 350 Emulsified dressings, 339 Emulsifiers, 48, 59, 158, 455 as dough conditioners, 382 egg yolks as, 254, 267 Emulsions, 36, 339, 455–56, 474 stability of, 455–56 Emus, 172 Endive, 271, 279 Endosperm, 346–47, 367 Energy. See Calories (kcal) Energy, for muscle contraction, from ATP, 142 Energy beverages, 554 English muffins, 430–31 English service, 135 Enova oil, 463–64 En papillote, 101 Enriched, 55 Enriched flour, 375 Enriched foods, 55, 59 grains, 350 vitamins in, 55, 59, 347, 350, 420 Enrobe, 527 Entamoeba histolytica, 73 Enterovirulent Escherichia coli (EEC), 66 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 603, 605 tap water quality regulated by, 550 Enzymatic browning, 54, 575. See also Maillard reaction in fruits, 301–2, 315 inhibition of, 315 Enzymatic reactions, 52–54 Enzyme coagulation, in cheese production, 235 Enzymes, 41, 52–54. See also specific enzymes activity, factors influencing, 52 cheese flavor/texture and, 238 classification, 52 in dough conditioning, 382 effect on milk, 225 in flour, 369 food spoilage and, 575 in gel formation, 341 nomenclature, 52 in pulp removal from juices, 315 in reducing haze in juices, 314 structure of, 52 tenderizing meats with, 151 use by food industry, 52–54 in yeast dough, 423 Enzyme tests, 27 EP. See Edible portion EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency EPG. See esterified propoxylated glycerols Equal. See Aspartame Equipment, 89–90, Appendix A, A-1–A-13. See also Pots and pans; Utensils auxiliary, Appendix A, A-3–A-13 standards and safety, Appendix A, A-2–A-3 sanitation of, 89–90 Ergot, 355 Erythritol, 442 Escarole, 279 Escherichia coli, 69–70, 235 0157:H7, 70, 91, 163 eliminated by irradiation, 583 enterohemorrhagic, 67 enterotoxigenic, 67 enterovirulent (EEC), 66 in fruit/vegetable juices, 80, 314 mandatory testing of meat and poultry for, 146, 601 in urinary tract infections, 553 zero tolerance for in foods, 601 Escoffier, George Auguste, 121–22 Escoffier’s organizational system, 121–22 Espagnole (brown) sauce, 161, 399 Espresso coffee, 557 Essences, 504 Essential nutrients essential amino acids, 50, 356 essential fatty acids, 47 Essential oils, 114, 317 Esterified propoxylated glycerols (EPG), 465 Esters, plant stanol, 49 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Estrogen, 48 Ethnicity, and food selection, 10 Ethylene gas, 315, 321 European service, 135 Evaluation, food, 23–28 objective, 26–28 subjective, 23–26 Evaporated milk, 214, 220 Everything Added to Food in the United States (EAFUS), 56 Eviscerated poultry, 174 Executive chef/chef executif, 122 Expiration date, 131 Extenders, fat, 465, 466 Extractives, 145 Extracts, flavor, 380, 504 Extrusion processing, 348, 353 F Facilities, sanitation/cleaning of, 90 Fahlberg, Constantin, 443 Fahrenheit scale, 104, 105 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 595 FALCPA. See Food Allergy Labeling and Consumer Protection Act Family service, 135 FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization Farina, 350 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (2002), 601 Fassbender, Hubert, 240 Fast aging, 150 Fast food, 128 Fat analogs, 465 Fat bloom, 527, 528, 529 Fat content, 130 of cakes, 484 of candies, 522 of cereal grains, 347, 348, 363 of cheese, 214, 235–36, 241, 242, 243, 246 of cookies, 494 of eggs, 253, 267 of fish, 195 in frozen desserts, 536 of frozen desserts, 540 of fruits, 301 of ice creams, 536–37, 536 of meats, 143, 147, 175 of milk and milk products, 212, 213, 214, 226, 228 nutrient content claims allowed, 598 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 of pastas, 362, 363 of pastries, 502 of poultry, 175 of quick breads, 410 of salads, 335 of vegetables, 274 of yeast breads, 427 Fat extenders, 465, 466 Fat-free (skim/nonfat) milk, 214, 216, 562 Fat intake, lowering, 116 Fat mimetics, 465 Fat phase of candies, 518–19, 520–23, 531 Fat replacers, 465–67 Fats and oils, 46–49, 60, 453–74. See also Fat content; Fatty acids; Lipids in cakes, 482 calories (kcal) from, 32, 474 chemistry of, 46–49 choices, 460 comparison of, 471 composition of, 46 crystalline structure, 456 deficiency, 459 dietary guidelines/ recommendations, 6 difference of fats vs oils, 46 emulsions, 455–56 fat separator, 402 in flour mixtures/baked goods, 380–82, 387 food preparation with, 467–70, 474 foods high in, 46 frying care, 467–69 functions in food, 454–57, 474 homogenization, 215, 216, 218 hydrogenation, 464 lard/tallow/suet, 464–65 lower-fat alternatives/preparation, 382, 469–70 measuring, 109 melting point of, 456 nutrient content of, 458–59, 474 nutrient retention of processed foods, 584–85 oils, 461–64 in pastry, 502 plasticity of, 109, 456–57, 474 polymorphism of, 456 proportion in human body, 32 P/S ratio, 47 rancidity, 470–72 replacers, 465–67, 540 in salad dressings, 337–38 saturation, degree of, 47, 456 solubility of, 457, 474 storage of, 470–73, 474 types of fats, 381, 457–65, 474 in yeast breads, 419 Fat-soluble vitamins, 55, 585 Fat sources, 130 Fat substitutes, 465, 540 Fatty acids, 46–48 cis, trans, and omega, 48, 456 degree of saturation, 47 essential, 47, 459 in foods, 47 length of, 456 nomenclature, 47, 48 omega-3, 48, 50, 195, 459, 554, 598 structure of, 46–47 trans-, 48, 458–59 Fatty (adipose) tissue, 143 fat color and texture, 143 influence on meat grading, 147 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration Federal food laws, 591–93, 605 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 595 Food and Drug Act (1906), 592 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), 592, 599 Safe Food Act of 1997, 592 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947), 603 Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906), 146, 601 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 592, 603, 605 Fehling test, 27 Fennel, 113, 271, 278 Fermentation, 348, 448, 575 bacteria and, 377 in beer production, 563 changes during, 422–23 food preservation and, 577 food products produced by, 577 food spoilage and, 575 optimal temperatures for, 423 overfermentation, 423, 426 process of, 376 proofing, 383, 423, 425 salt and, 380 sugar and, 376, 436, 448, 449 unwanted, 575 in wine production, 564 of yeast breads, 422–23 Fettucine, 359, 360 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 31 Fiber, 41–45, 553, 554 in cereal grains, 346, 347, 349 dietary vs crude, 43 in fruits, 301, 302 high fiber diet, 122 intake, 130 in quick breads, 410 resistant starch used as, 397 in salads, 335 soluble vs insoluble, 43 structure/function claim for, 598 in vegetables, 270–71, 275 Fiddleheads, 279 FIFO. See First in, first out Figs, 305, 306 Filled milk, 219 Fill, standards of, 594, 595 Fillets, 192 Filling, 509–12 Filter coffee method, 559 Filtering of wine, 565 Filth, acceptable levels of, 594 Finfish, 188, 189. See also Fish and shellfish selection of, 191–201 storage of, 204–5 structure of, 189–91 Fire point, 468 First in, first out (FIFO) rule, 82 Fish and shellfish, 188–206 canned fish, 195–96, 205, 206 chemical food hazards and, 75–76 classification of, 188–89, 206 color in fish, 191 common, 190 complete protein from, 50 composition of, 189–91, 206 cost of, 127 determining doneness of, 202 determining freshness of, 192 fabricated fish, 196–97 finfish, 188, 189–91 frozen, 192, 603 as high-risk food, 79 histamine food poisoning and, 75–76, 205 inspection/grading of, 191–92, 601, 602 mercury contamination and, 193–94 mince, 195 nutrient content of fish, 195 odor of, 192, 193, 203 percentage yield, 132 phosphate treatment of, 193, 200, 205 preparation of, 201–4, 206 pufferfish poisoning, 76 purchasing, 191–201, 206 quality, xanthine oxidase and, 53 raw, 204 regulation of, 592, 605 selection of, 191–201, 206 storage of, 204–5, 206 types of, 191–92 Fish and Wildlife Act (1956), 601 Fish cook/poissonier, 121 Fish oils, 47 Fish roe, 197, 198 Fish sticks, 192, 603 Fish stocks, 329–330 Fish tapeworm (Diphylliobothrium latum), 73 Flaked barley, 254 Flakiness of pastries, 502–3 Flash point, 467 Flat breads, 412–13 Flat frostings, 488 Flatulence from legumes, 291 Flatware, 136, 137 Flavonoids, 273, 273, 274, 289 I-7 Flavoprotein, 250 Flavor, 4–5. See also specific foods and ingredients enhancers, 114, 436 extractives, 145 extracts, 380 fats, 457 flavor compounds added to foods, 58 profile, 24 reversion, 472 Flavored coffee, 557 Flavored milks, 218–19 Flavored oils, 504 Flavored salt, 112 Flavored teas, 561 Flavorings, 111–16, 117, Appendix D, D-1–D-3 adding to food (when/how much?), 115–16 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 in pastry, 504 in soft drinks, 552 types of, 111–15 Flavor profile, 24 Flavor reversion, 472 Flint corn, 352 Flocculation, 36 Florentines, 491 Flounder, 189, 190, 191 Flour compression test, 385 Flour corn, 352 Flours and flour mixtures, 347, 367–87. See also Baked goods; Breads; Cakes; Cereal grains; Cookies additives in, 382–84 aging/maturing of, 383 for breading, 114 in cake, 482 compression test, 385 crumb, 368, 378, 379, 380, 381, 383 dough, 369–70, 379, 380, 384–85, 387 durum flour, 359, 373 eggs in, 382 fat in, 380–82 flours, 368–75, 387 gluten, 368–70 ingredients and their functions in, 375–84, 387 kneading, 369–70 leavening agents, 375–79 liquid in, 380, 387 measuring, 109–10 milk in, 380, 387 milling, 371–72 non-wheat flours, 373–74, 387, 429 nutrient content of, 372 in pastry, 502 patent vs straight, 372 preparation of baked goods, 384–85 pre-sifted/instantized, 110 salt in, 380 sifting, 107, 109, 372 storage of, 385–86, 387 sugar in, 379–80 too much/too little, 379 treated flours, 374–75, 387 types of flours, 373–75, 387 wheat flours, 347, 372, 373, 387 whole-grain flours, 110, 373 in yeast breads, 419 yeasts and, 375–77 Flour tortillas, 412 Flowers, vegetables derived from, 270, 271 Fluoride, 561 Foam, 341 foaming of eggs whites, 256–57, 267 sugar and, 436 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-8 Index Foil-wrapped vegetables, 290 Folate, 274, 561, 584 Folding, 110 of egg whites, 261 Folic acid, 554 qualified health claim for, 598 Fondant, 519, 521, 522–23 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), 592, 599, 605 Delaney Clause, 599–600 misleading advertising enforcement, 603 Food additives. See Additives, food Food allergens, 597 most common, 76 prevention, 76 Food allergy, 76–77 Food Allergy labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA), 76, 597 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 604, 616–17 Food and Drug Act (1906), 592 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 593–600, 605 allowable contaminants, 594 allowed claims on labels, 597–98 Bioterrorism Preparedness Act of 2004, 600 bottled water quality regulated by, 550 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 21, 593 food additives, 598–600 Food Code, 593 food labeling, 595–97 food scientists at, 616–17 functions of, 593, 605 genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 600 inspections, 593–94 milestones, 592 research and education, 593 standards, 594–95 Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet), 91–92 Foodborne illness, 64, 65–74, 94, 575. See also Safety, food causes of, 65–74 CDC and, 592, 603 HACCP system of prevention, 91 high-risk foods, 78–80 location, 77 outbreaks, 65, 603 personnel and, 77–78 preventing, 77–83, 94 vulnerable foods, 78–80 Food careers. See Careers in food and nutrition Food Code, FDA, 91, 593 Food composition. See Chemistry of food composition Food cooperatives (co-ops), 127 Food costs, 126–30 Food defense, 65 Food evaluation. See Evaluation, food Food group plan, 6 Food infections, 66, 67, 68–69 Food intoxications, 66, 67, 69 Food labeling. See Labeling, food FoodNet, 91–92 Food outlets, smaller, 127 Food poisoning. See Food intoxications Food preparation basics, 99–117 cutlery techniques, 105–7 equipment, Appendix A, A-1–A-13 food presentation, 116 heating foods, 99–105 measuring ingredients, 107–10 mixing techniques, 110–11 seasonings and flavorings, 111–16 Food presentation, 116, 117 Food preservation. See Preservation, food Food regulation. See Regulation of food, government Food safety. See Safety, food Food safety, 8 monitoring, 90–93 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 