UNHOLY W AR
Also by John L. Esposito
Author
The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?
Islam: The Straight Path
Women in Muslim Family Law
Islam and Politics
Makers of Contemporary Islam (with John O. Voll)
World Religions Today (with Darrell J. Fasching and Todd Lewis)
Islam and Democracy (with John O. Voll)
Editor
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World
The Oxford History of Islam
The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism, or Reform
Voices of Resurgent Islam
Islam in Asia: Religion, Politics, and Society
The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact
Muslims on the Americanization Path?
(with Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad)
Islam, Gender, and Social Change (with Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad)
Religion and Global Order (with M ichael Watson)
Islam and Secularism in the Middle East (with Azzam Tamimi)
Muslims and the West: Encounter and Dialogue
(with Zafar Ishaq Ansari)
UNHOLY WAR
Terror in the Name of Islam
John L. Esposito
1
2002
3
O xfo rd New Yo rk
Au cklan d Ban gko k Bu en o s Aires Cap e To wn Ch en n ai
Dar es Salaam Delh i Ho n g Ko n g Ist an bu l Karach i Ko lkat a
Ku ala Lu m p u r Mad rid Melb o u rn e Mexico Cit y Mu m bai Nairo bi
São Pau lo Sh an gh ai Sin gap o re Taip ei To kyo To ro n t o
an d an asso ciat ed co m p an y in
Berlin
Co p yrigh t © 2002 b y Jo h n L. Esp o sit o
Pu b lish ed b y O xfo rd Un iversit y Press, In c.,
198 Mad iso n Aven u e, New Yo rk, New Yo rk 10016
O xfo rd is a regist ered t rad em ark o f O xfo rd Un iversit y Press
All righ t s reserved . No p art o f t h is p u blicat io n
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p h o t o co p yin g, reco rd in g, o r o t h erwise, wit h o u t t h e p rio r
p erm issio n o f O xfo rd Un iversit y Press.
Lib rary o f Co n gress Cat alo gin g-in -Pu blicat io n Dat a
Esp o sit o , Jo h n L.
Un h o ly war : t erro r in t h e n am e o f Islam / Jo h n L. Esp o sit o .
p . cm .
In clu d es b ib lio grap h ical referen ces an d in d ex.
ISBN 0-19-515435-5
1. Terro rism —Religio u s asp ect s—Islam .
2. Jih ad . 3. Islam an d wo rld p o lit ics.
4. An t i-Am erican ism . I. Tit le
HV6431 .E76 2002
322.4’2’0882971—d c21 2001058009
135798642
Prin t ed in t h e Un it ed St at es o f Am erica
o n acid -free p ap er
Fo r Jo h n an d Mary Espo sito
in h o n o r o f th eir 87th an d 90th birth days
Contents
Preface
/
ix
1
The M aking of a M odern Terrorist
/
3
2
Jihad and t he St ruggle for Islam
/
26
3
The Arm ies of God
/
71
4
W here Do W e Go from Here? /
Notes
/
Glossary
In d ex
161
/
/
169
173
118
Preface
Te r ro r i n t h e Na m e o f Isl a m
Th e traged y of Sep tem ber 11, 2001, brou gh t Am erican s togeth er
as a n ation , u n ited in grief an d in resolve. At th e sam e tim e, Am erican s from every walk of life began askin g som e h ard q u estion s
abou t Am erica, global terrorism , an d th e Mu slim world . More th an
a decade ago, in th e wake of th e fall of th e Soviet Un ion an d Saddam
Hu ssein ’s call for a jih ad again st th e West in th e 1991 Gu lf war, I
wrote The Islam ic Threat: Myth or Reality?, resp on d in g to th e growin g p rop en sity am on g sen ior govern m en t officials, p olitical com m en tators, an d th e m ed ia to see a n ew “evil em p ire” rep lacin g th e
com m u n ist th reat.
Sad ly, m ore th an a d ecad e later, th e sam e q u estion s abou t Islam
an d th e Mu slim world are still bein g asked : W h y d o th ey h ate u s?
W h y is Islam m ore m ilitan t th an oth er religion s? W h at d oes th e
Qu ran h ave to say abou t jih ad or h oly war? Does th e Qu ran con d on e th is kin d of violen ce an d terrorism ? Is th ere a clash of civilization s between th e West an d th e Mu slim world ? Yet it is n ow
m ore im p ortan t th an ever th at we ed u cate ou rselves abou t Islam
an d th e roots of terrorism .
Master terrorist Osam a bin Lad en , like oth er religiou s extrem ists, is th e p rod u ct of h is u p brin gin g an d exp erien ces in life, of th e
religiou s world h e in h erited an d wh ich h e rein ven ts for h is own
p u rp oses. As in th e h istory of every world religion , violen t stru ggles
h ave been a p art of Mu slim h istory. Bin Lad en an d oth er terrorists
x
Preface
exp loit th e au th ority of th e p ast (Mu h am m ad, th e Qu ran , an d Islam ic h istory) for th e religiou s ration ale, p receden ts, an d radical
in terp reters to ju stify an d in sp ire th eir call for a jih ad again st Mu slim govern m en ts an d th e West; th ey legitim ate warfare an d terrorism , an d th ey eq u ate th eir su icide bom bin gs with m artyrdom . An
u n derstan d in g of th e religiou s an d h istorical sou rces for th eir beliefs, valu es, tactics, an d action s becom es im p erative. Have th ey
h ijacked Islam for th eir own u n h oly p u rp oses, or do th ey, as th ey
claim , rep resen t a retu rn to th e au th en tic teach in gs of th e faith ?
In som e sen se, bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a rep resen t a watersh ed
fo r co n t em p o rary Islam ic rad icalism . Alt h o u gh in t h e p ast t h e
Ayatollah Kh om ein i an d oth er m ajor Islam ic activist lead ers h ad
called for a broad er Islam ic revolu tion , both violen t an d n on violen t, th e focu s an d im p act of m ost extrem ist m ovem en ts from
North Africa to Sou th east Asia h ad been at th e local or region al
level. Osam a bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a rep resen t th e n ext m ajor
step , jih ad in tern ation al, th at n ot on ly d eclares jih ad again st govern m en ts in th e Mu slim world an d attacks Western rep resen tatives an d in stitu tion s in th e region bu t n ow m akes Am erica an d
th e West a p rim ary target in an u n h oly war of terrorism .
Am erica’s wars of th e twen tieth cen tu ry were fou gh t on th e soil
of oth er cou n tries. Now, th e battle h as been brou gh t to ou r own
sh ores an d to th e sym bols of ou r econ om ic an d p olitical p ower.
Th e stakes h ave risen for everyon e. Th e attacks again st Am erica
on Sep tem ber 11 h ave righ tly been seen as a clarion call to recogn ize ou r d an ger an d resp on d to an en em y th at th reaten s all—all
th e cou n tries, cu ltu res, an d p eop les of th e world .
Th e twen ty-first cen tu ry will be d om in ated by th e global en cou n ter of two m ajor an d rap id ly growin g world religion s, Ch ristian ity an d Islam , an d by th e forces of globalization th at will strain
relation s between th e West an d th e rest. It is n ot a tim e for p rovokin g a clash of civilization s or for th e self-fu lfillin g p rop h ecy
th at su ch a clash is in evitable. It is rath er a tim e for global en gagem en t an d coalition bu ild in g, for th e active p rom otion of coexisten ce an d co o p erat io n . Am id st p ressu res t o win t h e glo bal war
Preface
xi
again st terrorism at an y cost, h ow we u n d erstan d Islam an d th e
Mu slim world will affect h ow we ad d ress th e cau ses of terrorism
an d of an ti-Am erican ism an d wh eth er we p reserve ou r Am erican
valu es at h om e an d abroad. We m u st be able to m ove beyon d p olitical rh etoric, beyon d th e world of black an d wh ite, of u n ad u lterated good versu s evil in voked n ot on ly by bin Lad en an d th ose
like h im bu t by h is op p on en ts as well.
I h ave written th is book for th e vast m ajority of p eop le in th e
West, n on -Mu slim s as well as Mu slim s, wh ose lives an d com m u n ities in th e twen ty-first cen tu ry are in extricably in tertwin ed . Th e
Mu slim world is n o lon ger “ou t th ere”; Mu slim s are ou r n eigh bors, colleagu es, an d fellow citizen s, an d th eir religion , like Ju d aism an d Ch rist ian it y, reject s t erro rism . Never b efo re h ave so ft
p h rases like “bu ild in g brid ges of u n d erstan d in g” been m ore critical in a war th at u ltim ately can n ot be won sim p ly by m ilitary
p ower. Un d erstan d in g an d action go h an d in h an d for Mu slim s
an d n on -Mu slim s alike. All of u s are ch allen ged to m ove beyon d
stereotyp es, h istoric grievan ces, an d religiou s d ifferen ces, to recogn ize ou r sh ared valu es as well as in terests, an d to m ove collectively to bu ild ou r com m on fu tu re.
Of all th e books I h ave written th is h as been th e m ost d ifficu lt,
becau se of th e h orrific occasion th at p recip itated it an d th e ran ge
an d selection of coverage. As a resu lt, I am esp ecially in d ebted to
th ose wh o assisted m e an d worked u n d er severe tim e con strain ts.
Natan a De Lon g-Bas is in every sen se m y sen ior research assistan t.
Her work on th is p roject as on oth ers reflected con sisten t excellen ce. Her com m itm en t is cap tu red in a p ictu re I h ave of Natan a
in labor in th e h osp ital d elivery room , workin g on h er research for
th is book! Ju lian e Ham m er cam e late to th e p roject bu t at critical
p oin ts p rovid ed m u ch -n eed ed q u ick an d th orou gh research . My
work h as been m ad e in fin itely easier d u e to two rem arkable p eop le,
Clare Merrill, Assistan t Director, an d Th om as Jord an , Ad m in istrative Assistan t, of th e Cen ter for Mu slim -Ch ristian Un d erstan d in g
at Georgetown , wh ose in telligen ce, en ergy, an d resu lts-orien tation
are in valu able.
xii
Preface
I am in d ebted to several sch olars—Ah m ed Rash id , Tam ara Son n ,
Jam es Piscatori, an d Joh n O. Voll—wh o read all or p ortion s of th e
m an u scrip t, often p rovid in g key in sigh ts. Cyn th ia Read , m y lon gtim e ed itor at Oxford , p layed an esp ecially im p ortan t role with
th is book, carefu lly reviewin g each ch ap ter an d p rovidin g in valu able feed back. Th e m ost im p ortan t p erson in writin g th is book was
Jean Esp osito, m y wife, p artn er, an d best frien d. W h ile sh e always
m an aged to balan ce h er own career an d in terests with su bstan tial
in volvem en t in all m y books, for th is book sh e was a p ivotal force
as we determ in ed its stru ctu re, con ten ts, an d text, an d wh en I was
read y to p u ll th e p lu g, sh e con vin ced m e to con tin u e. Unholy W ar is
in every sen se of th e words as m u ch h er book as m in e.
UNHOLY W AR
1
The M aking of a M odern Terrorist
Osam a bin Lad en seem s like th e last p erson d estin ed to be a global
terrorist. His jou rn ey from a life of wealth an d p rivilege, as th e
scion of a m u ltibillion aire Sau d i fam ily with close ties to th e kin g
an d royal fam ily, to th e caves an d m ilitary train in g cam p s of Afgh an istan sou n d s m ore like th e stu ff of fiction th an reality. W h at
h ap p en ed to tran sform a q u iet, sh y, seriou s, an d wealth y Sau d i
you n g m an in to th e world com m u n ity’s m ost wan ted crim in al?
How are we to u n d erstan d a m an wh o h as been d escribed as “an
Islam ic zealot, a m ilitary gen iu s, a p oet, an d an im p assion ed en em y of th e Un ited States”?1
Osam a bin Lad en was born in Riyad h , Sau d i Arabia, in 1957,
th e seven teen th (th e seven th son ) of fifty-two ch ild ren . His fath er, Mu h am m ad bin Lad en , h ad com e to th e Kin gd om from Sou th
Yem en arou n d 1930 as an illiterate laborer. He started a sm all con stru ction bu sin ess an d wen t on to becom e on e of Sau d i Arabia’s
wealth iest con stru ction m agn ates. He d evelop ed ties to th e royal
fam ily an d was award ed exclu sive con tracts. In th e 1950s, Osam a’s
fath er d esign ed an d bu ilt th e al-Had a road , wh ich p erm itted Mu slim s from Yem en to m ake th e p ilgrim age to Mecca (hajj), on e of
th e five basic religiou s req u irem en ts of Islam , m ore easily. His com p an y also received a m u ltibillion d ollar con tract to restore an d
exp an d t h e Gran d Mo sq u es o f Mecca an d Med in a, raisin g h is
com p an y’s p restige th rou gh ou t th e Mu slim world an d settin g th e
stage for th e com p an y’s exp an sion beyon d Sau d i Arabia. Th e bin
Lad en fam ily establish ed a large in d u strial an d fin an cial em p ire,
4
Unholy W ar
th e Bin Lad en Grou p , wh ich becam e on e of th e largest con stru ction com p an ies in th e Mid d le East. 2 Iron ically, given Osam a’s recen t ou trage at th e Sau d i-Am erican allian ce an d th e p resen ce of
Am erican forces in th e Kin gd om , th e Bin Lad en Grou p bu ilt m an y
m ilitary su p p ort facilities in th e Kin gd om , in clu d in g th ose u sed
by U.S. forces d u rin g th e Gu lf War.
Th e relation sh ip between th e bin Lad en clan an d th e royal fam ily goes beyon d bu sin ess ties to in clu d e frien d sh ip an d in term arriage. Th e b in Lad en so n s h ave at t en d ed t h e sam e sch o o ls as
n u m erou s p rin ces of th e royal fam ily in Eu rop e an d Am erica an d
h ave stu d ied at an d / or given m on ey to som e of th e best u n iversities, in clu d in g Harvard , Oxford , an d Tu fts. 3
Osam a’s fath er was a stron g, h ard -workin g, d om in atin g, p iou s
m an wh o in sisted on keep in g all of h is ch ild ren in on e h ou seh old
an d raised th em accord in g to a strict m oral an d religiou s cod e.
Th e fam ily h om e was op en to m an y Mu slim s, esp ecially d u rin g
h ajj, an d Osam a was able at an early age to m eet Mu slim sch olars
an d lead ers of Islam ic m ovem en ts from all over th e Islam ic world . 4
Like m an y in th e Arab world , bin Lad en ’s fath er is said to h ave felt
p assion ately abou t th e Palestin ian -Israeli con flict. Th is ap p ears in
an an ecd ote th at h as th e eld er bin Lad en seekin g to con tribu te to
th e liberation of Palestin e. On e d ay, as th e story goes, h e d em an d ed
th at h is com p an y’s en gin eers con vert two h u n d red bu lld ozers in to
tan ks for th e p u rp ose of attackin g Israel. Told th at th e task was
im p ossible, h e d ecid ed in stead to p rod u ce as m an y son s as p ossible an d con vert them in to figh ters. Bu t ou t of all th e bin Lad en
son s, Osam a becam e th e on ly figh ter. 5
In form ation on Osam a bin Lad en ’s you th is lim ited an d at tim es
con trad ictory. Som e m ain tain th at h e was a religiou sly com m itted you n g m an p rotected from corru p tion by h is early m arriage to
a Syrian girl. 6 Oth er sou rces rep ort th at, like m an y wealth y you th s
of h is tim e, h e visited Beiru t in th e early 1970s, wh ere h e en joyed
th e n igh tlife an d wom en of th is cosm op olitan city, kn own at th at
tim e as “th e Paris of th e Mid d le East.” 7 Like m ost you n g p eop le,
h e wou ld fin d or begin to d efin e h im self at u n iversity.
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
5
Bin Lad en was edu cated in Medin a an d Jeddah , earn in g h is degree in p u blic adm in istration in 1981 at Jeddah ’s Kin g Abdu laziz
Un iversity, wh ere h e stu died m an agem en t an d econ om ics. Du rin g
h is stu dies, h e becam e m ore an d m ore religiou sly orien ted, in flu en ced by h is u n iversity exp erien ce an d u n foldin g even ts in Sau di
Arabia an d th e wider Mu slim world. Osam a’s religiou s worldview
was sh ap ed both by Sau di Arabia’s deep ly con servative Wah h abi
in terp retation of Islam an d by th e revolu tion ary Islam th at began
to sp read in th e 1970s. Each of th ese in flu en ces wou ld be form ative
in th e d evelop m en t of h is jih adist vision , m ission , an d strategy.
Th e Isl a m i c Vi si o n
Islam em ph asizes action , perform in g th e will of God. It m ore closely
resem bles Ju d aism with its focu s on followin g th e law th an Ch ristian ity with its em p h asis on belief. Mu slim s are en join ed to act, to
stru ggle (jihad) to im p lem en t th eir belief, to lead a good life, to
d efen d religion , to con tribu te to th e d evelop m en t of a ju st Islam ic
society th rou gh ou t th e world . Th e life an d exp erien ce of th e early
com m u n ity p rovid e th e m od el for th e sp read an d d efen se of Islam
th rou gh hijra an d jih ad . W h en Mu h am m ad an d h is Com p an ion s
su ffered u n rem ittin g p ersecu tion in Mecca, th ey em igrated (hijra)
to Yath rib, later ren am ed Med in a, “th e city” of th e Prop h et. Havin g regrou p ed , establish ed , an d stren gth en ed th e com m u n ity at
Med in a, Mu h am m ad th en set abou t th e stru ggle (jih ad ) to sp read
an d d efen d God ’s Word an d ru le. Th is p attern of h ijra an d jih ad in
th e face of ad versity, cou p led with th e con cep t of th e um m ah (th e
world wid e Islam ic com m u n ity), wh ich stresses a p an -Islam ic u n ity,
h as gu id ed Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e ages, in clu d in g bin Lad en an d
m an y terrorists tod ay.
Ji h a d a n d t h e Cre a t i o n o f Sa u d i Ara b i a
Osam a bin Lad en ’s world view was very m u ch in flu en ced by th e
religiou s h eritage an d p olitical clim ate in Sau d i Arabia an d th e
6
Unholy W ar
Arab world in th e 1960s an d 1970s. Key in flu en ces in clu d ed th e
en viron m en t of Sau d i Arabia, a self-styled Islam ic state with a rigid ,
p u ritan ical, Wah h abi bran d of Islam , th e m ilitan t jih ad id eology
of Egyp t’s Sayyid Qu tb, wh ose d iscip les h ad fou n d refu ge an d p osition s in th e kin gd om , an d th e d evastatin g Arab d efeat in th e
1967 Arab-Israeli war.
Th e kin gd om of Sau d i Arabia from its earliest begin n in gs h as
relied on th e blen d in g of religion an d p olitical p ower. Its origin s
stretch back to th e eigh teen th cen tu ry wh en an Islam ic revivalist
an d th eologian , Mu h am m ad ibn Abd al-Wah h ab, form ed an allian ce with a local tribal ch ief, Mu h am m ad ibn Sau d of Dariyya (a
town n ear m od ern -d ay Riyad h ), to create a religiop olitical m ovem en t, Wah h abism . Th e m ovem en t swep t across cen tral Arabia,
cap tu rin g Mecca an d Med in a an d u n itin g its tribes in wh at its followers believed was a re-creation of Islam ’s seven th -cen tu ry begin n in gs u n d er th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad . Ath ou gh th e m ovem en t
was cru sh ed by th e Ottom an Em p ire, a d escen d an t of th e Hou se
of Sau d , Abd u laziz ibn Sau d (1879–1953), reasserted th e fam ily’s
claim s to Arabia an d led a religiou s an d p olitical m ovem en t th at
resu lted in th e establish m en t of m od ern -d ay Sau d i Arabia.
Th e Wah h abi religiou s vision or bran d of Islam , n am ed after
Mu h am m ad ibn Abd al-Wah h ab, h as been a stap le of th e Sau d i
govern m en t, a sou rce of th eir religiou s an d p olitical legitim ation .
It is a strict, p u ritan ical faith th at em p h asizes literal in terp retation
of th e Qu ran an d Sunnah (exam p le) of th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad
an d th e absolu te on en ess of God . Th e Wah h abis d en ou n ced oth er
tribes an d Mu slim com m u n ities as p olyth eists or id olaters. An yth in g th e Wah h abis p erceived as u n -Islam ic beh avior con stitu ted
u n belief (kufr) in th eir eyes, wh ich m u st be cou n tered by jih ad .
Th u s jih ad or h oly war was n ot sim p ly p erm issible: to figh t th e
u n believers an d reestablish a tru e Islam ic state was req u ired .
Abd u laziz fram ed th e d evelop m en t of Sau d i Arabia u sin g stories an d sym bols d rawn from th e life an d stru ggles of Mu h am m ad .
He recru ited Bed ou in tribesm en to join th e broth erh ood of believers an d , like Mu h am m ad ’s com m u n ity, en gage in a p rocess of h ijra
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
7
an d jih ad . Like Mu h am m ad an d th e early com m u n ity, th ey em igrated to n ew settlem en ts wh ere th ey cou ld live a tru e Islam ic life
an d be train ed religiou sly an d m ilitarily. Th ey com bin ed m ission ary zeal, m ilitary m igh t, an d a d esire for booty to on ce again sp read
Islam ic ru le in Arabia, wagin g h oly wars ap p roved by th eir religiou s leaders. Abdu laziz u sed th e ban n er of th e p u ritan ical Wah h abi
to legitim ate figh tin g oth er Mu slim tribal leaders an d seizin g Mecca
an d Med in a. As in th e Ch ristian trad ition , d eath in battle m erited
m artyrd om an d etern al bliss in p arad ise; likewise, as in th e Ch ristian Cru sad es, victory m ean t n ot on ly th e triu m p h of virtu e bu t
also th e reward s of p lu n d er an d booty. Wah h abi h istory an d p arad igm s were an essen tial p art of Osam a bin Lad en ’s religiou s faith
an d sen se of h istory, a h eritage h e wou ld tu rn to in later life for
in sp iration an d gu id an ce.
Du rin g th e 1970s m an y Islam ic activists, both Sau d i-born an d
fo reign ers, were t o be fo u n d in t h e Kin gd o m . Am o n g O sam a’s
teach ers at Kin g Abd u laziz Un iversity was Dr. Abd u llah Azzam ,
wh o wou ld later becom e p rom in en t in Afgh an istan . Azzam , a Jord an ian m em ber of th e Palestin ian Mu slim Broth erh ood an d rep orted ly a fou n d er of Ham as, h ad stron g acad em ic an d Islam ic
activist cred en tials. 8 Train ed at Dam ascu s Un iversity in th eology,
h e earn ed a d octorate in Islam ic ju risp ru d en ce at Egyp t’s fam ed alAzh ar Un iversity. Azzam was an ad vocate of a m ilitan t global jih ad
id eology an d cu ltu re, seein g it as a d u ty in cu m ben t on all Mu slim s. Som etim es d escribed as th e Em ir of Jih ad or God fath er of
global jih ad , Azzam was a cap tivatin g sp eaker wh o p reach ed a clear
m essage of m ilitan t con fron tation an d con flict: “Jih ad an d th e
rifle alon e: n o n egotiation s, n o con feren ces, an d n o d ialogu es.” 9
Azzam ’s jih ad was global in scop e, aim ed at recou p in g th e glories
an d lan d s of Islam . “Th is d u ty will n ot en d with victory in Afgh an istan ; jih ad will rem ain an in d ivid u al obligation u n til all oth er
lan d s th at were Mu slim are retu rn ed to u s so th at Islam will reign
again : before u s lie Palestin e, Bokh ara, Leban on , Ch ad , Eritrea,
Som alia, th e Ph ilip p in es, Bu rm a, Sou th ern Yem en , Tash ken t an d
An d alu sia [sou th ern Sp ain ].” 10
8
Unholy W ar
Dr. Mu h am m ad Qu tb, a fam ou s sch olar an d activist, was an oth er
of Osam a’s teach ers. He was a broth er of Sayyid Qu tb, a leader of
th e m ilitan t win g of th e Mu slim Broth erh ood wh o was execu ted in
1966 wh en Gam al Abdel Nasser’s govern m en t crush ed an d outlawed
th e Broth erh ood. Sayyid Qu tb is widely ackn owledged as th e fath er
of m ilitan t jih ad, a m ajor in flu en ce on th e worldview of radical
m ovem en ts across th e Mu slim world, an d ven erated as a m artyr of
con tem porary Islam ic revivalism . Qutb’s writin gs an d ideas provided
th e religiou s worldview an d discou rse for gen eration s of activists,
m od erate an d extrem ist. For th ose Mu slim s wh o, like bin Laden ,
were edu cated in sch ools an d u n iversities with Islam ist teach ers,
Sayyid Qu tb was a stap le of th eir Islam ic edu cation .
Bin Lad en was ed u cated at a tim e wh en Islam ic m ovem en ts
an d religiou s extrem ist or jih ad m ovem en ts were on th e rise in
th e broad er Mu slim world an d with in Sau d i Arabia. Th e d isastrou s
an d h u m iliatin g d efeat of th e Arabs in th e 1967 Six-Day ArabIsraeli war, in wh ich th e com bin ed forces of Egyp t, Syria, an d Jord an were beaten with in h ou rs by “tin y little Israel,” was a m ajor
tu rn in g p oin t in th e h istory of con tem p orary Islam . It gen erated
d eep sou l-search in g abou t wh at h ad gon e wron g with Islam , th e
m od ern failu re an d im p oten ce of a Mu slim world th at for cen tu ries after its creation h ad exp erien ced u n p aralleled su ccess an d
p ower. W h at cam e to be called Th e Disaster was cou n tered in 1973
by a jih ad again st Israel fou gh t by An war Sad at. Its cod e n am e was
Bad r, sym bolizin g th e first great an d m iracu lou s victory of th e
Prop h et Mu h am m ad over a su p erior Meccan arm y. Th is was followed by an oth er sign ifican t even t in th e world of O sam a bin
Lad en . Th e Arab oil em bargo, with its crip p lin g im p act on th e
West, gave Mu slim s a n ew sen se of p rid e. Th e Arab world an d th e
h eartlan d of Islam seem ed to reem erge as a m ajor econ om ic p ower
after cen tu ries of su bservien ce to Eu rop ean im p erialism .
Th e 1970s also witn essed an in crease in th e p ower an d visibility of in tern al Islam ic op p osition an d reform m ovem en ts. In Egyp t
th e Mu slim Broth erh ood alon g with a series of rad ical grou p s reem erged as a m ajor op p osition al force. Iran ’s Islam ic revolu tion
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
9
cam e as an in sp iration al rallyin g cry for Islam ic activists across
th e Mu slim world . Sau d i Arabia itself was rocked by th e seizu re of
th e Gran d Mosq u e in Mecca in 1979 by m ilitan ts wh o called for
th e overth row of th e Hou se of Sau d . Man y of th ese m ilitan ts were
well-ed u cated , p iou s activists wh o d en ou n ced th e wealth an d corru p tion of th e “in fid el” regim e an d th e corrosive im p act of th e
West on religiou s an d social valu es. Th ey wan ted to p u rify an d
retu rn to trad ition al Islam , re-creatin g a tru e Islam ic state an d society. W h ile bin Lad en d oes n ot seem to h ave sid ed with Sau d i
extrem ists, h e cou ld n ot h elp bu t be stron gly affected by th e activist m ood of th e 1970s in Sau d i Arabia an d beyon d .
Ji h a d i n Af g h a n i st a n :
Th e Ma k i n g o f a H o l y Wa r ri o r
A m ajor tu rn in g p oin t in Osam a bin Lad en ’s life, th e begin n in g of
h is jou rn ey toward becom in g a m ujahid, or warrior for God , occu rred with th e 1979 Soviet in vasion an d occu p ation of Afgh an istan . As bin Lad en wou ld later say, “W h at I lived in two years
th ere, I cou ld n ot h ave lived in a h u n d red years elsewh ere.” 11 By
th e 1970s Afgh an istan h ad becom e overwh elm in gly d ep en d en t
on th e Soviet Un ion ’s p atron age for its su rvival. Marxist an d Maoist
p art ies t h rived wh ile Islam ist p art ies an d m o vem en t s were rep ressed . In Ju ly 1973 Prin ce Mu h am m ad Dau d , a form er p rim e
m in ister an d cou sin of th e Afgh an Kin g Zah ir Sh ah , overth rew th e
go vern m en t , abo lish ed t h e m o n arch y, an d p ro claim ed h im self
p resid en t of Afgh an istan . Five years later th e Peop le’s Dem ocratic
Party of Afgh an istan staged a cou p an d establish ed a n ew com m u n ist govern m en t. Th is was followed by th e d irect in terven tion an d
occu p ation of Afgh an istan by th e Soviet Un ion in 1979. Th e occu p ation galvan ized Afgh an istan ’s d iverse tribal an d religiou s lead ers an d m ovem en ts in a p op u lar jih ad . Afgh an istan ’s tribal society
h ad a fragile u n ity offset by th e realities of its m u ltieth n ic tribal
society com p risin g Pash tu n s, Uzbeks, Tajiks, an d Hazaras d ivid ed
religiou sly between a Su n n i Mu slim m ajority an d a m in ority of
10
Unholy W ar
Sh ii Mu slim s. Soviet occu p ation , h owever, p rovid ed a com m on
en em y an d m ission . Th e call for a jih ad offered a com m on , th ou gh
tran sien t as h istory wou ld p rove, Islam ic religiou s id en tity an d
sou rce of in sp iration . Th e m ujahidin h oly war to liberate Islam an d
Afgh an istan from Soviet (ath eistic) com m u n ist occu p ation wou ld
even tu ally d rive ou t th e Soviet m ilitary, d efeat th e Afgh an com m u n ists, an d lead to th e establish m en t of an Islam ic state in 1992.12
W h en th e an ti-Soviet jih ad began , bin Lad en was am on g th e
first to ru sh to th e Afgh an refu gee cam p s in Pesh awar, Pakistan , to
m eet with m u jah id in lead ers, som e of wh om h e h ad alread y com e
to kn ow d u rin g h ajj gath erin gs at h is h om e in Sau d i Arabia. From
1979 to 1982 h e collected fu n d s an d m ateriel for th e jih ad an d
m ad e in term itten t visits from Sau d i Arabia to Pakistan . In 1982 h e
fin ally en tered Afgh an istan , brin gin g large q u an tities of con stru ction m ach in ery as well as fu n d in g, an d becom in g a fu ll p articip an t in th e Afgh an jih ad . By 1984 in creasin g n u m bers of Arab
m u jah id in were arrivin g in Pakistan to join th e h oly war. Bin Lad en
resp on d ed by establish in g a gu esth ou se in Pesh awar for Arabs on
th eir way to th e fron t in Afgh an istan . In 1986 Osam a becam e m ore
d irectly in volved in th e war, settin g u p h is own cam p s an d com m an d in g Arab m u jah id in forces wh o becam e kn own as Arab Afgh an s in battle. He su bseq u en tly created al-Qaed a (th e base), to
organ ize an d track th e ch an n elin g of figh ters an d fu n d s for th e
Afgh an resistan ce. Six-feet five-in ch es tall, with a lon g beard an d
p iercin g eyes, th e wealth y an d p owerfu lly con n ected bin Lad en
was well on h is way to becom in g a p oster-boy for th e jih ad , at first
as a h ero an d later as a global terrorist.
Bin Lad en ’s activities were ap p lau d ed by th e Sau d i govern m en t,
wh ich , alon g with th e Un ited States, h ad m ad e a h eavy com m itm en t to su pp ortin g th e jih ad again st th e Soviet Un ion . For Am erica,
th is was a “good jih ad .” Iron ically, alth ou gh th e Un ited States h ad
been th reaten ed by Iran ’s revolu tion ary Islam an d th e violen ce
an d terrorism com m itted by jih ad grou p s in Egyp t, Leban on , an d
elsewh ere, ou r govern m en t was able to ch eer an d su p p ort Afgh an istan ’s h oly warriors, p rovid in g con sid erable fu n d in g as well as
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
11
Cen tral In telligen ce Agen cy (CIA) ad visers. Everyon e was in agreem en t. For Osam a bin Lad en , as for Sau d i Arabia an d in d eed Mu slim s world wid e, th e Afgh an jih ad to rep el foreign ers from Islam ic
territory was em in en tly in accord with Islam ic d octrin e.
Bin Lad en p roved h im self to be a selfless an d d ed icated m u jah id ,
or h oly warrior. Still you n g, h e was m ore com fortable as an activist th an as an id eologu e, focu sed p rim arily on th e jih ad in Afgh an istan rath er th an on Mu slim in tern ation al p olitics an d activism .
Ah m ed Rash id , exp ert on th e Taliban an d al-Qaed a, writes of bin
Lad en :
Arab Afgh an s wh o kn ew h im d u rin g th e jih ad say h e was n eith er
in tellectu al n or articu late abou t wh at n eed ed to be d on e in th e
Mu slim world . In th at sen se h e was n eith er th e Len in of th e Islam ic revolu tion , n or was h e th e in tern ation alist id eologu e of
th e Islam ic revolu tion su ch as Ch e Gu evera was to th e revolu tion
in th e th ird world . Bin Lad en ’s form er associates d escribe h im as
deeply im pression able, always in n eed of m en tors, m en wh o kn ew
m ore abou t Islam an d th e m od ern world th an h e d id . 13
Th e Ra d i c a l i z a t i o n o f a Sa u d i El i t e
How d id Osam a bin Lad en , m em ber of th e Sau d i elite, m u jah id ,
an d h ero of th e war in Afgh an istan , becom e rad icalized ? After Soviet troop s with drew from Afgh an istan in 1989, bin Laden retu rn ed
to Sau d i Arabia an d a job in th e fam ily bu sin ess. Th ou gh in itially
received as a h ero, sp eakin g at m osq u es an d to p rivate gath erin gs,
h e was soon at loggerh ead s with th e royal fam ily, vociferou s in h is
warn in g of an im p en d in g Iraq i in vasion of Ku wait. Sau d i Arabia,
alon g with Ku wait an d th e Un ited States, h ad for m an y years, in
p art icu lar d u rin g t h e Iraq -Iran War, b een st ro n g su p p o rt ers o f
Sad d am Hu ssein ’s Iraq , seein g it as a ch eck on th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i’s Iran . W h en Iraq d id in vad e Ku wait in Au gu st 1990, bin
Lad en q u ickly wrote to Kin g Fah d , offerin g to brin g th e Arab Afgh an m u jah id in to Sau d i Arabia to d efen d th e kin gd om . In stead ,
12
Unholy W ar
th e d eafen in g silen ce from th e p alace was sh attered by n ews th at
Am erican forces were to d efen d th e Hou se of Sau d . Th e ad m ission
an d station in g of foreign n on -Mu slim troop s in Islam ’s h oly lan d
an d th eir p erm an en t d ep loym en t after th e Gu lf war, bin Lad en
wou ld later say, tran sform ed h is life com p letely, p lacin g h im on a
collision cou rse with th e Sau d i govern m en t an d th e West. He sp oke
ou t forcefu lly again st th e Sau d i allian ce with th e Un ited States,
obtain ed a fatwa (legal op in ion ) from a sen ior religiou s sch olar
th at train in g was a religiou s d u ty, an d sen t several th ou san d volu n teers to train in Afgh an istan .
Like oth er Arab Afgh an s wh o retu rn ed to th eir h om e cou n tries,
in Afgh an istan bin Lad en h ad en joyed th e freed om to th in k an d
act an d to en gage in a religiou s m ission to overcom e in ju stice an d
create an Islam ic state an d society. In Sau d i Arabia h e fou n d h im self bou n d with in th e con fin es of a regim e wh ose p olicies an d
allian ces h e m ore an d m ore cam e to d esp ise as corru p t an d u n Islam ic. W h ile m an y of th e Arab Afgh an s wh o retu rn ed to Egyp t,
Algeria, an d elsewh ere q u ickly becam e in volved in rad ical op p osition m ovem en ts, bin Lad en con tin u ed to stru ggle with in th e system . Th e govern m en t restricted h is m ovem en t in an attem p t to
silen ce h im . Fin ally, in Ap ril 1991 h e escap ed to Afgh an istan via
Pakistan . W h en h e arrived , h owever, h e fou n d h im self n ot in th e
Islam ic state for wh ich th e jih ad h ad been fou gh t bu t in on e m ired
in th e religiou s an d eth n ic warfare of its afterm ath .