601 Food science, 610, 616–18, 623 food science technician, 618, 623 food scientist, 616–17, 623 positions in food companies, 618–19 professional associations, 609, 610 professional profiles, 316, 481, 539 types of food scientists, 618 Food selection criteria, 1–18 budgetary, 17 cultural, 10–11 nutritional, 5–10 psychological and sociological, 13–17 religious, 11–12 sensory, 1–5 Food service, 120–23, 135. See also Food service careers cleanup, 89 commercial, 121–22 drying, 89 equipment, 89–90 facilities, 90 hospital, 122–23 meal service types, 135 organization, 120–23, 137 personnel, 77–78 pest control, 89–90 purchasing, 126 sanitation, 77, 89–90 scheduling, 89 standardized recipes, 133 three-compartment sink, 89 vendors, 127 Food service careers, 610, 618–19, 623 academic preparation/internships, 618 job descriptions, 120 professional associations, 609, 610 types of positions, 619 Food service manager, 619 Foodservice Professionals Network, 610 Food spoilage, 574–75, 586 Food stores, 126–27 Food supply terrorism, 65 Food surveillance, 91 Food technology. See Food science Forecast, of food needed, 126 Forks, 136, 137 Fork thermometer, 85 Fortified, 55 Fortified foods. See Enriched foods Fortified wines, 566, 567 Fortune cookies, 491 Frankfurters, 594 Free radicals, 55 Free range, 141 Freeze-drying, 575, 576, 577 Freezer burn, 167, 580 Freezers, Appendix A, A-2 food safety and, 81–82 Freezing, 150, 579–80 of breads, 431 of cereal grains, 358 cold shortening, in meats, 150 commercial methods of, 579 of doughs, 431 of egg whites/yolks, 265 of fish, 205 of flour mixtures, doughs, and baked goods, 386 fluid loss due to (drip), 580 foods that can be frozen, 579–80 freezer burn, 167, 580 of fruits, 313 of meats, 167, 579 of poultry, 177–78, 184 problems with frozen food, 580 thaw rigor, in meats, 150 of vegetables, 292 Freezing point, 34, 104–5 salt and, 105 sugar and, 105, 436 of water, 34, 104–5 French buttercream frosting, 488 French fries, 289, 290 French knife, 105 French service, 135 French toast, 79 Fresh cheese, 233 Freshness date, 131 Fried eggs, 259, 263 Frisee, 279, 334 Frito-Lay, Incorporated, scientist profile, 316 Frostings/icings, 488–89, 495 cooked, 488 Frozen custard, 535 Frozen desserts, 534–46 body in, 535, 540–41 calories, 538 factors affecting quality, 537–41 nutrient content of, 540 preparation of, 537–41, 546 scooping, 545 storage of, 543, 544–45, 546 texture changes, 544–45, 544–45 types of, 534–37, 546 Frozen fruits, 313 Frozen yogurt, 536, 537, 544, 546 Fructose (fruit sugar), 39, 40, 438 also known as levulose, 520 high-fructose corn syrup, 439, 483, 551 sweetness of, 446, 449 Fruit beverages, 553, 570 Fruit butters, 318, 322 Fruitcake, 479–80 Fruit cocktail, 313 Fruit drink, enhanced, 553 Fruit fillings, 509 Fruit jams and jellies, 318, 322, 448, 593 Fruit juices, 313–15 clarifying, 314 cloudiness of, 300 concentration/additions, 315 enzymes and, 53 labeling, 596 nutrient comparison of, 314 percentage of, names depending on, 313 pulp removal from, 315 Fruit leather, 313 Fruits, 298–322. See also specific fruits additives in, 304 candied or crystallized, 519 canned, 312–13, 317, 321, 437 changes during heating, 315–17 classification of, 298–99, 322 climacteric and nonclimacteric, 320 composition of, 299–304, 322 cost of, 130 dried, 313, 318, 576, 577 enzymatic browning of, 300–1, 315 ethylene gas and, 315, 321 fillings for pies, 499 frozen/refrozen, 313 glacé, 519 grading of, 276, 304, 313, 322, 601, 602 inspection of, 601 laxative properties of, 301 nutrient content of, 301–2, 314 pectic substances in, 299–300 peeling, 107 percentage yield, 132 preparation of, 315–20, 322 processed, 312–13 purchasing, 304–15, 322 routinely called vegetables, 270, 271, 294, 299 seasons for, 305 storage of, 320–21, 322, 579 texture, 316 Fruit salads, 336 Fruit sauces, 398, 403 Fruit spreads, 318–20 Fruit sugar, 437. See also Fructose Fruit vinegar, 338 Fryer-roasters, turkey, 173 Frying, 102–3, 467–69. See also Deep frying; Pan-frying care/temperatures of fats, 467–69 of eggs, 259 equipment, 468 of fish and shellfish, 202 of fruits, 318 of meats, 164–65 oils used in, 462, 467–69 optimal frying temperatures/ conditions, 468–69 of poultry, 181–82 priming/seasoning of frying pan, 259 of vegetables, 289, 289 and water, 468 FSIS. See Food Safety and Inspection Service FTC. See Federal Trade Commission Fuchsin test, 27 Fudge, 519, 520, 521, 523 Fugu, food poisoning and, 76 Fumet, 203 Functional beverages, 552–54, 570 Functional chocolate, 530 Functional fibers, 43 Functional food, 6, 8–10 Fusarium prolifertum, 71 Fusarium verticillioides, 71 Fusilli, 360 G Gaidos, Dave, 617 Galactose, 39, 40, 446 Galette, 499 Gallon, 108 Game birds, 172, 173 Gamma rays, 581–82 Ganache, 488–89 Gaping, 193 Garlic, 271, 281 to be avoided in bread doughs, 429 Garnishes, 116, 333, 489 Garter, Barbara, 617 Gas (flatulence), 291 Gas chromatography, 27 Gazpacho, 330 Gel, 395 Gelatin, 50, 158, 339–41, 342 as additive in confections, 525 in cooked fish, 190 as an emulsifier, 455 nutrient value of, 339 storage of, 341 Gelatinization, 394–95, 404 factors influencing, 394–95 Gelatin salads, 339–41, 342 unmolding a mold, 340 whipping, 341 Gelation potential, 340 Gelato, 536, 537 Gel formation, 340, 395–96. See also Gelling factors influencing, 340–41, 404 phases of, 340 preparation of a gel, 339–40 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Gelling colloidal dispersions and, 36 of fruit spreads, 319–20 gelation phase of gel formation, 340 pectins and, 43, 319 proteins and, 51 Gene contamination, 14 Generally Recognized a Safe (GRAS) GRAS list, 599 Simplesse as fat replacer, 465 stevia as sweetener, 445 tagatose as sweetener, 446 General Mills, food scientists at, 617 Genes, 14 Genetically engineered foods, 14–16 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 13, 600 Génoise, 480 Genotyping, 68 Geography, food choices and, 11 Germ, 346, 347 wheat germ, 350, 429 German chocolate cake, 480 Giardia lamblia, 66, 72–73 Gin, 568, 569 Ginger, 113, 281 Gingerbread, 491 Ginger root, 271, 281 storage of, 292 Ginkgo biloba, 553 Ginseng, 553 Ginseng tea, 561 Glacé fruits and nuts, 519, 521 Glacés (water ices), 537 Glasgow piles, 196 Glass baking dishes, 104, 424 Glass transition temperature, 580 Glassware, 136, 137 Glazes, 399, 436 pastry, 500, 512 Gliadin, 368, 369, 370 Globulins, 369 Glucosamine, 554 Glucose, 39, 40, 438, 449 also known as dextrose, 520 chemical structure of, 40, 44 D or L nomenclature, 40 stored as starch or glycogen, 40, 43, 44 sweetness of, 446 Glucose oxidase, 53 Glucuronolactone, 553 Glutathione, 377 Glutelins, 369 Gluten, 368–70 dried, 370 as an emulsifier, 455 free, 371, 429, 597 purpose of gluten formation, 368 reactions, 371 role of lipids in gluten development, 370 steps to gluten formation, 368–70 Gluten flour, 373 Gluten-free bread, 429 Glutenin, 368, 369, 370 Glutinous rice, 351 Glycemic index, 554 Glycerin/glycerol, 483 Glycogen, 39, 40, 41 Glycyrrhizin, 446 GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms GMP. See Good Manufacturing Practices Goat milk, 216 Goji berry, 311–12 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), 77, 593 Goose, 173, 180, 185 eggs, 255 Gooseberries, 305, 306 Gourds, 279 Government food regulation. See Regulation of food, government Grading, 600, 601–2, 605. See also USDA grading of butter, 459, 602 of cheese, 241, 242, 246 of eggs, 251–52, 601, 602 of fish and shellfish, 191–92 of fruits, 276, 304, 313, 322, 601, 602 of meat, 146–47, 149, 601, 602 of milk, 214, 228, 601, 602 of poultry, 174, 185, 601, 602 of tea, 561 USDA quality grade stamps, 602, 605 of vegetables and fruits, 276, 601, 602 Graduate Record Examination (GRE), 619, 621 Graduate school, 619–22, 623 academic requirements, 620–21, 623 examination requirement, 621 graduate degree jobs, 621–22, 623 GREs and, 619, 621 prerequisites, 619–20 professional profile, 620 TOEFL and, 621 Graham bread, 429 Graham flour, 373 Grain milk, 219 Grains. See Cereal grains Grainy texture, 528 Gram (metric unit of weight), 32 Gram flour, 373 Granites, 537 Grapefruit, 302, 306 bitterness of, 3 Grapes, 299, 305, 307 wine made from, 564, 565 Grape seed oil, 462 GRAS. See Generally Recognized a Safe Gravy, 398, 402 Gray, Jonathan, 539 Gray, Kristen M., 539 GRE. See Graduate Record Examination Greek olives, 308 Greenfield, Jerry, 4 Green meat, 150 Green onions, 283 Greens, 271, 279, 281 salad, 336 Green salads, 336 Green tea, 554, 560–61 qualified health claim for, 598 Griddle, Appendix A, A-3 Grilling, 102 of fish and shellfish, 202 of meats, 163–64 of poultry, 181 Grist, 563 Grits barley, 354 cooking time, 357 hominy, 352, 353 Groats, 354, 355 Ground beef, 153 Guarana, 553 Guar gum, 45, 420, 483, 540, 545 Guavas, 301, 303, 307, 321 Guinea fowl, 172, 173, 185 Gums arabic, 45 chewing, 519, 522 karaya, 45 sugarless, 442 tragacanth, 45 vegetable, 44, 271, 455, 540 Gustatory cells, 3 H HACCP system. See Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system Haddock, 189, 190, 191 Hake, 190 Halal, 12, 602 meats, 156 Halibut, 189, 190, 191 Ham, 158–59, 577 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 processed, 156, 158–59 Hamburger difference from ground beef, 153 as high-risk food, 79 Hand-to-mouth contact, 78 Hand washing, 78 Hand washing sink, 78 Hanpen, 197 Hard alcohol, 562, 568, 569, 570 Hard candies, 519, 521, 525 Hard cheese, 234 Hard cider, 562–63 Hard sauce, 398 Hard water, 35 Hard wheats, 350 Harrison, John, 4 Haugh units, 252 Hayes, Pamala, 414 Hazard, definition of, 77 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, 91, 593, 601 critical control points (CCPs), 91, 601 Final Rule (1996), 601 history of, 91 in meat and poultry slaughterhouses, 146 seven principles of, 91 Hazards, food. See also HACCP system; Safety, food biological, 65–67 chemical, 65, 75–76 HACCP system, 91, 593, 601 new virulent biological, 74 physical, 65, 77 Health claims, qualified, 597–98 Health department inspection form, 91 Health maintenance, food choices and, 6 Hearing, food selection based on, 2, 5 Heart, 155, 156 conventional foods and health, 9 Heart disease, 459 sodium intake and, 113 Heat. See also Heating; Heating foods; Heat transfer latent, 34–35 measuring, 104–5 melting/boiling point, 34–35 requirements of cooking methods, 99–103 scales, 104, 105 of solidification, 34 specific, 34 of vaporization, 35 Heating cooling/reheating temperatures, 82, 83, 94 methods/techniques, 99–103, 117 ohmic, 581 Heating foods, 99–105, 117. See also Dry-heat preparation; Moistheat preparation Heat preservation, 581, 586. See also Pasteurization Heat shock, 541 Heat transfer, 35, 103–4, 117 fats and, 454, 474 types of, 103–4, 117 Hedonic tests, 24 Heifers, 140 Hemicellulose, 43, 271 Hemoglobin, 145 Hemp milk, 220 I-9 Hens chicken, 172, 173 Cornish game, 173 turkey, 173 Hepatitis A virus, 71–72 Herbal beverages, 553 Herbal teas, 561 Herbs, 113–14 dried vs fresh, 115 in New Age beverages, 552 purchasing, 113 in salads, 333 storing, 113–14 Herb vinegar, 338 Heredity, 149 Herring, 189, 190, 191 Bismark, 196 matjes, 196 Herring worms (Anisakis simplex), 72 Hershey, Milton, 530 Hexoses, 39 HFCS. See High-fructose corn syrup High-altitude adjustments for baked goods, 385 boiling point of water and, 35 for cakes, 485 for canning, 579 checking thermometers for, 521 for cookies, 493 for yeast breads, 427 High blood pressure, sodium intake and, 113 High-conversion corn syrups, 439 High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 439, 483, 551 High-pressure processing (pascalization), 583, 585 High-risk foods, 78–80 High-temperature, short-time pasteurization (HTST), 581 High water activity, 80 Hinduism, 11 Hippocrates, 10 Hires, Charles, 551 Histamine food poisoning, 76, 205 Holding temperature, 88, 94 time limit, 88 Hollandaise sauce, 79, 161, 398, 399, 402 Hominy/hominy grits, 352, 353 Homogenization, 215, 216, 218 Honey, 439–40, 439–40 in breads, 379 storage of, 440 substitution for sugar, 440 sugars in, 440 Honeydew melons, 302, 308 Honey wine (mead), 566 Hops, 563 Hormones banned in poultry, 175 in meats, 144–45 in milk, 214 recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), 214 sterols, 48–49 Hospital diets, 122–23 Hospital food service organization, 122–23 Hospital menu patterns, 124 Hot chocolate, 562 Hot dogs, 577, 601 Hot peppers, 5, 283 Hot-water crust pastry, 499 HTST. See High-temperature, shorttime pasteurization Hulled barley, 353 Humectant, 158, 442 Humidity food preservation and, 38 Humulus lupulus, 563 Hushpuppies, 412 Husk, 346 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-10 Index Hydration of flour, gluten formation and, 368–69 proteins and, 51 Hydration phase of gel formation, 340 Hydrogenation, 464 Hydrolases, 52 Hydrolysis, 37, 52 Hydrolytic enzymes, 52 Hydrolytic rancidity, 471 Hydrophilic compounds, 48, 455 Hydrophobic compounds, 48, 455 Hydroxypropyl cellulose, 45 Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 45 Hygiene, food service personnel, 78 Hygroscopicity, 448, 449 Hypertension qualified health claims about, 598 sodium intake and, 113 I Iceberg lettuce, 336, 337 Icebox/refrigerator cookies, 492 Ice cream, 214, 534–36, 546 additives in, 544 chemistry of, 535 cone, 535 contents of, 535–36 factors affecting quality, 537–41 favorite flavors, 546 functional food, 536 light, 535 low-fat, 535, 536 mixing and freezing, 541–44, 546 nonfat, 535 overrun, 541 reduced fat, 535 scoop, 535 scooping, 545 shrinkage with age, 540 storage of, 543, 544–45, 546 structure of, 540 types of, 535, 546 Ice cream cake, 480 Iced coffee, 557 Iced tea, 562 Ice milk, 214 Icings (frostings), 488–89, 495 Icing sugar, 109 Identity standards, 594 for milk, 217 Imitation chocolate, 530 Imitation coffee, 557 Imitation ham, 159 Imitation ice cream, 536, 546 Imitation milk, 218–19 Immersion freezing, 580 Incomplete protein, 50 Indoles, 59 Induction, heat transfer by, 103, 104, 117 Infections, bacterial food, 66, 68–69 Infections, toxin-mediated, 66, 67, 69–74 Infrared heat lamps, 104 Infrared thermometer, 85 Infusion, 561 Ingredients measuring, 107–10, 117 sensitive, 76 substitutions for, 110, Appendix C, C-1–C-2 Inositol, 553 Insects, 90 Inspection. See also HACCP system of eggs, 251 FDA, 593–94 of food, 80–81 health department inspection form, 91, 92 of meat, 146 for pesticide residues, 603 of poultry, 174 Instant (pregelatinized) starches, 397 Instant coffee, 555, 556, 557, 576 Instant flour, 375 Instant milk, 221 Instant-read thermometers, 84, 85 Instant rice, 351, 357 Instant tea, 562 Instant yeast, 377 Institute of Food Technologists, 610 Interesterification, 465 Interfering agents, 524 Interfering, eggs used for, 257, 267 Internal Revenue Service, alcohol regulation, 603–4 International agencies, 604 International Association of Culinary Professionals, 610 Internships, 617 dietitians, 613 food science, 617 food service, 618 pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries, 622 Interstate commerce regulation, 601, 605 Intestinal health and conventional foods, 9 Intoxications, food, 66, 67, 69 Intrastate commerce regulation, 601 Inulin, 44, 554 Invertebrates, shellfish classification, 188, 189 Invert sugar, 437, 438, 446 in candies, 520, 524 Iodine, sanitation with, 89 Iodine value test, 27 Ion chromatography, 27 Ionization, 36–37 Irish coffee, 557 Irish whiskey, 569 Iron (Fe), 301, 596 Irradiation, 581–83, 585, 586 effects of on food, 582–83 labeling of irradiated foods, 583, 602 of poultry, 184 process of, 581–82 pros and cons, 583 Islam, 12 Isoflavones, 59 Isomalt, 441, 442 Isomaltulose, 446 Isomerases, 52 Isotonic beverages, 552 Italian buttercream frosting, 488 J Jams, fruit, 318, 322, 448, 593 Jefferson, Thomas, 534 Jellies, 519, 520, 521 fruit, 318, 322, 448 Jicama, 271, 279, 281 J.M. Smucker Company, 617 Job description, 120 Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology (JRCNMT), 611 Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiological Technology (JRCERT), 611 Joule (j), 105 Joule heating, 105 JRCERT. See Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiological Technology JRCNMT. See Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology Judaism, 12 Juices clarifying, 314 fruit, 53, 300, 313–15, 596 vegetable, 314 Julienne, 106 Jungle, The (Sinclair), 592 K Kaiser, Lucia, 609 Kale, 271, 279, 281, 334, 336 Kamaboko, 197 Kamut, 356 Kangaroo, meat from, 140 Karuna, 11 Kasha, 356 Katsuoboshi, 196 Kava, 553 Kcal. See Kilocalorie (kcal) Kefir, 223 Kellogg Company, food scientists at, 481, 617 Kellogg, John Harvey, 347 Kellogg’s Corn Flakes, 347 Kellogg, William Keith, 347 Kelvin scale, 104 Kernal corn, 352 Ketchup (catsup), 594 Kidneys, 155, 156 KGy. See Kilograys Kilning, 563 Kilocalorie (kcal), 6. See also Calories (kcal) measurement unit for energy, 33–34 in milk and milk products, 212, 213 Kilogram, 108 Kilograys (kGy), 582 Kilojoule (kj), 105 Kimchi, 577 Kinetic energy, 104 Kitchen team, 121–22 Kiwi/Kiwifruit, 279, 298, 302, 305, 307 as a garnish, 116 vitamin C in, 301, 302 Kj. See Kilojoule Kluyveromyces lactis, 235 Kneading, 369–70 dough development and, 369, 370 function of, 368, 369–70 of quick breads, 412 testing for doneness, 422 of yeast breads, 421–22 Knives, 105–7, 117 blade of, 105–6 butter, 136, 137 cutlery techniques, 105–7, 117 cutting styles, 106–7 handling, 105–6 paring, 107 selecting and caring for, Appendix A, A-8–A-9 in table settings, 136, 137 Kohlrabi, 271, 279 Konjac, 45 Kosher foods, 12, 602 meats, 155, 168, 581 salt, 112 symbols, 12 Kraft Foods, 240, 539 Kraft, James L., 240 Kraft Singles, 240 Kroc, Ray, 619 Kumquats, 305, 307 Kuru, 74 L L-sugars, 446 Labeling, food, 595–97 allowed claims, 597–98 Country of Origin, 601, 602–3 exemptions, 597 of irradiated foods, 583 of meats, 152 Nutrition Facts label, 6, 595, 596–97 of poultry, 176 Lactase enzyme, 53 deficiency, 219 Lactic acid, 41, 80, 150 Lactitol, 441, 442 Lactobacillus, 222 Lactobacillus acidophilus, 223 Lactobacillus bulgaricus, 222 Lactobacillus caucasius, 223 Lactobacillus plantarum, 429 Lactose, 39, 41, 228, 438 as additive in cakes, 483 functions in confections, 524 hydrolysis of, 52 intolerance, 211, 219 low-lactose milks, 219 sweetness of, 446, 449 Ladyfingers, 491 Lagering, 564 Lamb, 141, 168. See also Meat(s) internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 retail/wholesale cuts of, 155 Lamb stock, 329 Lamination, 498 Lard, 381, 464–65, 471, 474 Larding meat, 161 Lasagne, 359, 360 Latent heat, 34–35 Lautering, 563 Laws, federal food, 591–93, 605. See also Regulation of food, government Leafy green salads, 336 Leavening, 375–79, 387 in cakes, 483 too much/too little, 379 in yeast breads, 419 Leaves (leafy vegetables), 270, 271, 294 Lecithin, 48, 254, 267, 455, 493 as additive in confections, 526 Leeks, 271, 279, 281, 283 Legislation. See Laws, federal food; Regulation of food, government Legumes, 285–86, 294 cancer and, 274 defined, 274 preparing, 290–91 sprouting, 291–92 storage of, 293 Lemon bars, 490 Lemon juice, fish odor ameliorated by, 203 Lemons, 298, 302, 307 zest, 317 Lentils, 271 Lettuces, 271, 279, 281 in salads, 334, 336 Leucoplasts, 271 Levulose, 520. See also Fructose Licensure for dietitians, 615 Licorice, 519 Ligases, 52 Light beer, 563 Light ice cream, 535 Light/lite claims, 598 Light wines, 567 Lignin, 44, 271 Limes, 298, 302, 307 zest, 317 Linens, table, 135–36, 137 Line-spread test, 26 Linguine, 356, 360 Linoleic acid, 47 Linolenic acid, 47 Linzer cookies, 491 Lipases, 52, 385 Lipid-based fat replacers, 465–67 Lipids, 46–49, 60. See also Fats and oils composition of, 46 foods high in, 46 phospholipids, 47–48 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index sterols, 48–49 triglycerides, 46 Lipooxygenase, 384 Liqueurs, 568, 569 Liquid chromatography, 27 Liquid diet, 122 Liquid-filled thermometer, 87 Liquid fondant, 523 Liquids in baked goods, 380, 387 fluid loss due to freezing, 580 measuring, 109 in pastry, 503 in yeast breads, 419 Liquid smoke, 157 Liquid sugar, 437 Listeria, 92 Listeria monocytogenes, 66, 68, 74 raw eggs and, 266 Listeriosis, 68 Lite beer, 563 Liver, 155, 156 processed, 156 Llama, meat from, 140 Lobelia, 561 Lobster, 189, 190, 191 necessity for live state before cooking, 575 Northern (Maine) vs spiny (rock), 199 purchasing, 199 Locust bean gum, 45 Lolla rosa, 334 Low acidity, 80 Low-fat ice cream, 535, 536, 546 Low-fat milk, 214, 216, 562 Low-lactose milks, 219 Low-sodium milk, 219 Luncheon meats, 601 Lunch menus/planning, 123–26 Lutefisk, 196 Lutein, 272 Lyases, 52 Lycopene, 59, 272, 554 Lysine, 356 Lysozyme, 250 M Mabinlin, 446 Macaroni, 359 Macaroons, 489, 491 Mache, 279 Mackerel, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195 mercury contamination and, 194 Macrominerals, 55 Macronutrients, 129 Mad cow disease, 73–74 Madeira, 567 Madeira sauce, 161 Madeleines, 491 Madison, Dolly, 534 Maillard reaction, 54. See also Enzymatic browning in baked goods, 379, 380, 385 in breads/bread crusts, 54, 379, 380 in cakes, 489 in caramels, 525 in cheeses, 243 deep-frying and, 289 in eggs, 259 sugars and, 289, 436, 447 in sweetened condensed milk, 220 Maître d’Hôtel sauce, 161 Maki, 204 Malic acid, 299, 493, 551, 552 Mallon, Mary (“Typhoid Mary”), 77 Malt, 354 in flours/baked goods, 368, 383, 385 production, in beer-making, 563 Malt breads, 429 Maltitol, 420, 442 Maltodextrin, 420, 483, 545 Maltose, 39, 41, 438, 446, 449 Mandarins (tangerines), 302, 305, 307 Mandelbrot, 491 Mangoes, 301, 302, 303, 305, 307 Mangosteen juice, 554 Manicotti, 359, 360 Manners, cultural influences on, 11 Mannitol, 441, 442, 446 Mannose, 43 MAP. See Modified-atmosphere packaging Maple syrup, 438, 441 Marbling, 143, 149–50 Marchand de vin sauce, 161 Marco Polo, 534 Margarine, 460–61, 471 Marinades, 114 tenderizing meat with, 151 use with poultry, 181 Marmalades, 318, 322 Marrow, 144 Mashing, 563 Marshmallows, 442, 519, 521 Marzipan, 519 Masa, 353 Matjes herrings, 196 Maturing agents, for flour, 383 Matzo, 413 Mayonnaise, 456, 575 contamination of, 80 May wine, 567 Mead, 566 Meal management, 120–37 food service organization, 120–23 meal planning, 123–26 purchasing, 126–32 table settings, 135–36 time management, 132–34 types of meal service, 135 Meal planning, 123–26, 128, 137 healthful, 128 Meal service, types of, 135 Mealy, 509 Measuring, 107–10, Appendix B, B-1–B-2 heat, 104–5 ingredients, 107–10, 117 measurement equivalents, 108 portion control, 132 rounding off, 108 standards of fill, 594, 595 utensils, 108–9 Measuring cups, 107, 108 Measuring spoons, 108 Meat(s), 140–68. See also specific meats aging of, 142, 148–49, 150–51 antibiotic resistance, 144 aseptic and modified-atmosphere packaging of, 584 carving of, 166 choosing, 148 color changes in, 145, 146, 162–63 color of, 58, 145, 146 complete protein from, 50 composition of, 141–46, 168 cost of, 127 curing, 156–57, 577 cuts of, 144, 146, 148, 152–56 determining doneness, 162–63, 168 effect of temperature on, 161 Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906), 601 frozen, 167, 580 grading of, 146–47, 601, 602, 605 halal, 156 as high-risk food, 78–79 hormones and, 144–45 inspection of, 146, 168, 601, 602 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 kosher, 155, 168 labeling, 152 mechanically deboned, 160 nutrient content of, 147 organic, 156 percentage yield, 132 pigments in, 58, 145 preparation of, 160–66, 168 processed, 156–60, 168 purchasing, 146–60, 168 restructured, 160 smoking of, 157 storage of, 161, 167, 168 structure of, 141–44 substitutes, 148 sun-dried, 576 tenderness of, 142, 148–51, 160–61 time/weight charts, 162, 163 types of, 140–41, 168 variety (organ), 155, 156, 168 warmed over flavor, 161 Wholesome Meat Act (1967), 601 wrapping of, 167 Meat analogs, 285 Meat grinders/slicers, 90 Meatloaf, 79 Meat stocks, 329 Meat thermometer, 162 Medical foods, 9, 211 Medical nutrition therapy, 610, 612, 623 Medicine, food and, 6–8 Melanins, 54, 301 Meleagris gallopavo silvestris, 173 Melilot, 561 Mellorine, 537 Melon balls, 338 Melons, 305, 307–8 Melting point, 34–35 of chocolate, 527 of fats, 453, 474 of water, 34–35 Meniscus, 109, 640 Menus checklist, 126 creating, 124–26 cycle, 124, 125, 126 hospital menu patterns, 124 menu patterns, 123–24 Mercury contamination in fish, 75, 193–94 Meringue pies, 512 Meringues, 79, 261, 480, 487 cookies, 490 Metal salts in canned foods/juices, 315 Metchnikoff, Elie, 223 