With in a brief p eriod after th e Soviet with d rawal, th e great Islam ic victory h ad collap sed in to in tereth n ic an d sectarian warfare, fu eled by foreign p atron s. Th e n et resu lt was ch aos an d th e
d evastation of Afgh an istan as variou s warlord s vied to set u p th eir
own fiefd om s.
Desp ite th e Afgh an victory, th e jih ad h ad failed to d evelop a
coh eren t id eology or basis for p olitical u n ity. Th e Un ited States
walked away from an Afgh an istan wh ose cou n trysid e was d evastated by a ten -year Soviet occu p ation th at h ad cost m ore th an on e
m illion lives. Mu jah id in grou p s, m an y of wh ich tod ay m ake u p
th e North ern Allian ce th at with U.S. backin g fou gh t an d d efeated
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
13
th e Taliban , rep resen ted com p etin g eth n ic, tribal, an d religiou s
grou p s. Th e cou n try was grip p ed by a civil war th at p itted th e
m ajority Pash tu n p op u lation in th e sou th an d east again st th e
eth n ic m in orities of th e n orth —Tajik, Uzbek, Hazara, an d Tu rkm en .
Th e con flict was fu rth er com p ou n d ed by th e in terven tion an d
com p etin g agen d as of ou tsid e p owers. Pakistan an d Sau d i Arabia
su p p orted Su n n i m u jah id in grou p s wh ile Iran backed an allian ce
of Sh ii m in ority organ ization s. Th e m ajo rit y o f Afgh an s fo u n d
th em selves cau gh t in th e m id d le of a p rolon ged civil war m arked
by h eavy figh tin g, lawlessn ess, p illagin g, rap e, an d p lu n d er. Bin
Lad en was fru strated by h is in ability to con tribu te to th e resolu tion of th e p roblem s of ch aos an d lawlessn ess. In 1992, after several m on th s am id st th e in ter-m u jah id in sq u abblin g an d figh tin g
over su ccession after th e collap se of th e p ro-Soviet regim e, bin
Lad en m oved to Su d an .
Su d a n a n d t h e En t re p re n e u r-Mu ja h i d
In Jan u ary 1989, in a cou p led by Colon el Om ar al-Bash ir, th e
Nation al Islam ic Fron t (NIF) h ad com e to p ower in Su d an an d
establish ed an Islam ic rep u blic. Bash ir h ad en listed th e h elp of
Hasan al-Tu rabi, th e Sorbon n e-ed u cated lead er of th e NIF, regard ed
by m an y as on e of th e m ost brillian t an d articu late of th e Islam ic
activist lead ers of p olitical Islam in tern ation ally. Al-Tu rabi becam e
th e id eologu e of th e regim e, h old in g a n u m ber of p olitical p osition s, in clu d in g sp eaker of th e p arliam en t. NIF m em bers p rovid ed
t h e backbo n e an d in frast ru ct u re fo r t h e n ew go vern m en t . Th e
govern m en t, in a relation sh ip th at p roved m u tu ally ben eficial,
welcom ed bin Lad en . Bin Lad en fou n d a refu ge an d in vested h is
wealth in m u ch -n eed ed con stru ction p rojects as well as farm s an d
oth er bu sin esses in th e fled glin g Islam ic state. Du rin g th ese years
Su d an , wit h it s o p en bo rd ers, was in creasin gly co n d em n ed by
Am erica an d Eu rop e for its lin ks with revolu tion ary Iran an d for
h arborin g in tern ation al terrorists an d th eir train in g cam p s. In 1993
Su d an was p laced on th e State Dep artm en t’s list of cou n tries th at
14
Unholy W ar
sp on sor terrorism . bin Lad en was am on g th ose in d ivid u als wh om
U.S. in telligen ce id en tified as sp on sorin g terrorist train in g cam p s.
Alth ou gh h e d en ied d irect in volvem en t an d was n ever form ally
in d icted , bin Lad en voiced h is ap p roval for th e World Trad e Cen ter bom bin g in 1993 an d th e killin g of U.S. troop s in Mogad ish u ,
Som alia. Am erican officials were d ivid ed as to wh eth er h e p rovid ed train in g an d arm s to th ose resp on sible.
Bin Lad en ’s fin al break with Sau d i Arabia cam e in 1994 wh en
th e Kin gd om revoked h is citizen sh ip an d m oved to freeze h is asset s in Sau d i Arabia becau se o f h is su p p o rt fo r fu n d am en t alist
m ovem en ts. From th at p oin t on , bin Lad en becam e m ore ou tsp oken in h is d en u n ciation of th e Hou se of Sau d . Now p u sh ed to th e
frin ge, h e join ed with oth er d issid en t activists an d religiou s sch olars to create th e Ad vice an d Reform Com m ittee, fou n d ed in Sau d i
Arabia bu t forced su bseq u en tly to m ove to Lon d on . Th is p olitical
op p osition grou p stron gly criticized th e Sau d i regim e bu t d id n ot
overtly ad vocate violen ce.
By 1995, a series of even ts an d accu sation s h ad catap u lted th e
p revio u sly o bscu re bin Lad en t o cen t er st age. U.S. in t elligen ce
sou rces claim ed th at h e h ad establish ed exten sive train in g op erat io n s in n o rt h ern Yem en n ear t h e Sau d i bo rd er. 14 In vest igat o rs
ch arged th at Ram zi You sef, th e cap tu red m asterm in d of th e World
Trad e C en t er b o m b in g, h ad st ayed at a b in Lad en –fin a n ced
gu esth ou se an d h ad fin an cial lin ks to bin Lad en . Bin Lad en sen t a
letter to Kin g Fah d ad vocatin g gu errilla attacks to d rive th e U.S.
forces ou t of th e Kin gd om . Som e ch arged th at h e was lin ked to an
u n su ccessfu l assassin ation attem p t in Ad d is Ababa, in Ju n e 1995,
again st Presid en t Hosn i Mu barak of Egyp t. W h en five Am erican s
an d two In d ian s were killed in a tru ck bom bin g in Riyad h in Novem ber 1995, bin Lad en d en ied in volvem en t bu t p raised th ose
wh o com m itted th e attack. 15 Resp on d in g to m ou n tin g in tern ation al p ressu re, esp ecially from th e Un ited States an d Sau d i Arabia,
in May 1996 Su d an exp elled bin Lad en . Iron ically, Su d an offered
to extrad ite h im to Sau d i Arabia or Am erica; both refu sed to take
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
15
h im . Th ou gh som e h ad u rged th e Un ited States to take ad van tage
of th e ten tative overtu res th at th e NIF govern m en t was m akin g,
th e Clin ton ad m in istration ch ose oth erwise.
Bin Lad en fled back to Afgh an istan . 16 Sh ortly after, in Ju n e, a
large tru ck bom b tore ap art th e Kh obar Towers, a U.S. m ilitary
resid en ce in Dh ah ran , Sau d i Arabia, killin g n in eteen servicem en .
In vestigators were in itially d ivid ed between p lacin g th e blam e with
bin Lad en or with a m ilitan t Sau d i Sh ii organ ization .17 Bin Lad en
p raised th ose beh in d th e Riyad h an d Dh ah ran bom bin gs bu t d en ied d irect in volvem en t: “I h ave great resp ect for th e p eop le wh o
d id th is. W h at th ey d id is a big h on or th at I m issed p articip atin g
in .” 18 In Ju n e 2001 th irteen m em bers of Sau d i Hizbollah , a Sh iite
grou p from th e Eastern p rovin ce of Sau d i Arabia, were in d icted in
th e Un ited States for th e Dh ah ran bom bin g.
Th e Ta l i b a n a n d b i n La d e n
In 1996, Afgh an istan witn essed th e rise of an im p robable m ilitia
th at wou ld go on to u n ite 90 p ercen t of th e cou n try an d d eclare
th e Islam ic Rep u blic of Afgh an istan . After alm ost eigh teen years
of Soviet occu p ation followed by civil war, a seem in gly en d less
cycle of carn age an d ch aos was abru p tly reversed by th e aston ish in g su ccess of a n ew Islam ic m ovem en t.
Late in 1994, as if ou t of n owh ere, th e p red om in an tly Pash tu n
Taliban , a ban d of m adrasa (sem in ary) stu d en ts (taliban) wh o h ad
been livin g as refu gees in Pakistan su d d en ly ap p eared . In itially
th e Taliban were p ortrayed as h avin g n o m ilitary backgrou n d . In
fact m an y of th eir m ullahs (religiou s lead ers) an d stu d en ts were
vet eran s o f t h e Afgh an -So viet w ar w h o h ad ret u rn ed t o t h e
m ad rasas after th e d ep artu re of th e Soviets. With in two years th ey
swep t across th e cou n try, overwh elm in g th e North ern Allian ce of
n on -Pash tu n m in orities. Den ou n cin g th e con ten d in g m u jah id in
m ilitias, th e Taliban claim ed th e m an tle of m oral lead ersh ip as
rep resen tatives of th e m ajority of Afgh an s wh o were victim s of
th e in tern ecin e warfare.
16
Unholy W ar
At first th e Taliban were h ailed as liberators wh o p rom ised to
restore law an d ord er, stability an d secu rity, an d m ake th e streets
safe for ord in ary citizen s. Th ey d isarm ed th e p op u lation , clean ed
u p corru p tion an d graft, an d im p osed Shariah (Islam ic law). In itially, th ey en joyed su ccess an d p op u larity as a reform m ovem en t.
It was n ot u n til th eir cap tu re of Kabu l in 1996 th at th ey revealed
th eir in ten tion to ru le th e cou n try an d to im p ose a strict p u ritan ical form of Islam . With su bstan tial su p p ort from Sau d i Arabia an d
Pakistan , by 1998 th ey h ad su bd u ed 90 p ercen t of th e cou n try
an d d riven th e North ern Allian ce in to a sm all area of n orth east
Afgh an istan .
Th e Taliban bran d of Islam ic rad icalism h as been sign ifican tly
in flu en ced by a m ilitan t n eo-Deoban d i m ovem en t in Pakistan .
Iron ically, th e Su n n i Deoban d i began in th e In d ian su bcon tin en t
as a reform ist m ovem en t. However, its p olitical exp ression an d
id eology were tran sform ed with in Pakistan ’s Jam iyyat-i-Ulam a-iIslam (JUI), a religiou s p arty with a rigid , m ilitan t, an ti-Am erican ,
an d an ti-n on -Mu slim cu ltu re. Man y of th e Taliban were train ed
in th e h u n dreds of JUI m adrasas. Often ru n by sem iliterate m u llah s,
th ese sch ools were first set u p for Afgh an refu gees in th e Pash tu n d om in ated areas of Pakistan , alon g th e bord er with Afgh an istan .
Man y were su p p orted by Sau d i fu n d in g th at brou gh t with it th e
in flu en ce of an u ltracon servative Wah h abi Islam . Stu d en ts received
free ed u cation , religiou s, id eological, an d m ilitary train in g. Th e
Taliban teach ers sh owed little kn owled ge or ap p reciation for th eir
classical Islam ic trad ition or for cu rren ts of Islam ic th ou gh t in th e
broad er Mu slim world tod ay. Th ey esp ou sed a m yop ic, self-con tain ed , m ilitan t world view in wh ich Islam is u sed to legitim ate
th eir tribal cu stom s an d p referen ces. Th e classical Islam ic belief in
jih ad as a d efen se of Islam an d th e Mu slim com m u n ity again st
aggressio n was t ran sfo rm ed in t o a m ilit an t jih ad cu lt u re an d
world view th at targets u n believers, in clu d in g Mu slim s an d n on Mu slim s alike.
W h en th ey cam e to p ower, th e Taliban tu rn ed over m an y of
th eir train in g cam p s to JUI faction s, wh o in tu rn train ed th ou -
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
17
san d s of Pakistan i an d Arab m ilitan ts as well as figh ters from Sou th
an d Cen tral Asia an d th e Arab world in th eir rad ical jih ad id eology an d tactics. Assisted by m ilitary su p p ort from Pakistan an d
fin an cial su p p o rt fro m t h e Wah h abi in Sau d i Arabia, wit h JUI
m en torin g an d in flu en ced by Osam a bin Lad en ’s evolvin g rad ical
jih ad ist p olitical vision , th e Taliban p rom oted th eir own bran d of
revolu tion ary Islam . Th ey im p osed th eir strict Wah h abi-like bran d
of Islam on Afgh an society. Th ey ban n ed wom en from sch ool an d
th e workp lace, req u ired th at m en wear beard s an d wom en chadors,
ban n ed m u sic, p h otograp h y, an d television , an d im p osed strict
p h ysical p u n ish m en ts on d eviators. Th eir in toleran ce for an y d eviation from th eir bran d of Islam exp ressed itself in th e slau gh ter
of m an y of Afgh an istan ’s Sh ii m in ority (10 p ercen t of th e p op u lation ), wh om th ey d isd ain ed as h eretics, wh en th e Taliban overran
Sh ii areas su ch as Mazar-e Sh arif in n orth west Afgh an istan .
Man y Mu slim religiou s lead ers arou n d th e world d en ou n ced
Taliban “Islam ic” p olicies as aberran t. Mu slim govern m en ts as d iverse as Iran an d Egyp t, alon g with Western govern m en ts an d in t ern at io n al h u m an righ t s o rgan izat io n s, co n d em n ed Talib an
violation s of h u m an righ ts. Desp ite th eir con trol of m ost of Afgh an istan , by th e fall of 1998, n eith er th e Un ited Nation s n or m ost
o f t h e glo b al co m m u n it y ackn o wled ged t h eir legit im acy. Th e
Taliban govern m en t was recogn ized by on ly th ree n ation s, Sau d i
Arabia, Pakistan , an d th e Un ited Arab Em irates.
Neverth eless, bin Lad en fou n d th e Taliban ’s Afgh an istan a com fortable h aven an d u sefu l base of op eration s. Th e Taliban lead er,
Mu llah Om ar, h ad been q u ick to offer san ctu ary an d exp ress h is
ad m iration for bin Lad en ’s sacrifices an d d ed ication to jih ad . Bin
Lad en skillfu lly cu ltivated an d d evelop ed h is relat io n sh ip wit h
Mu llah Om ar an d th e Taliban , p rovid in g fin an cial su p p ort, bu ild in g road s an d oth er con stru ction p rojects, an d sen d in g h is Afgh an
Arabs to figh t alon gsid e th e Taliban in critical battles.
Bin Lad en ’s en tou rage an d followers grew stead ily. He attracted
Arab an d oth er Mu slim d issid en ts, m an y of wh om h ad h ad to flee
th eir n ative cou n tries. Am on g th em were several p rom in en t Egyp -
18
Unholy W ar
tian rad icals: Dr. Aym an al-Zawah iri, a p h ysician an d a lead er of
th e ban n ed Islam ic Jih ad in Egypt; Rifai Tah a Mu sa, leader of Egypt’s
ban n ed Gam aa Islam iyya; an d two son s of Sh aykh Om ar Abd el
Rah m an , th e blin d Egyp tian p reach er in d icted for in volvem en t in
th e assassin ation of An war Sad at, su sp ected of in volvem en t in th e
World Trad e Cen ter bom bin g of 1993, an d later fou n d gu ilty of
con sp irin g to blow u p m ajor sites in New York City. Om ar Abd el
Rah m an h ad visit ed Afgh an ist an several t im es d u rin g t h e war
again st th e Soviets, wh en h e an d bin Lad en h ad first m et. Of th ese
m en , h owever, th e on e to wield th e m ost in flu en ce over bin Lad en
wou ld be Dr. Aym an al-Zawah iri.
Ay m a n a l -Za w a h i ri :
Fro m Me d i c a l Sc h o o l t o Ji h a d Un i v e rsi t y
Th e story of Aym an al-Zawah iri is th at of a gifted su rgeon wh o
becam e a lead er of an Egyp tian terrorist grou p on th e road to becom in g Osam a bin Lad en ’s con fid an t, rep u ted m en tor, an d su ccessor. Aym an al-Zawah iri was born in 1953 in to a p rom in en t an d
con servative religiou s fam ily. He grew u p in Maad i, an u p scale
su bu rb of Cairo in h abited by wealth y Egyp tian s an d foreign d ip lom ats. His gran d fath ers were th e rector of al-Azh ar Un iversity,
th e Islam ic world ’s old est an d m ost p restigiou s religiou s sch ool,
an d p resid en t of Cairo Un iversity, Egyp t’s lead in g m od ern secu lar
u n iversity.
Fam ily an d frien d s rem em ber Aym an as a n orm al, well-ad ju sted
you n g m an —an in telligen t, well-read , p olite stu d en t wh o wen t
on to becom e a p h ysician . However, 1967 h ad been a d efin in g
m om en t for h im as it was for m an y in th e Arab world . After th e
d isastrou s Arab d efeat in th e 1967 Arab-Israeli (Six Day) war an d
th e d isillu sion m en t over Arab (secu lar) n ation alism an d socialism
th at followed , al-Zawah iri tu rn ed to p olitical Islam . He join ed th e
Mu slim Broth erh ood wh en h e was on ly fou rteen years old. By 1979,
h e h ad em braced a radical op tion an d join ed Islam ic Jih ad, a violen t extrem ist grou p com posed of sm all clan destin e cells. He qu ickly
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
19
becam e on e of its lead ers an d by 1983 was recru itin g m em bers,
organ izin g secret cells an d u n d ergrou n d op eration s. After th e assassin ation of An war Sad at, Zawah iri was arrested alon g with h u n d red s of oth ers. Th ou gh n o d irect lin k to Sad at’s d eath cou ld be
establish ed , h e was tried an d sen ten ced to th ree years in p rison on
ch arges of p ossessin g weap on s. After h is 1984 release from p rison ,
wh ere like m an y oth ers h e h ad been beaten an d tortu red , h e briefly
retu rn ed to m ed ical p ractice in a clin ic. Th e p olitical clim ate in
Egyp t an d h is rad ical p ast an d p rison record , h owever, p rom p ted
al-Zawah iri to em igrate an d take a p osition in Sau d i Arabia. With in
th e year h e wen t to Afgh an istan , wh ere h e worked as a su rgeon ,
treatin g wou n d ed Afgh an an d Arab figh ters in field h osp itals. 19 It
was d u rin g th is tim e th at h e m et Dr. Abd u llah Azzam , th e Palestin ian Islam ist activist wh o h ad tau gh t bin Lad en at Kin g Abd u laziz
Un iversity in Jed d ah , Sau d i Arabia. Azzam h ad gon e to Pakistan to
m ake h is con tribu tion to th e war in Afgh an istan . After a sh ort
stin t teach in g at th e Islam ic Un iversity in Islam abad, Pakistan , h e
fou n ded th e Jih ad Service Bu reau , wh ose m ission was th e recru itm en t of Sau dis an d oth er Arabs th rou gh p u blication s an d oth er
m edia. Azzam join ed with bin Laden an d Zawah iri in recru itin g
an d train in g Mu slim s for th e jih ad again st th e Soviets. Th ey form ed
a lastin g frien dsh ip an d allian ce in th eir growin g com m itm en t to a
global jih ad. After th e Soviet defeat in 1989, Zawah iri retu rn ed to
Egyp t an d to h is leadersh ip role in Islam ic Jih ad.
Zawah iri p layed an im p ortan t role d u rin g th e 1990s, organ izin g u n dergrou n d op eration s an d in tegratin g form er m u jah idin in to
th e ran ks of Islam ic Jih ad . Th e violen ce an d terrorism of Islam ic
Jih ad were m et with eq u al force by Egyp tian m ilitary an d p olice.
Blood y con fron tation s were accom p an ied by th e arrest, in terrogation , tortu re, an d im p rison m en t of th ou san d s.
In 1992 Zawah iri m oved to Su d an with bin Lad en , an d in 1996
both retu rn ed to Afgh an istan . From th ere, al-Zawah iri con tin u ed
to be in volved in th e jih ad again st th e Egyp tian state. He is believed to h ave been th e m asterm in d beh in d terrorist attacks, in clu d in g th e m assacre of fifty-eigh t tou rists in Lu xor in 1997, for
20
Unholy W ar
wh ich h e was sen ten ced to d eath in absen tia by an Egyp tian cou rt
in 1999. He also m erged Islam ic Jih ad with al-Qaed a an d worked
with Osam a bin Lad en to p lot an d execu te th eir global jih ad .
Man y believed th at Zawah iri p ossessed a d eep er th eological u n d erstan d in g an d m ore in tern ation al p ersp ective th an bin Lad en ,
an d th at h e was resp on sible for broad en in g bin Lad en ’s vista for
jih ad beyon d th e Arab world to th e wid er Mu slim world an d to a
jih ad again st Am erica an d / or th e West. Ham id Mir, a Pakistan i
jou rn alist wh o in terviewed bin Lad en , believes th at al-Zawah iri
also m asterm in d ed th e Sep tem ber 11, 2001, attacks. Alth ou gh on ly
religiou s lead ers can legitim ately issu e fatwas, bin Lad en h ad n everth eless issu ed a fatwa allowin g th e killin g of in n ocen t p eop le:
“to kill Am erican s an d th eir allies—civilian s an d m ilitary—is an
in d ivid u al d u ty for every Mu slim wh o can d o it in an y cou n try in
wh ich it is p ossible to d o it.” W h en Mir p ressed h im on h ow th is
was p erm issible in ligh t of th e fact th at th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad
forbad e Mu slim s to kill in n ocen t civilian s, h e n oted th at bin Lad en
resp on d ed on ly after con su ltin g with Zawah iri an d ch eckin g som e
Islam ic sou rces. 20 Oth ers, h owever, con ten d th at bin Lad en h as
lon g h ad a global an im osity toward Am erica an d Israel as well as
th e in tellectu al an d fin an cial m ean s to p u rsu e it, an d th at it is h e
wh o broad en ed th e p ersp ective of Zawah iri, wh o h ad sp en t th e
bu lk of h is form ative years as a terrorist focu sed on top p lin g th e
regim e an d establish in g an Islam ic state in Egyp t. Regard less of
wh o in flu en ced wh om , th e bin Lad en an d Zawah iri join t ven tu re
p rod u ced a p owerfu l global id eology an d agen d a.
Af g h a n i st a n a n d b i n La d e n ’s
D e c l a ra t i o n o f H o l y Wa r
Safely en tren ch ed in Afgh an istan , Osam a bin Lad en assu m ed a
m ore visible an d vocal lead ersh ip role in in tern ation al terrorism ,
callin g op en ly for a jih ad again st Am erica an d its allies. In Au gu st
1996 h e issu ed a Declaration of Jih ad wh ose goals were to d rive
U.S. forces ou t of th e Arabian p en in su la, overth row th e Sau d i gov-
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
21
ern m en t, an d liberate Islam ’s h oly sites of Mecca an d Med in a, as
well as su p p ort revolu tion ary grou p s arou n d th e world . In Novem ber, h e again rep eated h is th reat to wage h oly war again st th e
Un ited States an d its allies if Wash in gton d id n ot rem ove its troop s
from th e Gu lf. 21 By 1998, h e seem ed in creasin gly com fortable an d
astu te in u sin g th e m ed ia to p rop agate h is m essage an d garn er
su p p ort in th e Mu slim world . From th at tim e on ward , h is m ed ia
ap p earan ces an d statem en ts were carefu lly crafted , em p h asizin g
both h is im age an d m essage.
In 2000 bin Lad en an n ou n ced th e form ation of th e World Islam ic Fron t for th e Jih ad Again st Jews an d Cru sad ers, an u m brella
grou p of rad ical m ovem en ts across th e Mu slim world , an d issu ed
a fatwa statin g th at it is th e d u ty of all Mu slim s to kill U.S. citizen s
an d th eir allies. Th e title of th e organ ization su m m ed u p th e m an
an d h is view of th e world . Mu slim s were u n d er siege, th eir lan d s
occu p ied in a world d om in ated by th eir h istoric en em ies, m ilitan t
Ch ristian ity an d Ju d aism . All tru e Mu slim s h ad an obligation to
h eed th e call to a global jih ad , a d efen se of th e world wid e Islam ic
com m u n ity. Global p olitics were in d eed for bin Lad en a com p etition an d jih ad , a clash of civilization s between th e Mu slim world
an d th e West, between Islam an d a m ilitan t Ju d eo-Ch ristian con sp iracy. Foreign in flu en ce an d in terven tion in th e Islam ic world
h ad on ce again u n d erscored th e trad ition al d ivision of th e world
in to th e lan d of Islam (dar al-Islam ) an d th e lan d of warfare (dar alharb). Becau se of Western abu ses, th e en tire world h as been d ivid ed , h e claim ed , “in to two region s—on e of faith wh ere th ere is
n o h yp ocrisy an d an oth er of in fid elity, from wh ich we h op e God
will p rotect u s.” 22 If bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a’s attem p t to m obilize
th e world of Islam for th eir jih ad fu rth er con vin ced m ost Mu slim
an d Western govern m en ts of th e m agn itu d e of th e Islam ic th reat,
it also seem ed to con tribu te to bin Lad en ’s attraction for a growin g n u m ber of Mu slim s, p articu larly in th e you n ger gen eration .
Like Ayatollah Kh om ein i an d Sad d am Hu ssein before h im , bin
Lad en seeks legitim acy an d th e m obilization of th e “Mu slim street”
or gen eral p op u lation th rou gh id en tification with m an y of th e
22
Unholy W ar
p ercep t io n s an d grievan ces o f m ain st ream as well as ext rem ist
Mu slim s. He h ijacks Islam , u sin g Islam ic d octrin e an d law to legitim ate terrorism .
Th e m ajor issu es an d th em es of bin Lad en ’s m essage reflect both
h is Arab roots an d a growin g awaren ess of th e broad er Islam ic
com m u n ity. His p rim ary focu s was at first th e p resen ce of foreign
troop s in th e Arab p en in su la, th e overth row of th e Sau d i regim e,
an d th e Palestin ian -Israeli con flict. Bin Lad en labeled Am erica an d
Israel as cru sad ers an d Jews an d Zion ists an d con d em n ed th e Sau d i
regim e as com p lian t an d corru p t. He th en exten d ed h is accu sation s to em brace th e d eath of on e m illion in n ocen t Iraq is d u e to
Western san ction s as well as stru ggles in Bosn ia, Ch ech n ya, an d
Kash m ir.
Bin Lad en p layed to th e Mu slim sen se of h istoric op p ression ,
occu p ation , an d in ju stice at th e h an d s of th e West. After Sep tem ber 11, h e ch arged , “W h at th e Un ited States tastes tod ay is a very
sm all th in g com p ared to wh at we h ave tasted for ten s of years.
Ou r n ation h as been tastin g h u m iliation an d con tem p t for m ore
th an 80 years.” 23 He p ain ts a world in wh ich Mu slim s an d Islam
are u n d er siege:
Am erica an d it s allies are m assacrin g u s in Palest in e, Ch ech n ya,
Kash m ir, an d Iraq . Th e Mu slim s h ave th e righ t to attack Am erica
in rep risal. . . . Th e Sep t em ber 11 at t acks were n ot targeted at
wom en an d ch ild ren . Th e real t arget s were Am erica’s icon s of
m ilit ary an d eco n o m ic p o wer. 24
Th e h eart of bin Lad en ’s jih ad again st Am erica starts with h is
ou trage at th e in ju stice in h is h om elan d —th e in fid el’s occu p ation
of sacred territory an d its su p p ort for a corru p t u n -Islam ic govern m en t: “Th e call to wage war again st Am erica was m ad e becau se
Am erica sp earh ead ed th e cru sad e again st th e Islam ic n ation , sen d in g ten s of th ou san ds of troop s to th e lan d of th e two Holy Mosq u es
over an d above its m ed d lin g in Sau d i affairs an d its p olitics, an d
its su p p ort of th e op p ressive, corru p t, an d tyran n ical regim e th at
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
23
is in con trol.” 25 Refu sin g to an y lon ger recogn ize Sau d i Arabia by
n am e, bin Lad en referred to th e sacred territory it “occu p ies.” In terestin gly, Kin g Fah d an d th e Hou se of Sau d som e years earlier
h ad taken to u sin g th e title “Cu stod ian of th e Two Holy Sites” of
Mecca an d Med in a becau se th ey recogn ized th eir vu ln erability to
Islam ic critics wh o in sisted th at m on arch y is an tith etical to Islam .
Bin Lad en also con n ected Western p resen ce in th e Gu lf with a
m ore in tern ation al con cern : Am erica’s com p licity in Israeli exp an sion ism , its su p p ort for “Jewish an d Zion ist p lan s for exp an sion of
wh at is called Greater Israel.” 26 Con trary to wh at m an y said in th e
afterm ath of Sep tem ber 11, Palestin e is a p rim ary issu e for bin
Lad en . His m essages h ave con sisten tly sp oken of Zion ist an d Jewish offen ses again st Mu slim s. His p assion ate statem en ts on th e
p ligh t of th e Palestin ian s, wh o h ave been livin g u n d er Israeli m ilitary occu p ation in violation of UN Secu rity Cou n cil resolu tion s
for over forty years, grap h ically d escribe, cap tu re, an d ap p eal to
th e ou trage of m an y in th e Arab an d Mu slim world toward Israeli
p olicy an d th e com p licity of th e in tern ation al com m u n ity:
For over h alf a cen tu ry, Mu slim s in Palestin e h ave been slau gh tered an d assau lted an d robbed of th eir h on or an d of th eir p rop erty. Th eir h ou ses h ave been blasted , th eir crop s d estroyed . An d
th e stran ge th in g is th at an y act on th eir p art to aven ge th em selves or lift th e in ju stice befallin g th em cau ses great agitation in
th e Un ited Nation s wh ich h asten s to call an em ergen cy m eetin g
on ly to con vict th e victim an d to cen su re th e wron ged an d tyran n ized wh ose ch ild ren h ave been killed an d wh ose crop s h ave
been d estroyed an d wh ose farm s h ave been p u lverized . . . . 27
Bin Lad en h old s th e Am erican p eop le, wh o elect th eir p resid en t an d Con gress, resp on sible for Israeli op p ression of Palestin ian s: “th eir govern m en t m an u factu res arm s an d gives th em to Israel
an d Israel u ses th em to m assacre Palestin ian s.” 28 He ch arges th at
th e Jewish lobby h as taken Am erica an d th e West h ostage. He calls
u p on th e Am erican p eop le to rise u p again st th eir govern m en t as
24
Unholy W ar
th ey d id d u rin g th e Vietn am war an d force it to give u p Am erica’s
an ti-Mu slim p olicies an d m assacre of Mu slim s. Mu slim s h ave th e
righ t, in d eed th e obligation , to d efen d th em selves. He ap p eals th en
to th e Islam ic teach in g th at jih ad in th e d efen se of Islam an d to
correct an u n ju st p olitical ord er is legitim ate an d req u ired :
We are carryin g o u t t h e m issio n o f th e p rop h et , Mu h am m ad
(p eace be u p o n h im ). Th e m issio n is t o sp read th e word of God ,
n o t t o in d u lge in m assacrin g p eo p le. We ou rselves are t h e target
o f killin gs, d est ru ct io n , an d at ro cit ies. We are on ly d efen d in g
o u rselves. Th is is d efen sive jih ad . We wan t t o d efen d ou r p eop le
an d o u r lan d . Th at is wh y we say, if we d on ’t get secu rit y, th e
Am erican s, t o o , wo u ld n o t get secu rit y. Th is is t h e sim p le form u la t h at even an Am erican ch ild can u n d erst an d . Live an d let
live. 29
In bin Lad en ’s view, ch arges of “terrorism ” are sp eciou s in a
world of im m orality an d op p ression with in wh ich osten sible acts
of terrorism are som etim es n ecessary an d ju stified . He p ain ts th e
m od ern world in p olarities, a world of belief an d u n belief, with in
wh ich th e forces of evil, op p ression , an d in ju stice assau lt th e forces
of good . Th e Mu slim world an d Islam are u n d er siege:
Th ey rob u s of ou r wealth an d of ou r resou rces an d of ou r oil. Ou r
religion is u n d er attack. Th ey kill an d m u rd er ou r broth ers. Th ey
com p rom ise ou r h on or an d ou r d ign ity an d d are we u tter a sin gle
word of p rotest again st th e in ju stice, we are called terrorists.30
Like a Mu slim ju rist , h e legalist ically d ist in gu ish es b et ween
“com m en d able” an d “rep reh en sible” terrorism . To terrify th e in n ocen t is u n ju st; h owever, terrorizin g op p ressors is n ecessary:
Th ere is n o d o u bt t h at every st at e an d every civilizat ion an d
cu lt u re h as t o reso rt t o t erro rism u n d er cert ain circu m st an ces
fo r t h e p u rp o se o f abo lish in g t yran n y an d corru p t io n . . . . Th e
T he Making of a Modern Terrorist
25
t erro rism we p ract ice is o f t h e co m m en d able kin d for it is d irect ed at t h e t yran t s, t h e t rait o rs wh o com m it act s of treason
again st t h eir o wn co u n t ries an d t h eir own faith an d t h eir own
p ro p h et an d t h eir o wn n at io n . Terro rizin g t h ose an d p u n ish in g
th em are n ecessary m easu res to straigh ten th in gs an d m ake th em
righ t . 31
Osam a bin Lad en p lays to a cen tu ries-lon g trad ition of reform
in Islam , m ost of it aim ed in th e last on e h u n d red years toward
th e stru ggle over Mu slim op p ression by th e West. W h y d o h is calls
for a d efen sive jih ad reson ate as tru th for m ain stream Mu slim s as
well as for extrem ists wh o live tod ay in th e Mu slim world ? Th is is
th e q u estion we will exam in e in th e n ext ch ap ter.
26
Unholy W ar
2
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
If you were watch in g a television sp ecial on jihad, with fou r Mu slim
sp eakers, you m igh t well h ear fou r differen t resp on ses to th e q u estion : “W h at is jih ad?” On e m igh t say th at jih ad is strivin g to lead a
good Mu slim life, p rayin g an d fastin g regu larly, bein g an atten tive
sp ou se an d p aren t. An oth er m igh t iden tify jih ad as workin g h ard
to sp read th e m essage of Islam . For a th ird, it m igh t be su p p ortin g
th e stru ggle of op p ressed Mu slim p eop les in Palestin e, Kash m ir,
Ch ech n ya, or Kosovo. An d for th e fin al sp eaker, as for Osam a bin
Laden , jih ad cou ld m ean workin g to overth row govern m en ts in th e
Mu slim world an d attackin g Am erica. However differen t th ese in terp retation s are, all testify to th e cen trality of jih ad for Mu slim s
today. Jih ad is a defin in g con cep t or belief in Islam , a key elem en t
in wh at it m ean s to be a believer an d follower of God’s Will.
In th e late twen tieth an d twen ty-first cen tu ries th e word jih ad
h as gain ed rem arkable cu rren cy. It is u sed by resistan ce, liberation ,
an d terrorist m ovem en ts alike to legitim ate th eir cau se an d m otivate th eir followers. Th e Afgh an m u jah idin , th e Taliban an d th e
North ern Allian ce, h ave waged a jih ad in Afgh an istan again st foreign powers an d am on g th em selves; Muslim s in Kash m ir, Ch ech n ya,
Dagestan , th e sou th ern Ph ilip p in es, Bosn ia, an d Kosovo h ave fash ion ed th eir stru ggles as jih ads; Hizbollah , Ham as, an d Islam ic Jih ad
Palestin e h ave ch aracterized war with Israel as a jih ad ; Algeria’s
Arm ed Islam ic Grou p h as en gaged in a jih ad of terror again st th e
govern m en t th ere, an d Osam a bin Laden h as waged a global jih ad
again st Mu slim govern m en ts an d th e West.
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
27
Th e im p ortan ce of jih ad is rooted in th e Qu ran ’s com m an d to
stru ggle (th e literal m ean in g of th e word jih ad) in th e p ath of God
an d in th e exam p le of th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad an d h is early Com pan ion s. Th ese are fun dam en tals of Muslim belief an d practice. Jih ad
is a con cep t with m u ltip le m ean in gs, u sed an d abu sed th rou gh ou t
Islam ic h istory. Alth ou gh jih ad h as always been an im p ortan t p art
of th e Islam ic tradition , in recen t years som e Mu slim s h ave m ain tain ed th at it is a u n iversal religiou s obligation for all tru e Mu slim s
to join th e jih ad to p rom ote a global Islam ic revolu tion .