Methoxylation, 319 Methylsufonylmethane (MSM), 554 Methylxanthines, 556, 561 Metric system, 32 Mettwurst, 159 Meunière sauce, 161 Mexican wedding cakes, 491 Micelles, 225 Microbial, 45 Microminerals, 55 Micronutrients, 130 Microorganisms, 38. See also Bacteria foodborne illness and, 65 food preservation and, 38 temperatures needed to destroy, 83 Microscope, 26 Microwave ovens, 104 Microwave thermometer, 87 Microwaving, 36, 101, 117 brown condiments for, 166 of cakes, 485–86 of cereal grains, 358 of cookies, 493 dry-heat preparation, 35–36, 101 of eggs, 263 of fish, 204 I-11 of meats, 166 of pasta, 362 of poultry, 178, 183, 185 of tea, 562 of vegetables, 290 of yeast breads, 427 Migaki-nishin, 196 Mildew, 71 Milk, 210–27. See also Cheese additives in, 214 in cakes, 483 coagulation and precipitation, 215, 224–25 color of, 58, 214 complete protein from, 50 composition of, 211–14, 228 cost of, 127 flavor changes, 224, 228 in flour mixtures/baked goods, 380, 387 in food preparation, 224–27, 228 functions in foods, 211, 524 grades of, 214, 228, 601, 602, 605 heating, 36, 224 homogenization of, 215, 216, 218 nondairy, 219 nutrient content of, 211–14, 218, 228 nutritionally altered, 218–19 pasteurization, 53, 214–15 purchasing, 214–15, 228 rennin, 225 scalding, 100 standards of identity for, 217 storage of, 227, 228 types and products, 216–24, 228 vitamins A and D fortification, 213–14 Milk-based beverages, 562, 570 Milk chocolate, 530 Milk protein concentrates (MPC), 211 Milk protein isolates (MPI), 211 Milk solids-not-fat (MSNF), 216, 534, 535–36, 540 Millet, 346, 354 Milling, 371–72 Mince, fish, 195 Mincing, 106–7 Mineral(s), 55–56, 60. See also Mineral content; Sodium composition of, 55 foods high in, 55 functions in foods, 55–56 macrominerals and microminerals, 55 major minerals in foods, 55 nutrient retention of processed foods, 584–85 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 proportion in human body, 32 Mineral content of cereal grains, 346, 348–49, 363 of cheese, 236 of eggs, 253, 267 of fish, 195 of flours, 372 of fruits, 301 of meats, 147 of milk, 214, 228 of pastas, 363 of poultry, 175 of vegetables, 274, 275 of water, 549 Mineral oil, 578 Mineral water, 550 Minestrone, 330 Minimum quality, standards of, 594–95 Mint, 116, 333 Mirepoix, 181, 329 Misleading advertising, 603, 605 Miso, 286, 330, 577 Miso soup, 330 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-12 Index Mixers, Appendix A, A-5 Mixing pastries, 505–6 techniques, 110–11, 117 Mocha, 557 Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP), 293, 584, 585, 586 Modified foods, 9 Modified starches, 397, 483, 520 Modified wheat starch, 420 Moist-heat preparation, 35–36, 99–101, 117 of cereal grains, 356–58 of eggs, 261–64, 267 of fish and shellfish, 203–4 of fruits, 318 of meats, 165–66 of pasta, 360–62 of poultry, 182, 185 of vegetables, 290 Moisture absorption, 448, 449 Moisture retention, sugar and, 436 Molasses, 438, 440–41 in brown sugar, 437 foods made with, 441 Molded cookies, 491 Molds, 71 in cheese/cheese production, 237, 238, 244 foodborne illness and, 65, 71 food spoilage by, 574, 575 inhibitor added to baked products, 419 safety in certain foods, 71 Molecules, 32 Mollusks, 189. See also Shellfish selecting live, 198 Monelin, 446 Monitoring, critical control point, 91 Mono- and diglycerides, 420, 456, 483, 545 Monocalcium phosphate, 420, 483 Monographs, 8 Monosaccharides, 40 Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 3, 114, 158 in chicken nuggets, 175 sensitivity, 114 Mooncake, 480 Morganella morganii, 76 Mormon Church, 11 Mornay sauce, 161 Moselle wines, 567 Mother sauces, 399, 404 Mousse, 537 Mozzarella cheese, 233, 242, 243 MPC. See Milk protein concentrates MPI. See Milk protein isolates MSG. See Monosodium glutamate MSM. See Methylsufonylmethane MSNF. See Milk solids-not-fat Mucor miehei, 235 Mucor pusillus, 235 Muffin breads, 411–12 Muffin method of mixing, 111, 408, 415 Muffins, 384, 385, 409–411, 480 English muffins, 430–31 ingredient proportions, 407 preparation of, 410–11 Mulled wines, 567 Mullet, 191 Multiple fruit, 298 Muscatel, 567 Muscle contraction and relaxation, 142 Muscle tissue, 141–42 in fish, 190 Muscovado sugar, 437 Mushrooms, 282 storage of, 292 Mushroom sauce, 399 Mussels, 189, 190 purchasing, 199, 603 Mustard greens, 279 Mutton, 141 Mycotoxins, 71 Myocommata, 190 Myoglobin, 145, 146, 191 Myosin, 142 Myotomes, 190 MyPyramid, 6, 18, 125, 128, 302 N NAACLS. See National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences Napkins, 135 Napoleon, 578 Naruto, 197 NASM. See National Associations for Schools of Music National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS), 612 National Associations for Schools of Music (NASM), 612 National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 130 National Restaurant Federation, 610 Natto, 286 Natural foods, 17 Neapolitan, 535 Nectarines, 305, 308 Nematodes (roundworms), 73 Neohesperidine, 446 Neotame, 443, 444, 445, 446 Nero (Roman emperor), 534 Nestlé, Henri, 530 Neural tube birth defects, 598 New Age beverages, 552 New potatoes, 283 NFDM. See Nonfat dry milk Nigiri, 204 Nitrites color changes in meats and, 159 in processed meats, 157, 156–57 NOEL. See No-observed-effect level Nomenclature chemical, 48 of enzymes, 52 of fatty acids, 47, 48 of pastas, 359 of saccharides (D or L), 40 Nonfat dry milk (NFDM), 220–21, 227, 562 Nonlaminated, 498–500 Nonnutritive food components, 56–59, 60 Nonnutritive sweeteners, 435, 442–46, 449 Nonstick pans, 424 Nontempered coatings, 529 No-observed-effect level (NOEL), 443 Noodles, 359, 363. See also Pasta Norwalk virus, 66, 71, 72, 74 Nougats, 519, 521 Nuclei, for crystal formation, 520 Nucleus, atomic, 32 NuMenues, 123–24 Nutraceutical, 6, 10 Nutraceutical beverages, 554 Nutraceutical industry internships/ jobs, 622, 623 NutraSweet. See Aspartame Nutrient analysis, 130 Nutrient content of cakes, 484 of cereal grains, 347, 348–49, 363 of cheese, 235–36, 246 claims allowed on food labels, 597, 598 of cookies, 494 of eggs, 253, 267 of fats, 458–59, 474 of fish, 195 of flours, 372 of frozen desserts, 540 of fruit and vegetable beverages, 314 of fruits, 301–2, 322 of gelatin, 339 labeling, 595, 596–97 of meats, 147, 168 of milk, 211–14, 218, 228 of pastas, 359, 362, 363 of poultry, 175, 185 of quick breads, 410 of salads, 335 of soft drinks, 218 of starches, 391, 404 of sugar, 438 of tea, 561 of vegetables, 274–75 of water, 549 of yeast breads, 427 Nutrient content claims, 597, 598 Nutrient retention, 584–85 Nutrients, 32, 129. See also Chemistry of food composition daily values, 596 essential, 47, 50 groups of, 31 intake, 128–30 nutrient value of meals, 128–30 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 proportion in human body, 32, 59 Nutrition, 5–10, 18. See also Nutrition science; Recommended daily amounts careers in, 609–22 consumer dietary changes, 6–10 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 6, 18 MyPyramid, 6, 18 professional associations, 609, 610 recommendations, 6, as selection criterion, 5–10, 18 Nutritional beverages, 562 Nutritional yeast, 376, 377 Nutrition Facts food labels, 6, 595, 596–97 Nutritionist, 610–12, 623 professional profile, 620 Nutrition science, 610–12, 623 allied health careers, 611–12 careers in, 610, 611–12 certification routes, 613 dietary clerk/dietary aide, 616 dietetic technician, registered, 616 dietitians, 612–16 medical nutrition therapy, 610, 612 nutritionist, 610–12 professional associations, 609, 610 Nuts, 220 classification of, 299 nut oils, 462 qualified health claim for, 598 toasting, for salads, 335 O Oat beta-glucan, 554 Oat flour, 429 Oats, 346, 354, 355, 363 cooking time, 357 in yeast breads, 419 Obama, Barack, 64 Obesity, 5–6 portion control to combat, 132 rates, 125 soft drinks and, 551 sugar and, 438 Objective tests for food evaluation, 23, 26–28 Octopus, 189, 190 Odors of bread, 426 classification of, 2 detecting, 2 of fish, 192, 193, 203 food selection based on, 2 of vegetables, 287, 288 Ohmic heating, 581 Oil and vinegar dressings, 337–38 Oiling off, of cheese, 243 Oils, 461–64. See also Fats and oils cold-pressed, 461 deep-frying, problems and their causes, 470 difference of fats vs oils, 46 in emulsions, 455 essential, 114, 317 extracts, 114 frying care, 467–69 preserving frying oils, 469 refined, 461–62 selecting, 462 types of, 462–63 unrefined, 461–62 winterized, 464 Okra, 271, 279, 282 Old-fashioned filling method, 509–10 Olestra, 420, 466–67 Olfactory epithelium, 2 Oligosaccharides, 41 Olive oil, 47, 461, 462, 463, 471 qualified health claim for, 598 Olives, 308, 309 fat content of, 301 sizes, 309 storage of, 321 Omega-3 fatty acids, 48, 50, 195, 459, 554 qualified health claim for, 598 Omelets, 259–60, 264 Onions, 271, 273, 282–83 storage of, 292 Oolong tea, 561 ORAC. See Oxygen radical absorbance capacity Orange juice, 308–9, 313 Orange pekoe tea, 561 Oranges, 301, 302, 308–9 zest, 317 Ordinal scale, 24 Oregano, 333 Organic acids, 299, 554 as chemical sanitizers, 89 Organic certification, 16–17 Organic foods, 16–17 labeling, 602 Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, 16 Organic meats, 156 Organizational chart, 120, 121 Orphan Drug Act, 9 Osborne system of protein classification, 369 Osmosis, 38–39, 317 Osmotic drying, 576 Osmotic pressure, 38–39, 448 Osteoporosis, 598 Ostrich eggs, 255 Ostriches, 172 Outbreaks, of foodborne illness, 64, 603 Ovalbumin, 250 Oven cord thermometer, 86 Ovens, Appendix A, A-1–A-2 convection, 103–4 microwave, 104 rack position, 101 Oven spring, 425 Overrun, 541 Ovomucin, 250 Ovomucoid proteins, 250 Ovotransferrin, 250 Oxalic acid, 299 Oxidases, 575 Oxidation. See Enzymatic browning Oxidative rancidity, 471–72 Oxidizing agents as dough conditioners, 383 enzymes, 300 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Oxtail, 155, 156 Oxygen and food, 80 removal to prevent food spoilage, 575 Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), 312, 472 Oysters, 189, 190 purchasing, 198, 603 raw, Vibrio infection from, 71 Rockefeller, 202 shucking, 198 Ozonation, 584 P Packaging aseptic, 584, 586 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 595 flavor protection by, 4 modified-atmosphere, 293, 584, 586 of pastas, 584 shrink-wrapping, 293 Pack date, 131 Paella, 176 Paired comparison test, 24 Paired preference tests, 24 Palm oil, 46, 47, 463, 471 Pan-broiling, 103 of meats, 164, 165 Pancakes, 384, 408–9 ingredient proportions, 407 Panel thermometer, 86 Pan-frying, 103 of meats, 164–65 Pannell, Lisa, 617 Panocha, 521 Pans, Appendix A, A-6–A-7. See also Pots and pans Pantry chef/chef garde manger, 121 Pantry pests, 90 Papain, 52, 151, 157 Papayas, 301, 302, 303, 305, 309 Paprika, 113 Paraffin, 578 Paraffin oil, 578 Parasites, 65, 72–73 Parboil, 100 Parenchyma cells, 271–72 Parfait, 535 Paring knife, 107 Parmesan cheese, 234, 238, 242, 243, 244 Parsley, 271, 283, 333 as a garnish, 116 Parsnips, 271, 279, 283 Pascal, Blaise, 583 Pascalization, 583, 586 Pastas, 347, 358–62, 363 cloudy pasta water, 361 high-protein, 359, 363 nomenclature of, 359 nutrient content of, 359, 362, 363 packaging of, 584 preparation of, 360–62, 363 storage of, 362, 363 types of, 359–60, 363 Pasta salads, 336 Pasteurization, 53, 214–15 cold (irradiation), 581–83 as food preservation method, 581 of fruit/vegetable juices, 314 high-temperature, 581 of milk, 214–15 nutrient retention and, 586 temperatures, 215 ultrapasteurization, 215 Pasteurized beer, 564 Pasteurized eggs, 264–65 Pasteur, Louis, 578 Pastrami, 156 Pastries, 384, 498–515. See also Pies and pastries baking, 513 and eggs, 504 and fat, 502 fillings, 509–12 flakiness of, 502–3 flavoring and, 504 and flour, 502 ingredients of, 500–5 and liquids, 503 preparation of, 500–13, 515 problems and their causes, 514 and salt, 504 storage of, 514, 515 and sugar, 504 testing for doneness, 513 toppings, 512–13 types of, 498–500, 515 Pastry-blend method of mixing, 111 Pastry chef/patissier, 121 Pastry flour, 373 Patatopita, 500 Patent flour, 372 Pathogenic bacteria, 65 Pathogen Reduction Act (1997), 601 Peaches, 299, 300, 303, 305, 309–10 Peanut allergies, 76 Peanut brittle, 448, 519, 520, 521, 525 Peanut butter cookies, 491 Peanut oil, 461, 462, 471 Pearled barley, 354 Pearl onions, 283 Pears, 299, 300, 301, 305, 310 Pear wine, 567 Peas, 271, 279, 283 Pectic substances, 43, 271, 299–300 juice cloudiness and, 300 Pectin, 39, 40, 299–300 in confections, 530 formation in ripening fruit, 300 in fruit spreads, 319 juice cloudiness, 300 methoxylation and, 319 in soft drinks, 552 structure of, 299 use by food industry, 300 Pectinase, 315 Pectinates, 578 Peeling, 107, 338 to eliminate bitterness in vegetables, 287 Pemberton, John, 551 Penetrometer, 26 Penicillium, 71 Penicillium roqueforti, 238 Pepper, 113 Peppercorns, 113 Peppers, 271, 279, 283 bell, 279, 283 chili, 113 hot, 5, 283 red, 279 sweet, 283 Peptide bonds, 50 Percentage yield, 132 Perch, 189, 190, 191 Percolator, 559 Périgueux sauce, 161 Perishability. See also Preservation, food water activity and, 38 Peroxide value test, 27, 472 Perry (pear wine), 567 Persian melons, 308 Persimmons, 300, 310 Personal preference tests, 24 Personnel, food service, 77–78, 94 hygiene, 78 training, 78 Pest control, 90 Pesticide regulation, 592, 600, 603, 605 Peterson’s Guide to Graduate Schools, 619 Petit four, 480 Pets, Salmonella infection from, 68 pH. See also Acid(s) changes in, 37 Clostridium botulinum growth and, 579 and color in vegetables, 272 of eggs/egg whites, 257 exception to rules, 80 food additives and, 58 in heating fruit, 315 meter, 27 in milk, 225 scale, 37 of soft drinks, 552 taste and, 58 Phadnis, Shashikant, 444 Pharmaceutical industry internships/ jobs, 622, 623 PhD. See Graduate school Pheasant, 172 Phenolase, 300 Phenolic compounds, 44, 300–1, 561 Phenol oxidase, 53, 300 Phenols, 59 Phenylalanine, 444 Phenylketonuria (PKU), 444 Phosphated flour, 374 Phosphates in meats, 158 treatment of fish and shellfish, 193, 200, 205 Phosphatidylcholine. See Lecithin Phosphatidylserine, 598 Phospholipids, 47–48 Phosphoric acid, 551, 552 Photosynthesis, 436 Phyllo pastry, 500, 509, 510 Physical hazards, 65, 77, 94 Physical leaveners, 375 Physical tests for food evaluation, 26–27, 28 Phytochemicals, 59, 274, 301, 554 Pickles/pickling, 577–78 as a garnish, 116 cancer and, 600 Picnic ham, 159 Pies and pastries, 498–515. See also Pastries alternative piecrusts, 509 baking, 513 decorative piecrust edges, 508 and eggs. 504 and fat, 502 fillings, 509–12 flakiness of pastries, 502–3 and flour, 502 ingredients of, 500–5 and liquids, 503 preparation of, 500–13, 515 problems and their causes, 514 and salt, 504 storage of, 514, 515 and sugar, 504 testing for doneness, 513 toppings, 512–13 types of, 498–500, 515 Pigeon, 172, 173, 185 Pigments. See also Color(s) in meats, 58, 145 in plants/vegetables, 271, 272–73, 287–88 in poultry, 173 Pike, 189, 190 Pilaf method, 358 Pineapples, 298, 305, 310, 338 as a garnish, 116 cutting, 311 storage of, 321 vitamin C in, 302 Pink wines, 568 Pinot, 567 Pint, 108 I-13 Pita bread, 429 Pizza, 350, 428 Pizza crust, 431 Pizza Hut, 316 Place mats, 136 Plague, bubonic, 90 Plain pastry, 498–99. See also Pies and pastries Planning, meal, 123–26, 137 Plantains, 301, 305 Plant cell structure, 270–72 Plant exudates, 45 Plant fibers, 45 Plant protein classification, 369 Plant stanol esters, 49 Plant sterols, 49, 59 Plasticity of fats, 109, 456–57, 474 Plate freezing, 580 Plate presentation, 116 Plates, 136, 137 Plums, 305, 310 Poaching, 100, 117 of eggs, 263, 264 of fish, 203 of fruits, 318 of poultry, 183 Pod corn, 352 Poisoning. See also Bacteria; Toxins bacterial infections and toxins, 65–67 botulism, 67, 69 Ciguatera fish, 75 ergot, 355 foodborne illness, 65–74, 575 histamine food poisoning, 75–76, 205 mercury, 193–94 mycotoxins, 71 pufferfish, 76 red tide, 76 Polarimeter, 26 Pollock, 190, 191 Polo, Marco, 534 Polydextrose, 522 Polyethylene wax, 578 Polymerization, 468 Polymorphism, of fats, 456, 527 Polyphenol, 302, 556 Polyphenolase, 54 Polyphenolic compounds, 225, 556, 561 Polyphenol oxidase, 300, 315 Polysaccharides, 41–45 Polysorbate 60, 455 Polyunsaturated fats, 47, 48, 143 Pomegranate juice, 554 Pomegranates, 310, 312, 321 Pomes, 298, 322 Popcorn, 352 Popcorn balls, 519, 521 Popovers, 384, 407, 409 Popsicles, 537 Pop-up thermometer, 86 Pork, 141, 168. See also Meat(s) bacon, 159 cooking temperature, 163 ham, 158–59, 577 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 processed, 156 PSE (pale, soft, and exudative), 150 retail/wholesale cuts of, 153–55 stock, 329 tapeworm ( Taenia sollium), 73 Trichinella spiralis and, 72 Pork tapeworm ( Taenia sollium), 73 Port, 567 Portions common serving sizes, 133 control, 132 healthful, 128 measuring sizes, 129 size, 123 Post, Charles William, 347 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-14 Index Potassium dietary guidelines/ recommendations, 6 in fruits, 301 Potassium benzoate, 551 Potassium bisulfite, 304 Potassium bromate, 383 Potassium chloride, 113, 483 Potassium metabisulfite, 304 Potassium sorbate, 483, 493 Potato chips, 462 Potatoes, 271, 279, 283–84 baked, 288–89 color of, 273 cream of tartar and, 289 fiber content, 273 french fries, 289, 290 preparation of, 288–89 seasons for, 279 soup, 331 specific gravity of, 288 storage of, 293 sweet potatoes, 271, 274, 284 Potato flour, 374 Potato starch, 43, 391, 392, 394, 396 Pot barley, 354 Pots and pans, Appendix A, A-6–A-7 for baking cakes, 483–84 for baking pies and pastries, 513 for baking yeast breads, 424 color of, effect on baking, 101–2 placement, 484 primed (seasoned), 259 Pottage, 327 Poultry, 172–85. See also Meat(s); specific type of poultry additives in, 176 basting, 180 brining, 178 calories, 176 carving, 181, 185 classification of, 172–73, 185 color change, 178 color/pigment in, 173, 174 composition of, 173, 185 determining doneness, 178–79, 185 dressed, 174 eviscerated, 174 grading of, 174, 601, 602, 605 as high-risk food, 78–80 hormones and antibiotics in, 175 inspection of, 174, 601, 602 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 178 irradiation of, 184 labeling, 176 microwaving, 183 modified-atmosphere packaging of, 584 nutrient content of, 175 percentage yield, 132 preparation of, 176–83, 185 processed, 175 purchasing, 174–76, 185 safety tips, 177–78 Salmonella and, 68, 183 stocks, 329 storage of, 183–84, 185 stuffing, 178, 180–81 time/weight charts, 178–79 trussing, 180 types and styles of, 174–76 Poultry Buyers Guide, 176 Poultry Products Inspection Act (1957), 601 Pound (unit of measurement), 108 Pound cake, 480 Pour batters, 384, 385, 408–9, 415 Powdered butter, 459 Powdered sugar, 109, 437 Practice Groups, Dietetic, 615 Prawns, 200 Prebiotics, 222–23 Precipitate, 36 Preparation of food, 82–83, 94 food (See specific foods) Pre-preparation of food, 83, 94 Presentation, food, 116, 117 Preservation, food, 38–39, 574–86 artificial “rain” in supermarket displays, 38 aseptic and modified-atmosphere packaging, 584, 586 cold preservation, 579–80, 586 enzymes used for, 53 food spoilage, 574–75, 586 heat preservation, 581, 585, 586 high-pressure processing, 583, 586 humidity/water activity and, 38 irradiation, 581–83, 585, 586, 602 methods of, 575–79, 585 nutrient retention and, 584–85, 586 ozonation, 584 pascalization, 583, 586 preservatives in soft drinks, 552 pulsed light, 583, 586 sugar and, 436, 448, 449 Preserved fish/roe, 196 Preserves, fruit, 318, 322 Pressed cookies, 491 Pressure canning, 579 Pressure cookers, 101 Pretreatments for drying fruits, 577 Pretzels, 431 Preventive measure, 76 Price comparisons, 130, 131 Priestley, Joseph, 551 Primal cuts. See Wholesale (primal) cuts Priming of frying pans, 259 Prions (mad cow disease), 73–74 Prior sanction, 599 Probiotics, 222–23, 554 Process (processed) cheeses, 233, 240–41, 243 Processed fruits, 312–13 Processed meats, 156–60, 168 lower-fat, 160 Processed poultry, 175–76 Product codes, 131 Production manager/sous chef, 122 Product recall, 594 Professional associations, 609, 610 Professor, career as, 612, 618, 622, 623 Prolamines, 369 Proof, 383 of alcoholic spirits, 568 Proof boxes, 423 Proofing, 383, 423, 425 overproofing, 425 second, 424–25 underproofing, 427 Propionic acid, 89 Propylene glycol monoesters, 455 Propyl gallate, 158, 473 Proteases, 52, 385, 423, 575 Protein(s), 49–54, 60. See also Protein content; specific proteins amino acids in, 50, 51, 52 biological value of, 339 calories (kcal) from, 32 chemistry of, 49–54 complete vs incomplete, 50 composition of, 52 denaturation/coagulation, 52 foods high in, 50 functions in food, 51–54 nutrient retention in processed foods, 584–85 Osborne classification system, 369 plant, 369 proportion in human body, 32 recommended intake, 130 reference, 253 sources, 130 Proteinase inhibitor, 250 Proteinases, 575 Protein-based fat replacers, 465, 466 Protein complementation, 50 Protein content of cereal grains, 348, 363 of cheese, 236, 246 of eggs, 250, 253, 267 of fish, 195 of flours, 372 high-protein pasta, 359, 363 of meats, 147 of milk, 212, 218, 228 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 of pastas, 359, 362, 363 of poultry, 175 of soybeans, 285 of vegetables, 275 of yeast breads, 427 Protein films, 578 Protein quality, 50 Protein salads, 336 Protons, 32 Protozoa, 72, 73 Proximate analysis, 27 Prune juice, 301 Prunes, 301, 304 Pseudoterranova dicipiens (codworms), 72, 73 P/S ratio, 47 Psychological criteria for food selection, 13–17, 18 Puddings, 448, 584 Pufferfish poisoning, 76 Puff pastry, 500, 505 rolling, 509, 510 Pull date, 131 Pulque, 567 Pulsed light, 583, 586 PulseNet, 74 Pumpernickel bread, 429 Pumpkin, 271 Punching down dough, 423–24 Purchasing, 80, 94, 126–32, 137 of cheese, 241–42, 246 of eggs, 251–54, 267 of fish and shellfish, 191–201, 206 of fruits, 304–15, 322 of meats, 146–60, 168 of milk, 214–15, 228 of poultry, 174–76, 185 of vegetables, 276–84, 294 Pure Food Law. See Food and Drug Act (1906) Purified water, 550 Q Quail, 172, 173 Quail eggs, 255 Qualified health claims, 597–98 Quality control, 80 Quality grades, 146, 601–2. See also Grading; USDA of meat, 147 USDA stamps, 602 Quality standards, 594, 595 Quantity grades, 601 Quart, 108 Quaternary ammonium compounds, 89 Quiche, 79, 264, 498 Quick breads, 367, 407–15 from drop batters, 384, 385, 409–12, 415 ingredient proportions, 407 kneading, 412, 415 muffin method, 408, 415 nutrient content of, 410 from pour batters, 408–9, 415 preparation of, 408, 415 problems and their causes, 411, 415 unleavened breads, 412–13 varieties of, 408–14, 415 Quick-mix method, 110 Quick oats, 354 Quinoa, 356 R Rack position for baking, 101, 102 Radiation, heat transfer by, 103, 104, 117 Radiccio, 279, 334 Radish, 271, 273, 284 Raffinose, 41 Raisin bread, 594 Raisins, 301, 315, 576 Ramen, 359, 362 Rancidity, 158, 470–72, 528, 580 Range, Appendix A, A-1 Ranking tests, 24 Rapid mix method, 421 Raspberries, 301, 302, 305 Raspberry tea, 561 Ravioli, 359 Raw fermented sausage, 159 Raw fish, 204 Raw sugar, 437 RBGH. See Recombinant bovine growth hormone RD. See Registered dietitian RDI. See Reference Daily Intakes Recalls, 594 Recipes, 133–34 standardized, 133 styles of, 133–34 substitutions for ingredients, 110, Appendix C, C-1–C-2 Recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), 214 Recommended daily amounts, 6, 124. See also Acceptable daily intake (ADI) of calories from carbohydrates, 427 of cereal, grain, or pasta, 6, 349 Daily Reference Values (DRV), 596 of fats, 6, 458 of fiber, 427 of fruits and vegetables, 6, 302 of meats and legumes, 6 of milk, 6, 213 Reference Daily Intakes (RDI), 596 of sugars, 438 Recovery beverages, 552 Recrystallization, 580 Red cabbage, 273 Red chard, 334 Red color in chocolate cake, 379 in fish and shellfish products, 197 in fruits, 315 in meats, 145 in plants/vegetables, 272, 273, 287 Red currants, 306 Red leaf lettuce, 334 Red mustard, 334 Red onions, 283 Red peppers, 279 Red potatoes, 273, 279, 284 Red tide, 76 Reduced-fat milk, 214, 216, 562 Reducing agents, 383 Reducing sugars, 447 Reduction, 402 Red wines, 567, 568 Reference Daily Intakes (RDI), 596 Reference protein, 253 Refrigeration, 80, 81, 579 of meat, 167 Refrigerator cookies, 492 Refigerator/freezer thermometer, 86 Refrigerators, Appendix A, A-2 food safety and, 81 temperature of, 579 Registered dietitian (RD), 122, 612–16 Regulation of