Man y Mu slim s tod ay believe th at th e con d ition s of th eir world
req u ire a jih ad. Th ey look arou n d th em an d see a world dom in ated
by corru p t au th oritarian govern m en ts an d a wealth y elite, a m in ority con cern ed solely with its own econ om ic p rosp erity, rath er
th an n ation al d evelop m en t, a world awash in Western cu ltu re an d
valu es in d ress, m u sic, television , an d m ovies. Western govern m en ts are p erceived as p rop p in g u p op p ressive regim es an d exploitin g th e region ’s h u m an an d n atu ral resou rces, robbin g Mu slim s
of th eir cu ltu re an d th eir op tion s to be govern ed accord in g to th eir
own ch oice an d to live in a m ore ju st society. Man y believe th at
th e restoration of Mu slim p ower an d p rosp erity req u ires a retu rn
to Islam , th e creation of m ore Islam ically orien ted states an d societies. Som e Mu slim s, a rad icalized m in ority, com bin e m ilitan cy
with m essian ic vision s to in sp ire an d m obilize an arm y of God
wh ose jih ad th ey believe will liberate Mu slim s at h om e an d abroad .
If jih ad h as so m an y m ean in gs, h ow are th ey to be u n d erstood ?
W h ich in terp retation s are correct? W h ich of th e m ean in gs p rom ote p ositive im p rovem en ts an d reform s, an d wh ich h ave been
exp loited to ju stify extrem ism an d terrorism ? Th ese q u estion s are
n ot n ew—th ey h ave been debated by Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e ages.
Th e h istory of th e Mu slim com m u n ity from Mu h am m ad to th e
p resen t can b e read wit h in t h e fram ewo rk o f wh at t h e Q u ran
teach es abou t jih ad . Th e Qu ran ic teach in gs h ave been of essen tial
sign ifican ce t o Mu slim self-u n d erst an d in g, p iet y, m o bilizat io n ,
exp an sion , an d d efen se. Jih ad as stru ggle p ertain s to th e d ifficu lty
28
Unholy W ar
an d com p lexity of livin g a good life: stru gglin g again st th e evil in
on eself in ord er to be virtu ou s an d m oral, m akin g a seriou s effort
to d o good works an d to h elp to reform society. Dep en d in g on th e
circu m stan ces in wh ich on e lives, it also can m ean figh tin g in ju stice an d op p ression , sp read in g an d d efen d in g Islam , an d creatin g
a ju st society th rou gh p reach in g, teach in g an d , if n ecessary, arm ed
stru ggle or h oly war.
Th e two broad m ean in gs of jih ad , n on violen t an d violen t, are
con trasted in a well-kn own p rop h etic trad ition . It is said th at wh en
Mu h am m ad retu rn ed from battle h e told h is followers, “We retu rn from th e lesser jih ad to th e greater jih ad .” Th e greater jih ad is
th e m ore d ifficu lt an d m ore im p ortan t stru ggle again st on e’s ego,
selfish n ess, greed , an d evil.
Un d erstan d in g th e variou s ways in wh ich jih ad h as been in terp reted th rou gh ou t Mu slim h istory will en able u s to d istin gu ish
between extrem ist organ ization s on th e on e h an d an d th e m ajority of Mu slim s on th e oth er.
W h en Osam a bin Laden or th e leaders of oth er terrorist grou p s
speak today, like all Muslim s th ey often con sciously or un con sciously
u se th e p ast to legitim ate th eir agen da an d tactics. Th ey p lace th em selves u n der th e m an tle of th e Prop h et. Th ey also lin k th eir m ilitan t jih adist worldviews to fam ou s earlier in terp retation s of jih ad,
for exam p le, th at of th e p rom in en t m edieval th eologian an d legal
sch olar Ibn Taym iyya or th at of Sayyid Qu tb, th e godfath er of m odern revolu tion ary Islam . Are th ey sim p ly ap p rop riatin g a tradition
of h oly war or are th ey rein ven tin g th eir tradition to su p p ort th eir
self-declared u n h oly wars of violen ce an d terrorism ?
Th e stru ggle for th e sou l of Islam goin g on tod ay is th e p rod u ct
of a rich an d com p lex h istory. From th e very begin n in g, jih ad was
u sed both by th ose in p ower an d by th ose wh o ch allen ged th at
p ower, by in sid ers an d by ou tsid ers. Early Mu slim h istory p rovid es
th e clearest an teced en ts an d p arad igm s for wh at is goin g on tod ay. An d so to u n d erstan d jih ad , we m u st begin with th e Prop h et
Mu h am m ad an d th e Qu ran .
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
29
Mu h a m m a d ’s Ji h a d
Islam an d th e Qu ran , like all th e great world religion s an d th eir
scrip tu res, offer a u n iversal m essage, a d iscou rse th at can sp eak to
all tim es an d p laces. Believers in every age an d situ ation fin d teach in gs, p rin cip les, an d valu es th at give th em m ean in g an d gu id an ce.
Jews can look to th e Hebrew Bible to fin d stories of Josh u a an d
Kin g David sp read in g an d d efen d in g th eir faith an d com m u n ity
by warfare, as well as p assages th at extol th e virtu es of p eace. Ch ristian s look to a trad ition th at can su p p ort p acifism bu t also a ju stwar th eory th at legitim ates warfare. Sim ilarly, th e Qu ran an d th e
Su n n ah , or p rop h etic exam p le, p rovid e a th eology for p eace, for
livin g in a world of d iverse n ation s an d p eop les. Th ey also p rovid e
gu idelin es on h ow to figh t th e en em y as well as h ow to figh t again st
corru p tion an d op p ression . As we sh all see, th e ch allen ge in Islam ic h istory h as been to d raw a carefu l lin e between self-d efen se
an d aggression , resistan ce an d rebellion , reform an d terrorism .
Th e world in wh ich Islam em erged in th e seven th cen tu ry was
a rou gh n eigh borh ood wh ere war was th e n atu ral state. Arabia
an d th e city of Mecca, in wh ich Mu h am m ad lived an d received
God ’s revelation , were beset by tribal raid s an d cycles of ven gean ce
an d ven d etta. Th e broad er Near East, in wh ich Arabia was located ,
was itself d ivid ed between two warrin g su p erp owers of th e d ay,
th e Byzan tin e (Eastern Rom an ) an d th e Persian (Sasan ian ) Em p ires. Each h ad com p eted again st th e oth er for world d om in ion .
Seven th -cen tu ry Arabia was critically located alon g th e p rofitable trad e rou tes of th e Orien t. As a resu lt it was su bject to th e
rivalry an d in terven tion s of its p owerfu l im p erial n eigh bors. Th e
rise an d sp read of Islam was cau gh t in both th e local p olitics an d
figh t in g o f Arab ia an d t h e im p erial warfare o f t h e Near East .
Mu h am m ad ’s p reach in g wou ld ad d to th is m ix an d wou ld itself
becom e a sou rce of con flict.
Mu h am m ad ’s reform ist m essage p osed an u n welcom e ch allen ge
to th e religiou s an d p olitical establish m en t, th e p riests, tribal lead ers, an d bu sin essm en of th e com m u n ity. Th e n ew religiou s m es-
30
Unholy W ar
sage th at Mu h am m ad p reach ed , like th at of Am os an d oth er biblical p rop h ets before h im , d en ou n ced th e statu s q u o an d called for
social ju stice for th e p oor an d th e m ost vu ln erable in society—
wom en , ch ild ren , an d orp h an s. Mu h am m ad an d th e Qu ran con dem n ed Arabian polyth eism an d put a spotligh t on Meccan society’s
u n brid led m aterialism , avarice, an d corru p tion , a con d ition of ign oran ce an d u n belief called jahiliyyah. Th is is a very im p ortan t
term , rich in m ean in g, th at h as been reap p rop riated an d rein terp reted by fu n d am en talists tod ay to d escribe an d con d em n Western society.
Mu h am m ad ’s p rop h etic call su m m on ed th e p eop le to strive an d
stru ggle (jih ad ) to reform th eir com m u n ities an d to live a good
life based on religiou s belief an d n ot loyalty to th eir tribe. His
in sisten ce th at each p erson was p erson ally accou n table n ot to tribal
cu stom ary law bu t to an overrid in g d ivin e law sh ook th e very fou n d ation s of Arabian society. Mu h am m ad ’s n ewly claim ed statu s an d
au th ority as God ’s m essen ger an d h is en treaties to believers to take
action again st social corru p tion th reaten ed th e au th ority of p owerfu l elites. Mu h am m ad p roclaim ed a sweep in g p rogram of religiou s an d social reform th at affected religiou s belief an d p ractices,
bu sin ess con tracts an d p ractices, m ale-fem ale an d fam ily relation s.
Th e Qu ran rejected Arabian p olyth eism an d in sisted th at th ere
was on ly on e tru e God . It d en ou n ced th e corru p t p ractices of m an y
m erch an ts an d th e exp loitation of orp h an s an d th eir in h eritan ce
righ ts. It con d em n ed in fan ticid e, sp oke of th e religiou s eq u ality
of m en an d wom en , an d exp an d ed th e m arriage an d in h eritan ce
righ ts of wom en . To u p h old th is d eep ly ch allen gin g m essage an d
m ission , Mu h am m ad an d h is followers wou ld h ave to figh t, wage
jih ad , to stay alive.
Th e exam p le of th e origin al Islam ic com m u n ity h as d eep sign ifican ce for reform ers as th e on ly m od el to be em u lated . Sayyid
Qu tb, writin g in th e m id-twen tieth cen tu ry, ech oes th ose wh o cam e
before an d after h im an d testifies to th e con tin u in g p ower of th e
first Islam ic com m u n ity to in sp ire Mu slim s in all ages:
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
31
At o n e t im e t h is Message [t h e Q u ran ] created a gen eration —th e
gen erat io n o f t h e Co m p an io n s o f t h e Pro p h et (m ay Go d be
p leased with t h em ) wit h o u t co m p arison in t h e h ist ory of Islam ,
even in t h e en t ire h ist o ry o f m an . After th is, n o o th er gen erat io n of t h is calibre was ever again t o be fou n d . 1
H i jra a n d Ji h a d : Re sp o n se t o
P e rse c u t i o n a n d Co n f l i c t
Th e first decade of Mu h am m ad’s p reach in g m et with resistan ce an d
persecu tion an d produced lim ited results. Th e com m u n ity rem ain ed
sm all an d u n der con stan t p ressu re. Th e exp erien ce of Mu h am m ad’s
n ascen t com m u n ity wou ld p rovide th e m odel for later gen eration s,
a gu ide for resp on din g to p ersecu tion an d rejection , to th reats to
th e faith , to th e secu rity an d su rvival of th e com m u n ity. Th e twin
ideals of hijra (wh ich m ean s to em igrate from a h ostile u n -Islam ic
jah iliyyah en viron m en t) an d jih ad were establish ed. Faced with everin creasin g th reats an d p ersecu tion , in 622 C . E. Mu h am m ad an d h is
followers m oved (h ijra) from Mecca to Medin a, ap p roxim ately 250
m iles away, wh ere h e establish ed th e first Islam ic com m u n ity or
city-state. Th e cen tral sign ifican ce given to th is m ove can be seen
in th e fact th at th e Mu slim calen dar begin s with th e year of th e
h ijra an d th e creation of th e Islam ic com m u n ity, rath er th an earlier
dates su ch as th e year Mu h am m ad was born or th e year in wh ich h e
received h is first revelation from God.
Movin g from th e trad ition al safety of on e’s tribe an d kin sm en
in warrin g Arabia to form allian ces with alien tribes based on a
broad er Islam ic id eal an d a collective su rren d er to th e will of God
was an oth er of Mu h am m ad ’s revolu tion ary con cep ts—on e frau gh t
with d an ger an d p oten tial strife. Th erefore, it follows th at wh at
m an y refer to as “d efen sive jih ad ” ap p ears in th e earliest Qu ran ic
verses, revealed sh ortly after th e h ijra to Med in a wh en Mu h am m ad
an d h is followers kn ew th ey wou ld be forced to figh t for th eir
lives: “Leave is given t o t h o se w h o figh t b ecau se t h ey w ere
wron ged —su rely God is able to h elp th em —wh o were exp elled
32
Unholy W ar
from th eir h om es wron gfu lly for sayin g, ‘Ou r Lord is God ’” (22:39).
Th e d efen sive n atu re of jih ad is rein forced in 2:190—“An d figh t
in th e way of God with th ose wh o figh t you , bu t aggress n ot: God
loves n ot th e aggressors.” Both m ain stream an d extrem ist m ovem en ts an d “h oly warriors” like Osam a bin Lad en , wh o em igrated
from Sau d i Arabia to establish h is m ovem en t an d com m u n ity with
its train in g bases in Afgh an istan , h ave selectively u sed th e p attern
of h ijra an d jih ad for th eir own p u rp oses.
Ji h a d f o r D e f e n se a n d Ex p a n si o n
From 622 C . E. u n til h is d eath ten years later, Mu h am m ad very su ccessfu lly con solid ated h is p ower in Med in a an d u n ited th e feu d in g t rib es o f Arab ia. At crit ical p o in t s t h ro u gh o u t t h ese years
Mu h am m ad received revelation s from God th at p rovid ed gu id elin es fo r t h e jih ad . As t h e Mu slim co m m u n it y grew, q u est io n s
q u ickly em erged abou t wh o h ad religiou s an d p olitical au th ority,
h ow to h an d le rebellion an d civil war, wh at was p rop er beh avior
d u rin g tim es of war an d p eace, h ow to ration alize an d legitim ize
exp an sion an d con q u est, violen ce an d resistan ce. An swers to th ese
q u estion s were d evelop ed by referrin g to Qu ran ic in ju n ction s. Th e
Qu ran p rovid es d etailed gu id elin es an d regu lation s regard in g th e
con d u ct of war: wh o is to figh t an d wh o is exem p ted (48:17, 9:91),
wh en h ostilities m u st cease (2:192), h ow prison ers sh ou ld be treated
(47:4). Verses su ch as Qu ran 2:294 em p h asize p rop ortion ality in
warfare: “wh oever tran sgresses again st you , resp on d in kin d.” Oth er
verses p rovid e a stron g m an d ate for m akin g p eace: “If you r en em y
in clin es toward p eace th en you too sh ou ld seek p eace an d p u t
you r tru st in God ” (8:61), an d “Had Allah wish ed , He wou ld h ave
m ad e th em d om in ate you an d so if th ey leave you alon e an d d o
n ot figh t you an d offer you p eace, th en Allah allows you n o way
again st th em ” (4:90). From th e earliest tim es it was forbid d en to
kill n on com batan ts as well as wom en an d ch ild ren an d m on ks
an d rabbis, wh o were given th e p rom ise of im m u n ity u n less th ey
h ad taken p art in th e figh tin g. Th e Prop h et’s exam p le (an d Islam ic
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
33
law) also p rovid e an swers to q u estion s abou t h ow th e Mu slim com m u n ity sh ou ld act. Stories abou t h ow th e Prop h et beh aved are
p reserved in n arrative trad ition s or hadith. Th ey h ave been an d
con tin u e to be u sed th rou gh ou t th e world to p rovid e gu id an ce for
Mu slim d ecision s an d beh avior.
Un d er th e lead ersh ip of Mu h am m ad an d th en h is early su ccessors, th e Islam ic com m u n ity sp read rap id ly, creatin g a vast em p ire
greater th an Rom e at its zen ith an d stretch in g from North Africa
to In d ia. Mu slim arm ies—m otivated both by econ om ic reward s
from th e con q u est of rich er, m ore d evelop ed societies an d by religiou s zeal, th e p rom ise of reward in h eaven —su ccessfu lly overran
th e Byzan tin e an d Persian Em p ires, wh ich h ad becom e exh au sted
from en d less warrin g with each oth er.
Th e religiou s ration ale (as d istin ct from th e p ractical p olitical
an d econ om ic m otives) for con q u est an d exp an sion was n ot to
force con version to Islam u p on oth er faith s wh o h ad th eir own
p rop h ets an d revelation s—th e Qu ran states clearly, “Th ere is n o
com p u lsion in religion ” (2:256)—bu t rath er to sp read its righ teou s
ord er so th at ign oran ce an d u n belief cou ld be rep laced by ju st
societies th rou gh ou t th e world . Th e religiou s ju stification m ad e
for a jih ad to p rop agate th e faith is con n ected to Islam ’s u n iversal
m ission to sp read th e word of God an d th e ju st reign of God ’s will
for all h u m an ity: “So let th ere be a bod y am on g you wh o m ay call
to th e good , en join wh at is esteem ed an d forbid wh at is od iou s.
Th ey are th ose wh o will be su ccessfu l” (3:104); an d , “Of all th e
com m u n ities raised am on g m en you are th e best, en join in g th e
good , forbid d in g th e wron g, an d believin g in God ” (3:110).
Martyrs wh o sacrifice th eir lives to establish Islam ic id eals or to
d efen d th ose id eals h old a sp ecial p lace in Islam . Th e Qu ran h as
m an y p assages th at su p p ort th e n otion of m artyrd om an d th at
com fort th ose left beh in d . For exam p le, “Were you to be killed or
to d ie in th e way of God , forgiven ess an d m ercy from God are far
better th an wh at th ey am ass” (3:157); an d , “Never th in k th at th ose
wh o are killed in th e way of God are d ead . Th ey are alive with
th eir Lord , well p rovid ed for” (3:169). Both Su n n i an d Sh ii trad i-
34
Unholy W ar
tion s valu e an d esteem m artyrd om in th eir beliefs an d d evotion s.
Su n n i Islam h as h istorically valorized m artyrd om th rou gh ven eration of th e stru ggles (jih ad s) of th e early com m u n ity with th e
Meccan Arabs an d with in th eir jah iliyyah cu ltu re of u n belief, wh ile
Sh ii Islam celebrates an n u ally th e m artyrd om of its early lead ers
wh o fou gh t to rein state th e tru e valu es of Islam in to th eir society.
Had ith literatu re also p rovid es m an y affirm ation s of th e reward s
for th ose wh o d ie for Islam . Mu slim trad ition teach es th at m artyrs
are d istin gu ish ed from oth ers in life after d eath in several ways:
th eir self-sacrifice an d m eritoriou s act ren d er th em free of sin an d
th erefore th ey are n ot su bject to th e p ost-m ortem in terrogation of
th e an gels Nakir an d Mu n kar; th ey byp ass “p u rgatory” an d p roceed to on e of th e h igh est location s in h eaven n ear th e Th ron e of
God ; as a resu lt of th eir p u rity, th ey are bu ried in th e cloth es in
wh ich th ey d ied an d d o n ot n eed to be wash ed before bu rial.
With th e growth , exp an sion , an d d evelop m en t of th e Islam ic
com m u n ity, con cern abou t th e p ower an d lifestyles of ru lers an d
th e n eed to exp ou n d m ore fu lly an d clearly wh at th e Qu ran said
abou t th e “straigh t p ath of Islam ” resu lted in th e em ergen ce of
religiou s sch olars (ulam a, th e learn ed ). Th e u lam a d evelop ed th e
Shariah, Islam ic law, seen as th e id eal blu ep rin t for Mu slim life.
Over th e ages, Islam ic law an d ju rists becam e th e p rim ary au th orities for th e m ean in gs of jih ad , wh en to d eclare an d wh en to
restrict jih ad . W h ile Mu slim ru lers d eclared an d con d u cted th e
jih ad , legal exp erts, kn own as m uftis, p rovid ed fatwas (legal op in ion s) th at cou ld be u sed eith er to legitim ate or to ch allen ge th e
legitim acy of a jih ad , a p ractice th at con tin u es u p to th e p resen t
d ay. For exam p le, d u rin g th e Gu lf war, Mu slim ru lers obtain ed
fatwas to legitim ate th eir p articip ation in th e Am erican -led coalition again st Sad d am Hu ssein ’s d eclared jih ad , an d Sau d i Arabia
obtain ed a fatwa to legitim ate th e p resen ce of n on -Mu slim Am erican troop s in th e Kin gd om .
Islam ic law stip u lates th at it is a Mu slim ’s d u ty to wage war n ot
on ly again st th ose wh o attack Mu slim territory, bu t also again st
p olyth eists, ap ostates, an d Peop le of th e Book (at first restricted to
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
35
Jews an d Ch ristian s bu t later exten d ed to Zoroastrian s an d oth er
faith s) wh o refu se Mu slim ru le. Mu slim s gave th ese p eop le two
ch oices: con version or su bm ission to Mu slim ru le with th e righ t
to retain th eir religion an d p ay a p oll tax (a com m on p ractice ap p lied to ou tsid ers, with in an d ou tsid e of Arabia). If th ey refu sed
both of th ese op tion s, th ey were su bject to war. Mu slim ju rists saw
jih ad as a req u irem en t in a world d ivid ed between wh at th ey called
th e dar al-Islam (lan d of Islam ) an d th e dar al-harb (lan d of war).
Th e Mu slim com m u n ity was req u ired to en gage in th e stru ggle to
exp an d th e d ar al-Islam th rou gh ou t th e world so th at all of h u m an kin d wou ld h ave th e op p ortu n ity to live with in a ju st p olitical an d social ord er. On e sch ool of law, th e Sh afii, p osited a th ird
category, th e lan d of treaty (dar al-sulh), a territory th at h ad con clu d ed a tru ce with a Mu slim govern m en t.
O t h er Q u ran ic verses, so m et im es referred t o as t h e “swo rd
verses,” are q u oted selectively to legitim ate u n con d ition al warfare
again st u n believers an d were u sed by ju rists to ju stify great exp an sion . Th e argu m en t, d evelop ed d u rin g th e p eriod u n d er th e early
calip h s, a tim e wh en th e u lam a en joyed royal p atron age, was th at
th e sword verses abrogated all th e earlier verses th at lim ited jih ad
to a d efen sive war: “W h en th e sacred m on th s h ave p assed , slay
th e id olaters wh erever you fin d th em , an d take th em , an d con fin e
th em , an d lie in wait for th em at every p lace of am bu sh ” (9:5). Yet
th e fu ll in ten t of th is verse, if it is u sed in isolation , can be overlooked . It is followed by: “Bu t if th ey rep en t an d fu lfill th eir d evotion al obligation s an d p ay th e zakat [tax for alm s] th en let th em
go th eir way for God is forgivin g an d kin d ”(9:5). Alth ou gh th is
verse h as been u sed to ju stify offen sive jih ad , it h as trad ition ally
been read as a call for p eacefu l relation s u n less th ere is in terferen ce with th e freed om of Mu slim s. Th e sam e is tru e of th e followin g: “Figh t th ose wh o believe n ot in God n or th e Last Day, Nor
h old th at forbid d en wh ich h ath been forbid d en by God an d His
Ap ostle, Nor h old th e religion of tru th (even if th ey are) of th e
Peop le of th e Book, Un til th ey p ay th e tax with willin g su bm ission , an d feel th em selves su bd u ed ” (9:29).
36
Unholy W ar
Ji h a d : Se c t a ri a n i sm a n d Te r ro ri sm i n Ea rl y Isl a m
From its begin n in gs th e faith , u n ity, an d very su rvival of th e Islam ic com m u n ity were th reaten ed by civil war, sectarian ism , violen ce, assassin ation of its lead ers, an d terrorism . Disord er (fitnah)
was an d rem ain s a p rim ary p olitical an d social evil. Th e Qu ran
an d th e exam p le of th e Prop h et’s com m u n ity or state at Med in a
lin ked Islam with p olitics an d society in th e stru ggle (jih ad ) to
im p lem en t God ’s will an d to create a ju st social ord er. Islam was
riven by d eep d ivision s an d con flicts revolvin g arou n d lead ersh ip
an d au th ority. Th e com m u n ity d ivid ed in to two m ajor an d often
com p etin g bran ch es, Su n n i an d Sh ii.
Alth ou gh Islam is th e secon d largest religion in th e world , m an y
in th e West kn ew n oth in g abou t it u n til Iran ’s Islam ic revolu tion
catap u lted Islam in to th e con sciou sn ess of th e world . It is iron ic
th at th e West’s con tem p orary en cou n ter with Islam began with
th e action s of Islam ’s Sh ii m in ority, wh o m ake u p on ly 15 p ercen t
of th e Mu slim com m u n ity. Th rou gh ou t th e 1980s, th e Western
n ation s’ p rim ary exp erien ce of Islam was with th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i’s bran d of rad ical Islam ic fu n d am en talism . Fears of its exp ort th rou gh ou t th e Mu slim world d om in ated th e corrid ors of
p ower an d m ed ia h ead lin es.
In th e Un ited States, Sh ii Islam is id en tified p rim arily with th e
m ilitan cy, an ti-Am erican ism , an d terrorism of th e Iran ian revolu tion an d of Hizbollah in Leban on . Th is h as obscu red th e rich n ess
of th e Sh ii religiou s trad ition an d sp iritu ality, its d iverse bran ch es
an d d ifferin g exp erien ces of an d attitu d es toward war an d p eace.
Sh iism is a faith born ou t of th e exp erien ce of op p ression an d
tyran n y. It is th e official religion of em p ires an d states in North
Africa as well as in Iran an d Om an . It h as fou gh t jih ad s of liberation an d of exp an sion an d con q u est. In m od ern tim es, its lead ers
h ave in clu d ed a sem in ary-t rain ed revo lu t io n ary like Ayat o llah
Kh om ein i an d th e cosm op olitan , u rban e Harvard -train ed Agh a
Kh an , wh o u ses h is com m u n ity’s wealth for m ajor ed u cation al
an d social welfare p rojects arou n d th e world . Th e road traveled by
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
37
Sh ii from th eir origin s to th e p resen t reveals a rich legacy able to
p rovid e su p p ort for both reform ers an d revolu tion aries.
Th e origin s of Sh ii Islam go back to th e d eath of Islam ’s ch arism atic p rop h etic lead er in 632 C . E. Th e com m u n ity was p lu n ged
in to a crisis over wh o wou ld su cceed Mu h am m ad . Sh ou ld th e su ccessor be th e m ost p iou s Mu slim or a d irect d escen d an t of th e
Pro p h et ? Th e seed s o f d issen t in t h e Islam ic co m m u n it y were
p lan ted wh en th e com p an ion s of th e Prop h et m oved q u ickly to
select Abu Bakr, Mu h am m ad ’s fath er-in -law, an early con vert an d
well-resp ected m em ber of th e com m u n ity, as th e Prop h et’s first
su ccessor or caliph. Th e calip h was to be th e p olitical lead er of th e
com m u n ity. Alth ou gh n ot a p rop h et, a calip h en joyed a certain
religiou s p restige an d au th ority as h ead of th e com m u n ity. He led
th e Frid ay con gregation al p rayer, an d h is n am e was m en tion ed in
th e p rayer. As th e p rotector of Islam , th e calip h led th e jih ad an d
was to govern th e com m u n ity by th e Sh ariah (Islam ic law). Th ose
wh o accep ted th e ch oice of Abu Bakr, th e m ajority of th e com m u n ity, becam e kn own as Su n n is (followers of th e Sunnah, or exam p le
of th e Prop h et).
Th is tran sition of lead ersh ip set in m otion a seq u en ce of even ts
th at led to d ivision , rebellion , an d h istoric con flict. A m in ority of
th e com m u n ity, th e Sh ii (m ean in g th e p arty or followers of Ali),
took stron g excep tion to th e selection of Abu Bakr. Th ey believed
th at before h is d eath Mu h am m ad h ad d esign ated th e sen ior m ale
of h is fam ily, Ali, th e Prop h et’s cou sin an d son -in -law, to be lead er,
or Im am , of th e com m u n ity. Ali was even tu ally ch osen as th e fou rth
in a su ccession of calip h s, bu t h is Sh ii followers su ffered Ali’s assassin ation after five years of ru le (656–661) an d th en th e su bseq u en t m assacre of Ali’s son , th e brave an d ch arism atic Hu ssein , as
h e an d h is arm y battled to try to regain p ower an d rein state th e
tru e valu es of Islam . Hu ssein an d h is forces were d efeated by th e
arm y of th e calip h Yazid in 680 C . E. Th e d eath or m artyrd om of
Hu ssein in th e Battle of Karbala becam e a d efin in g sym bol for Sh ii
Mu slim s of th e p rofou n d in ju stice of th e world . It in sp ired an d
m otivated Sh ii jih ad s again st wh at th ey con sid ered th e u n -Islam ic
38
Unholy W ar
Um ayyad an d Abbasid d yn asties, wh ose calip h s th ey regard ed as
illegitim ate.
Du rin g th is tim e th e Sh ii com m u n ity itself sp lit in to two m ajor
bran ch es, Twelvers an d Seven ers, over th e issu e of lead ersh ip . Th e
n u m erical d esign ation of each bran ch stem s from th e d eath or
d isap p earan ce of th eir Im am an d th u s th e d isru p tion of su ccession . Sh ii th eology resolved th e p roblem of th e Im am ’s absen ce
with th e d octrin e of th e “h id d en Im am ” wh o will retu rn as a m essian ic figu re, th e Mah d i, at th e en d of th e world to u sh er in a
p erfect Islam ic society in wh ich tru th an d ju stice will p revail.
Sh ii h istory an d religiou s sym bolism h as been u sed in every age
to brin g abou t reform . In th e twen tieth cen tu ry m od ern Sh ii religiou s lead ers rein terp reted th e m em ory of Hu ssein ’s m artyrd om
to m obilize su p p ort for revolu tion ary m ovem en ts. Portrayin g th e
Sh ah of Iran as th e n ew Yazid , th e Um ayyad gen eral resp on sible
for th e m assacre at Karbala, th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i called for a
revolu tion to overth row th eir u n -Islam ic lead er. Kh om ein i also
ap p ealed to Sh ii in Su n n i-d om in ated Iraq , Sau d i Arabia, Bah rain ,
an d Ku wait to rise u p again st op p ressive regim es an d claim th eir
r igh t fu l in h erit a n ce. W it h Ira n ia n b a ckin g, Leb a n o n ’s Sh ii
Hizbollah (Party of God ), wh ich h ad com e in to bein g in resp on se
to th e Israeli in vasion of Leban on , d eclared jih ad again st Israel
an d its Am erican “p atron .”
Su n n i a n d Sh i i Co n c e p t i o n s o f Ji h a d
Desp ite th eir h istoric d ifferen ces an d th eir on goin g con flicts tod ay, Su n n i an d Sh ii both h ave th e sam e overall con cep tion of jih ad
as a stru ggle in th e p ath of God , an d both d istin gu ish between th e
greater jih ad , th e p erson al, sp iritu al stru ggle, an d th e lesser, warfare form of jih ad . Th ey see jih ad as a religiou s d u ty in cu m ben t on
in d ivid u als an d th e Islam ic com m u n ity to d efen d life, lan d , or
faith an d to p reven t in vasion or gu aran tee th e freed om to sp read
th e faith . However, th ey d iffer with regard to wh o can d eclare a
jih ad . For Su n n is, th e calip h , with th e su p p ort of th e u lam a (reli-
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
39
giou s sch olars), h ad th e religiou s an d p olitical au th ority to d eclare
a jih ad . Sh ii view th is p ower as h avin g been u n ju stly taken from
th e tru e su ccessors to Mu h am m ad , th e Im am s. However, in th e
absen ce of th eir Im am , on ly a d efen sive jih ad was con sid ered p erm issible. Th is p roblem was resolved as som e u lam a claim ed th at
all legitim ate form s of jih ad were d efen sive an d th erefore able to
be waged in th e Im am ’s absen ce. Th is ration ale led Iran ’s Ayatollah Kh om ein i as well as Leban on ’s Hizbollah to d eclare jih ad .
Ji h a d i n t h e Cre a t i o n o f a Wo rl d w i d e Um m a h
Su n n i an d Sh ii sh are a com m on faith rooted in th e Qu ran an d
Mu h am m ad an d belon g to th e sam e global Islam ic com m u n ity. Like
a fam ily, th e m em bers of th e um m ah, or worldwide com m u n ity of
believers, m ay be very differen t. Th ey m ay h ave bitter fam ily feu ds
bu t n everth eless are bou n d togeth er by a bon d th at con tin u es to
su rvive in Mu slim faith an d religiou s im agin ation . Like tribal or
eth n ic com m un ities an d n ation states, th ey often pull togeth er wh en
fa ced b y a co m m o n ex t ern a l t h rea t b u t t h en fa ll b a ck in t o
in trareligiou s con flict. Th u s, m an y Su n n i Mu slim s iden tified with ,
celebrated, an d were in sp ired by Iran ’s Islam ic revolu tion , wh ich
Kh om ein i was carefu l to p roclaim an Islam ic (n ot sim p ly a Sh ii)
revolution . However, th is bon d dissolved wh en Kh om ein i attem pted
to rally th e Sh ii of sou th ern Iraq in th e Iran -Iraq war. In th is in stan ce, th e effects of n ation alism an d cen tu ries-old Persian –Arab
rivalries p revailed, an d Iraq i Sh ii fou gh t for th eir cou n try.
Th e con cep t of th e u m m ah d evelop ed as th e first Mu slim com m u n ity at Med in a q u ickly exp an d ed an d establish ed its h egem on y
over cen tral Arabia u n d er Mu h am m ad ’s gu id an ce. Th rou gh m ilitary action an d astu te d ip lom atic in itiatives, th e tribes of Arabia
were u n ited in an Arab com m on wealth with a com m on faith , id eology, cen tralized au th ority, an d law. For th e first tim e, an effective m ean s h ad been fou n d to en d tribal ven dettas, to in sp ire, u n ite,
an d rep lace tribal allegian ce with a com m on religiou s bon d . As
th e Qu ran com m an d ed , Mu slim s were a com m u n ity of believers,
40
Unholy W ar
in a sp ecial coven an t with God th at tran scen d ed all oth er allegian ces. Th ey were to realize th eir obligation to strive (jih ad ), to
su bm it (islam ) to God , an d to sp read th eir faith both as in d ivid u als an d as a com m u n ity.
Islam ’s tran sn ation al d im en sion was exp ressed th rou gh th e existen ce of em p ires an d su ltan ates from th e seven th to th e eigh teen th cen tu ry as Islam becam e th e global p ower an d civilization
of its d ay. Th e breaku p of Mu slim em p ires, th e fragm en tation of
th e Mu slim world by Eu rop ean colon ialism , an d th e creation of
m od ern n ation states in th e twen tieth cen tu ry red u ced th e con cep t of th e u m m ah to a m ore d istan t id eal. In th e twen tieth cen t u ry, t h e resu rgen ce o f Islam an d t h e sp read o f in t ern at io n al
com m u n ication s h ave rein forced an d rein vigorated Mu slim awaren ess an d id en tification with th e world wid e Islam ic com m u n ity.
Th e in flu en tial activist an d id eologu e Sayyid Qu tb d escribes an
u m m ah th at reflects an in tern ation al p ercep tion tod ay:
In t h is great Islam ic so ciet y Arabs, Persian s, Syrian s, Egyp tian s,
Mo ro ccan s, Tu rks, Ch in ese, In d ian s, Rom an s, Greeks, In d on esian s, African s were gat h ered t o get h er—in sh ort , p eop les of all
n at io n s an d all races. Th eir vario u s ch aracterist ics were u n it ed ,
an d wit h m u t u al co o p erat io n , h arm on y an d u n it y t h ey t ook
p art in t h e co n st ru ct io n o f t h e Islam ic com m u n ity an d Islam ic
cu lt u r e . Th is m a r v e llo u s civ ilisa t io n w a s n o t a n “ Ar a b ic
civilisat io n ,” even fo r a sin gle d ay; it was p u rely an “Islam ic
civilisat io n .” It was n ever a “n at io n alit y” bu t always a “com m u n it y o f belief.” 2
Con sciou sn ess of th e u m m ah h as been rein forced in th e p ast
few d ecad es by world even ts, greatly assisted by m ed ia coverage.
Mu slim sen tim en t, su p p ort, an d en gagem en t were triggered by
th e jih ad again st th e Soviet occu p ation of Afgh an istan , in wh ich
th ou san d s of Mu slim s from th e Arab world an d beyon d cam e to
figh t. Th e Iran ian revolu tion h ad a sim ilar im p act. Th e creation of
in tern ation al Arab an d Mu slim n ewsp ap ers an d m ed ia, su ch as
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
41
th e television station al-Jazeera, with daily coverage from em battled
Mu slim fron tiers, as well as CNN, th e BBC, an d th e In tern et h ave
brou gh t th e m an y stru ggles, or jih ad s, of Mu slim com m u n ities in
Palestin e an d Afgh an istan , Bosn ia, Iraq , Ch ech n ya, an d Kash m ir
in t o t h e livin g ro o m s an d everyd ay co n scio u sn ess o f Mu slim s
arou n d th e world .