food, government, 64–65, 591–605 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 603, 605 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 603, 605 federal food laws, 591–93, 605 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 593–600, 605 international agencies, 604, 605 other regulatory agencies, 603–4, 605 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 600–3, 605 Reheating foods, 82, 83, 88–89 Relief cook/tournant, 122 Religion food choices and, 11–12, 18 genetically engineered foods and, 14 Rennin, 53, 225, 235 Replacers, fat, 465–67 Reptiles Salmonella infection from, 68 Researcher, 621, 623. See also Food science; Nutrition science Resinated (Greek) wines, 567 Resistant starches, 396–97, 554 Respiration rate, 292 Restructured meat, 160 Retail cuts of meat, 152–55 of beef, 152, 153 bones identifying, 144 of lamb, 155 of pork, 153–55 of veal, 153 Retrogradation, 384, 396. See also Syneresis Rheology, 27 Rhine wines, 567 Rhizomes, 113 Rhubarb, 299, 310 Ribose, 39, 40 Rice, 350–52, 363 basmati, 346, 351, 357 classification of, 351 cooking times, 356–57 forms of, 351–52 percentage of world grain production, 346 preparation of, 356–58 Rice bran, 351 Rice bran wax, 578 Rice flour, 373, 429 Rice milk, 219 Rice starch, 391, 392 Rice vinegar, 338 Rice wine (sake), 567, 577 Riesling, 567 Rigor mortis, 150, 151, 193 Ripening of cheese, 236–39 of fruits, 300 Risk, 77 high-risk foods, 78–80 severity of, in biological food hazards, 65–66 Risotto, 351 “R-month rule”, 198 Roast cook/rotisseur, 121 Roasters, chicken, 172 Roasting, 102 of coffee, 555 of meats, 163 of poultry, 179–81 temperatures for meats, 163 of vegetables, 289 Robert sauce, 161 Rock salt, 112 Rodents, 90 Roe, fish, 196, 197 Rolled cookies, 491–92 Rolled oats, 354, 355 Rolled wheat, 350 Rollmops, 196 Rolls, 429, 430 Romaine lettuce, 279, 281 green, 334 red, 334 Root beer, 551 Root vegetables, 270, 271, 294 Rope, 431 Rose hip tea, 561 Rosemary, 116, 177, 333 Rosé wines, 567 Rotavirus, 66, 72 Roughage. See Fiber Roulade, 480 Rounding off of weights and measures, 108 Rounds cook/tournant, 122 Roundworms, 72, 73 Roux, 399 Rum, 568, 569 Russian service, 135 Russian tea cookies, 491 Rutabagas, 271, 279, 284 Rye, 346, 355, 356, 363 cooking time, 357 Rye (whiskey), 569 Rye breads, 429 Rye crackers, 429 Rye flour, 374 S Sablés, 489, 492 Saccharides, 39–46. See also Carbohydrate(s) disaccharides, 40–41 D or L nomenclature, 40 monosaccharides, 40 oligosaccharides, 41 polysaccharides, 41–46 Saccharin, 443, 444, 552, 600 Saccharometer, 544 Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, 563 Saccharomyces caucasius, 223 Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 375, 377, 418 Saccharomyces kefir, 223 Safety, food, 64–94. See also Regulation of food, government bacteria and, 65–74 biological hazards, 65–74 canned goods (home-canning), 579 chemical hazards, 65, 75–76 cream soups, 332 detecting contamination, 74 eggs, 265–66 FDA and, 593–600 foodborne illness, 64–65 genetically modified organisms and, 14 HACCP system, 91 inspector, professional profile, 183 molds and, 71 national surveillance, 91 new virulent biological hazards, 74 parasites and, 72–73 physical hazards, 65, 77 poultry preparation, 177–78 prions—mad cow disease, 72–73 Safe Food Act of 1997, 592 severity of risk, 65 viruses and, 71–72 Safflower oil, 461, 462, 471 Saffron, 113 Sage, 333 Saint John’s wort, 553 Sake (rice wine), 567, 577 Salad dressings, 336–39, 575 Salad plate, 136, 137 Salads, 332–39, 342 fat and fiber in, 335 importance of salt in, 332 ingredients, 332–35 preparation of, 335–36, 337, 338 types of, 332, 333 Sales and marketing jobs, 519 Salmon, 189, 190, 194, 195 canned, 196 color of, 192 roe, 197, 198 smoked, 196 Salmonella, 66, 68, 90 cross-contamination, 83 eliminated by irradiation, 583 poultry and, 178, 183 raw eggs and, 257, 266 testing for, 601 Salmonella enteritidis, 266 Salmonella typhi, 66 Salmonellosis, 68 Salsify, 279 Salt(s), 111–13. See also Sodium adding in food preparation, 112 curing/preservation with, 577 effect on freezing, 543 effect on milk, 225 in flour mixtures/baked goods, 380, 387 forms of, 55–56 functions in foods, 56, 111–12 in gel formation, 341 meat tenderizing with, 151 in pastry, 504 pickling, 600 in processed foods, 112 sources in diet, 112 substitutes, 113 too much/too little, 380 types of, 111–12, 380 value of, 112 in yeast breads, 419 yeast growth and, 380 Salt and pepper shakers, 136 Salt formation, 37 Salting (curing), 156–57, 577 Salty taste, 3 Sanding sugar, 437 Sanitation, 89–90 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs), 601 Sanitizers, chemical, 89 Saponins, 59 Sardines, 190, 191, 196 Sashimi, 204 Sassafras tea, 561 Satiety, 457, 474 Satsuma-age, 197 Saturated fatty acids, 47, 48, 456 Saturated solution, 36 Saturation, degree of, 47, 456 Sauce chef/saucier, 121 Sauces, 397–403, 404 for beef, 161 functions in foods, 398 gravy, 402 mother, 399, 404 small, 399 storage of, 403, 404 thickened, 399–401, 404 types of, 398–99 unthickened, 401–3, 404 white sauce, 261 Sauerkraut, 577 Sausage, 159–60, 577 Sautéing, 102–3 of cereal grains, 358 of fish and shellfish, 202 of fruits, 318 of meats, 164 of poultry, 181 Sauternes, 567 Savory, 333 Savory (umami ) taste, 3 Scalding, 100 Scales Celsius (centigrade), 104, 105 Fahrenheit, 104, 105 Kelvin, 104 for measuring ingredients, 109 ordinal, 24 Scallions, 279 Scalloped, 286 Scallops, 189, 190 purchasing, 199, 603 Scampi, 200 I-15 Schlatter, James, 443 Schmidt, Arno, 99 Science. See Food science; Nutrition science Scientist, food, 616–17 professional profiles, 316, 539 Scombrotoxism, 75, 205 Scones, 413–14 Scoring bread, 425 Scotch (whiskey), 569 Scrambled eggs, 259, 263–64 Scrapie, 74 Scurvy, 591 Sea bass, 190, 192 Seafood. See Fish and shellfish Sea mammals, 189 Searing of meat, 102, 161 Sea salt, 112 Seasoning of frying pans, 259 Seasonings, 111–16, 117, Appendix D, D-1–D-3. See also Salt; specific seasonings adding to food (when/how much?), 115–16 for grains, 358 for meats, 161–62 types of, 111–15 Seaweeds, 45 Seed, for crystal formation, 521 Seeding method of tempering chocolate, 528 Seeds gums, 45 vegetables and fruits derived from, 270, 294, 272 Selection criteria. See Food selection criteria Selenium, 598 Self-rising flour, 375 Semi-hard cheese, 234 Semisweet chocolate, 530 Semolina (durum flour), 359, 373 Sensitivity tests, 24 Sensory criteria, in food selection, 1–5, 18 Sensory evaluation of food, 23–26 Separation of water and oil, 575 Serving number, food labeling, 596 Serving sizes common, 133 food labeling, 596 of fruits and vegetables, 302 portion control, 132 Serving temperature, 89, 94 Sesame oil, 462 Seventh-Day Adventist Church, 11, 347 Shad, 190, 191 Shallots, 271, 283 Shark, 189, 190 mercury contamination and, 194 Sheep milk, 216 Shelf life extension by sugar, 436 improved by biotechnology, 14 Shellfish. See also Fish and shellfish baking, 201–2 certification, 192 classification of, 188–89 common, 190 complete protein from, 50 inspection of, 601, 602 Interstate Certificate Shellfish Shipper List, 603 preparation of, 201–4, 206 purchasing, 191–201, 206 red tide algae and, 76 “R-month rule”, 198 selection of, 197–201, 206 shucked, 192 shucking, 198 steaming, 203–4 storage of, 204–5, 206 types of, 191–92 Shen Nung (Chinese emperor), 559 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-16 Index Sherbet, 214, 537, 544, 546 Sherry, 567 Shigella, 67, 68, 69, 92 Shigella dysenteriae, 66 Shirred eggs, 260, 263 Shortbread, 490, 492 Short dough pastry, 499 Shortened cakes, 478–80, 483–88 Shortening power, 454–55, 474 Shortenings, 381, 454, 461. See also Fats and oils comparison of, 470 superglycerinated, 461 Shortometer, 26 Shredding, 106 Shrimp, 189, 190, 192 canned, 200 peeling and cleaning, 200 prawns, 200 purchasing, 200 scampi, 200 shucked, 198 Shrimp sauce, 399 Shrinking, 261 Shrink-wrapping of vegetables, 293 Sight, food selection based on, 1–2 Silence cloth, 136 Silliman, Benjamin, 551 Simmering, 100, 117 of cereal grains, 356–58 as convection cooking, 103 of fish and shellfish, 203 of meats, 166 of pasta, 360–62 of vegetables, 290 Simple fruit, 298 Simplesse, 465 Simple syrup, 518 Sinclair, Upton, 592 Single-stage method of mixing, 111 Sinks hand washing, 78 three-compartment, 89 Skillet, Appendix A, A-3 Slicing, 106 Slurry, 400 Smart beverages, 554 Smell, food selection based on, 2. See also Odors Smoked eels, 196 Smoked meats, 157 Smoked salmon, 196 Smoked sprats, 196 Smoked trout, 196 Smoke point, 467 Smoking cured meats, 157, 577 Smoothies, 562 Smucker Company (J.M. Smucker), 617 Snails, 189 Snapper, red, 189, 190, 191 Soba, 359 Sociological criteria for food selection, 13–17, 18 Soda. See Soft drinks Sodium, 55–56. See also Salt content in processed foods, 112 dietary guidelines/ recommendations, 6, 113 functions in foods, 56 health concerns and, 113 low-sodium milk, 219 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 reducing, 113 sources of, 55 Sodium benzoate, 551 Sodium bicarbonate, 420. See also Baking soda Sodium bisulfite, 304 Sodium caseinate, 158, 483 Sodium erythorbate, 158 Sodium metabisulfite, 304 Sodium nitrate, 158 Sodium propionate, 431, 483 Sodium sorbate, 551 Sodium sulfite, 304 Soft cheese, 233–34 Soft diet, 122 Soft drinks, 448, 551–52 additives in, 552 caffeine in, 551, 556 cocaine in, 551 diet, 443, 444, 552 early, 551 health concerns, 551–52 nutrient content vs fat-free milk, 218 nutrient content vs fruit/vegetable juices, 314 processing, 551 sweeteners in, 551–52, 570 water in, 551 Soft water, 35 Soft wheats, 350 Sol, 340, 395 Solanine, 284 Sole, 190, 192 Solubility, 36, 446–47 effect of temperature on, 447 of fats, 457, 474 sugar and, 436, 446–47 universal solvent (water), 36 Solute, 34, 38 Solution, 36 Solvent, 36 Sorbet, 537, 544, 546 Sorbic acid, 304, 551, 552 Sorbitan monostearate, 483 Sorbitol, 442, 446, 522, 530 Sorghum, 346, 354, 363 flour, 374 Soufflés, 261 Sound, in food selection, 1, 2, 5 Soup cook/potager, 121 Soups, 327–32, 342 clear and thin, 330, 342 cream, 331–32, 342 stocks, 328–30, 342 storage of stocks, 330 thickened, 330–31, 342 types of, 327–28, 342 Sour cream, 213, 223 storage of, 227 Sourdough bread, 428–29 Sour taste, 3 Soybean lecithin, 493 Soybean oil, 461, 462, 471 Soybeans, 285–86. See also Miso fermented soybean foods, 286 meat analogs, 285 paste, 330 sprouts, 291 textured vegetable protein (TVP), 285 tofu, 285–86 Soy beverage, 553 Soy flour, 374 Soy isoflavones, 554 Soy milk, 219 Soy sauce, 286, 577 Spaghetti, 359, 360 Spanakopita, 500 Sparkling water, 551 Sparkling wines, 567 Spearmint tea, 561 Special dietary use foods, 9–10 Specifications, in food purchasing, 126 Specific gravity, 288 Specific heat, 34 Spectrophotometer, 26 Spelt, 350 Spices, 113–14, Appendix D, D-1–D-3 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 purchasing, 113 storing, 113–14 Spinach, 271, 279, 284, 334, 336 Spirits (hard alcohols), 562, 568, 569, 570 proof, 568 types of (common), 568, 569 Splenda. See Sucralose Spoilage, food, 574–75, 586 Sponge cake, 487 Sponge method of mixing, 111, 421 Spoonful. See Aspartame Spoons, in table settings, 136 Spore, 82 Spors, Derek, 4 Sport beverages, 552–53 Sprats, smoked, 196 Spring water, 550 Sprouts, 284 preparing, 291–92 storage of, 292 Spun sugar, 519 Squab, 172, 173 Squash, 271, 279, 284 Squid, 189, 190 SSOPs. See Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures Stabilizers, 59 in frozen desserts, 534, 540 proteins as, 51, 52 Stachyose, 41 Stag meat, 140 Staling of breads, 381, 431 Standardized recipes, 133 Standards, FDA, 594–95 of fill, 594, 595 of identity, 594 of minimum quality, 594, 595 Staphylococcal food poisoning, 69 Staphylococcus aureus, 66, 67, 69 Starch(es), 41–45, 391–404. See also Sauces characteristics, 394–97, 404 chemical structure of, 43, 44 cross-linked, 397 dextrinization, 396 digestible, from animal sources (glycogen), 42 digestible, from plant sources, 41 in flours, 368 food containing, 392–93 gelatinization, 394–95 instant or pregelatinized, 397 modified, 397, 483, 525 nutrient content of, 391, 404 oxidized, 397 resistant, 396–97, 554 retrogradation, 396, 397 sources of, 391–92, 404 storage of, 403 structure, 393 testing for, 394 as thickeners, 391–93, 404 undigestible, 43–44 uses in food products, 392–93 Starch syrups, 393 Starter, 377 State regulatory agencies, 604, 605 Stations, kitchen organization based on, 121–22 Steaks, fish, 192 Steam, as leavening agent, 375 Steamers, Appendix A, A-3–A-4 Steaming, 101 as convection cooking, 103 of fish and shellfish, 203–4 of meats, 166 of vegetables, 290 Steel-cut oats, 354, 357 Steeping, 563 Steeping method, 559 Steers, 140 Sterilization, 579 aseptically packaged food and, 584 Sterols, 48–49 Stevia, 445 Stevioside, 445 Stewing, 100 of fruits, 318 of meat, 166 of poultry, 182–83 Still-frozen desserts, 537, 544, 546 Stir-frying, 102–3 of poultry, 182 of vegetables, 289 Stirring, 110 Stocks, 328–330 Storage. See also Packaging of breads, 431, 432 of brown sugar, 437 of cakes, 489, 495 of candies, 530, 531 of cereal grains, 358, 363 of cheese, 244–45, 246 of chocolates, 530, 531 of coffee, 559 controlled atmosphere, 293, 294 of cookies, 494, 495 edible films/coatings, 292 of eggs, 264–66, 267 of fats, 470–73, 474 of fish and shellfish, 204–5, 206 of flours, flour mixtures, and doughs, 385–86, 387 food additives and, 59 of frozen desserts, 543, 544–45, 546 of fruits, 321–21, 322, 579 of frying oils, 469 of gelatin, 341 of herbs and spices, 113–14 of honey, 441 of ice cream, 543, 544–45, 546 of meats, 161, 166–67, 168 of milk products, 227, 228 nutrient retention and, 584–85, 586 of pasta, 362, 363 of pastries/pies, 514, 515 of poultry, 183–84, 185 of soup stocks, 330 of starches and sauces, 403, 404 of tea, 562, 570 temperatures, 82 times, 82, 94 of vegetables, 292–93, 294, 579 Storage eggs, 264 Straight dough method of mixing, 421 Straight flour, 372 Strawberries, 299, 301, 302, 305 grades of, 603 Stream, in flour sifting/classification, 372 Streptococcus lactis, 221, 223 Streptococcus pyogenes, 66 Streptococcus thermophilous, in yogurt, 221 Streusel topping, 508 Structure/function claims, 597, 598 Strudel, 500 Stuffing, poultry, 178, 179, 180–81 as a high-risk food, 79 Sturgeon, 190, 192 caviar and roe, 197, 198 Subjective tests for food evaluation, 23–26, 28 Sublimation, 576 Substitutions for ingredients, 110, Appendix C, C-1–C-2 Substrate, in enzymatic reaction, 52 Sucralose, 443, 444–45, 552 Sucrose, 39, 40–41, 446 in candies, 520 forms of, 437 hydrolysis of, 37 solubility of, 446–47 sources of, 437 Suet, 464–65 Sufu, 286 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index Sugar(s), 379–80, 436–38, 449. See also Sweeteners browning reactions, 447 in cake, 482 calories from, 437, 438 in candy preparation, 520, 522, 523 caramelization of, 379, 387, 436, 447 chemistry of, 40 in flour mixtures/baked goods, 379–80, 387 functions in foods, 379, 436, 446–48, 449 in gel formation, 341 inhibition of gelatinization by, 395 measuring, 109, 440 measuring concentration of, 544 moisture absorption (hygroscopicity), 448 nutrient content of, 438 in pastry, 504 reducing, 447 refined, 437, 438, 449 sources of, 436–38 substitutes, 379, 440 sweetness of, 446 too much/too little, 379–80 types of, 379, 436–38 in yeast breads, 419 Sugar alcohols, 441–42, 449, 522 Sugar beets, 435, 436, 437 Sugar bowl, 136 Sugar cane, 435, 436, 437 Sugar cookies, 492 Sugarless gums, 442 Sulfites, 304 Sulfur dioxide, 304, 315, 577 Summer squash, 284 Sunchoke (Jerusalem artichoke), 271, 279 Sundae, 535 Sun drying, 576 Sunette. See Acesulfame-K Sunflower oil, 461, 462, 471 Sun tea, 562 Superbugs, 145 Superfruits, 311–12 Superglycerinated, 461 Supermarkets, 126–27 Supersaturated solution, 36 Supper, word derivation, 327 Supplements, dietary, 598 Surfactants, 455, 483 Surimi, 196, 197 Sushi, 72, 204, 601 Suspension, 36 Sweating, 115 Swedish rye crackers, 429 Sweetbreads, 155, 156 Sweet chocolate, 530 Sweet corn, 352 Sweet cream butter, 459 Sweet dough pastry, 499 Sweetened condensed milk, 220 Sweeteners, 435–49. See also Sugar(s) functions in foods, 379, 436, 446–48, 449 natural, 436–42, 446, 449 nonnutritive, 442–46, 449 photosynthesis and, 436 relative sweetness of, 446 in soft drinks, 551–52, 570 in yeast breads, 419, 420 Sweetness, 446, 446 of nonnutritive sweeteners, 443, 446 of sugars, 446 Sweet-n-Low, 443 Sweet One. See Acesulfame-K Sweet potatoes, 271, 274, 284 yams, 287 Sweet taste, 3 Sweet wines, 564, 567 Swing cook/tournant, 122 Swiss buttercream frosting, 488 Swiss chard, 281 Swiss cheese, 234, 238, 241, 242, 243 Swordfish, 189, 190, 192 mercury contamination and, 194 Syneresis, 341, 396, 401, 575 Synthesized gums, 45 Syrup phase of candies, 518–19, 520–23, 531 Syrups, 438–41, 449, 521 corn, 40, 157, 353, 393, 438–39 measuring sugar concentration, 544 simple, 518 solubility and, 446–47 starch, 393 T Tablecloth, 136 Table salt. See Salt Table settings, 135–36, 137 Tablespoon, 108 Table sugar. See Sucrose Table wines, 567 Tabliering method, of tempering chocolate, 527–28 Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), 73 Taenia sollium (pork tapeworm), 73 Taffy, 519, 525 Tagatose, 446 Talin, 446 Tallow, 464, 474 Tamari, 286 Tangerines. See Mandarins (tangerines) Tango, 334 Tannins, 561 Tapeworms, 73 beef ( Taenia saginata), 73 fish (Diphylliobothrium latum), 73 pork ( Taenia sollium), 73 Tapioca, 43, 391, 392, 394 in pies and pastries, 505 Tarragon, 333 Tartaric acid, 299 Tartar sauce, 398, 401, 403 Tartlets, 509 Tarts, 499, 509, 511 Taste factors affecting, 4, 59 five stimuli, 3 food selection based on, 2–5 interactions, 3–4 mechanism of, 3 Taste buds, 2, 3 Taste panels, 25 Taste testers, 4 of Louis XIV, 327 TATCA. See Trialkoxytricarballate Taurine, 553 TBA. See Thiobarbituric acid TBHQ. See Tertiary butylhydroquinone Tea, 559–62, 570 composition of, 561 grades of, 561 health benefits of, 561 preparation of, 561–62 processing, 559 storage of, 562, 570 types of, 560–61 Tea breads, 412 Tea cup, 136, 137 Teaspoon, 108 Technicians allied health, 611–12 dietetic, 616, 623 food science, 618, 623 Tempeh, 286 Temperature, 81–82. See also Boiling point; Freezing point; Heat; specific foods and processes for baking, 101, 484–85, 486–87, 488, 493 in candy preparation, 520–21 carryover cooking, 162 danger zone, 81 in deep-frying, 103, 105 dishwashing, 89 in dry-heat preparation methods, 102–3 effect on meat, 161 effect on solubility, 447 enzyme activity and, 53 for food storage, 82 of frying fats, 467–69 for gelatinization, 394, 404 glass transition, 580 important in preparing foods, 105 internal, recommended for cooked meats, 162 internal, recommended for cooked poultry, 178 minimal internal, 83 in moist-heat preparation methods, 100–1 pasteurization, 215 refrigerator, 105, 579 scales, 104 storage, 82 taste and, 4 time/weight charts for cooking, 162, 163, 178–79 Temperature danger zone, 81 Temperature-time monitoring program, 88 Tempering, 527–29 Tempura, 197 Tenderizing of meats, 148–51 artificial, 151 natural, 148–51 sugar and, 436 Tenderness of fish, 202 of meats, 142–43, 148–51, 160–61 of pastries, 501, 502, 503 Tenure track, 621 Tequila, 566, 568 Terrorism, food supply, 65, 600 Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), 473 Testosterone, 48 Tests food evaluation, 23–26, 28 sample preparation, 25–26 Tetrodotoxin, 76 Texture. See also specific foods and ingredients of frozen desserts, 538–40, 544–45, 546 fats, 457 fruit, 316 measurement, 26 sugar and, 448, 449 Texture analyzer, 27 Textured vegetable protein (TVP), 285 Texture profile, 24 Thaumatin, 446 Thawing, 83 Thaw rigor, 150 Theobroma cacao, 465, 525 Theobromine, 556, 561 Therapist, allied health careers, 610–12 Therapy, medical nutrition, 610, 623 Thermistors, 85 Thermocouplers, 85 Thermometers, 84–89 calibration, 84–89 candy, 521 care of, 84 dial readings, 84 how to use, 84 instant-read, 84 meat, 162 I-17 selecting, 84 testing for accuracy, 521 types of, 85–87 Thickened sauces, 399–401 Thickening agents pectins, 43 in pies and pastries, 504–5 in sauces, 399–400 starches, 391–93, 399 Thin soups, 330–32 Thiobarbituric acid (TBA), 472 Thomas Food and Beverage Market Place, 617 Thompson, Judy, 245 Three-compartment sink, 89 Three-Day Rule, 131 Threshold test, 24 Thyme, 333 Tilapia, 190 Tilefish, 194 Time estimating, 132–33 management, 132–34, 137 storage, 82 Time temperature indicators, 86 Time/weight charts for meats, 162, 163 for poultry, 178–79 TMAO. See Trimethylamine oxice Tiramisu, 480 Tiropita, 500 Tocopherols, 274, 473 TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), 621 Toffee, 519, 521 Tofu, 241, 285–86 as a high-risk food, 79 Tokay, 567 Tomato aspic, 340 Tomatoes, 284 acid in, 299 classification as fruit, 299 genetically modified, 14, 15 qualified health claim for, 598 seasons for, 279 storage of, 292 Tomato paste, 584 Tomato sauce, 398, 399, 401, 403 Tongue, taste areas on, 3 Tongue (meat), 155, 156 Tonka beans, 561 Toothpicks, 116 Tortellini, 359 Tortillas, 350, 410, 412 Torula kefir, 223 Total fiber, 43 Touch determining doneness by, 163, 178 food selection based on, 2, 5 Toxin-mediated infections, 66, 67, 69–74 Toxins, 65 bacterial food intoxications, 69 ciguatoxin, 75 mycotoxins, 71 in plants, 59 tetrodotoxin, 76 Toxoplasma gondi, 73 Training, food service personnel, 78 Trans-fatty acids, 458–59 Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), 73–74 Trehalose, 446 Trialkoxytricarballate (TATCA), 465 Triangle test, 24 Trichinella spiralis, 72, 73 not killed by microwaving, 166 Trichinosis, 72 Triglycerides, 46, 47 hydrolysis of, 38 Trimethylamine, 195, 203 Trimethylamine oxice (TMAO), 195 Tripe, 155, 156 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User I-18 Index Trisodium phosphate (TSP), 184 Triticale, 356 Triticale flour, 374 Tropical fruits, 310 Tropical oils, 463 Trout, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195 smoked, 196 Trussing poultry, 180 Trypsin, 250 TSE. See Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy TSP. See Trisodium phosphate Tubers, 271, 294 Tuna, 189, 190, 192, 195 canned, 190, 195–96 excessive histamine in, 205 nutrition facts label for, 596 salads, 79 Turbinado sugar, 437 Turgor, 272, 287 Turkey, 172, 173, 185 carving, 181 classification of, 173 color/pigment in, 173, 174 fat content of, 175 internal temperature for cooked, 179 stuffing, 178, 179, 180–81 time/weight chart for, 179 Turkey eggs, 255 Turmeric, 113, 420 Turnips, 271, 273, 279, 284 TVP. See Textured vegetable protein “Typhoid Mary”, 77 Typhus, 90 Tyrosinase, 54, 300 U UHT. See Ultrahigh-temperature Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT), 215, 218 Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) pasteurization, 581 of milk, 215, 218 Ultrapasteurization, 215, 227 Ultrapasteurized milk, 215 Umami (savory) taste, 3, 114 Uncooked ice cream, 241–42 Uniforms, 78 United Nations, 604 U.S. Department of Agriculture. See USDA U.S. Department of Commerce (USDC), 592, 603, 605 U.S. Food and Drug Administration. See Food and Drug Administration (FDA) University professor, 618, 621, 623 Unleavened breads, 412–13 Upside-down cake, 480 Uramaki, 204 Urinary tract infections, 553 conventional food and health, 9 USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). See also USDA grading; USDA inspection Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 601 food scientists at, 616–17 functions of, 600–1 grading, 600, 601–2, 605 inspections, 601 menu patterns, 123–24 MyPyramid, 6, 18, 125, 302 products regulated, 592, 601, 605 Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, 585 USDA grading, 601–2 of butter, 459 of cheese, 241, 242, 246 of eggs, 251–52 of fish and shellfish, 191–92 of fruits, 276, 304, 313, 322 of meat (quality grades), 146–47 of milk, 214, 228 of poultry, 174, 185 quality grades, 146–47, 601–2 of vegetables and fruits, 276 yield (quantity) grades, 147, 601 USDA inspection, 601 of eggs, 251 inspection stamps, 146 of meat, 146 of poultry, 174 USDC. See U.S. Department of Commerce Utensils, Appendix A, A-7–A-13. See also Equipment drying, 89 flatware, 136, 137 measuring, 108–9 V Vacuoles, 272 Vacuum coffeemaker, 559 Vacuum drying, 576 Vacuum-packed aging, 151 Vanilla, 523 beans, 114 extract, 114 favorite ice cream flavor, 546 Vanillin, 530 Variety (organ) meats, 155, 156, 168 Veal, 140, 141, 168. See also Meat(s) cooking