Th e creation an d p roliferation of Mu slim organ ization s world wid e th at sou gh t to ch an ge th e circu m stan ces in wh ich th ey lived
in t en sified t h e lan gu age o f jih ad t o fire u p t h e d et erm in at io n
n eed ed in th eir stru ggle for reform . However, as we sh all see, wh o
can d eclare a jih ad an d wh at con stitu tes a legitim ate d efen sive
jih ad as op p osed to an aggressive u n h oly war of aggression wou ld ,
like beau ty, be d eterm in ed by th e eye of th e beh old er/ believer.
Jih ad wou ld rem ain a p owerfu l d efin in g con cep t for id eologu es
seekin g, in tim es of crisis, to u se th eir trad ition to retu rn p ower,
p eace, an d social ju stice to th eir com m u n ities. How d id Islam an d
jih ad get red efin ed for u se in th e twen tieth cen tu ry? W h o was
resp on sible for th e creation an d sp read of th ese id eas? To begin to
an swer th ese q u estion s we m u st again visit a d istan t p ast.
H i st o ri c a l So u rc e s o f Re v o l u t i o n a r y Ji h a d
T ERRO R AN D JI H AD I N T H E N AM E O F G O D
Th e world of early Islam , like m an y Mu slim societies tod ay, exp erien ced th e terror of religiou s extrem ist m ovem en ts. Th e Kh arijites
an d th e Assassin s rep resen t early exam p les of th e way in wh ich
d issen t cou ld tu rn to u n h oly war in th e n am e of Islam . As we sh all
see in th e n ext ch ap ter, traces of th e Kh arijites’ m ilitan t p iety an d
fu n d am en talist world view are fou n d in Sau d i Arabia’s Wah h abi
m o vem en t an d in rad ical t w en t iet h -cen t u ry m o vem en t s like
Egyp t’s Islam ic Jih ad an d bin Lad en ’s al-Qaed a.
Th e Kh arijites (from kharaja, to go ou t or exit) were followers of
Ali, wh o broke away becau se th ey believed Ali gu ilty of com p rom isin g God’s will by agreein g to arbitration to settle a lon g, drawn -ou t
war. After breakin g with Ali (wh om th ey even tu ally assassin ated ),
42
Unholy W ar
th e Kh arijites establish ed th eir own sep arate com m u n ity, based
on th eir vision of a tru e ch arism atic society strictly followin g th e
Qu ran an d th e Su n n ah . Th ey ad op ted th e p rop h etic m od el of h ijra
an d a rad ical, m ilitan t form of jih ad . First th ey with d rew to live in
th eir own com m u n ity an d th en from th eir en cam p m en ts waged
war again st th eir en em ies in th e n am e of God .
Th e Kh arijites believed th at th e Qu ran ic m an d ate to “com m an d
th e good an d forbid evil” m u st be ap p lied literally, rigorou sly, an d
with ou t q u alification or excep tion . Th eir world was d ivid ed n eatly
between belief an d u n belief, Mu slim s (followers of God ) an d n on Mu slim s (en em ies of God ), p eace an d warfare. An y action th at d id
n ot con form rigorou sly to th e letter of th e law con stitu ted a grave
or m ortal sin . Sin n ers were gu ilty of u n belief an d th u s excom m u n icated (takfir, exclu sion for u n belief). Grave sin n ers were n ot ju st
seen as religiou s backslid ers bu t ap ostates, gu ilty of treason an d
m eritin g d eath u n less th ey rep en ted .
Th e Kh arijites viewed oth er Mu slim s wh o d id n ot accep t th eir
u n com p rom isin g viewp oin t as in fid els or id olaters, an d th u s th e
en em ies of God . Th ey h eld th e egalitarian belief th at th e calip h
sh ou ld be selected by p op u lar con sen t, bu t th ey in sisted th at a
calip h cou ld on ly h old office as lon g as h e was th orou gh ly u p righ t
an d sin less. His fall from th is state con stitu ted a grave sin . It ren d ered h im an ap ostate from Islam , ou tsid e th e p rotection of its
laws, wh o m u st be d ep osed an d killed .
Believin g th at th ey were God ’s arm y figh tin g a jih ad again st
th e forces of evil, th ey con sid ered th at th e en d ju stified th e m ean s.
Violen ce, gu errilla warfare, an d revolu tion were n ot on ly legitim ate bu t also obligatory in th e battle again st th e sin n ers wh o ign o red G o d ’s w ill a n d so v ereign t y. Th is m en t a lit y h a s b een
rep licated in m od ern tim es by Islam ic Jih ad , th e assassin s of Egyp t’s
Presid en t An war Sad at, Osam a bin Lad en , an d oth er extrem ists
wh o h ave called for th e overth row of “u n -Islam ic” Mu slim ru lers
an d for jih ad again st th e West.
Historically, th e Kh arijites rem ain ed on th e m argin s or ou tsid e
of Islam ic orth od oxy, p olitically an d religiou sly. Th e sam e fate of
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
43
m argin alization awaited th e Assassin s, as it wo u ld lat er rad ical
m ovem en ts.
Th e n otoriou s Assassin s, a Sh ii offsh oot, were d riven by a m essian ic vision . Th ey lived ap art in secret com m u n ities from wh ich
th ey wou ld em erge to strike at u n believers an d were gu id ed by a
series of gran d m asters, wh o ru led from th e m ou n tain fortress of
Alam u t in n orth ern Persia. Each gran d m aster becam e kn own as
th e Old Man of th e Mou n tain . Th e Assassin s’ jih ad again st th e
Abbasid d yn asty terrorized Abbasid p rin ces, gen erals, an d u lam a
wh om th ey m u rd ered in th e n am e of th e h id d en Im am . 3 Th ey
stru ck su ch terror in th e h earts of th eir Mu slim an d Cru sad er en em ies th at th eir exp loits in Persia an d Syria earn ed th em a n am e
an d m em o ry in h ist o ry lo n g aft er t h ey were o verru n an d t h e
Mon gols execu ted th eir last gran d m aster in 1256.
I D EO LO G U ES AN D M O V EM EN T S O F
REV O LU T I O N ARY JI H AD
It is t h erefo re n ecessary—in t h e way o f t h e Islam ic m ovem en t—
t h at in t h e early st ages o f o u r t rain in g an d ed u cat ion we sh ou ld
rem o ve o u rselves fro m all in flu en ces o f th e Jah iliyyah in wh ich
we live an d fro m wh ich we d erive ben efit s. We m u st retu rn to
t h at p u re so u rce fro m wh ich t h o se p eop le d erived th eir gu id an ce . . . wh ich is free fro m an y m ixin g or p ollu t ion . . . . From it
we m u st also d erive o u r co n cep t s o f life, ou r p rin cip les of govern m en t , p o lit ics, eco n o m ics an d all o th er asp ect s of life. 4
Th is st at em en t by Sayyid Q u t b illu st rat es t h e ext en t t o wh ich
Mu slim s rely h eavily on th e p ast for m ean in g an d gu id an ce in th e
p resen t. Man y n on -Mu slim s m igh t be p rep ared to u n d erstan d a
b eliev er ’s ret u rn t o t h e Q u ra n a n d Su n n a h o f t h e Pr o p h et
Mu h am m ad for gu id an ce, bu t th ey wou ld be aston ish ed to learn
th e exten t to wh ich th e id eas of m ed ieval an d p re-m od ern th eologian s an d m ovem en ts d irectly im p act th e world of Islam tod ay.
Both m od ern reform ers an d rad ical extrem ists d raw (often selectively) on th e teach in gs an d exam p les of early Islam ic revivalist
44
Unholy W ar
t h in kers an d act ivist m o vem en t s t o ju st ify t h eir co n t em p o rary
jih ad s, th eir h oly an d u n h oly wars.
Islam p ossesses a lon g trad ition of religiou s revivalism an d social reform startin g with th e p rop h et-reform er Mu h am m ad h im self an d th e stru ggle of th e early Islam ic com m u n ity to im p rove
th eir jah iliyyah world . In every age, th e glarin g d isp arities (real or
p erceived ) between God ’s will an d th e state of th e world in sp ired
religiou s reform ers (m ujaddids) an d m ovem en ts wh o called Mu slim s to follow Islam m ore faith fu lly an d to reform th eir society.
For p iou s believers, p olitical fragm en tation an d econ om ic an d
social declin e m u st be eviden ce of a dep artu re from th e straigh t
p ath of Islam . Th e h eart an d sou l of ren ewal req u ire a p rocess of
p u rification an d retu rn to th e p ristin e teach in gs of Islam . Based on
a tradition of th e Prop h et, “God will sen d to th is u m m ah [com m u n ity] at th e begin n in g of each cen tu ry th ose wh o will ren ew its
faith ,” Su n n i Islam develop ed th e belief th at revitalization wou ld
be n ecessary in every age.5 Th e clear disju n ction between p u blic life
an d th e Islam ic ideal con tribu ted to th e p op u lar exp ectation of a
fu tu re m essian ic figu re, th e Mah di (th e gu ided on e), wh o wou ld
com e to deliver th e com m u n ity from op p ression by th e forces of
evil an d restore tru e Islam an d th e reign of ju stice on earth . As we
h ave seen , Sh ii Islam develop ed its own m essian ic varian t, a belief
in th e awaited retu rn of th e Hidden Im am as th e Mah di. Th is belief
was exp ressed p op u larly in th e twen tieth cen tu ry wh en followers
of Ayatollah Kh om ein i took to callin g h im “Im am Kh om ein i.” Alth ou gh Kh om ein i h im self n ever claim ed th e title Im am , h e n ever
p u blicly discou raged oth ers from doin g so. Man y Sh ii wh o did n ot
follow Kh om ein i were scan dalized by th is p ractice.
Th rou gh ou t th e ages, in tim es of d ivision an d d eclin e religiou s
sch olars an d m ovem en ts h ave risen u p to call th e com m u n ity back
to its fu n d am en tal m essage an d m ission . Several p rom in en t exam p les will give u s an id ea of th e con tin u in g p ower of th e p ast in
th e m in d s of Islam ic activists tod ay. Am on g th e m ost sign ifican t
reform ers for tod ay are th e m ed ieval in tellectu al-activist Taq i alDin Ah m ad ibn Taym iyya an d th e lead ers of th e great jih ad m ove-
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
45
m en ts of th e eigh teen th cen tu ry. Th eir teach in gs an d action s are
p art of a revivalist legacy from wh ich con tem p orary Islam ic m ovem en ts, both m ain stream an d extrem ist, h ave d rawn h eavily.
I BN T AYM I YYAH
Perh ap s n o m ed ieval sch olar-activist h as h ad m ore in flu en ce on
rad ical Islam ic id eology th an Ibn Taym iyya (1268–1328). A sch olar
of Islam ic law an d th eology as well as a p olitical figu re, h e was a
m ajor con servative voice wh o in th e m od ern p eriod is q u oted by
liberals, con servatives, an d extrem ists alike. Described by som e as
th e sp iritu al fath er of (Su n n i) revolu tion ary Islam , oth ers regard
h im as “th e m od el for revivalists an d vigilan tes, for fu n d am en talist reform ers, an d oth er ap ostles of m oral rearm am en t.” 6 Th ou gh
h e was ad d ressin g th e p roblem s of h is society in th e th irteen th
cen tu ry, h is id eas in flu en ced an d h ave been ap p rop riated by Sau d i
Arabia’s eigh teen th -cen tu ry Wah h abi m ovem en t, Egyp t’s m od ern
activist ideologu e Sayyid Qu tb, Islam ic Jih ad’s Mu h am m ad al-Farag,
an d con tem p orary extrem ists like Osam a bin Lad en .
Ibn Taym iyya lived d u rin g on e of th e m ost d isru p tive p eriod s
of Islam ic h istory, wh ich h ad seen th e fall of Bagh d ad an d th e
co n q u est o f t h e Abbasid Em p ire in 1258 by t h e Mo n go ls. Th e
em p ire’s d efeat rep resen ted th e im p ossible—th e ap p aren t con q u est
of th e calip h ate an d of Islam . Ibn Taym iyya’s fam ily was forced to
flee to Dam ascu s; h is p ain fu l exp erien ce as a refu gee colored h is
attitu d e toward th e con q u eror Mon gols th rou gh ou t h is life. A p rofessor of Han bali law, th e m ost con servative of th e fou r Su n n i
sch ools of law, h e balan ced th e life of a religiou s sch olar with p olitical activism . Like m an y m u jad d id s wh o h ave followed h im , h is
writin g an d p reach in g earn ed h im p ersecu tion an d im p rison m en t
in Egyp t an d Syria. 7 Com bin in g id eas an d action , h is belief in th e
in tercon n ected n ess of religion , state, an d society h as exerted both
con sciou s an d u n con sciou s in flu en ce on eigh teen th -cen tu ry an d
twen tieth -cen tu ry revivalism .
Ibn Taym iyya called on a rigorou s, literalist in terp retation of
th e sacred sou rces (th e Qu ran an d Su n n ah , an d th e exam p le of
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th e early Mu slim com m u n ity) for th e cru cially n eed ed Islam ic ren ewal an d reform of h is society. Th ese sou rces con stitu ted h is yard stick for orth od oxy. Like m an y wh o cam e after h im , h e regard ed
th e com m u n ity at Med in a as th e m od el for an Islam ic state. His
goal was th e p u rification of Islam . A retu rn to th e p ristin e p u rity
of th e p eriod of Mu h am m ad an d th e First Fou r Righ teou s Calip h s,
h e believed , was n ecessary to restore th e Islam ic com m u n ity’s p ast
p ower an d greatn ess. He d istin gu ish ed sh arp ly between Islam an d
n on -Islam (th e d ar al-Islam an d th e d ar al-h arb), th e lan d s of belief an d u n belief. In con trast to h is vision of a close relation sh ip
between religion an d th e state, h e m ad e a sh arp d istin ction between religion an d cu ltu re. Alth ou gh a p iou s Su fi (a p ractition er
of Islam ic m ysticism ), h e d en ou n ced as su p erstition th e p op u lar
p ractices of h is d ay su ch as sain t worsh ip an d th e ven eration of
Su fi sh rin es an d tom bs.
Ibn Taym iyya’s ire was esp ecially directed at th e Mon gols. Desp ite th eir con version to Islam , th e Mon gols h ad been locked in a
jih ad with th e Mu slim Mam lu k ru lers of Egypt. Becau se th e Mon gols
con tin u ed to follow th e Yasa code of laws of Gen gh is Kh an in stead
of th e Islam ic law, Sh ariah , for Ibn Taym iyya th ey were n o better
th an th e p olyth eists of th e p re-Islam ic jah iliyyah . He issu ed a fatwa
th at labeled th em as u n believers (kafirs) wh o were th u s excom m u n icated (takfir). His fatwa regardin g th e Mon gols establish ed a p receden t: despite th eir claim to be Mu slim s, th eir failu re to im plem en t
Sh ariah ren dered th e Mon gols ap ostates an d h en ce th e lawfu l object of jih ad. Mu slim citizen s th u s h ad th e righ t, in deed du ty, to
revolt again st th em , to wage jih ad.
Lat er gen erat io n s, fro m t h e Wah h abi m o vem en t t o m o d ern
Egyp t’s Sayyid Qu tb, Islam ic Jih ad , th e assassin s of An war Sad at,
an d Osam a bin Lad en , wou ld u se th e logic in Ibn Taym iyya’s fatwa
on th e Mon gols to call for a jih ad again st “u n -Islam ic” Mu slim
ru lers an d elites an d again st th e West. Ap p lyin g th e em otive p reIslam ic term jah iliyyah to societies in filtrated by tribal or Western
cu ltu re, th ey wou ld d raw a rigid d istin ction between tru e belief
an d u n belief, level th e ch arge of u n belief, p roclaim excom m u n ication , an d call for a jih ad .
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
47
EI G H T EEN T H - C EN T U RY JI H AD M O V EM EN T S
Th e global em ergen ce of eigh teen th -cen tu ry revivalist m ovem en ts
h old s th e key to u n d erstan d in g th e m in d set of reform ers an d extrem ists tod ay. Th e world of Islam in th e eigh teen th cen tu ry exp erien ced an Islam ic revivalist wave th at, as is h ap p en in g again tod ay,
swep t across th e Mu slim world , from Africa to Asia. In con trast to
p rior p eriod s wh en Islam ic revivalism occu rred in a sp ecific em p ire o r regio n , eigh t een t h -cen t u ry m o vem en t s ext en d ed fro m
m od ern -d ay Su d an , Libya, an d Nigeria, across th e Arabian p en in su la an d th e In d ian su bcon tin en t to Sou th east Asia.
For ou r p u rp oses, we will focu s on th e id eas of th e Wah h abi
m ovem en t in Arabia, a p rom in en t exam p le of eigh teen th -cen tu ry
Islam ic revivalism , wh ich h ad a p rofou n d im p act on Arabia an d
th e d evelop m en t of Sau d i Arabia. Perh ap s m ost im p ortan t, it con tin u es to be a sign ifican t force in th e Islam ic world , in form in g
both m ain stream an d extrem ist m ovem en ts from Afgh an istan an d
Cen tral Asia to Eu rop e an d Am erica.
Mu h am m ad ibn Abd al-Wah h ab (1703–1791) stu d ied Islam ic
law an d th eology in Mecca an d Med in a an d took Ibn Taym iyya as
h is exem p lar. Disillu sion ed by th e sp iritu al d eclin e an d m oral laxity of h is society, h e d en ou n ced p op u lar beliefs an d p ractices as
id olatry an d jah iliyyah , rejected m u ch of th e m ed ieval law of th e
u lam a (religiou s sch olars) as in n ovation (bida) or h eresy, an d called
for a fresh in terp retation of Islam th at retu rn ed to its revealed
sou rces.
Cen tral to al-Wah h ab’s th eology an d m ovem en t was th e d octrin e of God ’s u n ity (tawhid), an absolu te m on oth eism reflected in
t h e Wah h abi’s self-d esign at io n as “u n it arian s” (m uwahiddun)—
t h o se wh o u p h o ld t h e u n it y o f Go d . Cit in g t h e t rad it io n t h at
Mu h am m ad h ad d estroyed th e p an th eon of god s in h is Meccan
sh rin e, th e Wah h abi forces set ou t to d estroy “id olatrou s” sh rin es,
tom bston es, an d sacred objects. Th ey sp ared n eith er th e sacred
tom bs of Mu h am m ad an d h is Com p an ion s in Mecca an d Med in a
n o r t h e Sh iit e p ilgrim age sit e at Karbala (in m o d ern Iraq ) t h at
h ou sed th e tom b of Hu ssein . Th e d estru ction of th is ven erated
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Unholy W ar
site h as n ever been forgotten by Sh ii Mu slim s an d h as con tribu ted
to th e h istoric an tip ath y between th e Wah h abi of Sau d i Arabia
an d Sh ii Islam in both Sau d i Arabia an d Iran . Cen tu ries later, m an y
wou ld p oin t to Wah h abi-in sp ired icon oclasm an d religiou s fan aticism as t h e so u rce beh in d t h e Taliban ’s wan t o n d est ru ct io n o f
Bu d d h ist m on u m en ts in Afgh an istan , an action con d em n ed by
Mu slim lead ers world wid e.
Mu h am m ad ibn Abd al-Wah h ab join ed religiou s zeal with m ilitary m igh t an d allied with Mu h am m ad ibn Sau d , a local tribal
ch ief, to form a religiop olitical m ovem en t. Ibn Sau d u sed Wah h abism as a religiou s id eal to legitim ate h is jih ad to su bd u e an d
u n ite th e tribes of Arabia, con vertin g th em to th is p u ritan ical version of Islam . Like th e Kh arijites, th e Wah h abi viewed all Mu slim s
wh o resisted as u n believers (wh o cou ld be fou gh t an d killed ). Th ey
were th erefore to be su bd u ed in th e n am e of Islam ic egalitarian ism . In th e early n in eteen th cen tu ry Mu h am m ad Ali of Egyp t d efeated th e Sau d is, bu t th e Wah h abi m ovem en t an d th e Hou se of
Sau d p roved resilien t. In th e early twen tieth cen tu ry, Abd u laziz
ibn Sau d recap tu red Riyad h . With th e Ikhwan (broth erh ood ), a
n on tribal m ilitary, h e on ce again u n ited th e tribes of Arabia, restored th e Sau d i kin gd om , an d sp read th e Wah h abi m ovem en t.
Th e kin gd om m eld ed th e p olitical an d religiou s; it was led by a
su ccession of kin gs from th e Hou se of Sau d with th e close su p p ort
of th e religiou s establish m en t, m an y of wh om are d escen d an ts of
al-Wah h ab, sin ce th ey h ad m arried in to th e royal fam ily.
Th e Hou se of Sau d ’s ap p eal to Wah h abi Islam for legitim acy
h as also been u sed again st it by d issid en ts. As d iscu ssed in th e
n ext ch ap ter, in Novem ber 1979 m ilitan ts seized th e Gran d Mosq u e
in Mecca, accu sed th e royal fam ily of com p rom isin g th eir Wah h abi
faith , an d called for th e overth row of th e Hou se of Sau d . Again in
th e 1990s an d th e afterm ath of th e Gu lf war, th e Sau d i govern m en t h ad to m ove forcefu lly to arrest an d silen ce in d ep en d en t,
n on govern m en t u lam a in Mecca, Med in a, an d Riyad h wh o were
callin g for greater p olitical p articip ation an d accou n tability an d
d en ou n cin g religiou s d evian ce an d corru p tion .
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
49
In tern ation ally, th e Sau d is, both govern m en t-sp on sored organ ization s an d wealth y in d ivid u als, h ave exp orted a p u ritan ical an d
at tim es m ilitan t version of Wah h abi Islam to oth er cou n tries an d
com m u n ities in th e Mu slim world an d th e West. Th ey h ave offered d evelo p m en t aid , b u ilt m o sq u es an d o t h er in st it u t io n s,
fu n d ed an d d istribu ted religiou s tracts, an d com m ission ed im am s
an d religiou s sch olars. Th ey exp orted th eir Wah h abi id eology an d
p rovid ed fin an cial su p p ort to Afgh an istan , Pakistan , th e Cen tral
Asian rep u blics, Ch in a, Africa, Sou th east Asia, th e Un ited States,
an d Eu rop e. Wealth y bu sin essm en in Sau d i Arabia, both m em bers
of th e establish m en t an d ou tsid ers su ch as Osam a bin Lad en , h ave
p rovid ed fin an cial su p p ort to extrem ist grou p s wh o follow a m ilitan t fu n d am en talist bran d of Islam with its jih ad cu ltu re.
Tra i l b l a z e rs o f t h e Isl a m i c Re v o l u t i o n
Western h istorian s h ave m arveled at th e sp eed with wh ich Islam
took root an d grew. Mu slim trad ition h ad always viewed th e rem arkable sp read of Islam as a m iracu lou s p roof an d h istoric valid ation of th e tru th of th e Qu ran an d Islam ’s claim s an d as a sign
of God ’s gu id an ce. Bu t Eu rop ean colon ialism from th e eigh teen th
to th e first h alf of th e twen tieth cen tu ry an d th e su bseq u en t failu re of m an y m od ern Mu slim states p osed a seriou s ch allen ge to
th is belief. Som e Mu slim s cam e to believe th at Islam h ad lost its
relevan ce, an d m an y oth ers con clu d ed th at Western d om in an ce
an d Mu slim d ep en d en cy were t h e resu lt o f u n fait h fu ln ess an d
d ep artu re from th e p ath of Islam . Th is was a p owerfu l argu m en t
t h at en co u raged h o ly warrio rs t o st ru ggle (jih ad ) t o b rin g t h e
u m m ah back to th e straigh t p ath . Mu slim resp on ses to Eu rop ean
colon ialism p recip itated a n ew d ebate abou t th e m ean in g of jih ad .
As d iscu ssed in th e n ext ch ap ter, Islam ic m od ern ists an d m ovem en ts like th e Mu slim Broth erh ood of Egyp t an d Pakistan ’s Jam aati-Islam i (Islam ic Society) worked to com bin e religiou s reform an d
p olitical m obilization . Islam ic activist organ ization s fram ed th eir
stru ggle in a call for a jih ad again st British im p erialism an d corru p t Mu slim ru lers.
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Unholy W ar
Volu m es h ave been written on th e id eologu es wh o in sp ire con tem p orary activists an d terrorists. W h ile a com p reh en sive d iscu ssio n is im p o ssib le h ere, t h ree key in t ellect u al-act ivist s—Hasan
al-Ban n a, Mawlan a Mawd u d i, an d Sayyid Qu tb—h ave been so in flu en tial in creatin g th e vision of m od ern Islam ic reform th at th ey
warran t ou r atten tion . It is alm ost im p ossible to exaggerate th e
d irect an d in d irect im p act an d in flu en ce of th ese th ree m en . Th eir
writ in gs h ave b een p u b lish ed an d d ist rib u t ed t h ro u gh o u t t h e
Mu slim world . Th eir id eas h ave been d issem in ated in sh ort p am p h lets an d au d iocassettes. Th e lead ersh ip of m ost m ajor Islam ic
m ovem en ts, m ain stream an d extrem ist, n on violen t an d violen t
alike, h as been in flu en ced by th eir id eas on Islam , Islam ic revolu tion , jih ad , an d m od ern Western society. Th eir recastin g of Islam
as a com p reh en sive id eology to ad d ress th e con d ition s of m od ern
Mu slim s p rod u ced a rein terp retation of Islam ic belief th at h as been
so wid ely u sed , it h as been in tegrated u n con sciou sly in to th e religiou s d iscou rse of Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e world wh o wou ld n orm ally d isassociate th em selves from Islam ic m ovem en ts.
W h en Hasan al-Ban n a (1906–1949) establish ed th e Egyp tian
Mu slim Broth erh ood an d Mawlan a Mawd u d i (1903–1979) created
th e Jam aat-i-Islam i in Pakistan , few in th e West or in th eir own
societies took seriou s n otice. Both al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i recogn ized th at ch an ge wou ld be slow to com e. Exp ectin g rejection an d
p ersecu tion , th eir focu s was to train fu tu re gen eration s. Th ey were
very su ccessfu l in ach ievin g th eir goal.
Sayyid Qu tb (1906–1966) bu ilt u p on an d radicalized th e ideas of
al-Ban n a an d Mawdu di. Qu tb created an ideological legacy th at in corp orated all th e m ajor h istorical form s of jih ad, from th e reform s
of Mu h am m ad to th e extrem es of th e Kh arijites an d th e Assassin s.
With in a few sh ort decades, th e ideas of al-Ban n a’s Mu slim Broth erh ood an d Mawd u d i’s Jam aat-i-Islam i, often viewed th rou gh th e
p rism of Qu tb’s m ore radicalized in terp retation , becam e th e p rim ary m odels for n ew activist organ ization s across th e Muslim world.
Th ou gh p art of a cen tu ries-old revivalist trad ition , all th ree m en
were m od ern in th eir resp on ses. Th ey were n eofu n d am en talist in
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
51
th e sen se th at th ey retu rn ed to th e sou rces or fu n d am en tals of Islam . Bu t th ey rein terp reted Islam ic sou rces in resp on se to th e ch allen ges of th e m odern world. Th is is ap p aren t in th eir teach in gs,
organ ization , strategy, tactics, an d u se of m odern scien ce an d tech n ology. In deed, m an y Islam ic activists are th e p rodu ct of m odern
ed u cation s, leaders in p rofession al association s of p h ysician s, en gin eers, lawyers, jou rn alists, u n iversity p rofessors, an d stu den ts.
H ASAN AL- BAN N A AN D M AW LAN A M AW D U D I
Th e Broth erh ood an d th e Jam aat were establish ed in 1928 an d 1941
resp ectively, both with in Mu slim societies in crisis. Hasan al-Ban n a,
a teach er, an d Mawlan a Mawdu di, a jou rn alist, were p iou s, edu cated m en with trad ition al Islam ic religiou s backgrou n d s an d a
kn owledge of Western th ou gh t. Both p laced p rim ary blam e for th e
ills of th eir society an d th e declin e of th e Mu slim world u p on Eu rop ean im p erialism an d western ized Mu slim elites. Like revivalists of
old, th ey in itially called for m oral an d social reform bu t soon also
becam e em broiled in p olitical activism an d op p osition .
For Hasan al-Ban n a th e failu re of liberal n ation alism in Egyp t
was reflected in th e creation of Israel an d th e con seq u en t d isp lacem en t of m illion s of Palestin ian s as well as con tin u ed British occu p at io n , m assive u n em p lo ym en t , p o vert y, an d co rru p t io n . H e
rejected th e p referen ce for th e sp iritu al jih ad (greater jih ad ) over a
m ilitary (lesser jih ad ) on e. Sin ce Mu slim lan d s h ad been in vad ed ,
h e said , it was in cu m ben t on all Mu slim s to rep el th eir in vad ers
ju st as it was an Islam ic im p erative for Mu slim s to op p ose ru lers
wh o blocked th e establish m en t of Islam ic govern m en ts.
For Mawd u d i, th e d eclin e of Mu slim ru le in Sou th Asia an d th e
d ism em berm en t of th e Ottom an Em p ire were th e p rod u cts of British an d Fren ch colon ialism . Mu slim id en tity an d u n ity were th reaten ed by th e rise of Hin d u secu lar n ation alism an d th e im p osition
of m od ern n ation alism , a foreign Western id eology wh ose p u rp ose was to weaken an d d ivid e th e Mu slim world by rep lacin g th e
u n iversal p an -Islam ic id eal of th e eq u ality an d solid arity of all
Mu slim s with an id en tity based u p on lan gu age, tribe, or eth n icity.
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Th ou gh in sp ired by th e p ast, in p articu lar th e eigh teen th -cen tu ry revivalist m ovem en ts, al-Ban n a an d Mawdu di did n ot retreat
to it bu t resp on ded to m odern society. Th ey were ju st as critical of
th e failu re of th e religiou s establish m en t’s con servatism as th ey were
of secu lar Mu slim elites’ Western -orien ted reform ist vision s. Alth ou gh th ey were in flu en ced by Islam ic m odern ist reform ers, wh o
h ad attem p ted to bridge th e gap between tradition an d m odern ity,
th ey n everth eless believed th at Islam ic m odern ism ten ded to western ize Islam , to recast Islam in ligh t of Western stan dards an d solu tion s to th e ch allen ge of m odern ity. Th ou gh an tiwestern ization ,
th ey were n ot again st scien tific an d tech n ological m odern ization .
Th ey both stressed th e self-su fficien cy of Islam , n ot th e u lam a’s irrelevan t m edieval Islam ic vision bu t a n ew in terp retation an d ap p lication of Islam ’s revealed sou rces th at addressed th e p olitical,
econ om ic, an d cu ltu ral ch allen ges of m odern ity.
Both al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i p roclaim ed Islam th e clear altern ative to th e ills an d sh ortcom in gs of Marxism an d Western cap italism . As al-Ban n a d eclared , “Un til recen tly, writers, in tellectu als,
sch olars, an d govern m en ts glorified th e p rin cip les of Eu rop ean
civilization , gave th em selves a Western tin t, an d ad op ted a Eu rop ean st yle an d m an n er; t o d ay o n t h e co n t rary, t h e win d h as
ch an ged , an d reserve an d d istru st h ave taken th eir p lace. Voices
are raised p roclaim in g th e n ecessity for a retu rn to th e p rin cip les,
teach in gs an d ways of Islam . . . for in itiatin g th e recon ciliation of
m od ern life with th ese p rin cip les, as a p relu d e to fin al ‘Islam ization .’” 8 Desp ite differen ces, Hasan al-Ban n a an d Mawlan a Mawdu di
sh ared a com m on id eological world view wh ich wou ld com e to
in sp ire an d in form th e stru ggle (jih ad ) of later Islam ic m ovem en ts.
Th e followin g rep resen ts th e m ain p oin ts of th e world view th at
th e two m en sh ared :
1. Islam is a total, all-en com p assin g way of life th at gu id es each
p erson an d h is or h er com m u n ity an d p olitical life.
2. Th e Qu ran , God ’s revelation , an d th e Su n n ah of th e Prop h et
an d t h e early Mu slim co m m u n it y are t h e fo u n d at io n s o f
Mu slim life, p rovid in g th e m od els th at gu id e d aily action s.
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
53
3. Islam ic law (Sh ariah ) p rovid es th e id eal an d blu ep rin t for a
m od ern Mu slim society n ot d ep en d en t on Western m od els.
4. Dep artu re from Islam an d relian ce on th e West are th e cau ses
for Mu slim d eclin e. A retu rn to th e straigh t p ath of Islam
will restore th e id en tity, p rid e, su ccess, p ower, an d wealth of
th e Islam ic com m u n ity in th is life an d m erit etern al reward
in th e n ext.
5. Scien ce an d tech n ology m u st be h arn essed an d u sed . Th is
m u st be ach ieved with in an Islam ic con text, n ot by d ep en d en ce on foreign Western cu ltu res, to avoid th e western ization an d secu larization of society.
6. Jih ad , to strive or stru ggle, both p erson ally an d in com m u n ity, in id eas an d in action to im p lem en t Islam ic reform an d
revolu tion , is th e m ean s to brin g abou t a su ccessfu l Islam ization of society an d th e world .
Both m en p osited a stru ggle (jih ad ) between th e forces of God
an d Satan , good an d evil, d arkn ess or ign oran ce (jah iliyyah ) an d
ligh t. Each en vision ed h is organ ization as a van gu ard , a righ teou s
com m u n ity th at wou ld serve as a d yn am ic n u cleu s for tru e Islam ic reform ation with in th e broad er society. Th ou gh th ey were
q u ick to d en ou n ce im p erialism an d th e th reat of Western cu ltu re,
th ey n everth eless realized (as d o m an y Islam ic organ ization s tod ay) th at th e Mu slim p red icam en t was first an d forem ost a Mu slim problem . Rebu ildin g th e com m u n ity an d redressin g th e balan ce
of power between Islam an d th e West m u st begin with a call (dawah)
to all Mu slim s to retu rn an d reap p rop riate th eir faith in its fu lln ess or totality of vision .
Dawah h as two m ean in gs: an in vitation to n on -Mu slim s to con vert to Islam an d th e call to th ose wh o were born Mu slim to be
better Mu slim s. Th e Broth erh ood an d th e Jam aat em p h asized th e
latter, callin g on Mu slim s to ren ew th eir faith an d p ractice in ord er to brin g abou t a social revolu tion , th e re-Islam ization of th e
in d ivid u al an d society. Th e Broth erh ood an d Jam aat d issem in ated
t h eir m essage t h ro u gh sch o o ls, m o sq u es, p u blicat io n s, st u d en t
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Unholy W ar
organ ization s, p rofession al association s, an d social services th at
com bin ed religiou s com m itm en t, m od ern learn in g an d tech n ology, an d social an d p olitical activism .
Th e jih ad (stru ggle) th at becam e a cen tral con cep t in d escribin g th e p rocess of self-tran sform ation an d p olitical activism , both
again st Eu rop ean colon ialism an d later again st corru p t, u n -Islam ic
Mu slim states, was p rim arily on e of reform , n ot violen t revolu tion . Yet, it d id in clu d e th e d efen se of th e Mu slim com m u n ity an d
of Islam again st colon ialism an d in ju stice. As a you th , Hasan alBan n a was im p ressed by an abortive revolt again st British occu p at io n : “Desp it e m y p reo ccu p at io n wit h Su fism an d wo rsh ip , I
believed th at d u ty to cou n try is an in escap able obligation —a h oly
war.” 9 Th e con clu sion h e d rew as a th irteen -year-old regard in g th e
relation sh ip of religion to p olitics wou ld becom e a fou n d ation
st o n e fo r t h e Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d , fro m it s d o m est ic p o lit ical
op p osition in Egyp t to its in volvem en t in th e war in Palestin e.
Desp ite criticism of Western m od els of d evelop m en t, al-Ban n a
accep ted , th ou gh h e q u alified an d Islam ized , n otion s of p atriot ism , n at io n alism , an d p arliam en t ary d em o cracy. He accep t ed
Egyp t ’s co n st it u t io n al go vern m en t , bu t crit icized t h e ext en t t o
wh ich it s laws d eviat ed fro m Islam ic n o rm s regard in g alco h o l,
gam blin g, p rostitu tion , an d u su ry. 10
Mawd u d i’s early rejection of n ation alism an d d em ocracy as u n Islam ic was in flu en ced m ore by h is op p osition to western ization
an d secu larization th an by religion . He wou ld later com e to accep t both with q u alification s, an d th e Jam aat wou ld p articip ate in
election s an d serve in govern m en t. Mawd u d i’s p rolific writin g on
Islam , tran slated in to m an y Mu slim lan gu ages, h as h ad a global
im p act. His writin g on jih ad , in both its d efen sive an d corrective
roles, wou ld h ave u n foreseen con seq u en ces.
Mawd u d i’s con cep tion of “wh at jih ad really is” starts with h is
argu m en t th at jih ad h as becom e so d ifficu lt for Mu slim s an d n on Mu slim s to u n d erstan d becau se of two m ajor m iscon cep tion s. First
of all, Islam , h e said , is n ot a religion in th e sen se of “a h od ge
p od ge of som e beliefs, p rayers an d ritu als.” 11 Rath er, “it is a com -
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
55
p reh en sive system th at ten d s to an n ih ilate all tyran n ical an d evil
system s in th e world an d en force its own p rogram . . . in th e in terests of m an kin d .” 12 Secon d ly, Mu slim s are n ot a n ation in th e con ven tion al sen se of th e term becau se Islam u rges “m an kin d as a
wh ole to brin g abou t revolu tion an d reform .” 13 Th erefore, Islam is
“a revolu tion ary con cep t an d id eology wh ich seeks to ch an ge an d
revolu tion ise th e world social ord er an d resh ap e it accord in g to its
own con cep t an d id eals.” 14 An d so Mawd u d i sees Mu slim s as an
in tern ation al p arty organ ized to im p lem en t Islam ’s revolu tion ary
p rogram , an d jih ad as th e term th at d en otes th e u tm ost stru ggle
to brin g abou t an Islam ic revolu tion . 15 Mawd u d i stresses th at jih ad
is n ot a war between n ation s for selfish or m aterial en d s, bu t a
“stru ggle for th e Cau se of Allah ,” th at is d evoid of all selfish m otives su ch as “gain in g wealth an d sp len d ou r, n am e an d fam e, or
an y p erson al glory or elevation ” an d “sh ou ld be d irected to ach ieve
th e on e an d th e on ly en d , i.e., th e establish m en t of a ju st an d
eq u itable social ord er for h u m an ity as a wh ole.” 16 For Mawd u d i,
jih ad is both offen sive an d d efen sive at on e an d th e sam e tim e,
offen sive becau se th e op p osin g p rin cip les an d id eology (n ot th e
lan d of th e op p on en ts) m u st be assau lted , an d d efen sive becau se
Mu slim s m u st retain p ower in ord er to im p lem en t th eir n ew id eology. 17 Mawd u d i’s p osition on th e n atu re of jih ad wou ld be elaborated on by oth ers in clu d in g th e Mu slim Broth erh ood ’s Sayyid
Qu tb, th e id eologu e of Islam ic revolu tion in th e Su n n i world , an d
th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i in Sh ii Iran .
W h ile both al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i sou gh t to work with in th e
system , th e growth of th eir organ ization s an d con d em n ation of
ru lers an d regim es brou gh t th em in to con flict with govern m en ts.
After World War II, th e Broth erh ood step p ed u p th eir op p osition
to th e British occu p ation an d th e Egyp tian govern m en t’s p olicies.
In 1948 a Broth erh ood m em ber assassin ated th e p rim e m in ister;
in 1949 Hasan al-Ban n a was assassin ated by m em bers of th e secret
p olice. 18
Mawd u d i an d th e Jam aat fou n d th em selves at loggerh ead s with
th e govern m en t on m an y occasion s bu t were n everth eless able to
56
Unholy W ar
con tin u e to fu n ction . In d eed , at on e p oin t, alth ou gh Mawd u d i
h ad been sen ten ced to d eath , h is con viction was overtu rn ed . Alth ou gh Pakistan was ru led by m ilitary regim es, state rep ression
was always far less th an in Egyp t an d m u ch of th e Arab world an d
its cou rt system m ore in d ep en d en t. Th u s, th e Jam aat rem ain ed an
op p osition able to fu n ction with in th e system . By con trast, th e
rep ression of th e Mu slim Broth erh ood u n d er Egyp t’s Gam al Abd el
Nasser wou ld lead to th e em ergen ce an d growth of rad ical jih ad
organ ization s.
SAYYI D Q U T B: G O D FAT H ER AN D
M ART YR O F I SLAM I C RAD I C ALI SM
It wou ld be d ifficu lt to overestim ate th e role p layed by Sayyid Qu tb
in th e reassertion of m ilitan t jih ad . He was a god fath er to Mu slim
extrem ist m ovem en ts arou n d th e globe. In m an y ways, h is jou rn ey from ed u cated in tellectu al, govern m en t official, an d ad m irer
of th e West to m ilitan t activist wh o con d em n ed both th e Egyp tian an d Am erican govern m en ts an d d efen d ed th e legitim acy of
m ilitan t jih ad h as in flu en ced an d in sp ired m an y m ilitan ts, from
th e assassin s of An war Sad at to th e followers of Osam a bin Lad en
an d al-Qaed a.
Ju st as t h e in t erp ret at io n s o f Hasan al-Ban n a an d Mawlan a
Mawd u d i were con d ition ed resp on ses to th e p olitical an d social
realities of th eir tim es, so too Sayyid Qu tb’s Islam grew ou t of th e
m ilitan t con fron tation between th e rep ressive Egyp tian state an d
t h e Bro t h erh o o d in t h e la t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s. In crea sin gly
rad icalized by Gam al Abd el Nasser’s su p p ression of th e Broth erh ood , Qu tb tran sform ed th e id eology of al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i
in to a rejection ist revolu tion ary call to arm s. Like al-Ban n a, h e
wou ld be rem em bered as a m artyr of th e Islam ic revival.
Qu tb, like al-Ban n a, h ad a m od ern ed u cation . He stu d ied at Dar
al-Ulu m , a college set u p by reform ers to train teach ers in a m od ern cu rricu lu m . He becam e a great ad m irer of th e West an d Western lit erat u re. Aft er grad u at io n , h e b ecam e an o fficial in t h e
Min istry of Pu blic In stru ction , as well as a p oet an d literary critic.
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
57
A d evou t Mu slim wh o h ad m em orized th e Qu ran as a ch ild , h e
began to write on Islam an d th e Egyp tian state. In 1948, h e p u blish ed Islam and Social Justice, in wh ich h e argu ed th at Islam p ossessed its own social teach in gs an d th at Islam ic socialism avoid ed
both th e p itfalls of Ch ristian ity’s sep aration of religion an d society an d th ose of Com m u n ism ’s ath eism .
In th e late 1940s Qu tb visited th e Un ited States. Th is p roved to
be a tu rn in g p oin t in h is life, tran sform in g an ad m irer in to a severe critic of th e West. His exp erien ces in Am erica p rod u ced a cu ltu re sh ock th at m ad e h im m ore religiou s an d con vin ced h im of
th e m oral d ecad en ce of th e West. He was ap p alled by its m aterialism , sexu al p erm issiven ess an d p rom iscu ity, free u se an d abu se of
alcoh ol, an d its racism , wh ich h e d irectly exp erien ced becau se of
h is d ark skin . His views on Am erica are su m m arized in h is in flu en tial tract, Milestones:
Loo k at t h is cap it alism wit h it s m o n o p olies, its u su ry . . . at t h is
in d ivid u al freed o m , d evo id o f h u m an sym p at h y an d resp on sibility fo r relat ives excep t u n d er fo rce o f law; at th is m at erialist ic
at t it u d e wh ich d ead en s t h e sp irit ; at t h is beh aviou r, like an im als, wh ich yo u call “free m ixin g o f t h e sexes”; at t h is vu lgarity
wh ich yo u call “em an cip at io n o f wo m en ”; at t h is evil an d fan at ic racial d iscrim in at io n . 19
Qu tb’s stay in Am erica coin cid ed with th e establish m en t of Israel as a state gu aran teed by th e Un ited States an d th e begin n in g
of th e Cold War between th e U.S. an d USSR, d u rin g wh ich Egyp t,
u n d er Nasser, align ed itself with Ru ssia an d secu lar n ation alism ,
m ovin g even farth er away from th e p rosp ect of establish in g an
Islam ic state. In ad d ition , Qu tb felt betrayed in Am erica wh en h e
saw wh at h e con sid ered to be an ti-Arab an d p ro-Jewish coverage
in th e n ewsp ap ers an d m ovies th at fostered con tem p t for Arabs
an d Mu slim s. As a fin al blow, d u rin g th ese years in Am erica, Hasan
al-Ban n a was assassin ated an d th e Mu slim Broth erh ood was sign ifican tly weaken ed . Sh ortly after h is retu rn to Egyp t, Qu tb join ed
th e Mu slim Broth erh ood .
58
Unholy W ar
Qu tb q u ickly em erged as a m ajor voice in th e Broth erh ood an d
as its m ost in flu en tial ideologu e am idst th e growin g con fron tation
with a rep ressive Egyp tian regim e. Im p rison ed an d tortu red for alleged in volvem en t in a failed attem p t to assassin ate Nasser, h e becam e in creasin gly m ilitan t an d radicalized. W h ile in p rison , Qu tb
witn essed a m assacre in wh ich twen ty-five m em bers of th e Mu slim
Broth erh ood were killed an d close to fifty were in ju red, an exp erien ce th at stren gth en ed h is con viction th at th e Egyp tian govern m en t was u n -Islam ic an d jah iliyyah an d m u st be overth rown .
Qu tb was an in cred ibly p rolific au th or, p u blish in g over forty
books, m an y tran slated in to Persian an d En glish an d still wid ely
d istribu ted . “Qu tb’s fiery style p rovoked great em otion s of d ign ity, solid arity, u n ity, u n iversality an d . . . cou ld u p lift th e read er
to th e greatn ess of Islam . His style was also cap able of stim u latin g
th rou gh h is criticism , p rofou n d an ger an d revu lsion .” 20 Du rin g
ten years of im p rison m en t in th e eq u ivalen t of a con cen tration
cam p , Qu tb d evelop ed a revolu tion ary vision cap tu red in Milestones, wh ich was u sed as evid en ce again st h im an d led to h is bein g sen ten ced to d eath . Th e p ower of h is writin gs was recogn ized
in th e fact th at an yon e in Egyp t wh o own ed a cop y of Milestones
cou ld be arrested an d ch arged with sed ition . Qu tb took m an y of
th e core con cep ts of al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i, resh ap ed an d sh arp en ed th em to exh ort Mu slim s to rad ical action . His id eas reverberate lou d ly tod ay in th e rad ical rh etoric of revolu tion aries from
Kh om ein i to bin Lad en .
Qu tb d evelop ed p rescrip tion s for belief an d action th at wou ld
h elp Islam ic m ovem en ts in th e Mu slim world to fu n ction with in
rep ressive, an ti-Islam ic govern m en ts an d societies. As h e exp lain s:
It is n ecessary t o revive t h at Mu slim com m u n it y . . . wh ich is
cru sh ed u n d er th e weigh t of th ose false laws an d cu stom s wh ich
are n ot even rem otely related to th e Islam ic teach in gs, an d wh ich
in sp it e o f all t h is, calls it self t h e “world of Islam .” 21
Like Ibn Taym iyya before h im , h e sh arp ly d ivid es Mu slim societies in to two d iam etrically op p osed cam p s, th e forces of good an d
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
59
of evil, th ose com m itted to th e ru le of God an d th ose op p osed, th e
p arty of God an d th e p arty of Satan . Th ere was n o m iddle grou n d:
. . . th e callers to Islam sh ou ld n ot h ave an y su p erficial d ou bts in
th eir h earts con cern in g th e n atu re of Jah iliyyah an d th e n atu re
of Islam an d th e ch aracteristics of Dar-u l-Harb an d of Dar-u l-Islam
for th rou gh th ese dou bts m an y are led to con fu sion . In deed, th ere
is n o Islam in a lan d wh ere Islam is n ot d om in an t an d wh ere its
Sh ariah is n ot establish ed; an d th at place is n ot Dar-ul-Islam wh ere
Islam ’s way of life an d its laws are n ot p ractised . 22
Stron gly in flu en ced by Mawd u d i, Qu tb em p h asized th e n eed to
d evelop a sp ecial grou p of tru e Mu slim s with in th is corru p t an d
faith less society:
Ho w is it p o ssible t o st art t h e t ask o f revivin g Islam ? . . . t h ere
sh o u ld be a van gu ard wh ich set s o u t wit h t h is d et erm in at ion
an d t h en keep s walkin g o n t h e p at h , m arch in g th rou gh t h e vast
ocean of Jah iliyyah wh ich h as en com p assed th e en tire world . . .
an d I h ave writ t en Milest o n es fo r t h is van gu ard wh ich I con sid er t o be a wait in g realit y abo u t t o be m at erialized . 23
Th e Islam ic m ovem en t (haraka), th e tru e Mu slim s, wou ld create a
righ teou s m in ority ad rift in a sea of ign oran ce an d u n belief, akin
to th e u n -Islam ic society in wh ich Mu h am m ad was born . Th eir
m od els for train in g wou ld be wh at Qu tb con sid ered to be th e first
u n iq u e gen eration of Mu slim s wh ose in stru ction cam e solely from
on e p u re sou rce, th e Qu ran . “From it we m u st also d erive ou r con cep ts of life, ou r p rin cip les of govern m en t, p olitics, econ om ics an d
all oth er asp ects of life” 24 becau se “ou r forem ost objective is to
ch an ge th e p ractices of th is society . . . to ch an ge th e jah ili system
at its very roots—th is system wh ich is fu n dam en tally at varian ce
with Islam an d wh ich , with th e h elp of force an d oppression is keepin g u s from livin g th e sort of life wh ich is dem an d ed by ou r Creator.” 25 Qu tb u sed th e classical design ation for p re-Islam ic Arabian
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Unholy W ar
society, jah iliyyah —a p eriod of ign oran ce—to p ain t an d con d em n
all m od ern societies as u n -Islam ic an d an ti-Islam ic:
We m u st free o u rselves fro m t h e clu t ch es of jah ili societ y, jah ili
co n cep t s, jah ili t rad it io n s an d jah ili lead ersh ip . O u r m ission is
n o t t o co m p ro m ise . . . n o r can we be loyal t o it . . . we will n ot
ch an ge o u r o wn valu es an d co n cep t s . . . to m ake a bargain wit h
t h is jah ili so ciet y. Never! We an d it are on d ifferen t road s, an d if
we t ake even o n e st ep in it s co m p an y, we will lose ou r goal en t irely an d lo se o u r way as well. 26
Sayyid Qu tb’s teach in gs recast th e world in to black an d wh ite
p olarities. Th ere were n o sh ades of gray. Sin ce th e creation of an
Islam ic govern m en t was a divin e com m an dm en t, h e argu ed, it was
n ot an altern ative to be worked toward. Rath er, it was an im p erative th at Mu slim s m u st strive to im p lem en t or im p ose im m ediately:
Th ere is o n ly o n e p lace o n eart h wh ich can be called t h e h om e
o f Islam (Dar-u l-Islam ), an d it is t h at p lace wh ere th e Islam ic
st at e is est ablish ed an d t h e Sh ariah is th e au th ority an d God ’s
lim it s are o bserved an d wh ere all t h e Mu slim s ad m in ister t h e
affairs of t h e st at e wit h m u t u al co n su lt at ion . Th e rest o f th e
wo rld is t h e h o m e o f h o st ilit y (Dar-u l-Harb). 27
Given th e au th oritarian an d rep ressive n atu re of th e Egyp tian
govern m en t an d m an y oth er govern m en ts in th e Mu slim world ,
Qu tb con clu d ed th at ch an ge from with in th e system was fu tile
an d th at Islam was on th e brin k of d isaster. Jih ad was th e on ly
way to im p lem en t th e n ew Islam ic ord er.
For Qu tb, jih ad , as arm ed stru ggle in th e d efen se of Islam again st
th e in ju stice an d op p ression of an ti-Islam ic govern m en ts an d th e
n eocolon ialism of th e West an d th e East (Soviet Un ion ), was in cu m ben t u p on all Mu slim s. Th ere cou ld be n o m id d le grou n d .
Mirrorin g th e Kh arijites, Qu tb tau gh t th at th ose Mu slim s wh o refu sed to p articip ate were to be cou n ted am on g th e en em ies of God ,
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
61
ap ostates wh o were excom m u n icated (takfir) an d wh o sh ou ld be
fou gh t an d killed alon g with th e oth er en em ies of God . Man y rad ical extrem ist grou p s form ed d ecad es after Qu tb’s d eath h ave kep t
h is vision alive in th eir id eologies an d tactics.
Like Hasan al-Ban n a an d Mawlan a Mawd u d i, Qu tb regard ed th e
West as th e h istoric en em y of Islam an d Mu slim s as d em on strated
by th e Cru sad es, Eu rop ean colon ialism , an d th e Cold War. Th e
Western th reat was p olitical, econ om ic, an d religiocu ltu ral. Eq u ally
in sid iou s were th e elites of th e Mu slim world wh o ru le an d govern
accord in g to foreign Western secu lar p rin cip les an d valu es th at
th reaten th e faith , id en tity, an d valu es of th eir own Islam ic societies. Goin g beyon d al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i, Qu tb d en ou n ced govern m en ts an d Western secu lar-orien ted elites as ath eists again st
wh om all tru e believers m u st wage h oly war.
Qu tb’s revolu tion ary an tiestablish m en t rh etoric can be h eard
d istin ctly in th is call to jih ad by Iran ’s Ayatollah Kh om ein i:
Give th e p eop le Islam , th en , for Islam is th e sch ool of jih ad , th e
religion of stru ggle; let th em am en d th em selves an d tran sform
th em selves in to a p owerfu l force, so th at th ey m ay overth row th e
tyran n ical regim e im p erialism h as im p osed on u s an d set u p an
Islam ic govern m en t. . . . If certain h ead s of state of Mu slim cou n tries . . . p erm it foreign ers to exp an d th eir in flu en ce . . . th ey
au tom atically forfeit th eir p osts. . . . Fu rth erm ore, it is a d u ty of
th e Mu slim s to p u n ish th em by an y m ean s p ossible. 28
Th e two op tion s for an Islam ic revolu tion , evolu tion , a p rocess
of revolu tion ary ch an ge from below, an d violen t revolu tion , th e
u se of violen ce an d terrorism to overth row establish ed (“u n -Islam ic”) govern m en ts, h ave rem ain ed th e twin p ath s of con tem p o rary Islam ic m o vem en t s. Bo t h t yp es o f m o vem en t began t o
sp rin g u p an d sp read like wild fire across th e Mu slim world in th e
1970s. Th e q u iet th at seem ed assu red after Gam al Abd el Nasser’s
ap p aren t n eu tralization of th e Mu slim Broth erh ood in th e late
1960s was sh attered by th e p roliferation of rad ical grou p s d u rin g
th e ru le of h is su ccessor, An war Sad at.
62
Unholy W ar
Ar m i e s o f Go d : t h e Ve n g e a n c e o f Mi l i t a n t Ji h a d
Sayyid Qu tb’s revolu tion ary ideology bore fru it across th e Middle
East am id st th e worsen in g livin g con d ition s exp erien ced by th e
m ajority of Arabs followin g th e failu res of th e 1967 Arab-Israeli war.
Nu m erou s radical organ ization s in Egyp t, Leban on , an d Palestin e
waged jih ad again st in cu m ben t govern m en ts an d th e West. By th e
m id -1970s, th e stability an d secu rity of Egyp tian govern m en t an d
society were th reaten ed by a n u m ber of secret Islam ic revolu tion ary organ ization s; am on g th em , Mu h am m ad’s You th (som etim es
referred to as th e Islam ic Liberation Organ ization ), Jam aat al-Mu slim in (Society of Mu slim s), m ore p op u larly kn own as Takfir wal
Hijra (Excom m u n ication an d Fligh t), Salvation from Hell, Gam aa
Islam iyya (Islam ic Grou p ), an d Jam aat al-Jih ad or Islam ic Jih ad. In
con trast to m ain stream groups like th e Egyptian Broth erh ood, wh ich
rejected Qu tb-in sp ired extrem ism an d p u rsu ed a n on violen t p ath
of social an d p olitical activism , th ese clan destin e grou p s esp ou sed
violen ce an d terrorism to disru p t an d destabilize society p olitically
an d econ om ically an d sou gh t to overth row th e govern m en t.
Th eir com m on goal was th e creation of a tru e Islam ic society
u n d er a restored calip h ate. A clear an d at tim es ch illin g articu lation of th e n ew jih ad ist cu ltu re an d its in d ebted n ess to th e p ast
can be fou n d in th e writin g of Mu h am m ad al-Farag, a m em ber of
th e rad ical organ ization Islam ic Jih ad , wh o articu lated its id eology in The Neglected Duty. Farag d rew h eavily from al-Ban n a, Mawd u d i, an d esp ecially Ibn Taym iyya an d Sayyid Qu tb. He takes th e
id eas of Ibn Taym iyya an d Qu tb with resp ect to jih ad an d p u sh es
th eir ap p lication to its rad ical con clu sion regard in g th e con d ition
of th e Mu slim world an d Egyp t in p articu lar.
Farag believed th at th e d eclin e of Mu slim societies was m ad e
p ossible by th ose wh o h ad lu lled th e com m u n ity in to believin g
th at jih ad was n on violen t; th e restoration of th e Mu slim world to
th e straigh t p ath of Islam h in ged on reclaim in g th e tru e m ean in g
of jih ad , th e forgotten or n eglected req u irem en t of Islam . Farag
m ain tain ed th at jih ad was th e sixth p illar of Islam , forgotten or
obscu red by th e m ajority of u lam a an d Mu slim s:
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
63
Jih ad . . . fo r Go d ’s cau se [in t h e way of Allah ], in sp it e of it s
im p o rt an ce fo r t h e fu t u re o f religio n , h as been n eglect ed by t h e
u lam a . . . o f t h is age. . . . Th ere is n o d ou bt th at th e id ols of t h is
wo rld can o n ly d isap p ear t h ro u gh t h e p ower of th e sword . 29
As in th e tim e of Mu h am m ad, Farag m ain tain ed, th is was th e
task of a m in ority, a van gu ard wh o m u st be p rep ared to figh t again st
u n belief an d ap ostasy, p rep ared to su ffer an d die for th eir faith .
Lookin g at th e state of th e u m m ah , an d esp ecially Mu slim govern m en ts, h e con clu ded u n belief an d ap ostasy were en dem ic diseases:
Th e Ru lers of th is age are in ap ostasy from Islam . Th ey were raised
at th e tables of im p erialism , be it Cru sad erism , or Com m u n ism ,
or Zion ism . Th ey carry n oth in g from Islam bu t th eir n am es, even
th ou gh th ey p ray an d fast an d claim to be Mu slim .30
Th e p u n ish m en t for th eir ap ostasy is loss of all righ ts, in clu d in g th eir righ t to life. Given th e au th oritarian an d corru p t n atu re
of regim es an d th eir societies, a tru e Islam ic state cou ld n ot be
establish ed th rou gh n on violen ce bu t on ly th rou gh rad ical su rgery,
m ilitan t jih ad , an d th e overth row of ap ostate ru lers.
We h ave to establish th e Ru le of God ’s Religion in ou r own cou n t ry first , an d t o m ake t h e Wo rd o f Go d su p rem e. . . . Th ere is n o
d o u bt t h at t h e first bat t lefield fo r jih ad is t h e ext erm in at ion of
t h ese in fid el lead ers an d t o rep lace t h em by a com p let e Islam ic
O rd er. 31
Islam ic Jih ad an d Farag saw th e bu lk of Egyp tian society as basically good Mu slim s wh o were cau gh t between th e lan d of Islam or
p eace an d th e lan d of war, livin g in u n -Islam ic states, govern ed by
u n -Islam ic laws an d n om in al Mu slim s. Holy war again st Egyp t’s
“ath eist” state an d ru ler was both n ecessary an d ju stified, an obligation for all tru e believers. Th e creation of an Islam ic state req u ired
th e eradication of Western law an d im p lem en tation of Islam ic law
an d th e top p lin g of regim es th rou gh arm ed revolu tion :
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Unholy W ar
Th is st at e is ru led by h eat h en laws d esp it e t h e fact t h at t h e m ajo rit y o f it s p eo p le are Mu slim s. Th ese laws were fo rm u lat ed by
in fid els wh o co m p elled Mu slim s t o abid e by t h em . An d becau se
t h ey d esert ed jih ad , Mu slim s t o d ay live in su bju gat io n , h u m iliat io n , d ivisio n an d fragm en t at io n . . . . t h e aim o f o u r gro u p is t o
rise u p t o est ablish an Islam ic st at e an d rest o re Islam t o t h is
n at io n . . . . Th e m ean s t o t h is en d is t o figh t again st h eret ical
ru lers an d t o erad icat e t h e d esp o t s wh o are n o m o re t h an h u m an bein gs wh o h ave n o t yet fo u n d t h o se wh o are able t o su p p ress t h em wit h t h e o rd er o f Go d Alm igh t y.32
Mu h am m ad Farag’s Neglected Duty an d Islam ic Jih ad ’s id eological wo rld view were bu t an o t h er st age in t h e sp read o f Islam ic
rad icalism ’s jih ad across th e Mu slim world , p rom u lgatin g th e ration ale for extrem ist m ovem en ts an d th e growth of n etworks th at
wou ld later, as a resu lt of th e jih ad in Afgh an istan , becom e a global jih ad . Th eir n arrow, extrem ist in terp retation of Islam an d jih ad
was on e sid e in th e stru ggle with in Islam between extrem ist an d
m od erate Mu slim s, an d it d em on strated yet again th e ability of
religiou s scrip tu res an d trad ition to be in terp reted , rein terp reted ,
an d m isin terp reted .
Th e St r u g g l e f o r t h e Me a n i n g o f Ji h a d
As th is review of th e d evelop m en t of jih ad in resp on se to ch allen ges th rou gh th e ages am p ly illu strates, th ere is n o sin gle d oct rin e o f jih ad t h at h as always an d everywh ere exist ed o r been
u n iversally accep ted . Mu slim u n d erstan d in g of wh at is req u ired
by th e Qu ran an d th e p ractice of th e Prop h et regard in g jih ad h as
ch an ged over tim e. Th e d octrin e of jih ad is n ot th e p rod u ct of a
sin gle au th oritative in d ivid u al or organ ization ’s in terp retation . It
is rath er th e p rod u ct of d iverse in d ivid u als an d au th orities in terp retin g an d ap p lyin g th e p rin cip les of sacred texts in sp ecific h istorical an d p olitical con texts.
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
65
JI H AD I N W ARFARE
Jih ad is often sim p ly tran slated as an d eq u ated with aggressive
h oly war. For m an y in th e West, it h as com e to sym bolize Islam as
a religion of violen ce an d fan aticism . Religiou s extrem ists an d terrorists rein force th is belief as th ey freely d eclare jih ad to ju stify
attacks again st an d m u rd ers of all wh o d isagree with th em . In fact,
as we h ave seen , Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e ages h ave d iscu ssed an d
d ebated an d d isagreed abou t th e m ean in g of jih ad , its d efen sive
an d exp an sion ist, legitim ate an d illegitim ate form s. Terrorists can
attem p t to h ijack Islam an d th e d octrin e of jih ad , bu t th at is n o
m ore legitim ate th an Ch ristian an d Jewish extrem ists com m ittin g
th eir acts of terrorism in th eir own u n h oly wars in th e n am e of
Ch ristian ity or Ju d aism . Th erefore, lookin g at wh at Islam ic h istory, law, an d trad ition h ave to say abou t jih ad an d warfare becom es critical both in tryin g to u n d erstan d th e m in d of a bin Lad en
an d in forgin g fu tu re relation s between Islam an d th e West.
Qu ran ic p assages referrin g to jih ad as arm ed stru ggle fall in to
t wo bro ad cat ego ries: d efen sive, t h o se t h at em p h asize figh t in g
again st aggression , an d offen sive or exp an sion ist, a m ore gen eral
com m an d to figh t again st all u n believers an d sp read th e m essage
an d p u blic ord er or Pax Islam ica of Islam .
Mu slim s are u rged to figh t with great com m itm en t so th at victory will com e an d battle will en d : “If you m eet th em in battle,
in flict on th em su ch a d efeat as wou ld be a lesson for th ose wh o
com e after th em , an d th at th ey m ay be warn ed ” (8:57). However,
as is n oted in th e followin g p assage, if th ey p rop ose p eace, th en
th e figh tin g m u st en d : “Bu t if th ey are in clin ed to p eace, m ake
p eace with th em , an d h ave tru st in God for h e h ears all an d kn ows
everyth in g” (8:61).
Man y m od ern reform ers, d efen d in g Islam again st ch arges th at
it is a violen t religion an d sen sitive to Western criticism s th at violen ce is en d em ic to Islam , h ave em p h asized th at jih ad is on ly ju stified fo r d efen se an d h ave reject ed earlier at t em p t s t o abro gat e
Q u ran ic verses t h at em p h asize d efen sive jih ad b y t h e “swo rd
verses.” Prom in en t m od ern Sh ii sch olars su ch as Ayatollah s Mah -
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Unholy W ar
m ou d Taleq an i an d Mu rtaza Mu tah h ari argu e th at jih ad is th e
d efen se of on e’s life, faith , p rop erty, an d th e in tegrity of th e Mu slim u m m ah . Ho wever, Mu t ah h ari an d o t h ers h ave in t erp ret ed
d efen se broad ly to in clu d e resistan ce to op p ression n ot on ly in
on e’s society bu t also again st op p ression an ywh ere, d efen se of th e
op p ressed of th e earth . In com m en tin g on th e Qu ran ic d ictu m ,
“Th ere is n o com p u lsion in religion ” (2:256), an d th at th erefore
wars aim ed solely at th e sp read of Islam by force are n ot allowed ,
t h ey also m ain t ain t h at religio u s o p p ressio n m u st b e resist ed
wh eth er it is in a Mu slim or n on -Mu slim society. 33
As with oth er religiou s tradition s wh ose con troversies m u st also
be u n derstood with in th eir h istorical con texts, Mu slim disagreem en t over th e u se of jih ad th rou gh th e ages h as been deep ly in flu en ced by social an d p olitical con texts. Th e righ t or obligation to
wage jih ad again st religious, political, or social oppression h as gain ed
wid esp read u sage in recen t decades in order to ju stify h oly an d u n h oly wars. Kh om ein i u sed it to call on Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e
world, esp ecially in th e Gu lf, to rise u p again st u n -Islam ic ru lers. It
was a m ean s of legitim atin g Iran ’s exp ort of revolu tion to Leban on
an d elsewh ere. Th e Sh ii of Leban on exp erien ced both violen t an d
n on violen t exp ression s of jih ad. Im am Mu sa Sadr was a tall, strikin g, ch arism atic Iran ian -born religiou s leader, edu cated in Qom , th e
religiou s cen ter associated with th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i an d som etim es referred to as “th e Vatican .” Mu sa Sadr m oved to Leban on
an d in th e 1970s led a m ajor social m ovem en t, th e Movem en t for
th e Disp ossessed , to p rotest an d d em an d Mu slim eq u ity with in
Leban on ’s Maron ite Ch ristian –dom in ated society. Th e radical organ ization Hizbollah em erged in th e early 1980s as a resistan ce m ovem en t, in sp ired by Kh om ein i an d su p p orted by Iran , in reaction to
th e Israeli in vasion an d occu p ation of Leban on .
Su n n i Mu slim s h ave been eq u ally d rawn to th is u se of jih ad .
Ham as in Palestin e d efin es itself, an d ju stifies its jih ad , as a resistan ce m ovem en t to Israeli occu p ation an d op p ression . Terrorist
grou p s from Egyp t to th e sou th ern Ph ilip p in es h ave also u sed p olitical an d religiou s op p ression as an excu se for th eir violen t jih ad s.
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
67
W h ile th e Ch in ese an d In d ian govern m en ts rep ress th e Uigh u rs
an d Kash m iris resp ectively, Islam ic op p osition grou p s p ress wh at
th ey regard to be a jih ad again st op p ressive states th at h ave th reaten ed th eir au ton om y an d in dep en den ce. Ch ech en s h ave h arn essed
th eir Islam ic id en tity an d called for jih ad to resist Ru ssia’s reoccu p ation , an d Islam ic m ovem en ts in several Cen tral Asian rep u blics
h ave waged jih ad again st au th oritarian ru lers. Even Osam a bin
Lad en h as fou n d it u sefu l to claim th at h is jih ad is to overth row
th e op p ressive an d corru p t Sau d i regim e an d p reven t th e in fid el
U.S. force from occu p yin g Sau d i Arabia, th e lan d of Mu h am m ad .
If som e feel a n eed to ju stify all jih ad s as d efen sive, oth ers d o
n ot. Th u s, Mu slim s wh o in sist th at th e d efen se of Islam is th e
on ly ju stification for jih ad , an d th at all of th e wars in th e early
d ays of Islam were d efen sive, h ave been criticized by oth ers wh o
believe th at th e restriction of jih ad to d efen sive wars alon e is a
p rod u ct of Eu rop ean colon ialism an d an u n warran ted accom m od ation to th e West.
JI H AD FO R C O N V ERSI O N
Th e com m on Western im age is th at Islam is a religion of th e sword ,
th at Mu slim s are req u ired to u se every m ean s, in clu d in g force an d
warfare, to sp read an d im p ose th eir faith . Th is issu e like oth ers is
su bject to a sp ectru m of op in ion s. W h ile m ost Mu slim sch olars
h ave agreed th at it is n ever ju stified to wage jih ad again st n on Mu slim s sim p ly becau se of th eir faith or to con vert th em , som e
blu n tly state, as Ibn Kh ald u n , an acclaim ed m ed ieval Mu slim h istorian , d id : “In th e Mu slim com m u n ity, h oly war is a religiou s
d u ty, becau se of th e u n iversalism of th e Mu slim m ission an d (th e
obligation to) con vert everybod y to Islam eith er by p ersu asion or
by force.” 34 Oth er m ed ieval au th ors, like th eir Ch ristian cou n terp arts, wen t even fu rth er, teach in g th at th e p u rp ose of jih ad is to
rid th e earth of u n believers.
Becau se of th e Islam ic vision of th e in sep arability of religion
an d p olitics, op p ression an d in ju stice cam e to be eq u ated with
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Unholy W ar
u n b elief. Ho wever, alt h o u gh ju rist s an d co m m en t at o rs o n t h e
Qu ran often failed to d istin gu ish d isbelief from p olitical in ju stice,
th ey d id n ot san ction jih ad m erely on grou n d s of d ifferen ce in
belief. Man y m od ern Mu slim th in kers h ave d istin gu ish ed d isbelief from p ersecu tion or in ju stice an d h old th at u n belief alon e is
n ot a su fficien t con d ition for wagin g war. Th e fam ou s twen tieth cen tu ry Egyp tian ju rist Mah m u d Sh altu t, form er rector of Egyp t’s
al-Azh ar Un iversity, an in tern ation ally recogn ized seat of Islam ic
au th ority, argu ed th at th e Qu ran ic verses th at com m an d figh tin g
again st th e u n believers are n ot referrin g to a jih ad again st all u n believers as su ch bu t rath er to u n believers wh o h ad assailed th e
Mu slim m ission .