temperature, 163 internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162 processed, 156, 159 retail cuts of, 153 Vegetable beverages, 570 Vegetable cook/entremetier, 121 Vegetable gums, 44, 271, 455, 540 Vegetable juices, 313–14 nutrient comparison of, 314 Vegetable oils, 461, 462, 474, 578 Vegetables, 270–94. See also specific vegetables additives, 275–76 classification of, 270, 271, 294 color/pigments of, 270, 271, 272–73, 287–88 composition of, 270–76, 294 cost of, 130 cruciferous, 274, 287, 288 dried, 576 edible films/coatings, 292 fermented, 286, 577 grading of, 276, 601, 602 inspection of, 601 legumes, 285–86, 294 nutrient content of, 274–75 nutrient retention, 288 odors of, 287, 288 percentage yield, 132 phytochemicals in, 59, 274, 301, 554 preparation of, 286–92, 294 purchasing, 275–84, 294 respiration rates, 292 seasons for, 277, 278–79 serving size of, 302 in stock, 329 storage of, 292–93, 294, 579 vs fruits, 294, 299 Vegetable salads, 336 Vegetable stocks, 330 Vegetarianism, 6 genetically engineered foods and, 14 healthy meals and, 125–26 Velouté sauce, 399 Velveeta, 240 Verification form for dietetics programs, 613 Verification, HACCP, 91 Vermicelli, 360 Vermouth, 567 Vertebrates, fish classification, 188–89 Very hard cheese, 234 Vibrio, 71, 92 Vibrio cholerae, 66 71, 74 Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 66, 67, 71 Vibrio vulnificus, 66, 67, 74 Vichyssoise, 327 Vinaigrette, 337 Vinegars, 262, 338–39 Vintage, 568 Viral gastroenteritis, 65, 72 Virulent biological food hazards, new, 74 Viruses, 65, 71–72 bacteria-killing, 68 Viscometer, 26 Viscosity, 26, 27 apparent vs relative, 27 measurement, 26 Visual evaluation, 26 Vitamin A, 213, 272 Vitamin B complex. See B vitamins Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 301, 383, 420 fruits high in, 302 nutrient retention issues, 584–85 Vitamin content of cereal grains, 347, 348–49, 363 of cheese, 236 of eggs, 253, 267 of fish, 195 of fruits, 301 of meats, 147 of milk, 213, 228 of pastas, 363 of poultry, 175 of vegetables, 275 Vitamin D, 213 Vitamin E, 56, 473 Vitamins, 55–56, 60. See also Vitamin content A and D fortification in milks, 213–14 composition of, 55 enriched foods, 55, 59, 347, 350, 420 fat-soluble, 55, 585 foods high in, 55 functions in food, 55–56 major vitamins in foods, 55 nutrient retention of processed foods, 584–85 on Nutrition Facts label, 596 water-soluble, 55, 585 Vitelline membrane, 250 Vitus vinifera, 564 Vodka, 568, 569 Volatile molecules, 2 in coffee, 556 Volume, 26 in baked goods, 375–79 measurement, 26, 108–9 proof, 383 standards of fill, 595 Vulnerable foods, 78–80 W Wafer cookies, 491 Waffles, 384, 407, 408, 409 Wakefield, Ruth, 490 Walnuts, 598 Warehouse stores, 127 Warmed over meat flavor, 161 Warner-Bratzler shear, 26 Washing dishwashing, 89 hand washing, 78 Washington, George, 534 Water, 33–39, 60 as beverage, 549–51, 570 boiling point of, 35 chemical reactions of, 36–38 chemical structure of, 33 chemistry of, 33–39 composition of, 33 contaminates, 551 content in foods, 33 free vs bound, 33 freezing point of, 34, 104–5 functions in food, 35–36 hard vs soft, 35 loss (syneresis), 341, 396, 575 measuring calories, 33–34 melting point of, 34–35 mineral content, 549 osmosis/osmotic pressure, 38–39 proportion in human body, 32 requirement for life, 549 in soft drinks, 551 specific heat of, 34 in stock, 329 types of, 550–51 universal solvent, 36 Water activity, 38, 80 Watercress, 279 Water glass, 136, 137 Water ices, 537, 544, 546 Watermelons, 305, 308 slicing, 309 Water-soluble vitamins, 55 Waxes, edible films from, 292, 578 Waxy maize starches, 393 Websites. See listings at end of each chapter Weeping (syneresis), 261, 396, 401 Weight. See also Obesity equivalents, 108 gram, 32 measurement, 26, 108–9 rounding off, 108 standards of fill, 595 Well water, 550 Wet aging, 150 Wheat, 346, 350, 363. See also Cereal grains; Flours and flour mixtures classification of, 350 cooking time, 357 forms of, 350 percentage of world grain production, 346 sprouts, 291 structure of, 345–47, 363 Wheat berries, 350, 358 Wheat bran, 350 Wheat bread, 428 Wheat flours, 347, 372–73, 387 classifications, 372 types of, 373 in yeast breads, 419 Wheat germ, 350, 429 Wheat starch, 391, 392, 394 modified, 420 Whey, 211, 212, 228, 239–40 as additive in cookies, 493 cheeses, 240 cultured, 420 dried, 158, 240 products, 239–40 Whey powder, 211 Whey protein isolates, 211, 212, 292 Whipped butter, 459 Whipped cream frosting, 488 Whipped evaporated milk, 227 Whipped milk products, 225–27 Whipped nonfat dry milk, 227 Whipping, 110 gels, 341 time, 226–27 Whipping cream, 224, 226–27 Whisk, 110 Whiskeys, 569 White bread, 428 White chocolate, 530 White/distilled vinegar, 338 White flour, 373, 385 White granulated sugar, 109, 438 White onions, 283 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User Index White rice, 351, 357, 358 White sauce, 261, 398, 399, 400 White stock, 328 White sugar, 109, 437, 438 White teas, 561 White wines, 567, 568 WHO. See World Health Organization Whole grains, 347, 348, 349 Whole milk, 214, 216 Wholesale (primal) cuts of meat, 152 of beef, 152, 153 of lamb, 155 of pork, 153–55 Wholesome Meat Act (1967), 146, 601 Whole wheat bread, 428 nutrient content of, 410 Whole wheat flour, 373 Whole wheat pasta, 359, 363 Whole wheat products, 349–50 Wild rice, 352, 357 Wines, 448, 562, 563, 564–68, 570 aging, 565 colors of, 568 evaluating, 565 fermentation, 564 filtering, 565 fortified, 566 government regulation of, 604 racking, 564 selecting, 566 sweet vs dry, 564, 566 types of, 566–67 vintage, 568 Wine vinegar, 338 Winter squash, 284 Woks, Appendix A, A-4 Wong, Lance, 183 Woodruff, 561 World Health Organization (WHO), 604 food safety plan, 92 food scientists at, 616–17 Worms, as food safety hazards, 72, 73 Wrigley, Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company, 539 Written specification, 80 X Xanthan gum, 45, 483, 540, 545 Xanthine oxidase, 54 Xanthomonas campestris, 45 Xanthophyll, 272 Xylitol, 442, 446, 522 Xylose, 43, 442 Y Yams, 287 Yeast(s), 375–77, 574 active vs inactive, 376 activity related to temperature, 376 baker’s, 376, 377 beer production and, 563–64 brewer’s, 376, 377 cold water and, 377 contribution to flavors, 426 dry (active), 376–77, 419 food spoilage by, 574–75 fresh, 377, 419 instant, quick-rising, fast-acting, 377 as leavening agents, 375–77 nutritional, 376, 377 salt, effect on growth, 380 in yeast breads, 419 Yeast breads, 367, 418–32 additives in, 420–21 baking, 425–27, 432 baking pans, 424 decorating, 425, 432 fermentation and first rise of, 422–23 flavors and aromas, 426 high-altitude adjustments, 427 ingredients and their functions, 418–19 kneading, 421–22, 432 mixing methods, 420–21 nutrient content of, 427 preparation of, 418–27, 432 problems and their causes, 427 I-19 proofing, 425, 432 punching down and second rise of, 423 shaping, 423–24, 432 storage of, 431, 432 testing for doneness, 426–27 varieties of, 424, 428–31, 432 Yersenia, 92 Yersenia enterocolitica, 66, 68–69, 74 Yersiniosis, 68–69 Yield grades, 147, 601–2 Yogurt, 213, 214, 222–23, 448 bacterial cultures in, 222, 223 calorie and fat content, 213, 214, 222 cheese, 236 frozen, 536, 537, 544, 545 low-fat/reduced fat, 214 official definition of, 222 probiotics/prebiotics in, 222–23 storage of, 227 Yonts, Carrie, 617 “You are what you eat”, 31 Z Zeaxanthin, 272 Zest, 317 Zinfandel, 567 Zizania aquatica (wild rice), 352 Zucchini, 279 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Licensed to: iChapters User WEIGHTS AND MEASURES STAN DA RD C AN SIZES Converting Temperature Measurements Can To Find Farenheit: °F = (°C x 1.8) + 32 t or tsp T or Tbsp fl oz c or C pt qt gal lb Average Net Weight* Volume 3 ⁄4 1 11⁄4 11⁄2 13⁄4 2 21⁄2 31⁄2 53⁄4 61⁄2 13 Nonmetric ounces/lbs 6 oz 8 oz 101⁄2 oz 12 oz 14 oz 16–17 oz 1 lb 4 oz 1 lb 13 oz 3 lb 3 lb 8 oz 61⁄2–7 lb Nonmetric fluid ounces 5.75 8.3 10.5 12 13.5 15.6 20 28.5 46 56 103.7 To Find Celsius: °C = (°F -32) ÷ by 1.8 Abbreviations for Measurements Nonmetric Volume/Capacity Teaspoon = Tablespoon = fluid ounce = Cup = Pint = Quart = Gallon = Pound = Cups Metric Volume milliliter liter = = ml L Weight microgram milligram gram kilogram = = = = ug mg g kg 6 oz 8 oz No. 1 Picnic No. 211 Cylinder No. 300 No. 303 No. 2 No. 21⁄2 No. 3 Cylinder No. 5 No. 10 Metric grams 170 227 298 340 397 454–482 567 822 1360 1588 2722–2948 * Net weight/can varies slightly due to food density differences. Equivalents of Nonmetric and Metric Measurements Nonmetric Volume 1 teaspoon 1 tablespoon 1 fluid ounce 1 cup 1 pint 1 quart 1 gallon Weight 1 ounce (dry) 4 ounces 8 ounces 1 pound 2.2 pounds Metric Customary Precise = = = = = = = 5 milliliter 15 milliliters 30 milliliters 240 milliliters 0.50 liter 0.95 liter 3.8 liters (4.9 milliliters) (14.8 milliliters) (29.57 milliliters) (236.6 milliliters) (0.47 liter) (0.94 liter) (3.79 liter) = = = = = 30 grams 125 grams 250 grams 450 grams 1 kilogram (28.35 grams) (113.40 grams) (226.80 grams) (453.60 grams) (997.92 grams) Converting Nonmetric & Nonmetric Measurements When You Know Volume teaspoons tablespoons ounces cups cups pints quarts gallons milliliters milliliters liters liters Weight ounces pounds pounds grams kilograms You Can Find If You Multiply By milliliters milliliters milliliters millliliters liters liters liters liters ounces pints quarts gallons 5 15 30 237 0.24 0.47 0.95 3.8 0.034 2.1 1.06 0.26 grams grams kilograms ounces pounds 28 454 0.45 0.035 2.2 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Metric milliliters 170 245 311 355 399 461 591 843 1360 1656 3067 REFRIGER ATION FREEZING Storage Temperature and Times Storage Temperature and Times Food Temperature Days Food Temperature Months Meat Ground Gravy/Broths Bacon Ham Canned Cooked/Whole Cooked/Half or Slices Luncheon Meats Unopened Opened Sausages Fresh Smoked Dry Fish/Shellfish Poultry Dairy Products Milk Eggs (in shell) Butter Cheese Soft Hard Produce Leafy Vegetables Fruits Peaches, berries, plums Apples, pears, citrus 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 3–5 1–2 1–2 7 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 1–9 3–4 2–3 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 6–9 months 7 3–5 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 6 3 1 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 2 weeks 1 week 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C Not recommended 1–2 Not recommended 1 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 7 3–7 2–3 weeks 2–5 1–2 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 3 7 14 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 2 Not recommended Not recommended 2–9 6–9 12–18 40°F (4°C) 40°F (4°C) 7 6 months 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 12 9 3–4 6 45°F 7 0°F /–18°C 3 50°F 50–70°F 7 14 Meat Ground Gravy/Broths Pork Large cuts (roasts) Small cuts (steaks/chops) Bacon Ham Canned Cooked/Whole Luncheon Meats Hot Dogs Sausages Fresh Smoked Dry Fish* Most Shellfish Breaded Fish/Shellfish Poultry Whole Pieces Giblets Duck Dairy Products Ice Cream Produce (commercially frozen) Vegetables Fruits Nuts Unsalted Salted Herbs 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 8–12 12 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 0°F /–18°C 9–12 6–8 8–12 D RY S TO R AG E Storage Temperature and Times Food Temperature Days Root Vegetables Breads/Cereals Tomatoes Bananas Canned Goods Hard-Rind Squash 50–70°F (10–21°C) 50–70°F (10–21°C) 50–70°F (10–21°C) 50–70°F (10–21°C) 50–70°F (10–21°C) 50–70°F (10–21°C) 7–30 varies 3–5 varies (3–4) 12 months varies *Recommended storage times apply to commercially frozen fish. Storage length drops by about half if fish/shellfish is frozen at home. Freezing is not recommended for shucked clams and oysters, blue crabmeat, and whole lobsters. Source: USDA. A quick consumer guide to safe food handling. US Dept. of Agriculture. Home and Garden Bulletin No. 248, 1995. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Understanding Food: Principles & Preparation, 4th Ed.

Related documents

Add this document to collection(s)

Add this document to saved

Suggest us how to improve StudyLib