Even Sayyid Qu tb rejected forced con version s, believin g in stead
th at a su ccessfu l jih ad in clu d ed th e p ossibility of con version as a
likely resu lt on ce p eop le were free to ch oose:
It is n o t t h e in t en t io n o f Islam t o fo rce it s beliefs on p eop le, bu t
Islam is n o t m erely “belief.” . . . Islam is a d eclarat ion of th e
freed om of m an from servitu d e to oth er m en . Th u s it strives . . .
t o abo lish all t h o se syst em s an d go vern m en t s wh ich are based
o n t h e ru le o f m an o ver m en an d t h e servitu d e of on e h u m an
bein g t o an o t h er. W h en Islam releases p eop le from t h is p olit ical p ressu re an d p resen t s t o t h em it s sp irit u al m essage, ap p ealin g t o t h eir reaso n , it gives t h em co m p let e freed om to accep t or
n o t t o accep t it s beliefs. Ho wever, t h is freed om d oes n ot m ean
t h at t h ey can m ake t h eir d esires t h eir god s or t h at th ey can
ch o o se t o rem ain in t h e servit u d e o f ot h er h u m an bein gs, m akin g so m e m en lo rd s o ver o t h ers. 35
Con tem p orary sch olars u tilize Qu ran ic p assages to d em on strate
Islam ’s accep tan ce of a d iversity of religiou s beliefs an d laws. 36 For
exam p le, “Su rely th e believers, th e Jews, th e Sabian s an d th e Ch ristian s—wh oever believes in God an d th e Last Day an d d oes good
d eed s—Th ey sh all receive th eir reward from th eir Lord . Th ey sh all
h ave n oth in g to fear an d th ey sh all n ot grieve” (5:69 an d 2:62).
Jihad and the Struggle for Islam
69
Ji h a d a n d Ma r t y rd o m :
Th e Ul t i m a t e P ro f e ssi o n o f Fa i t h
If yo u are killed in t h e cau se o f Go d o r you d ie, t h e forgiven ess
an d m ercy o f Go d are bet t er t h an all t h at you am ass. An d if you
d ie o r are killed , even so it is t o Go d t h at you will ret u rn (3:157–
158).
To d ie for on e’s faith is th e h igh est form of witn ess to God, accordin g to th e Qu ran . Like th e Greek word m artyr, wh ich sim p ly m ean s
witn ess, as in witn ess to you r faith , th e Arabic Qu ran ic word for
m artyr, shahid, m ean s witn ess. Martyrdom com es from th e sam e
root as th e Mu slim p rofession of faith (shahada) or witn ess th at
“Th ere is n o God bu t God an d Mu h am m ad is th e Prop h et of God.”
W h en jih ad is in voked to u rge Mu slim s to take p art in wars again st
n on believers, its m ain m otivator is th e belief th at som eon e wh o is
killed on th e battlefield, called a sh ah id, will go directly to Paradise.
With th e severe dislocation s exp erien ced in m u ch of th e Mu slim
world from th e eigh teen th cen tu ry to th e p resen t, a n ew u n derstan d in g of m artyrdom h as been born . Martyrdom was a p owerfu l
th em e in th e Iran -Iraq war wh ere both Su n n i Iraq is an d Sh ii Iran ian s relied on th e p rom ise of m artyrdom to m otivate th eir soldiers.
Sin ce th e late twen tieth cen tu ry, th e term m artyrdom h as been u sed
broadly by Mu slim s arou n d th e world for all of th ose wh o die for
th eir faith or in th e defen se of Mu slim territory in “ju st” cau ses in
Palestin e, Iran , Egyp t, an d Leban on as well as Azerbaijan , Bosn ia,
Ch ech n ya, Kash m ir, an d th e sou th ern Ph ilip p in es.
Sh ii Islam h as a p articu larly p owerfu l m artyrd om trad ition an d
legacy, startin g with th e m artyrd om o f t h e Pro p h et ’s gran d so n
Hu ssein , wh ich becam e th e p arad igm for Sh ii th eology an d sp iritu ality. Th is tragic even t is ritu ally reen acted an n u ally in Sh ii com m u n ities. It h as exp ressed itself in th e sp ecial p lace given to visitin g
th e graves of th e m artyrs, an d m ou rn in g an d em u latin g th e su fferin g of Hu ssein an d h is com p an ion s with p rayer, weep in g, an d
self-flagellation —a ritu al an alogou s to th e com m em oration of th e
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Unholy W ar
p assion an d d eath of Jesu s Ch rist. In p ostrevolu tion ary Iran , th e
trad ition is reflected in th e creation of m artyr cem eteries for th ose
wh o d ied in th e Iran -Iraq war an d for th e revolu tion ’s clergy an d
su pporters wh o were m u rdered or assassin ated by op position forces.
In som e ways, we h ave com e fu ll circle sin ce 1979–1980. However
little Western ers kn ew abou t Islam , m an y were th en able to d istin gu ish between two m ajor jih ad s, Kh om ein i’s Islam ic revolu tion
with its th reat to th e West an d th e m u jah id in ’s jih ad to liberate
Afgh an ist an . Th e Un it ed St at es go vern m en t ju d ged t h e jih ad ,
wh eth er it was a h oly or u n h oly war, an d its warriors, wh eth er
th ey were extrem ists or liberators, by th eir goals an d con d u ct—by
wh eth er th ey were figh tin g Am erica’s Cold War ad versary or an
ally, th e Sh ah of Iran . Bu t th in gs were n ever th at sim p le. Un d erstan d in g th e d yn am ics of Mu slim p olitics tod ay an d th e d an gers
an d th reats th at n ow exist req u ires a fu ller u n d erstan d in g both of
jih ad itself an d of h ow th e Un ited States got to th e p oin t wh ere it
is n ow n u m ber on e on th e h it list of Mu slim terrorists.
W h erever on e tu rn s, th e im age an d word s of Osam a bin Lad en
seem to em bod y jih ad . He stan d s before u s with a Qu ran in on e
h an d an d a Kalash n ikov in th e oth er, su rrou n d ed by h is ban d of
religiou s zealots. However, bin Lad en is sym p tom atic of a broad er
p h en om en on . His d isap p earan ce from th e scen e will n ot elim in ate th e d an ger of global Islam ic terrorism .
We h ave seen th e p ower th at th e legacy of th e p ast, faith an d
t rad it io n , h o ld s fo r Mu slim s an d t h e key figu res o r id eo lo gu es
wh ose id eas an d exam p les still live tod ay in th e m in d s an d faith
of m an y believers. Th ey p rovide th e m u ltitu de of m ean in gs of jih ad
th at in d ivid u als an d m ovem en ts d raw on wh en th ey u se th e trad ition of jih ad to ren ew th em selves an d th eir com m u n ities tod ay.
How h as th is m u ltifaceted con cep t of jih ad been tran slated in to
action by Islam ic organ ization s? W h at are th eir m otivation s, m ission s, strategies, an d tactics? We tu rn n ow to th e reality, th e h oly
an d u n h o ly wars t h at rep resen t realit y fo r t h e t wen t iet h an d
twen ty-first cen tu ries.
3
The Armies of God
Novem ber 20, 1979, was a d ay th at Mu slim s arou n d th e world
h ad awaited , th e d awn of Islam ’s fifteen th cen tu ry. At 5:30 A. M . as
over forty th ou san d worsh ip p ers p rayed th e d awn p rayer in th e
Gran d Mosq u e in Mecca, th e largest Islam ic sh rin e in th e world ,
th eir sacred sp ace an d tim e were sh attered by th e p rofan e. Sh ots
reverberated th rou gh th e m assive cou rtyard an d a you n g m an fell
d ead . A p owerfu l force of arm ed m ilitan ts, n ot on ly Sau d is bu t
also Egyp tian s, Ku waitis, Ban gladesh is, Yem en is, an d Iraq is, p u sh ed
t h eir way in t o t h e p rayin g cro wd an d d eclared t h at t h e lo n gawaited Mah d i h ad arrived .
Th e m ore th an th ree h u n d red m em bers of th is m ilitan t ban d
an d th eir fam ilies were led by Ju h aim an al-Utaiba, th e broth er-in law of th e self-d eclared Mah d i, wh o h ad com e to clean se Islam
before th e en d of th e world . Ju h aim an an d h is followers h ad been
bitter critics of th e Sau d i govern m en t, its allian ce with th e West,
an d its d isru p tive m od ern ization p rogram s. Th ey called for th e
overth row of th e sin fu l an d u n ju st Sau d i regim e, th e establish m en t of a tru e Islam ic state, th e erad ication of Western cu ltu ral
in flu en ces, an d th e en d of oil exp orts to Am erica.1 Th e m ilitan ts
barricad ed th em selves in th e m osq u e an d h eld ou t again st govern m en t forces for five d ays before bein g forced to retreat to th e
cellars an d tu n n els below th e m osq u e wh ere th ey rem ain ed for
an oth er n in e d ays.
Th e Sau d i govern m en t d ebated lon g an d h ard abou t h ow to
best resp on d to th is very d elicate situ ation . Th e u se of arm s or
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Unholy W ar
figh tin g in th e m osq u e is strictly forbid d en . It h ad been u n th in kable th at Mu slim s wou ld violate th e san ctu ary. Ju h aim an ’s ch oice
of th e Gran d Mosq u e was a fatal strategic error. W h atever its sym bolic valu e, th e grou p ’s action sh ocked an d offen d ed m an y, wh o
were h orrified by th e sh ed d in g of blood in th e sh rin e h old in g th e
Kaaba, th e ston e m arkin g th e cen ter of Islam , th e direction to wh ich
Mu slim s world wid e tu rn to p ray. However legitim ate th eir grievan ces, th eir action s were haram , forbid d en an d th u s illegitim ate.
After in itially h esitatin g, th e kin g fin ally obtain ed a fatwa from
Sh aykh Abd u l-Aziz Bin Baz, h ead of th e govern m en t’s Cou n cil of
Ulam a an d th e m ost p owerfu l religiou s lead er in th e kin gd om .
Bin Baz ap p roved th e u se of force with in th e Gran d Mosq u e. Th e
siege was fin ally en d ed after two weeks. Its lead ers, wh om th e govern m en t h ad rid icu led as Khawarj (like th e Kh arijites, th e first sign ifican t Islam ic extrem ist m ovem en t, th ey h ad seced ed an d tu rn ed
on th eir ru ler), were eith er killed in th e battle th at en su ed or cap tu red an d later execu ted .
Th e ch arism atic Ju h aim an al-Utaiba h ad stu d ied at Med in a Un iversity, wh ich was fou n d ed by m em bers of th e Egyp tian Mu slim
Broth erh ood wh o h ad fled Nasser’s Egyp t. He h ad also atten d ed
lectu res by Bin Baz, wh o was kn own as a very learn ed bu t extrem ely
con servative sch olar. Ju h aim an h ad left th e u n iversity with a grou p
of followers in 1974 an d began to p reach fiery serm on s an d bu ild
h is n ew organ ization . In 1978, h e an d a large grou p of h is followers were arrested for d istribu tin g h is p am p h lets callin g for op p osition to th e Hou se of Sau d an d con d em n in g th eir corru p tion an d
u n -Islam ic lifestyles. Few in th e West took n ote of th e fact th at th e
m ilitan ts wh o in vad ed th e Gran d Mosq u e to p rotest again st th e
Sau d i regim e an d Western in flu en ces were n ot on ly Sau d is bu t
also m em bers of Islam ic activist grou p s in Egyp t, Ku wait, th e In d ian su bcon tin en t, Yem en , an d Iraq .
To Western observers, th is affair was bafflin g. An Islam ic grou p
was attem p tin g to overth row th e govern m en t of Sau d i Arabia, an
Islam ic state an d p rotector of Islam ’s h oliest sites, in th e n am e of
Islam ? Th e Hou se of Sau d was bein g ju d ged an d con d em n ed as
T he Arm ies of God
73
corru p t an d u n -Islam ic by th e very Islam ic yard stick th at it u sed
to legitim ate itself.
Th is in cid en t brou gh t togeth er m ilitan ts from m an y cou n tries.
It was a p recu rsor of ch an ges th at wou ld becom e ap p aren t in th e
Soviet-Afgh an war, th e globalization of jih ad m ovem en ts with h oly
warriors d rawn from m an y p arts of th e um m ah com in g to th e “d efen se of Islam .” No on e im agin ed th en th at th e govern m en t of
Sau d i Arabia an d Sau d i d issid en ts wou ld in th e n ext few years becom e so in tim ately con n ected with th e globalization of jihad an d
its tragic terrorist trajectory.
Twen ty years later Osam a bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a’s d eclaration
of war again st Am erica wou ld brin g togeth er m an y elem en ts from
Mu slim h ist o ry (m ilit an t jih ad , eigh t een t h -cen t u ry revivalist s,
Wah h abi Islam , an d con d em n ation of Western allian ces with au tocratic Mu slim lead ers) an d ad d an oth er d im en sion , th e greatly
en h an ced p ower th at globalization afford s to terrorist grou p s—
th e ability to h arn ess religion an d m od ern tech n ology to strike
an ywh ere, an ytim e, an d an yp lace. Th is d ark sid e of globalization
n ow stren gth en s th e th reat of Islam ic rad icalism to ou r stability
an d secu rity an d forces u s to recogn ize th at th e growin g th reat of
terrorism in th e n am e of Islam is p art of a m u ch bigger p ictu re.
Th e terrorists resp on sible for th e atro cit ies o f Sep t em ber 11,
2001, are th e rad ical frin ge of a broad -based Islam ic jih ad th at
began in th e late twen tieth cen tu ry. Islam ’s p ower an d th e id ealistic con cep ts of jih ad h ave been “sp u n ” to becom e th e p rim ary
id iom of Mu slim p olitics, u sed by ru lers an d ru led , by reform ers,
p olitical op p osition , an d terrorists.
Man y violen t rad icals ju stify th e h orrors th ey com m it by recitin g a litan y of d eep ly felt Mu slim grievan ces again st th e West.
Historic m em ories of th e Cru sad es an d Eu rop ean colon ialism , th e
creation of Israel, th e Cold War, an d Am erican n eocolon ialism —
all th e action s of a m ilitan t Ch ristian West—get su p erim p osed u p on
cu rren t even ts: th e secon d Palestin ian in tifad a, th e p resen ce of
Am erican troop s in th e Gu lf, th e d evastatin g im p act of san ction s
on Iraq i ch ild ren , jih ad s of resistan ce an d liberation in Kash m ir
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Unholy W ar
an d Ch ech n ya. Th ese m em ories feed resen tm en t, ign ite n ew an ger, an d d eep en an ti-Am erican ism , n ot ju st am on g terrorists bu t
also in th e broad er Mu slim world . A clim ate of su sp icion an d an im osity toward th e West is reflected in th e com m on u se of word s
like Ch ristian Cru sad ers, n eocolon ialism , an d Zion ist exp an sion ism . An d it is strikin gly illu strated by th e u n fou n d ed ru m ors th at
swep t across th e Arab an d Mu slim world , Eu rop e, an d Am erica
th at th e W TC attacks were p erp etrated by Mossad an d th at fou r
th ou san d Jews wh o work in th e W TC d id n ot sh ow u p for work on
Sep tem ber 11 d u e to a tip from Israeli secu rity. 2
Fro m t h e Cru sa d e s t o We st e r n Im p e ri a l i sm
Th e Cru sad es an d Eu rop ean colon ialism h ave h ad a u n iversal an d
lastin g im p act on th e Mu slim im agin ation . I u sed to joke abou t an
even t wh ose sign ifican ce is clearer to m e n ow. I was at a n ation al
p rofession al con feren ce on th e m od ern Mu slim world . We were
ru n n in g late. Th e p an el ch air, to assu re th at th ere wou ld be en ou gh
tim e for th is n ervou s you n g p rofessor to p articip ate, asked h is colleagu es to skip th e first p art of th eir p ap ers den ou n cin g th e Cru sad es an d Eu ro p ean co lo n ialism fo r t h eir lo n g-last in g n egat ive
legacy. At th e tim e, it seem ed m erely h um orous. Today, som e twen tyfive years later, it h as p roven en d u rin gly revealin g.
For m an y in th e West, th e Cru sad es for th e liberation of Jeru salem were a sh in in g m om en t of religiou s fervor in th e d efen se of
Ch ristian ity. Western sp orts team s, m arketin g firm s, an d m ed ia
h ave lon g u sed im ages of Cru sad ers as brave an d p owerfu l warriors, lofty sym bols of self-sacrifice, h on or, an d valor. Few of u s
kn ow or rem em ber th at Pop e Urban called for th e Cru sad es for
p olitical rath er th an h is osten sible religiou s reason s or th at, on balan ce, th e Cru saders u ltim ately were th e losers n ot th e victors. Th e
sign ifican ce of th e Cru sad es is less a case of wh at actu ally h ap p en ed th an wh at th e stories tau gh t u s to believe. Each com m u n ity looks back with m em ories of its com m itm en t to d efen d its
T he Arm ies of God
75
faith an d to h eroic tales of bravery an d ch ivalry in stru gglin g again st
“th e in fid el.” Both Mu slim s an d Ch ristian s saw th e oth er as d eterm in ed to con q u er, con vert, or erad icate th e oth er, an d th u s as an
en em y of God . For Western ers, Islam is a religion of th e sword , of
h oly war or jih ad . For Mu slim s, Ch ristian ity is th e religion of th e
Cru sad es an d h egem on ic am bition s. Th e last segm en t of a BBC
series on Islam , wh ich covered colon ialism an d p ostcolon ialism ,
gave su p p ort to th is belief in its title, “Th e Fin al Cru sad e.”
Presid en t George W. Bu sh ’s u se of th e word cru sad e in a sp eech
abou t th e war again st terrorism , an d th e p rotests an d ap ologies
th at followed , h igh ligh ted th e d istan ce between Mu slim an d Western h istorical m em ories. Mu slim s won d ered , Wou ld Am erican sold iers en t erin g Afgh an ist an b eco m e t h e first st ep in a b ro ad er,
m ilitan t agen d a? Wou ld Am erica rep eat Eu rop ean colon ialism an d
attem p t to in filtrate, d om in ate, an d u ltim ately red raw th e m ap of
th e Mid d le East on ce again ?
No on e wh o h as traveled in or stu d ied th e Mu slim world can be
obliviou s to th e ten d en cy of m an y to attribu te th eir p ast an d cu rren t p roblem s in large p art to th e secon d trau m atic even t affectin g Islam an d th e West, th e legacy of Eu rop ean colon ialism . Again ,
th eir m em ories are d ifferen t from ou rs. Man y of u s h ave forgotten
wh at th e twen tieth -cen tu ry m ap of th e Mu slim world reveals. Th e
n am es of region s (th e Mid d le East) an d cou n tries as well as th e
bou n d aries an d ru lers of cou n tries were created by Eu rop ean colon ial p owers. Th ose wh o wou ld u n d erstan d th e state an d state of
m in d of th e Mu slim world tod ay sh ou ld start by exam in in g th e
exten t of foreign d om in an ce an d Mu slim su bord in ation to Eu rop e in th e recen t p ast: th e Fren ch in North , West, an d Eq u atorial
Africa, an d th e Levan t (Leban on an d Syria); th e British in Palestin e, Tran sjord an (n ow Jord an ), Iraq , th e Arabian Gu lf, an d th e
In d ian su bcon tin en t; an d in Sou th east Asia, th e British in Malaya
(Malaysia, Sin gap ore, an d Bru n ei) an d th e Du tch in In d on esia.
Th e Ayatollah Kh om ein i sp oke d ram at ically o f t h e d ep th o f
Western p en etration an d exten t of its th reat to Mu slim societies:
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Unholy W ar
Th e fo u l claws o f im p erialism h ave clu t ch ed at t h e h eart o f t h e
lan d s o f t h e p eo p le o f t h e Q u ran , wit h o u r n at io n al wealt h an d
reso u rces bein g d evo u red by im p erialism . . . wit h t h e p o iso n o u s cu lt u re o f im p erialism p en et rat in g t o t h e d ep t h s o u r t o wn s
an d villages t h ro u gh o u t t h e Mu slim wo rld , d isp lacin g t h e cu lt u re o f t h e Q u ran .3
Eu rop ean colon ialism reversed a p attern of Mu slim ru le an d
exp an sion th at h ad existed from th e tim e of th e Prop h et. As th e
balan ce of p ower an d lead ersh ip sh ifted to Eu rop e, m u ch of th e
on ce d om in an t Islam ic civilization fou n d itself eith er d irectly ru led
or d om in ated by th e Ch ristian West, th reaten ed by crown an d
cross. Man y Eu rop ean s believed th at m od ern ity was evid en ce of
th e in h eren t su p eriority of Ch ristian ity as a religion an d cu ltu re.
Britain sp oke of th e “wh ite m an ’s bu rd en ” an d Fran ce of its “m ission to civilize” to ju stify Eu rop ean im p erialism as th ey colon ized
m u ch of Africa, th e Mid d le East, Sou th an d Sou th east Asia.
Eu rop e’s th reat to Mu slim id en tity an d au ton om y raised p rofou n d religiou s as well as p olitical q u estion s for m an y in th e Mu slim w o rld : W h at h ad go n e w ro n g? W h y h ad M u slim s fallen
beh in d ? W h y h ad Mu slim fortu n es been so th orou gh ly reversed ?
Was it Mu slim s wh o h ad failed Islam or Islam th at h ad failed Mu slim s? How were Mu slim s to resp on d ? More th an a cen tu ry later,
th ese sam e q u estion s an d issu es rem ain . Com bin ed with a Mu slim belief th at th eir societies m u st be reform ed in every age, th ey
m ake a com bu stible m ixtu re th at read ily ign ites in to th e flam e of
d esire for a n ew world an d th e will to take rad ical action to m ake
th is vision of reform a reality.
Fro m H i jra a n d Ji h a d t o
Mo d e r n i z a t i o n a n d Isl a m i c Re f o r m
Fou r Mu slim resp on ses to colon ialism form th e fou n d ation s for
m u ch of wh at we see tod ay: resistan ce an d warfare, with d rawal
an d n on coop eration , secu larism an d Western ization , an d Islam ic
T he Arm ies of God
77
m od ern ism . Resisters sou gh t to follow th e exam p le of th e Prop h et:
em igration (hijra) ou t of a territory n o lon ger u n d er Mu slim ru le
an d jih ad , figh tin g to d efen d th e faith an d lan d s of Islam . Em igration for large n u m bers of p eop le was im p ractical, h owever, an d
h o ly war again st Eu ro p e’s o verwh elm in g m ilit ary st ren gt h was
d oom ed to d efeat. For m an y religiou s lead ers, th e p ractical altern ative was sim p ly to refu se to d eal with th e n ew colon ial m asters,
to sh u n th eir com p an y, sch ools, an d in stitu tion s.
Oth ers th ou gh t th eir su rvival d ep en d ed on followin g Eu rop e’s
lead . Th e Egyp tian m odern ist Tah a Hu sayn (1889–1973) exm p lified
th is p osition . A brillian t stu d en t, born blin d , h e atten d ed al-Azh ar
Un iversity for ten years bu t th en wen t on to th e Egyp tian Un iversity in Cairo followed by fou r years of stu d y in Fran ce. He becam e
a d om in an t an d at tim es con troversial figu re in in tellectu al an d
acad em ic circles. His book The Future of Culture in Egypt (1938)
ep itom ized th e orien tation of m an y em ergin g elites wh o ad vocated a liberal secu lar reform p rogram in em u lation of th e West.
Man y ju d ged Islam as eith er th e cau se of d eclin e or in cap able of
m eet in g t h e n eed s o f m o d ern life. Th ey t h erefo re ad vo cat ed a
m od ern ization p rogram th at borrowed h eavily from Western m od els of p olitical, social, an d legal ch an ge.
Tah a Hu sayn align ed Islam with Ch ristian ity an d m ain tain ed
th at Egyp t’s m od ern ren aissan ce was based on Eu rop e:
Th e essen ce an d so u rce o f Islam are t h e essen ce an d sou rce of
Ch ristian ity. So far h as th e Eu rop ean id eal becom e ou r id eal th at
we n o w m easu re t h e m at erial p ro gress of all in d ivid u als an d
grou p s by t h e am o u n t o f bo rro win g from Eu rop e. 4
Mu slim ru lers in th e Ottom an Em p ire, Egyp t, an d Iran h ad been
q u ick to clim b on to wh at th ey h op ed wou ld be a bu llet-train to
m od ern ization . Sch olars an d stu d en ts were sen t to Eu rop e, n ew
u n iversities an d cen ters were created at h om e. Mu slim s stu d ied
lan gu ages, scien ce, an d p olitics, tran slated an d p u blish ed Western
works. New western ized elites accep ted a secu lar ou tlook th at re-
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Unholy W ar
stricted religion to p erson al life an d tu rn ed to Eu rop e to “m od ern ize” th eir Mu slim societies. Th e trad ition al Islam ic id eology th at
h ad for cen tu ries given legitim acy to Mu slim societies was slowly
altered as im p orted secu lar m od els from th e West took over.
In Mu slim society, th is tren d toward western ization created a
growin g social sp lit. Mod ern secu lar sch ools fu n ction in g alon gsid e trad ition al religiou s in stitu tion s p rod u ced two classes of Mu slim s livin g sid e by sid e bu t d evelop in g d ifferen t world views an d
p rosp ects for th e fu tu re: a m od ern , western ized , elite m in ority an d
a m ore trad ition al, Islam ically orien ted m ajority. In a very real
sen se, th ere was a clash of cu ltu res, on e of skills an d valu es as well
as of p ower an d p rivilege. Th is d ivision h as rem ain ed a m ajor cau se
of th e crisis of id en tity an d resu rgen ce of religion in m an y Mu slim
societies.
A fou rth resp on se to th e ch allen ge of th e West, Islam ic m od ern ism , tried to brid ge th e gap between Islam ic trad ition alists an d
secu lar reform ers. Islam ic m od ern ism , like m u ch of th e Mu slim
resp on se to th e West tod ay, d isp layed an am bivalen t love-h ate attitu d e toward th e so-called Su ccess of th e West. Th ey ad m ired Eu rop e for its stren gth , tech n ology, an d id eals of freed om , ju stice,
an d eq u ality bu t rejected its colon ialist goals an d p olicies. Mod ern ists wan ted to d evelop an Islam ically based ration ale for ed u cation al, legal, p olitical, an d social reform in ord er to p rom ote a
ren aissan ce for th eir com m u n ity an d a first step to n ation al in d ep en d en ce an d p ower.
Islam ic m odern ism was both a success an d a failure: it reawaken ed
a sen se of p ast p ower an d glory, argu ed th e com p atibility of Islam
with m od ern reform , an d d istin gu ish ed between Western id eas
an d tech n ology an d Western im p erialism . Reform ers offered an
Islam ic altern ative to eith er rejectin g or u n critically assim ilatin g
th e West. Th eir id eas an d valu es becam e p art of Mu slim d iscou rse
an d m ain stream Mu slim th ou gh t. However, th e m od ern ist in tellectu al m ovem en t d id n ot p rod u ce organ ization s to p ass on , d evelo p an d im p lem en t t h eir id eas in a su st ain ed m an n er. So m e
d iscip les of th e great m od ern ist th in kers tu rn ed to a m ore secu lar
p ath . Most im p ortan t, Islam ic reform ism was n ot su fficien tly in -
T he Arm ies of God
79
tegrated in to th e cu rricu la of religiou s sch ools (m adrasas) an d th e
train in g of religiou s sch olars an d lead ers. As late as th e 1970s an d
1980s, Mu slim an d n on -Mu slim sch olars writin g abou t Islam an d
m o d ern it y o r Isla m ic refo rm ism w o u ld co m m o n ly p o in t t o
Mu h am m ad Abd u h wh o d ied in 1905 an d Mu h am m ad Iq bal wh o
d ied in 1938. W h ile th eir role an d legacy are im p ortan t, th e fact
th at th ey h ad been d ead for d ecad es seem ed a tacit com m en tary
on th e failu re of Islam ic m od ern ism to in sp ire n ew lead ers an d
take h old with in th e broad er com m u n ity. Tod ay th e term “salafi,”
wh ich h ad on ce been u sed to refer to Mu h am m ad Abd u h ’s Islam ic
m o d ern ist m o vem en t wit h it s em p h asis o n Islam an d rat io n al
m od ern ism , is in stead ap p lied to som e of th e m ost extrem e, an tiWestern grou p s.
Isl a m a n d t h e Mo d e rn St a t e
After World War II, th e su ccess of in depen den ce m ovem en ts in overth rowin g Eu rop ean ru le an d th e creation of m odern Mu slim states
brou gh t p rid e an d h igh exp ectation s for a stron g an d p rosp erou s
fu tu re. Nation bu ild in g in th e Mu slim world with its artificially
d rawn borders su p erficially u n itin g p eop les with diverse cen tu riesold iden tities an d allegian ces was a fragile p rocess th at bore th e
seeds for later crises of iden tity, legitim acy, p ower, an d au th ority.
W h en we ask tod ay wh y m u ch of th e Mu slim world rem ain s
p olitically u n stable or u n d erd evelop ed , we n eed to rem em ber th at
m ost m od ern Mu slim states are on ly several d ecad es old , carved
ou t by th e n ow-d ep arted Eu rop ean p owers.
Th e fragility of n ew n ation -states was dem on strated tim e an d
again . In Sou th Asia, for exam p le, th e British divided th e In dian
su bcon tin en t in to In dia an d th e n ew Islam ic Rep u blic of Pakistan .
Kash m ir was a state with a Mu slim m ajority bu t led by an In dian
m ah araja wh o acceded to In dian ru le, an arran gem en t th at h as been
con tested by Pakistan ever sin ce. Th e m ajority of territory, th e 54,000
sq u are m iles of Jam m u Kash m ir, was taken by In dia wh ile Pakistan
ru led a sm aller p arcel of 32,000 sq u are m iles, Azad Kash m ir.
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Unholy W ar
Th e creation of In d ia an d Pakistan resu lted in com m u n al warfare th at left m illion s d ead . Ten s of th ou san d s of Hin d u s an d Mu slim s were fo rced t o em igrat e, Hin d u s t o In d ia an d Mu slim s t o
Pakistan . Pakistan proved equ ally fragile. East Pakistan (later Ban glad esh ) an d West Pakistan were sep arated by 1,000 m iles of In d ian
territory. Th e difficu lty of establish in g a stron g sen se of n ation alism
in cou n tries with su ch en orm ou s eth n ic, tribal, lin gu istic, an d cu ltu ral diversity can be dedu ced from th e fact th at in both In dia an d
Pakistan th e vast m ajority of th e citizen s in each cou n try cou ld n ot
sp eak th eir n ation al lan gu age (Hin d i an d Urd u resp ectively). Th e
blood y resu lts of colon ial m ap m akin g an d n ation creation were
evid en t yet again in th e bru tal 1971 Pakistan civil war wh ich led to
th e creation of Ban gladesh , an d in th e bloody eth n ic clash es th at
h ave th reaten ed th e stability of Pakistan to th e p resen t day. In Kash m ir, th e creation of a Mu slim m ajority state with in In dia resu lted in
wars between In dia an d Pakistan in 1947 an d 1965. Sin ce 1987,
Kash m iri sep aratists h ave been locked in a stru ggle again st In d ia’s
ru le th at h as brou gh t as m an y as 750,000 In d ian troop s to Kash m ir to carry ou t a bru tal war. To th e p resen t d ay, Kash m ir con tin u es to be a m ajor in cen d iary issu e in relation s between In d ia an d
Pakistan .
In th e Mid d le East, th e Fren ch created m od ern Leban on by takin g som e p ortion s of Syria, wh ile Britain set th e bord ers an d ru lers
for Iraq an d Ku wait. Th ese arbitrary bord ers fed eth n ic, region al,
an d religiou s con flicts th at h ave th reaten ed n ation al u n ity or stability in n u m erou s cou n tries. Th e Leban ese Civil War (1975–1990)
p itted Ch ristian an d Mu slim m ilitias again st each oth er an d also
resu lted in Syria’s in terven tion an d occu p ation . Iraq ’s 1990 in vasion of Ku wait was ju stified by Sad d am Hu ssein ’s claim on Ku wait i t errit o ry. In t h e p o st –Gu lf war p erio d , Sad d am Hu ssein ’s
savage rep ression of Sh ii an d Ku rd s reflected th e artificiality an d
fragility of th e Iraq i n ation , a cobbled -togeth er state led by a Su n n i
ru ler with a lon g h istory of rep ressin g Iraq ’s m ajority Sh ii p op u lation in th e sou th an d its (Su n n i) Ku rd s in th e n orth . Both Sad d am ’s
action s an d th e in itial relu ctan ce of th e first (George H.) Bu sh
T he Arm ies of God
81
ad m in istration to in terven e were based on fears of Iraq ’s breaku p or
“Leban ization .” Oth er cou n tries, like Tran sjord an (Jord an ), were
totally n ew British creation s. A p opu lar story h as Win ston Ch u rch ill
sp en din g a lazy Su n day h u n ch ed over a m ap , sm okin g a good cigar,
wh ile drawin g th e bou n dary lin es for h is n ew “cou n try” of Jordan .
Often th e claim s an d legitim acy of ru lers were eq u ally artificial.
Th e Hash im ite fam ily of Arabia p rovid es an in terestin g exam p le.
Th e British created Tran sjord an an d Iraq as states to be ru led by
th e Hash im ite fam ily. Prin ce Abd u llah from Arabia was m ad e em ir
(p rin ce) o f Tran sjo rd an . (He lat er u p grad ed t o kin g o f Jo rd an .)
Abd u llah ’s bro t h er, Faisal, wh o se ru le in Syria h ad been en d ed
q u ickly by Fren ch in terven tion , was th en m ad e kin g of Iraq by
Britain ! An d th e m ost volatile exam p le of Eu rop ean n ation bu ild in g in th e Mid d le East rem ain s th e creation of Israel am id st com p etin g an d still-u n resolved religiou s, n ation alist, an d territorial
claim s wh ich resu lted in th e bitter legacy of th e Arab-Israeli wars.
By th e m id -twen tieth cen tu ry, m ost of th e Mu slim world h ad
ach ieved p olitical in d ep en d en ce. Most ru lers, even in th ose cou n tries wh ere Islam p layed an im p ortan t role, h ad ch osen th e m ore
Western -in flu en ced secu lar p ath . Neverth eless, lookin g across th e
Mu slim world , you cou ld see th ree m od els for n ew states: Islam ic,
secu lar, an d Mu slim .
Sau d i Arabia was a self-d eclared Islam ic state. Th e m on arch y of
th e Hou se of Sau d legitim ated its d om estic an d foreign p olicies by
claim in g to govern an d be govern ed by th e Qu ran an d Islam ic
law. At th e oth er en d of th e sp ectru m , Tu rkey, th e on ly rem n an t
of th e Ottom an Em p ire, op ted for a secu lar state an d severely restricted religion to p erson al life. Tu rkey u n d er th e lead ersh ip an d
d irection of Mu stafa Kem al (p op u larly kn own as Atatu rk, Fath er
of th e Tu rks, d . 1938) em barked on a com p reh en sive p rocess of
Tu rkification , western ization , an d secu larization .
Most Mu slim cou n tries fell in to a m iddle position . Creatin g m odern states m od eled on Western p arad igm s, th ey su p erficially in jected Islam ic p rovision s in to con stitu tion s req u irin g th at th e h ead
of state be a Mu slim or th at Islam ic law be recogn ized as “a” sou rce
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Unholy W ar
of law even wh en it was n ot, in reality, recogn ized at all. Th ese
govern m en ts sou gh t to con trol religion by in corp oratin g sch ools,
cou rts, an d m osq u es in to th eir m in istries of ed u cation , law, an d
religiou s affairs. In som e Mu slim cou n tries, lan gu ages for govern m en t, th e cou rts, an d u n iversities were Eu rop ean . In d ivid u als an d
in stitu tion s were “m od ern ” to th e d egree th at th ey were Western —in lan gu age an d d ress, m an n ers an d valu es, arch itectu re an d
in frastru ctu re.
Few q u estion ed th e accep ted wisd om th at m od ern ization m ean t
t h e p ro gressive west ern izat io n an d secu larizat io n o f so ciet y. A
m od ern ed u cation was th e su rest ticket to resp on sible p osition s in
govern m en t, bu sin ess, th e p rofession s, an d acad em ia. Close in tern ation al ties were forged between th e govern m en ts, th e m ilitary,
oil com p an ies, an d ban ks of th e Mu slim world an d th e West an d
set th e stage for d ecad es of ed u cation al an d tech n ical exch an ges
as well as p olitical, econ om ic, an d m ilitary allian ces. Th e Un ited
States, lackin g th e n egative baggage of colon ial p owers, en joyed a
certain p rid e of p lace. It becam e a m agn et for d ip lom ats, bu reau crats, m ilitary, an d secu rity forces wh o received u n iversity an d
p rofession al ed u cation th ere, an d a h aven for m an y wh o escap ed
p o vert y o r p ersecu t io n u n d er au t h o rit arian regim es. It seem ed
reason able to exp ect th at every d ay in every way western ization
an d secu larizat io n were m akin g t h in gs b et t er an d b et t er. Ho w
wron g th at exp ectation tu rn ed ou t to be!
Du rin g th e 1950s an d 1960s wid esp read d issatisfaction with th e
track record of Western -in sp ired liberal n ation alism took its toll.
Mon arch s an d govern m en ts tu m bled from p ower an d n ew govern m en ts em erged in Egyp t, Libya, Syria, Su d an , Iraq , an d Algeria.
All were based on som e form of Arab n ation alism / socialism with
its p op u list ap p eals to Arab-Islam ic roots, stress on Arab u n ity, criticism of th e failu res of liberal n ation alism an d th e West, an d p rom ise of far-reach in g social reform s. At th e sam e tim e, th e Mu slim
Broth erh ood attracted ten s of th ou san d s of m em bers in Egyp t an d
Su d an as well as Syria, Jord an , an d Palestin e. Both Arab n ation alism / socialism an d th e Broth erh ood were p op u list m ovem en ts th at
T he Arm ies of God
83
cap tu red th e im agin ation s, h op es, an d asp iration s of m an y in th e
Arab world an d beyon d . Mu slim govern m en ts an d societies con tin u ed to rely h eavily on th e West bu t n ow tilted m ore to th e
Soviet Un ion . In itially, Arab n ation alist lead ers su ch as Egyp t’s
Gam al Abd el Nasser an d h is ad m irers su ch as Su d an ’s Jafar alNu m eiry an d Libya’s Mu am m ar Qaddafi seem ed to be in th e driver’s
seat, con trollin g, m argin alizin g, or rep ressin g Islam ic activism . By
th e 1970s, h owever, Arab n ation alism / socialism was d iscred ited
by th e d isastrou s Arab d efeat in th e 1967 Arab-Israeli war, th e failu re of econ om ic p olicies, an d govern m en t corru p tion . In resp on se,
govern m en ts in all th ree cou n tries were forced to tu rn to Islam to
bu ttress th eir legitim acy an d d eal with risin g Islam ic reform an d
op p osition m ovem en ts.
B a c k t o t h e Fu t u re : Th e Isl a m i c Re su rg e n c e
Iran ’s Islam ic revolu tion of 1978–1979 abru p tly detou red th e m arch
toward Western m odern ization . Leadin g m odern izin g govern m en ts
in Iran , Egyp t, an d Leban on seem ed to be exp erien cin g th e reven ge of God . Th ey were n ot alon e. Islam ic revivalism p rod u ced a
wave of fu n d am en talist m ovem en ts from Egyp t, Su d an , an d Iran
to Pakistan , Afgh an istan , an d Malaysia.
Th e cau ses of th e resu rgen ce vary by cou n try an d region , bu t
th ere are com m on th read s: wid esp read feelin gs of failu re an d loss
of id en tity in m an y Mu slim societies, as well as failed p olitical
system s an d econ om ies. Overcrowd ed cities with in su fficien t social su p p ort system s, h igh u n em p loym en t rates, govern m en t corru p tion , a growin g gap between rich an d p oor, an d th e breakd own
of trad ition al religiou s an d social valu es p lagu ed m an y n ation s.
Israel’s cru sh in g victory over th e com bin ed forces of Egyp t, Jord an , an d Syria in th e 1967 Arab-Israeli Six-Day war sym bolized
th e d ep th of Arab an d Mu slim im p oten ce an d th e failu re of m od ern n ation -states in th e Mu slim world . Israel seized m ajor p ieces
of territory, in clu d in g th e Sin ai p en in su la an d Gaza Strip from
Egyp t, th e Golan Heigh ts from Syria, an d th e West Ban k an d East
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Unholy W ar
Jeru salem from Jord an . Th e loss of Jeru salem , th e th ird h oliest city
of Islam , wh ich em braces m ajor Mu slim h oly sites, th e Dom e of
th e Rock an d th e al-Aq sa Mosq u e, was p articu larly d evastatin g to
Mu slim s arou n d th e world , m akin g Palestin e an d th e liberation of
Jeru salem an Islam ic, n ot ju st an Arab or Palestin ian , issu e.
Th e year 1967 p roved a tu rn in g p oin t for m an y in th e Mu slim
world wh o blam ed Western p olitical an d econ om ic m odels for th eir
m oral d eclin e an d sp iritu al m alaise. Disillu sion m en t with th e West
an d in p articu lar with th e Un ited States, its p ro-Israel p olicy, an d
its su p p ort for au th oritarian ru lers like Iran ’s sh ah fed an ti-Western feelin gs. Mu slim religiou s lead ers an d activists believed th eir
m essage h ad been vin d icated , m ain tain in g th at th e failu res an d
trou bles of Mu slim s were a resu lt of tu rn in g away from God ’s revealed p ath an d relyin g on th e West. From th e 1970s on ward , religiou s revivalism an d th e role of Islam ic m ovem en ts becam e a
m ajor force in Mu slim p olitics.
B u i l d i n g t h e Ar m i e s f o r Go d
Mod ern Islam ic m ovem en ts h ave been th e d rivin g force beh in d
t h e resu rgen ce o f Islam . As d iscu ssed in t h e p revio u s ch ap t er,
Mu slim s h ave a rich legacy of trad ition s th at call u p on th em to
reform th eir societies in every age. Given th e vision of early Islam ic p ower an d su ccess an d th en its d eclin e for several cen tu ries,
it is n ot su rp risin g to see a p roliferation of Islam ic m ovem en ts in
th e twen ty-first cen tu ry strivin g to create a better world . Non violen t revolu tion ary ch an ge from below an d violen t revolu tion to
overth row establish ed u n -Islam ic govern m en ts h ave rem ain ed th e
twin p ath s of con tem p orary Islam ic m ovem en ts. Both seem ed to
sp rin g u p in th e 1970s an d sp read like wild fire across th e Mu slim
world .
Th e two p ion eer Islam ic m ovem en ts d escribed earlier, Egyp t’s
Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d an d Pakist an ’s Jam aat -i-Islam i, sp read t o
Su d an , Jord an , an d th e Gu lf, Ban glad esh , In d ia, an d Kash m ir an d
in sp ired a p roliferation of sim ilar m ovem en ts across th e world .
T he Arm ies of God
85
W h ile all h ave been com m itted to a jih ad to tran sform Mu slim societies, th eir form ation , develop m en t, strategy, an d tactics h ave reflected th e d iverse p olitical, econ om ic, an d social en viron m en ts in
wh ich th ey arose. Th e direction of th at jih ad, wh eth er it followed a
n on violen t or violen t p ath , h as often been in flu en ced as m u ch by
govern m en ts as by Islam ic organ ization s. A m ajority of Mu slim reform organ ization s h ave op erated above grou n d, workin g with in
th eir societies; a radicalized m ilitan t m in ority h as en gaged in a violen t jih ad to seize p ower or attack Mu slim govern m en ts, Am erica,
Eu rop e, an d Israel.
As Osam a bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a h ave rem in d ed u s, wh at h ap p en s “over th ere” d oes in fact h ave an im p act h ere in th e Un ited
States an d elsewh ere in th e West. Cou n tries su ch as Afgh an istan ,
Egyp t, Israel/ Palestin e, an d Algeria h ave p roven fertile grou n d in
wh ich th e seed s of violen ce an d terrorism h ave th rived . No cou n try better d em on strates th e m an y faces of p olitical Islam , violen t
an d n on violen t, dom estic an d in tern ation al, th an Egyp t. Th e birth p lace of th e Broth erh ood , of its p ath s of p olitical p articip ation
an d violen t revolu tion ary jih ad , Egyp tian society h as p rod u ced a
lon g list of reform ers an d terrorists, th e p rogen y of Hasan al-Ban n a
an d Sayyid Qu tb, exten d in g from Mu h am m ad Farag, th e id eologu e
for Islam ic Jih ad , th e assassin s of An war Sad at to Dr. Aym an alZawah iri an d oth er al-Qaed a lead ers of th e jih ad again st Am erica.
Eg y p t a n d t h e Ra g e f o r Go d
“I have killed Pharaoh and I do not fear death”
Kh alid Islam bu li, t h e assassin o f An war Sad at
Egyp t h as lon g been a lead er in th e Arab an d Mu slim world , a
lon g-tim e ally of th e Un ited States. It is a m ajor d estin ation for
foreign tou rists wh o are fascin ated by its p yram id s, p h araoh s, an d
m u m m ies. Egyp t’s m arketin g im age an d m ajor tou rist sites th at
featu re an cien t Egyp tian h istory, h owever, h ave lon g m asked its
d eep Islam ic id en tity, ch aracter, an d cu ltu re.
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Unholy W ar
Th e m ost m od ern an d m od ern izin g of cou n tries, p olitically, cu ltu rally an d religiou sly, Egyp t h as also been th e m ost p rom in en t
site of both Islam ic reform an d rad ical extrem ism . Egyp t’s Islam ic
m ovem en ts h ave sp an n ed th e sp ectru m from th e m od ern ists in
th e late-n in eteen th an d twen tieth cen tu ries to recen t extrem ist
grou p s su ch as Takfir wal Hijra, Islam ic Jih ad , an d Gam aa Islam iyya
wh o h ave terrorized Egyp tian society, in sp ired Osam a bin Lad en ,
an d becam e p art of h is al-Qaed a n etwork. Th e Egyp tian exp erien ce offers a fu ll-blown exam p le of p olitical Islam from its p ion eers to its m ain stream an d terrorist frin ges tod ay an d reflects th e
iron ic fact th at som e of th e m ost d evelop ed cou n tries in th e Mid d le
East h ave exp erien ced an d been victim s of sign ifican t violen ce an d
terrorism . W h at can we learn abou t th e n atu re of p olitical Islam
an d th e role of violen ce an d acts of terror? W h at is th e legacy of
Egyp t’s m ovem en ts for global terrorism in th e twen ty-first cen tu ry? Recen t h istory will h elp to an swer th ese q u estion s.
T H E BELI EV ER- P RESI D EN T AN D JI H AD
W h en An war Sad at su cceed ed Gam al Abd el Nasser as p resid en t of
Egyp t, h e faced a form idable task. He rep laced an en orm ou sly p op u lar ch arism at ic lead er, in flu en t ial n o t o n ly in Egyp t b u t also
th rou gh ou t th e Arab world . In som e Arab cou n tries, you m igh t
see m ore p ictu res of Nasser th an of th e local p resid en t. At first
Sad at’s p ortrait was h u n g n ext to Nasser’s to bolster h is legitim acy.
Later, h owever, to escap e livin g in Nasser’s sh ad ow, Sad at sh ifted
gears an d m ad e stron g ap p eals to Islam . Sad at wish ed to d istan ce
h im self from Nasser’s p arty, h is failed socialist id eology, p olicies,
an d allies, an d to d efin e h is own p ath an d p olicies.
Sad at assu m ed th e title th e Believer-Presid en t, an allu sion to
th e Islam ic calip h ’s title Com m an d er of th e Faith fu l. He began
an d en d ed h is sp eech es with verses from th e Qu ran . TV broad casts freq u en tly featu red h im in a m osq u e, cam eras zeroin g in on
h is p rom in en t p rayer m ark, a callou s cau sed by tou ch in g th e foreh ead to th e grou n d in p rayer. Sad at en cou raged th e growth of Islam ic stu d en t association s on cam p u s an d was able to gain en ou gh
T he Arm ies of God
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con trol over th e sh aykh (rector) an d lead in g religiou s sch olars at
al-Azh ar Un iversity to be able to cou n t on th eir su p p ort for th e
Egyp tian -Israeli p eace treaty. Th is treaty won h im great p raise in
th e West an d a Nobel Peace Prize. However, d esp ite gen erou s aid
from th e Un ited States followin g th e Cam p David Accord s in 1978–
1979, th e stan dard of livin g for m ost Egyp tian s con tin u ed its steady
d eclin e, an d th e Palestin ian s, always th e sym bol of th e su ccess or
failu re of Arab lead ersh ip , rem ain ed stateless an d p ersecu ted u n d er m ilitary occu p ation .
It soon becam e clear to Sad at th at ap p ealin g to Islam was a twoed ged sword . Usin g strict Islam ic criteria, activists ju d ged Sad at to
be a h yp ocrite an d traitor for h is relation s with th e West, h is failu re to im p lem en t th e Sh ariah as th e official law of Egyp t, an d h is
liberal fam ily-law reform s, wh ich critics, wh o saw th em as Western rath er th an Islam ically in sp ired , sarcastically d u bbed “Jih an ’s
laws” after Sad at’s h alf-British wife.
By th e m id -1970s, th e q u iet ach ieved by Nasser’s 1960s su p p ression of th e Mu slim Broth erh ood was gon e. New m em bers wh o
were attracted to em ergin g organ ization s in clu d ed th ose wh o h ad
believed in western ization an d m od ern ization , bu t wh o were n ow
d isaffected by th e con tin u in g econ om ic d eclin e. Th ey in clu d ed
th e m ajority of th e u n em p loyed you n ger gen eration as well as
form er secu larists. Th e Mu slim Broth erh ood was back an d so were
n ew ext rem ist s, secret revo lu t io n ary gro u p s like Mu h am m ad ’s
You th , Takfir wal Hijra (Excom m u n ication an d Fligh t), an d Islam ic
Jih ad p rom otin g th eir jih ad of violen ce an d terrorism . Th ey seized
bu ild in gs, kid n ap p ed an d execu ted govern m en t officials, an d tried
to assassin ate Sad at an d d eclare an Islam ic rep u blic.
In a n ation wid e crackd own , th e govern m en t arrested 620 m ilitan ts; 454 were tried by sp ecial m ilitary cou rts an d im p rison ed .
Th e lead ers of Mu h am m ad ’s You th an d Takfir were execu ted . Man y
m ilitan ts wen t u n d ergrou n d on ly to reem erge as n ew grou p s, th e
Arm y of God (Ju n d Allah ) an d Islam ic Jih ad (Jam aat al-Jih ad , or
Holy War Society).
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Unholy W ar
In creasin gly, Sad at resp on d ed to all of h is Islam ic critics, m ain stream an d rad ical alike, with a h eavy h an d . He warn ed : “Th ose
wh o wish to p ractice Islam can go to th e m osq u e an d th ose wh o
wish to en gage in p olitics m ay d o it th rou gh legal in stitu tion s.” 5
Th e govern m en t tried to im p rison all op p osition , gain con trol of
all m osq u es, an d ban Islam ic stu den t association s. Sadat also m oved
to silen ce oth ers: in tellectu als, jou rn alists, lawyers, u n iversity p rofessors, form er cabin et m in isters wh o h ad criticized h is p olicies.
W h en food riots sh ook Cairo in Jan u ary 1977, Sad at blam ed Marxists an d Leftists, an d con tin u ed to arrest an y op p osition . W h ile h e
was bein g p raised in th e West as a p rogressive Mu slim lead er, for
m an y in Egyp t Sad at’s n ew econ om ic op en -d oor p olicy ju st m ean t
greater Western (esp ecially Am erican ) econ om ic in volvem en t. It
m ean t lin in g th e p ockets of m u ltin ation al com p an ies an d Egyp tian elites, n ot solvin g basic econ om ic an d social p roblem s:
Ho w can t h e p easan t , t h e h ard wo rkin g Egyp t ian fellah , m ain tain h is d ign ity wh en , after sweatin g in th e h ot su n all d ay lon g,
h e h as to stan d in lin e to receive a frozen Am erican ch icken ? . . .
As h e sit s in t h e even in g wit h t h e fam ily t o wat ch t h e television
t h at h is so n h as p u rch ased fro m t h e fru it s o f labo r in Sau d i
Arabia, t h e in t rigu es o f J.R. Ewin g an d Su e Ellen on Dallas st rip
h im of wh at is left o f h is legit im acy as a cu lt u re bearer in h is
own cu lt u re. Bet ween p ro gram s, h e is told in En glish th at h e
sh o u ld b e d rin kin g Sch wep p es o r in d u b b ed Arab ic t h at h e
sh ou ld u se d eo d o ran t , an d t h at all h is p roblem s are cau sed by
h avin g t o o m an y ch ild ren —a t o t al p ackage of im p ort ed id eas. 6
Th e Sep tem ber 1978 Cam p David Accord s were viewed by Arabs
an d Mu slim s at h om e an d abroad as an op p ortu n istic cap itu lation
to Israel an d its Am erican p atron . Sad at’s foreign m in ister resign ed ,
an d p rotest d em on stration s th rou gh ou t Egyp t d en ou n ced th e accord s as a treason ou s act of an “u n believer.” On ly Egyp t seem ed
to ben efit from th e accord s, as Israel even tu ally with d rew from
th e Sin ai, an d Egyp t got m assive aid from th e Un ited States as a
T he Arm ies of God
89
reward for sign in g. However, Israel’s occu p ation of Palestin ian territories on th e West Ban k an d Gaza, as well as of Syria’s Golan
Heigh ts, rem ain ed in p lace. Al-Azh ar’s en d orsem en t of th e p eace
agreem en t was seen as sim p ly recon firm ation th at it h ad becom e
a p u p p et of th e govern m en t. Alth ou gh th e Mu slim Broth erh ood
in itially resp on d ed cau tiou sly, by March 1979 it h ad called for a
h oly war again st Israel.
In early Sep tem ber 1981, faced with m ou n tin g d iscon ten t an d
o p p o sit io n , in a sen sat io n al m o ve t h e go vern m en t lau n ch ed a
m assive d ragn et, arrestin g m ore th an 1,500 p eop le. Secu lar an d
Islam ic op p osition p u blication s were ban n ed . Th ose im p rison ed
rep resen ted th e en tire p olitical sp ectru m , from extrem e righ t to
extrem e left, Mu slim Broth ers an d m ilitan ts, as well as Marxists,
Mu slim s, an d Cop ts, you n g an d old , jou rn alists, writers, p rofessors, an d oth er p rofession als. Th ey in clu d ed Dr. Nawal Saad awi,
th e p rom in en t Egyp tian au th or, fem in ist, an d form er cabin et m in ister. In a television ad d ress, Sad at m ain tain ed th at h e was savin g
Egyp t from p olitical an d religiou s “sed ition .” Man y believed th at
p olitically h e h ad sign ed h is “d eath warran t”; tragically, th is p red iction wou ld p rove to be literally tru e.7 Like th e sh ah of Iran wh en
faced with m ou n tin g op p osition , Sad at becam e m ore au tocratic
an d in creasin gly id en tified th e Egyp tian state with h is own p erso n alit y an d will. As Saad Ed d in Ib rah im h as n o t ed ,
Sad at in izat io n o f Egyp t was exp ressed in alm ost every son g on
rad io an d t elevisio n . . . . Two p ro cesses were at work: a Sad atan izat io n o f Egyp t o n t h e o n e h an d an d a d eification of Sad at on
t h e o t h er—t h e rebirt h o f t h e Egyp t ian p h araoh . 8
Desp ite th e growin g ten sion s in Egyp tian society, few exp ected
wh at h ap p en ed on October 6, 1981. An war Sad at, ad orn ed in h is
gold -braid ed u n iform sat am id st two th ou san d d ign itaries from
all over th e world viewin g a weap on s d isp lay th at com m em orated
th e “su ccess” of th e 1973 war. As th ey sh ield ed th eir eyes from th e
blazin g su n , th ey watch ed figh ter-p lan e aerobatics above an d a
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Unholy W ar
slow-m ovin g p rocession of artillery tru cks below. Su d d en ly, fou r
gu n m en , ap p earin g from beh in d th e tru cks, fired th eir au tom atic
rifles an d th rew th eir gren ad es at th e reviewin g stan d . Th e Believer-Presid en t, stru ck by at least five bu llets as well as sh rap n el,
d ied alm ost im m ed iately. Sad at was assassin ated by m em bers of
Jam aat al-Jih ad or Islam ic Jih ad , th e organ ization th at d evelop ed
from an abortive cou p staged by Mu h am m ad ’s You th . Th eir lead er,
a m ilitary officer, cried ou t, “I am Kh alid Islam bu li. I h ave killed
Ph aroah an d I d o n ot fear d eath !” Years lat er Kh alid ’s bro t h er,
Moh am m ed Islam bu li, wou ld su rface with Osam a bin Lad en in
Afgh an istan . Sad at’s state fu n eral was atten d ed by a h ost of celebrities, p resid en ts, an d p olitician s from Eu rop e an d Am erica. However, Arab lead ers were p rom in en tly m issin g, an d th e p eop le of
Egyp t d id n ot m ou rn for th eir Believer-Presid en t.
I SLAM I C JI H AD
Th e Egyp tian Islam ic Jih ad h as h ad a lon g track record of violen ce
an d terrorism . Its well-edu cated m em bers h ave com e from th e presiden tial gu ard an d m ilitary in telligen ce an d in clu de civil servan ts,
rad io an d television workers, u n iversity stu den ts, an d p rofessors.
Th ey were recruited from religious societies an d Qu ran stu dy grou ps.
Th eir social cen ters p rovided stu den ts with free books an d tu torin g
an d fam ilies with m u ch -n eeded food, cloth in g, an d h ou sin g.
Th e m ission of Islam ic Jih ad was to create a tru e Islam ic state
an d society in Egyp t. Th is was to be th e first step in ach ievin g
th eir lon g-term goal: a sin gle Mu slim govern m en t u n d er a tru e
Islam ic calip h ate. Th ey h ave ration alized th eir h oly war again st
Egyp t’s “ath eist” state an d ru lers as req u ired , th e obligation of all
tru e believers.
Islam ic Jih ad ’s war is waged again st all n on believers, Mu slim
an d n on -Mu slim alike. Extrem ist grou p s like Jih ad reject Islam ’s
trad ition al toleran ce of th e p rotected com m u n ities of Jews an d
Ch ristian s, Peop le of th e Book (dhim m i). Like Osam a bin Lad en ,
th ey see Jews an d Ch ristian s as p art of a h istoric battle or Cru sad e
con n ected with Eu rop ean colon ialism an d Zion ism , an d th ey re-
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gard Israel as a Trojan h orse of th e West, a fifth colu m n with in
Mu slim societies. 9 On ce p eop le h ave been con d em n ed as u n believers wh o m u st be su bject to th e sword , th ey forfeit th eir righ t to
life, secu rity, an d p rop erty. Sh aykh Om ar Abd el Rah m an , sp iritu al
ad viser to Islam ic Jih ad an d Gam aa Islam iyya, issu ed a fatwa san ction in g th e killin g an d p lu n d erin g of Ch ristian s in Lu xor in 1997
becau se th ey were an ti-Mu slim . Th is ou tlook h as been p assed on
to oth er grou p s in th e Arab an d Mu slim world wh o believe th at
in tern ation al con sp iracies, Jewish Zion ism , th e Ch ristian West, an d
ath eistic com m u n ism all in ten d to d ivid e th e Mu slim world an d
d estroy Islam . In p u blic p rotests th ey ch an t: “Holy war again st
lackeys—Jews, Ch ristian s, an d Ath eists” an d “No to Am erica! an d
No to Israel!”
After Sadat’s assassin ation , Islam ic Jih ad regrou p ed an d declared
jih ad again st th e n ew govern m en t of Hosn i Mu barak. Th ey reem erged in th e 1990s alon g with Gam aa Islam iyya to th reaten th e
secu rity of Egyp tian society. Dr. Aym an al-Zawah iri retu rn ed from
th e Afgh an jih ad an d brou gh t m an y oth er Arab Afgh an s with h im
an d righ t in to th e Jih ad organ ization . Egyp tian s h ad m ade u p a
large proportion of th e foreign ers figh tin g th e Soviets. Th ey return ed
to Egyp t with n ew ideas, exten sive m ujahidin creden tials, an d th e
taste of victory again st overwh elm in g odd s. Th ey brou gh t Egyp t’s
Islam ic Jih ad an d Gam aa Islam iyya a n ew ideological dim en sion ,
tran sform in g th e m ore lim ited n ation alist agen da to create an Islam ic state in Egyp t in to a com m itm en t to wage global jih ad.
Islam ic Jih ad ’s activities reflected th eir rage an d th eir agen d a.
In 1990, five Jih ad m em bers were arrested for killin g th e sp eaker
of th e Nation al Assem bly. Jih ad m em bers wh o u n su ccessfu lly attem p ted to assassin ate th e in terior m in ister an d th e p rim e m in ist er in 1993 were believed t o be beh in d t h e 1995 assassin at io n
attem p t on Presid en t Mu barak in Ad d is Ababa, th e bom bin g of
th e Egyp tian em bassy in Islam abad , an d th e slau gh ter of fifty-eigh t
tou rists at Lu xor in 1997—a crim e for wh ich al-Zawah iri was sen ten ced to d eath in absentia. Jih ad ’s sp iritu al ad viser, Om ar Abd el
Rah m an , was exiled to th e Un ited States, bu t con tin u ed to in flu -
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en ce Jih ad as well as Gam aa Islam iyya. He was im p licated in th e
1993 World Trad e Cen ter bom bin g an d im p rison ed for p articip ation in a con sp iracy to com m it oth er bom bin gs in Am erica. Jih ad
sp lit in to two win gs, on e loyal to Abbou d al-Zam ou r, on e of th e
origin al fou n d ers, an d th e oth er, Van gu ard s of Con q u est or th e
New Jih ad Grou p led by bin Lad en p rotégé al-Zawah iri, wh o wou ld
m erge h is grou p with al-Qaed a.
Th e Gam aa Islam iyya (Islam ic Grou p ) began du rin g th e Sadat
era as stu den t Islam ic grou p s active on u n iversity cam p u ses an d h as
evolved in to a terrorist n etwork. It becam e an u m brella organ ization for violen t extrem ists’ clan destin e cells active in Cairo, Alexan dria, an d Up p er Egyp t. It attracted you n ger, less-ed u cated followers
from m ore desperate con dition s of poverty an d u n em ploym en t wh o
esp ou sed a m ore radical ideology an d en gaged in m ore ran dom acts
of violen ce to destabilize th e govern m en t p olitically an d econ om ically. Th ey attacked tou rists, a m ajor sou rce of Egyp t’s foreign reven u e, bom bed an d bu rn ed govern m en t bu ildin gs an d ban ks, as well
as th eaters an d video an d book stores th at p op u larized Western cu ltu re. Th e Gam aa esp ecially targeted Ch ristian s, bom bin g an d bu rn in g ch u rch es an d h om es, robbin g, beatin g, an d m u rderin g Ch ristian
Egyptian s. Th e Gam aa’s oth er targets in cluded colum n ist Farag Foda,
wh o was killed in 1992, an d Egyp t’s Nobel lau reate writer Nagu ib
Mah fu z, wh o in 1994 was stabbed in order to silen ce an d in tim idate ou tsp oken critics of fu n dam en talists.
A D U AL REV O LU T I O N :
M AI N ST REAM AN D M I LI TAN T JI H AD
Du rin g t h e Mu barak years ext rem ist s an d go vern m en t secu rit y
forces an d p olice h ave been locked in an all-ou t u n h oly war in
wh ich both sid es u se d ead ly force an d terrorism again st th eir en em y. Th e stru ggle h as cost m ore th an on e th ou san d lives an d led
to ch arges by h u m an righ ts organ ization s, in tern ation al m ed ia,
an d p olitical exp erts th at th e effort to cap tu re an d eradicate extrem ists h as degen erated in to in discrim in ate state rep ression . More
th an twen ty th ou san d Islam ists h ave been im p rison ed , m an y de-
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tain ed with ou t ch arge an d su bjected to tortu re. Extralegal m ilitary
cou rts th at exclu de th e righ t of ap p eal were created; laws were en acted to restrict freedom of th e p ress, take con trol of m osq u es, an d
p reven t elected Islam ists from leadin g p rofession al association s.
Like oth er au th oritarian regim es in th e Middle East, th e Mu barak
govern m en t seized th e op p ortu n ity to u se its war again st terrorism to silen ce both extrem ists an d m ain stream legal op p osition ,
n ot on ly th ose m ovem en ts th at h ave carried ou t violen t attacks,
bu t on e, n am ely th e Mu slim Broth erh ood , th at h ad becom e d om in an t in u n iversity facu lties, labor an d p rofession al association s,
an d m an y m u n icip alities. 10
By 2000 th e Mu barak govern m en t’s strategy h ad clearly p aid
off. Im p rison ed lead ers of Gam aa Islam iyya h ad d eclared a u n ilateral cease-fire; th e govern m en t released th ou san d s of d etain ees.
Islam ic Jih ad in Egyp t, sign ifican tly weaken ed , m an y of its lead ers
im p rison ed or in exile, soon followed su it. Bu t Islam ic Jih ad abroad,
in p articu lar Aym an al-Zawah iri an d Islam ic Jih ad lead ers in Afgh an istan , rejected th e ceasefire an d con tin u e th eir global jih ad .
M AI N ST REAM FU N D AM EN TALI SM AN D T H E STAT E
Desp ite th e ap p aren t su ccess of th e Mu barak govern m en t in con tain in g Islam ic rad icalism , it is n ot resp on d in g su ccessfu lly to th e
d eclin in g stan d ard of livin g, h igh u n em p loym en t, an d d ecreased
freed om an d d em ocratic righ ts. As a con seq u en ce, Islam ic revivalism h as h ad a sign ifican t im p act on m ain stream Egyp tian society.
Egyp tian society h as itself becom e m ore Islam ized at th e grassroots level. New Islam ic tren d s are seen in n ew ed u cated religiou s
lead ers wh o h ave m ass followin gs from m id d le- an d u p p er-class
au d ien ces. Ph ysician s, jou rn alists, lawyers, p olitical scien tists, m en
an d wom en write an d sp eak ou t on issu es of Islam ic reform su ch
as p lu ralism , wom en ’s righ ts, an d social ju stice. Islam ic belief, sym bols, an d valu es in form th e govern m en t, cou rts, p rofession s, d ress,
an d valu es of society (m od ern as well as trad ition al sectors) countering th e exp ectation s of secu lar m od ern ization th eory an d th e
p olicies of th e Mu barak govern m en t.
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Th e Mu slim Broth erh ood exem p lifies th e q u iet social revolu tion th at h as been takin g p lace in Egyp t’s cities an d town s. Islam ic
act ivism h as beco m e in st it u t io n alized . Islam ic sch o o ls, clin ics,
h osp itals, an d social services, as well as Islam ic ban ks an d p u blish in g h ou ses, are p art of m ain stream society, an altern ative set of
social in stitu tion s an d services. Th ey p resen t an in d irect in d ictm en t of th e govern m en t’s failu re to resp on d to p eop le’s n eed s.
Th e p erform an ce of Islam ists at th e p olls h as been eq u ally im p ressive. Preven ted by law from p articip atin g as a legal p olitical p arty,
t h e Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d fo rm ed co alit io n s an d allian ces an d
em erged as th e lead in g op p osition in th ose p arliam en tary election s in wh ich th ey p articip ated .
Th e story of Egyp t, an ally of th e Un ited States, is on e of th e
m an y exam p les of h ow p olitical an d econ om ic con d ition s cou p led
with rep ression sp awn m ilitan t op p osition m ovem en ts th at m isu se Islam to m otivate an d legitim ate violen ce an d terrorism .
Th e Ji h a d i n P a l e st i n e : H a m a s
If so m eo n e co n fiscat ed yo u r lan d , d em olish ed you r h om e, bu ilt
set tlem en t s t o p reven t yo u fro m co m in g back, killed you r ch ild ren an d blo cked yo u fro m go in g t o work, wou ld n ’t you wan t
t o figh t for yo u r co u n t ry?11
Major Islam ic m ovem en ts arise in resp on se to failu res an d crises
in th eir societies an d to vacu u m s in effective lead ersh ip . Nowh ere
h as th is been m ore d ram atically visible th an in Israel/ Palestin e.
Th e late 1980s p rod u ced two m ilitan t Islam ic resp on ses to th e failu res of th e Israeli an d Palestin ian lead ersh ip —Ham as an d Islam ic
Jih ad . Ham as, th ou gh always a m in ority, h as p roven th e m ore effective, h arn essin g religion with p olitical an d social activism , an d
in creasin gly u sin g acts of terrorism in th e escalatin g violen ce an d
terror of th e Palestin ian -Israeli con flict.
Ham as is an offsh oot of th e Palestin ian Mu slim Broth erh ood . It
was creat ed in 1987 d u rin g t h e Palest in ian u p risin g (intifada)
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again st Israeli occu p ation an d ru le in Gaza an d th e West Ban k.
Th e Broth erh ood ’s su p p ort h ad d win d led , esp ecially am on g th e
you n ger gen eration , after th e Arab d efeat in th e 1967 Arab-Israeli
war. Its ap olitical p ath , focu sed on ru n n in g sch ools, you th cam p s,
an d social welfare services, d id n ot ad d ress th e core cau ses of th e
con tin u ed d isen fran ch isem en t of th e Palestin ian s an d so fell sh ort
of th e d esp erate m ood of th e tim es. Leavin g th e Broth erh ood on
th e p erip h ery, th e m ajority of Palestin ian s tu rn ed to Yasser Arafat’s
Fatah an d th e Palestin ian Liberation Organ ization (PLO), th e coalition of Palestin ian grou p s of wh ich Fatah is a m em ber.
However, wh en th e in tifada eru p ted in 1987, th e Broth erh ood
m oved q u ickly, takin g advan tage of Arafat’s failu res an d th e ou tp ou rin g of fru stration an d rage again st Israel to establish its relevan ce d u rin g t h e u p risin g. Th e Bro t h erh o o d creat ed Ham as,
(“fervor”), an acron ym for th e Islam ic Resistan ce Movem en t; Ham as
q u ickly took on a life an d m ission of its own , assu m in g a m ajor
leadersh ip p osition du rin g th e in tifada. Fillin g a vacu u m , it p rovided a m ilitan t Islam ic altern ative to th e secu lar n ation alism of
th e PLO. Becau se of th e Broth erh ood’s size, broad-based activities,
an d in flu en ce, Ham as becam e th e p rin cip al altern ative to th e PLO.
From th e begin n in g, Ham as’s stru ggle to en d th e Israeli occu p ation was con du cted as a jih ad, a m u ltifaceted stru ggle of p olitical
action , social welfare, an d m ilitan t resistan ce, in clu din g acts of violen ce an d terrorism . Ham as com bin ed its religiou s m essage with
social reform , wh ich attracted th e older gen eration , an d with resistan ce an d jih ad, wh ich sp oke to th e fru stration s an d fu ry of Palestin ian you th . Ham as’s su ccess oversh adowed th e Broth erh ood an d
ch allen ged Yasser Arafat an d th e PLO’s leadersh ip in th e stru ggle.
Ham as, like oth er Islam ic m ovem en ts, is en gaged in a p rocess
of dawah (th e call to becom e better Mu slim s) an d jih ad (th e call to
figh t again st o p p ressio n ). Th e p red icam en t o f t h e Palest in ian
p eop le, th e h egem on y of Israel, is attribu ted to loss of faith an d
d ep artu re from th e straigh t p ath of Islam . Ham as calls all Mu slim s
to give u p th eir secu lar cu ltu re an d lifestyles an d retu rn to religiou s observan ce: p rayer, fastin g, Islam ic d ress, m oral an d social
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valu es to re-create a p rop er Islam ic society so th at Mu slim society
can again becom e stron g an d wage a su ccessfu l jih ad to liberate
Palestin e from Israeli con trol.
As its ch arter states, Ham as “fou n d itself at a tim e wh en Islam
d isap p eared from life. Th u s, ru les were broken , con cep ts were vilified , valu es ch an ged an d evil p eop le took con trol; op p ression an d
d arkn ess p revailed , coward s becam e tigers; h om elan d s were in vad ed , p eop le were scattered . . . wh en Islam is absen t from th e
aren a, everyth in g ch an ges.” 12 From th is p ersp ective, Israel’s occu p ation is seen as a p u n ish m en t from God for d eviation s from Islam . Th u s, in d ep en d en ce, civil an d p olitical righ ts, d ign ity, an d
d evelop m en t will all be ach ieved on ly by a retu rn to Islam , a reIslam ization of Palestin ian Mu slim society.
Ham as views th e Mu slim claim to th e lan d of Palestin e as religiou sly an ch ored an d im m u table: “Th e Islam ic Resistan ce Movem en t believes th at th e lan d of Palestin e h as been an Islam ic W aqf
[religiou s en d owm en t] th rou gh ou t th e gen eration s an d u n til th e
d ay of resu rrection . . . . th is waq f will en d u re as lon g as h eaven
an d earth last.” Islam is com bin ed with Palestin ian an d Arab n ation alism in Ham as’s m ission ; Ham as’s jih ad is th e d efen se of Palestin e, a com p lem en tary com bin atio n o f p o lit ical an d m ilit ary
activities, in cu m ben t on all Mu slim s to liberate Palestin e from Israeli occu p ation : “Noth in g is loftier or d eep er in n ation alism th an
wagin g jih ad again st th e en em y an d con fron tin g h im wh en h e
sets foot on th e lan d of th e Mu slim s. . . . W h en ou r en em ies u su rp
som e lan d s, jih ad becom es a d u ty on all Mu slim s.” 13
Th e PLO ch arter, on th e oth er h an d, iden tifies th e en em y as Zion ism , th e Eu rop ean Jewish m ovem en t to create th e state of Israel,
wh ich d isregarded th e righ ts of Palestin ian s wh ose lan d was n eeded
to establish th e state. Th e PLO goal is a secu lar state with eq u al
righ ts for all citizen s, Mu slim s an d Ch ristian s (a sign ifican t m in ority of th e Palestin ian p op u lation ). In con trast, Ham as rejects th e
distin ction between Ju daism an d Zion ism , seein g th e Palestin ian Israeli con flict in religiou s term s as a con fron tation between Islam
an d Ju daism as rep resen ted by th e religiou s state of Israel. In th e
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word s of Ham as’s leader Mah m ou d Zah ar: “Th ey [th e Jews] m ade
th eir religion th eir n ation an d state. . . . Th ey h ave declared war on
Islam , closed m osq u es an d m assacred defen seless worsh ip p ers at alAq sa an d in Hebron . Th ey are th e Mu slim -killers an d u n der th ese
circu m stan ces we are obliged by ou r religion to defen d ou rselves.” 14
Like Takfir wal Hijra an d Islam ic Jih ad as well as Osam a bin
Lad en ’s al-Qaed a, Ham as sees th e Palestin ian -Israeli con flict as th e
m ost recen t iteration of an age-old stru ggle between Islam an d
Ju d aism , d atin g back to th e Jews’ rejection of Mu h am m ad an d
Islam in th e seven th cen tu ry. 15 Like m an y Mu slim grou p s it d raws
on Western an ti-Sem itic literatu re, esp ecially The Protocols of the
Learned Elders of Zion, an ap ocryp h al book th at d escribes a fictitiou s Jewish con sp iracy to d estroy Ch ristian civilization an d establish Jewish h egem on y, to bolster its in dictm en t. Th u s, for Ham as
th e Palestin ian stru ggle is a jih ad in th e fu llest m ilitan t sen se of
th e term , a h oly war between Mu slim s an d Jews based on con flictin g religiou s an d territorial claim s.
M EM BERSH I P AN D AC T I V I T I ES
Ham as was fou n d ed by Sh aykh Ah m ad Yassin , th e ch arism atic
p arap legic lead er of th e Palestin ian Mu slim Broth erh ood . Its lead ersh ip h as in clu d ed religiou s officials (im am s), bu t m ost m em bers
are p rofession als an d tech n ocrats train ed in m ed icin e, en gin eerin g, scien ce, or bu sin ess. Mem bers are recru ited from a n etwork of
m osq u es, sch ools, an d ch aritable in stitu tion s in to th is religiou s,
social, p olitical, an d m ilitary m ovem en t. Th e com bin ation of p olitical an d social activism with gu errilla warfare earn ed th e fin an cial an d m oral su p p ort of m an y Palestin ian s an d oth ers in th e
broad er Arab an d Mu slim world . Its exten sive n etwork of com m u n ity an d ch aritable p rojects an d p rogram s—kin d ergarten s, sch ools,
sch olarsh ip s, su p p ort for stu d en ts stu d yin g abroad , libraries, social an d sp orts clu bs, an d oth er social welfare services—was a p rim ary reason for its p op u larity an d followin g.
Ham as h as en gaged in p olitical ed u cation , m obilization , an d
p rotest, ch allen gin g th e legitim acy an d p latform of th e PLO, claim -
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Unholy W ar
in g to offer a m ore au th en tic an d eq u itable Islam ic altern ative.
Political foru m s, p am p h lets, an d cassettes, as well as m ass d em on stration s an d strikes, h ave been effective p olitical in stru m en ts for
th em . Of cou rse, th eir p op u larity an d su p p ort, th eir ability to get
votes from th e m ajority d ep en d on p rogress or, m ore correctly,
lack of p rogress, in th e p eace p rocess. W h en relation s between
Israel an d th e Palestin ian s d eteriorate, th e p op u larity of Ham as
can d id ates in m u n icip al, p rofession al association s, ch am bers of
com m erce, an d u n iversity stu den t election s soars becau se th e dom in an t PLO is blam ed for con tin u ed failu re. Ham as, in th is sen se,
ben efits from th e con tin u in g d ead lock between th e Palestin ian s
an d Israelis. Th ose two p owers are blam ed for th e con tin u ed h u m iliation of th e Palestin ian p eop le an d fru stration of th eir d esire
for p olitical an d civil righ ts. Ham as p rom ises to get tou gh with
Israel in ord er to ach ieve Palestin ian righ ts: th at is th e p u rp ose of
its m ilitan t an d terrorist acts.
N AT I O N ALI ST M O V EM EN T O F RESI STAN C E
O R T ERRO RI ST O RG AN I ZAT I O N ?
W h atever th e accom p lish m en ts of Ham as as a social an d p olitical
m ovem en t, on ly its violen t activities are kn own in th e West. Mem bers of Ham as p articip ated in th e everyd ay con fron tation s with
Israeli forces d u rin g th e in tifad a. Th e Qassem Brigad e, a sp ecialized m ilit ary win g fu lly o p erat io n al by 1992, en gaged in wellp lan n ed gu errilla w arfare again st Israeli m ilit ary an d p o lice.
Qassem ’s m em bers worked in sm all clan d estin e cells. Th eir id en tity was u n kn own to th e m ajority of Ham as m em bers an d th ey
fu n ction ed with relative au ton om y.
W h en Israel an d th e Un ited States con dem n ed Ham as as a terrorist organ ization , Ham as leaders resp on ded by sayin g th at th e u se
of violen ce is both legitim ate resistan ce an d retaliation th at was
restricted to p olitical an d m ilitary targets in th e occu p ied territories. Th eir action s were a resp on se to Israel’s occu p ation an d its u se
of u n restrain ed violen ce an d terror again st Palestin ian s. Th is p osition ch an ged dram atically after th e 1993 Oslo Accords an d in resp on se to two even ts in Israel an d th e West Ban k an d Gaza.
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On Febru ary 25, 1994, a Jewish settler n am ed Baru ch Gold stein
walked in to th e Mosq u e of th e Patriarch in Hebron , op en ed fire,
an d killed 29 Mu slim worsh ip p ers d u rin g th eir Frid ay con gregation al p rayer. In resp on se, Ham as in trod u ced a n ew typ e of warfare, th e su icid e bom bers. Th eir attacks in creased exp on en tially.
Prom isin g swift reven ge for th e Hebron m assacre, th e Qassem Brigade u n dertook five op eration s with in Israel itself in Galilee, Jeru salem , an d Tel Aviv. Th e m ost d ead ly took p lace on October 19, 1994,
in th e h eart of Tel Aviv with th e bom bin g of a bu s th at killed 23
an d in ju red n early 50 p eop le. Th e Israeli assassin ation of Yah ya
Ayash , a su icid e-bom b m aker, resu lted in an oth er series of retaliatory su icid e-bom b attacks. Peace n egotiation s in Ju ly 1997 were
again disru p ted wh en su icide bom bers killed 13 an d wou n ded m ore
th an 150 in a Jeru salem m arket.
W h at d rives you n g Mu slim s to becom e su icid e bom bers? Man y
Palestin ian s h ave seen gen eration s grow u p in refu gee cam p s or
u n d er Israeli occu p ation sin ce th e creation of Israel in 1948. Th eir
sen se of op p ression an d victim h ood h as been com p ou n d ed as th e
p rom ise of th e Oslo Accord s evap orated , like th ose of Cam p David ,
u n d er Yasser Arafat’s Palestin ian Nation al Au th ority. Th e in creased
u se of force u n d er th e Ariel Sh aron govern m en t sp arked th e secon d in tifad a, wh ich began in Sep tem ber 2000. Growin g u p op p ressed an d u n d er siege, facin g a fu t u re wit h lit t le h o p e, h igh
u n em p loym en t, an d en d em ic p overty can p rod u ce an an ger an d
d esire for reven ge again st th ose resp on sible. Ju st as am on g in n er
city you th in th e Un ited States, som e of th ose you n g p eop le lose
all h op e. For oth ers, religion h old s th e an swer. For a sm all m in ority, su icid e bom bin g seem s a p rou d an d p owerfu l resp on se.
Com p letely ou t of th eir leagu e m ilitarily wh en com p ared to
Israel, th ese m ilitan t Palestin ian s boast of th eir n ew an d m ost effective d ead ly weap on . As stu d en t p osters at u n iversities in th e
West Ban k an d Gaza d eclare: “Israel h as n u clear bom bs, we h ave
h u m an bom bs.” 16 Su icid e is forbid d en in Islam , bu t m ilitan t Palestin ian s d o n ot see th is as su icid e. It is self-sacrifice for th e cau se
of Palestin ian freed om . Th e sim p licity of th e act en ables an oth er-
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wise im p oten t in d ivid u al to slip in to a crowd u n n oticed an d th en
with a sim p le d eton ation wreak h orren d ou s carn age. Th e u se of
con cep ts like jih ad an d m artyrd om to ju stify su icid e bom bin g p rovid es a p owerfu l in cen tive: th e p rosp ect of bein g a glorified h ero
in th is life an d en joyin g Parad ise in th e n ext.
Su icid e bom bin g h as taken th e con flict beyon d th e m ilitary an d
in to th e streets; Ham as h as stru ck an u n p aralleled sen se of vu ln erability an d terror in to Israeli society. Becau se it is so effective, its
u se h as escalated alon g with th e Sh aron govern m en t’s escalation
of violen ce, bom bin gs, m issile attacks, an d assassin ation of Palestin ian lead ers. W h ile th e Palestin ian s are n o m atch for Israel in
n u m bers or weap on s, Dr. Abd el Aziz Ran tisi, a sen ior Ham as lead er,
believes su ch attacks en su re th at “Israelis will h ave n o stability
an d n o secu rity u n til th e occu p ation en d s. Su icid e bom bers are
Israel’s fu tu re.” 17
Th e n ew tactics of su icid es an d slau gh ter of civilian s op en ed
d eep p olitical cleavages with in Ham as an d su m m on ed both su p p o rt a n d co n d em n a t io n o n religio u s gro u n d s in t h e b ro a d er
Mu slim world . Som e Ham as lead ers say targetin g civilian s is cou n terp rod u ctive; “Th e tru th is th at it d id a lot of d am age to Islam ’s
im age in th e West. . . . An y tim e you kill civilian s th at h ap p en s.” 18
Oth ers cou n tered th at Ham as was respon din g legitim ately to Israel’s
war again st Palestin ian civilian s, its “illegal occu p ation ” of th e West
Ban k an d Gaza, an d it s “b arb aric t reat m en t ” o f Palest in ian s. 19
Sh aykh Yassin , fou n d er of Ham as, an d m an y oth er Palestin ian religiou s lead ers h ave argu ed th at su icid e bom bin g is n ecessary an d
ju stified . Oth er in tern ation al Islam ic lead ers h ave been d ivid ed in
op in ion . Sh aykh Tan tawi, th e gran d m ufti of Egyp t, d efen d s it,
wh ile Sh aykh al-Sh eikh , th e gran d m ufti of Sau d i Arabia, h as con d em n ed all su icid e bom bin g as u n -Islam ic.
Th e attem p t to distin gu ish between th e p olitical an d th e m ilitary win gs of Ham as, esp ecially wh en it com es to su icide bom bin gs
an d terrorism , h as been con ten tiou s. Critics reject th e distin ction
as d isin gen u ou s. Both th e Clin ton an d George W. Bu sh adm in istration s h ave p laced Ham as on th eir lists of terrorist organ ization s an d
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101
ou tlawed all con tribu tion s to Ham as by Am erican s or Am erican based organ ization s, refu sin g to ackn owledge an y distin ction between its social welfare an d h u m an itarian work an d its m ilitia.
Un like extrem ist organ ization s like bin Lad en ’s al-Qaed a, th e
h istory of Ham as, like th at of m an y oth er Islam ic m ovem en ts,
d em on strated an ability to balan ce id eology an d a p ragm atic activism th at resp on d s to p olitical an d social realities. At n o tim e
h as th is been clearer th an in th e p ost-Oslo years, wh en Ham as was
ch allen ged on m an y fron ts. Alth ou gh th e PLO’s lead ersh ip of Palestin ian s h ad been seriou sly q u estion ed sin ce th e 1980s, th e Oslo
Accord s d em on strated th at Yasser Arafat an d th e PLO h ad n egotiated with Israel in th e n am e of th e Palestin e p eop le an d th u s h ad
obtain ed official recogn ition as lead ers of th e Palestin ian p eop le.
Ham as, th e m ost viable op tion to th e PLO, was cau gh t off gu ard
by th e q u ietly an d p rivately n egotiated settlem en t. Its con tin u ed
op p osition to Arafat an d th e accord s an d its call to con tin u e th e
Palestin ian stru ggle again st Israel n ow p u t it at od d s n ot on ly with
Israel bu t also with th e PLO an d th e n ewly establish ed Palestin ian
Nation al Au th ority (PNA). Prior to th e accord s, th e PLO an d Ham as
both h ad been d ism issed as terrorist organ ization s. With th e “reh abilitation ” an d legitim ation of Yasser Arafat an d th e PLO by th e
in tern ation al com m u n ity, Arafat th e “terrorist” n ow becam e Arafat
th e statesm an . In con trast, Ham as becam e th e com m on en em y of
Israel an d th e PLO, th e p rim ary obstacle to p eace, an d rou n d ly
d en ou n ced as extrem ist an d terrorist.
Th e p o st -O slo p erio d saw gro win g d ivisio n s wit h in Ham as.
You n ger m ilitan ts, esp ecially in th e Qassem Brigad e, were con vin ced th e Oslo Accord s wou ld fail to brin g Palestin ian in d ep en d en ce, ju st as Sad at’s Cam p David Accord s h ad . Th ey believed th ey
were ju st an oth er ru se by Israel wh o wou ld fin d an excu se to aban d on th em an d blam e th e Palestin ian s. Rath er th an a p rocess, th ey
wan ted th e occu p ation en d ed com p letely an d im m ed iately. Un like th e PLO, wh ich h ad accep ted th e legitim acy of th e state of
Israel with in its p re-1967 bou n d aries in accord an ce with UN Secu rity Cou n cil resolu tion s an d in tern ation al law, Ham as n ever ac-
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cep ted th e legitim acy of th e state of Israel. Th ey th erefore wan ted
to step u p th e arm ed stru ggle again st Israeli occu p ation an d con tin u e th e in tifad a. Ham as boycotted th e Palestin ian Nation al Au th ority election s, an d th e m ain p olitical win g grap p led with th e
fact th at n on p articip ation in election s wou ld fu rth er m argin alize
th em . Som e wan ted to form a p olitical p arty to assu re th at Ham as’s
voice was a p resen ce in th e PNA govern m en t an d Palestin ian p olitics. Ham as fou n der Sh aykh Yassin , in a series of letters from p rison ,
reflected on th ese ch oices an d cau tiou sly op ted for p articip ation .
Yassin ’s p ragm atism was em braced by th e gen eral Ham as lead ersh ip , wh o accep ted Arafat’s election as p resid en t of th e PNA an d
d isassociated th em selves from m ilitan ts wh ose rad ical rejection
h as led to con tin u ed arm ed stru ggle. W h ile rejectin g th e accord s,
a m ajority ad ap ted to th e p olitical realities, ren ou n cin g violen ce
an d en gagin g in d irect p articip ation in p olitics. A sm all m in ority
con tin u es to esp ou se violen ce an d terrorism to liberate th e wh ole
of Palestin e.
Al g e ri a : Th e Ar m y v s. t h e Arm y o f Go d
W h ile for m an y in th e West th e 1980s were d om in ated by fears
th at “Islam ” wou ld com e to p ower th rou gh revolu tion s or th e violen t overth row of govern m en ts by clan d estin e grou p s, Algeria saw
th eir Islam ists su cceed th rou gh th e ballot box. Bu t th is in itial Islam ist p o lit ical su ccess gave b irt h t o a sp iral o f vio len ce an d
cou n terviolen ce th at h as th reaten ed th e very fabric of Algerian
society. Followin g blood y an tigovern m en t riots in October 1988,
th e Algerian govern m en t, lon g regard ed as th e m ost m on olith ic,
sin gle-p arty p olitical system in th e Arab world , felt con strain ed to
h old m u ltip arty election s th at in clu d ed th e Islam ic Salvation Fron t
(FIS), North Africa’s first legal Islam ic p olitical p arty. Islam ic op p osition p arties h ad flou rish ed wh en Algerian state-socialism failed
to resolve its social an d econ om ic p roblem s.
Th e FIS, with a n ation al organ ization an d an effective m osq u e
an d social welfare n etwork, em erged as on e of th e stron gest op p osition p arties. Its su p p ort in clu d ed sm all-bu sin ess own ers an d p ros-
T he Arm ies of God
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p erou s m erch an ts, civil servan ts, u n iversity p rofessors, p h ysician s,
lawyers, an d oth er p rofession als. Th ey con stitu ted a n ew an d d ifferen t elite, with m od ern ed u cation s bu t a m ore Islam ic orien tation , lookin g for a n ation al id en tity th at reflected Algeria’s religiou s
an d cu ltu ral h eritage an d a govern m en t th at resp on d ed m ore effectively to th e cou n try’s p olitical, econ om ic, an d m oral failu res.
Oth er su p p ort cam e from th e u n em p loyed , socially m argin alized
you th , called th e “h ittists” (th ose wh o lean again st th e walls), wh o
h ad becom e fixtu res on th e streets an d in th e alleyways.
In th e Ju n e 1990 m u n icip al election s, th e first m u ltip arty election sin ce in d ep en d en ce from Fran ce in 1962, th e FIS scored a
stu n n in g victory, cap tu rin g 54 p ercen t of th e vote, wh ile th e FLN
ru lin g p arty garn ered 34 p ercen t. Even after arrestin g th e FIS lead ers an d gerrym an d erin g to red raw d istricts m ore favorably, th e FLN
failed to p reven t an even m ore su rp risin g electoral victory by th e
FIS in th e Ju n e 1997 p arliam en tary elect io n s. Am id st eu p h o ric
celebrat io n s o f Islam ist s wit h in Algeria an d acro ss t h e Mu slim
world , th e Algerian m ilitary in terven ed , forced th e resign ation of
th e Presid en t, arrested FIS lead ers, im p rison ed m ore th an 10,000
in d esert cam p s, ou tlawed th e FIS, an d seized its assets.
Th reaten ed by th e p erform an ce of th e FIS, th e Algerian m ilitary tigh ten ed th eir con trol on p ower an d m oved q u ickly to rep ress an y sign ifican t legal o p p o sit io n o r p o lit ical alt ern at ive
th rou gh arrests an d trials before sp ecial m ilitary cou rts, trials th at
were d en o u n ced by in t ern at io n al h u m an righ t s o rgan izat io n s.
Havin g d riven FIS lead ers in to exile or u n d ergrou n d , th e Algerian
m ilitary h ad set in m otion a cycle of violen ce an d cou n terviolen ce.
Origin ally m od erate, n on violen t FIS m em bers wh ose lead ers h ad
been im p rison ed or exiled becam e an FIS m ilitia, th e AIS (Islam ic
Salvation Arm y). Th e resu lt was a p rotracted civil war. Th e m ajority of Algerian s were cau gh t in th e m id d le, victim s of terror bet ween a fact io n o f h ard -lin e m ilit ary an d secu rit y fo rces (t h e
éradicateurs), wh o rejected d ialogu e an d wou ld on ly be ju stified by
t h e erad icat io n o f Islam ism , an d t h e eq u ally u n co m p ro m isin g
Arm ed Islam ic Grou p (GIA, Grou p e Islam iq u e Arm é). Th e GIA, a
radical extrem ist m ovem en t, em erged after th e rep ression of th e
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FIS; its m em bers in clu ded Arab Afgh an s, m en wh o h ad retu rn ed
from th e jih ad in Afgh an istan , an d it becam e on e of th e m an y cu rren ts with in th e FIS. 20 Th e m ilitary’s in terven tion , abrogation of
th e FIS victory, an d su p p ression of th e FIS radicalized th ese battleseason ed Afgh an veteran s an d triggered th eir m ilitan t jih ad. Th e
failu re of th e FIS’s aborted electoral victory h ad global im p lication s:
it was u sed by jih ad grou p s again st m ore m oderate voices to argu e
th at p articip ation in election s is a u seless strategy. Th ey p oin ted to
th is as yet an oth er exam p le th at even if Islam ic p arties p revailed in
election s, au th oritarian “u n -Islam ic” states, with su p p ort from th eir
Western allies, wou ld block th em from com in g to p ower p eacefu lly.
Th e h ard -lin ers p revailed in 1995 wh en th e govern m en t refu sed
to p articip ate in or to recogn ize a su m m it of Algeria’s m ajor secu lar an d Islam ist lead ers an d p olitical p arties sp on sored by th e St.
Egid io Cath olic com m u n ity in Rom e. Th e p arties’ fou rteen -p oin t
agreem en t, ap p roved by th e Un ited States an d Fran ce, a close ally
of Algeria, was rejected by th e m ilitary as a cap itu lation to th e
Islam ists.
By th e late 1990s, th e n u m ber of fatalities from th is p rotracted
stru ggle h ad risen to 100,000. In 1997 an d 1999, n ew p arliam en tary an d p resid en tial election s were h eld an d a cease-fire was called
between th e govern m en t an d th e AIS, th e m ilitary win g of th e FIS.
Parliam en tary election s were m arred by criticism s from UN observers an d ch arges of m assive frau d by losin g p arties as Presid en t
(form erly Gen eral) Liam in e Zerou al’s Nation al Dem ocratic Rally
won 156 of 380 seats. Alth ou gh th e FIS was p roh ibited from p articip atin g, two oth er Islam ic p arties, th e Movem en t for Society
an d Peace an d th e Ren aissan ce Party, won 69 an d 38 seats resp ectively. Presid en tial election s in Ap ril 1999 were flawed by th e lastm in u te with d rawal of all six op p osition p resid en tial can d id ates,
wh o ch arged th at th e m ilitary h ad rigged th e election s in favor of
Abd elaziz Bou teflika, wh o received less th an 30 p ercen t of th e votes
cast by th e less th an 25 p ercen t of registered voters. 21
W h ile th e m ilitary-backed govern m en t rem ain s in con trol, con d ition s for n ation al recon ciliation an d stability rem ain fragile. Th e
T he Arm ies of God
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m ilitary con tin u es to d om in ate if n ot con trol th e p olitical p rocess, an d th e GIA con tin u es its blood y jih ad . Bou teflika h as m ain tain ed h is refu sal to lift th e eigh t-year ban on th e FIS an d h as
d on e very little to sign ifican tly stren gth en civil society. Algeria
con tin u es to be p lagu ed by severe lon gstan d in g econ om ic an d
social p roblem s: an official u n em p loym en t rate of 30 p ercen t (som e
p u t it at 50 p ercen t), an acu te h ou sin g sh ortage, an u n resolved
n ation al an d cu ltu ral id en tity crisis, an d a “gap between a tin y
m in ority of su p errich an d th e overwh elm in g m ajority of th e p eop le
im p overish ed by risin g p rices an d cu ts in social ben efits.” 22
Th e electoral p erform an ces of Islam ic m ovem en ts d efied th e
con ven tion al wisd om th at Islam ists wou ld be rejected at th e p olls.
Iron ically, th e su ccesses of Islam ic m ovem en ts with in th e d em ocratic p rocess were viewed as an even m ore d an gerou s th reat th an
arm ed revolu tion . W h ile m an y world lead ers were on gu ard again st
“oth er Iran s,” th e FIS victory in Algeria raised th e sp ecter of an
Islam ic m ovem en t com in g to p ower th rou gh ballots, n ot bu llets.
Yet, as on e Algerian exp ert n oted :
Th ere is n ow a p rep on d eran ce of evid en ce from Algeria’s last six
years to in d icate th at th e h u m an su fferin g, en viron m en tal d evastation an d poten tial region al destabilization h ave been in fin itely
greater th an th ey cou ld h ave been u n d er an y im agin able scen ario
in volvin g an Islam ist regim e com in g to p ower th rou gh u n iversal
su ffrage. It is h ard to d isp u te th at th e fu n d am en tal sou rce of con flict is a d en ial of p op u lar legitim acy. To p ortray it as cu ltu ral or
id eological, secu lar or fu n d am en talist, is m islead in g an d p lays
in to th e h an d s of extrem ists an d an ti-d em ocrats alike. W h at is at
stake is an in crease or d ecrease of p ower an d p rivilege. 23
Th e Wa h h a b i Th re a t
Alth ou gh origin ally associated with Sau d i Arabia, Wah h abi Islam
or Wah h abism h as com e to be u sed p op u larly, alth ou gh in accu rat ely, as a blan ket t erm fo r Islam ic fu n d am en t alism , religio u s
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Unholy W ar
extrem ism , an d radicalism . For th is reason , som e p refer th e term s
Salafi or Salafiyyah m ovem en t. Th is h as th e advan tage of both reflectin g th e activists’ claim to be retu rn in g to th e p ristin e Islam of
Mu h am m ad an d th e first gen eration of Mu slim s (salafi, or p iou s
an cestors) an d of in dicatin g, m ore accu rately, th at th is u ltracon servative, rigid, an d exclu sivist worldview is com m on to m an y grou p s
an d organ ization s. Sau di Arabia’s Wah h abi Islam is bu t on e stran d.
Ultim ately, both Wah h abi an d Salafi can be m isleadin g, as th ey are
used as um brella term s th at in corporate diverse ideologies an d m ovem en ts, m edieval an d m odern , n on violen t an d violen t.
Sin ce th e late-twen tieth cen tu ry, th e term Wah h abi h as been
ap p lied to m ilitan t m ovem en ts th at h ave taken u p arm s again st
existin g govern m en ts. Th is p articu lar labelin g is n ot all th at n ew.
In n in eteen th -cen tu ry colon ial In d ia, th e British labeled in d igen ou s, an ti-im p erialist, Islam ic revivalist m ovem en ts, Wah h abi.
In recen t years, Wah h abi Islam h as been id en tified n ot on ly with
th e Taliban an d Osam a bin Lad en ’s al-Qaed a bu t also with Islam ic
op p osition m ovem en ts in oth er areas, in p art icu lar Ru ssia, t h e
Cau casu s, Ch ech n ya, Dagestan , an d Cen tral Asia.
First an d forem ost, Wah h abi d escribes Sau d i Arabia’s u ltracon servative, p u ritan ical bran d of Islam : literalist, rigid, an d exclu sivist.
Presen tin g th eir version of Islam as th e p ristin e, p u re, u n ad u lterated m essage, th e Wah h abi seek to im p ose th eir strict beliefs an d
in terp retation s, wh ich are n ot com m on ly sh ared by oth er Su n n i
or by Sh ii Mu slim s th rou gh ou t th e Mu slim world .
Th e Wah h abi vision wen t in tern ation al in th e 1960s in resp on se
to th e th reat p osed by Arab n ation alism an d socialism . It was fu eled
by p etrodollars, esp ecially th e wealth from skyrocketin g reven u es
after th e 1973 oil em bargo. Sau di Arabia an d oth er m on arch ies were
th reaten ed in p articu lar by Nasserism an d in gen eral by radical Arab
socialist govern m en ts th at cam e to p ower p rom isin g a social revolu tion for th e m asses an d con dem n in g con servative Arab m on arch ies. Un der th e leadersh ip of Prin ce (later Kin g) Faisal, th e Sau dis
ch am p ion ed a p an -Islam ic p olicy again st Nasser’s “secu lar, socialist” p an -Arabism with its ties to “ath eistic com m u n ism ” in th e So-
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107
viet Un ion an d Eastern Eu rop e. Sau di Arabia asserted its global Islam ic leadersh ip as cu stodian of Islam ’s two h oliest sites an d m ade
com m on cau se with oth er Mu slim govern m en ts in th e stru ggle
again st Nasser an d h is discip le, Libya’s Mu am m ar Qaddafi.
Sau d i Arabia created state-fin an ced in tern ation al Islam ic organ ization s to p rom ote its Wah h abi-based , p an -Islam ic vision an d
id eology. Establish ed in 1962, th e World Islam ic Leagu e vigorou sly
en gaged in an en ergetic in tern ation al dawah , p reach in g an d p rop agatin g Wah h abi Islam to oth er Mu slim s (as well as n on -Mu slim s),
fin an cin g th e bu ild in g of m osq u es, sch ools, libraries, h osp itals,
an d clin ics. It train ed an d su p p orted im am s for m osq u es, d istribu ted ten s of m illion s of Sau d i-ap p roved tran slation s of th e Qu ran
an d religiou s literatu re. Oth er Gu lf cou n tries like Ku wait an d th e
Un ited Arab Em irates followed su it.
Th e Jed d ah -based Organ ization of th e Islam ic Con feren ce (OIC)
was created in 1969 to p rom ote Islam ic solid arity am on g m em ber
states, to safegu ard th e h oly sites of Mecca an d Med in a, an d to
su p p ort th e “stru ggle” in Palestin e an d th e “stru ggle” of all Mu slim p eop le. In th e 1970s, th e OIC created th e Islam ic Develop m en t Ban k to p rom ote th e d evelop m en t of an Islam ic ban kin g
system an d fin an ce d evelop m en t p rojects in Mu slim cou n tries.
Th ro u gh su ch o rgan izat io n s, t h e Sau d i go vern m en t an d m an y
wealth y Sau d i bu sin essm en h ave exp orted Wah h abi Islam to th e
rest of th e Mu slim world as well as to Eu rop e an d Am erica.
Th e Sau d i govern m en t also d evelop ed close ties with m ajor Islam ic m ovem en ts su ch as th e Mu slim Broth erh ood an d th e Jam aati-Islam i. Desp it e sign ifican t d ifferen ces, t h ey sh ared a religio u s
vision based on a retu rn to th e fu n d am en tals of Islam an d an an tip ath y to com m on en em ies—Nasserism , secu larism , an d com m u n ism . Sau d i Arab ia gave asylu m t o M u slim Bro t h ers su ch as
Mu h am m ad Qu tb, th e broth er of Sayyid Qu tb, wh o fled Nasser’s
su p p ression of th e Broth erh ood in th e m id-1960s. Th e Sau di govern m en t an d oth er Gu lf cou n tries p rovided sign ifican t fu n din g for
Islam ic m ovem en ts an d con feren ces. Petrodollars becam e a m ajor
en ablin g m ech an ism for th e m ovem en ts to in tern ation alize an d
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sp read organ ization ally, to tran slate th e writin gs of al-Ban n a, Qu tb,
Mawd u d i, an d later to p rod u ce au d iotap es to be d istribu ted arou n d
th e world , creatin g an in tern ation al Islam ist d iscou rse. In ad d ition , m an y Islam ists from oth er cou n tries, well ed u cated an d p ossessin g n eed ed p rofession al an d tech n ical skills, were em p loyed
in th e Gu lf an d cou ld sen d fu n d s back to th eir h om elan d s to su p p ort m ain stream an d clan d estin e m ovem en ts. Sau d i fu n d in g to
Islam ic grou p s world wid e accelerated d ram atically after th e Iran ian revolu tion , in ord er to cou n ter th e ch allen ge from Iran ’s altern ative revolu tion ary Islam ic system . Iran ’s call an d su p p ort for
a global (Su n n i an d Sh ii) Islam ic revolu tion an d its fu n d in g of Sh ii
grou p s in th e Mid d le East an d Sou th Asia to cou n ter Sau d i in flu en ce th reaten ed Sau d i Arabia’s Islam ic lead ersh ip .
Sau d i in itiatives p rod u ced a rap id growth of Islam ist grou p s an d
th e d issem in ation of th eir world view an d fu n d am en talist in terp retation of Islam in m an y cou n tries. Th e Islam ists’ in form al allian ce with th e Sau d is an d th eir accep tan ce of refu ge or p atron age
was in fact a m arriage of con ven ien ce, sin ce m an y regard ed th e
m on arch y to be an u n -Islam ic form of govern m en t an d were critical of th e u n -Islam ic beh avior an d corru p tion of m an y royals.
Man y of th ose ben efitin g from Sau d i largesse learn ed th at it
cam e with a h efty p rice tag, th e p u rification or erad ication of local
belief, p ractice, an d cu ltu re. Particu lar targets for p u rification are
Su fism an d Sh iism . Mu ch as Sau d i arm ies d estroyed m ajor Sh ii
sh rin es in th e n in eteen th cen tu ry, Sau d i aid agen cies h ave been
resp on sible for th e d estru ction or recon stru ction of m an y h istoric
m osq u es, libraries, Qu ran sch ools, an d cem eteries in Bosn ia an d
Kosovo becau se th eir Ottom an arch itectu re, d ecoration s, frescoes,
an d tom bston es d id n ot con form to Wah h abi icon oclastic aesth etics th at regard statu es, tom bston es, or artwork with h u m an rep resen t at io n s as id o lat ry an d p o lyt h eism . To t h e ext en t t h at t h e
Taliban reflected th is p u ritan ical, m ilitan t m en tality—seen in th eir
strict ban on television an d m u sic, th eir in sisten ce on th e veilin g
an d p u blic segregation of wom en , th eir u se of religiou s p olice to
en force Islam ic beh avior, an d th eir d estru ction of Bu d d h ist m on u -
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109
m en t s—t h ey h ave b een lab eled Wah h ab i. Ho wever, Sau d i an d
Taliban strict con trols on som e m od ern tech n ology su ch as th e
In tern et or satellite d ish es h ave often been d riven less by religiou s
con cern s th an by secu rity con cern s. Th ey certain ly can n ot rep resen t a com p lete rejection of m od ern tech n ology; Islam h as n ot
p roven to be an obstacle in th eir u se of oth er m od ern com m u n ication s tech n ology, weap on s, an d tran sp ort.
Th e in flu en ce of Wah h abi Islam on th e Taliban was cu ltivated
an d rein forced th rou gh th e m ad rasa system of Islam ic sch ools an d
sem in aries, m an y of wh ich were set u p in Pakistan after th e Soviet-Afgh an war. Pakistan ’s m ad rasa system h as for m an y d ecad es
en joyed su bstan tial fu n d in g from Sau d i Arabia an d th e Gu lf, an
im p ortan t reason wh y th e n u m ber of m ad rasas in Pakistan h as
grown from 147 in 1947 to m ore th an 9,000 tod ay. In th e 1970s,
Sau d i Arabia was worried abou t th e in flu en ce of th e Left in Pakistan , ep itom ized by Prim e Min ister Zu lfiq ar Ali Bh u tto, a Berkeley- an d Oxford -train ed secu lar socialist. However, wh en Bh u tto
n eed ed to rebu ild Pakistan after th e 1971 civil war in wh ich East
Pakistan broke away to becom e Ban glad esh , h e tu rn ed to th e oilrich Arab states, ap p ealin g to th eir com m on Islam ic h eritage. In
exch an ge for fu n d in g from th e Gu lf, Bh u tto recast h is socialism as
Islam ic socialism , in trod u ced Islam ic laws, an d su p p orted Islam ic
in stitu tion s an d p rojects. Th e growth of m ad rasas in creased exp on en tially d u rin g th e ru le of Bh u tto’s su ccessor, Gen eral Zia u l-Haq ,
wh o seized p ower u sin g th e n am e of Islam to overth row, try, an d
execu te Bh u tto an d im p lem en t an Islam ic system of govern m en t.
Zia p rovid ed gen erou s p atron age to th e ulam a an d em barked on
an am bitiou s exp an sion of th e m ad rasa system with gen erou s assistan ce from Sau d i Arabia an d oth er Gu lf states.
After th e Afgh an war, m ad rasas con tin u ed to th rive both as p art
of Sau d i Arabia’s on goin g exp ort of its id eology an d as a m ean s to
create a stron g Su n n i wall again st Iran ’s exp ort of its revolu tion .
Govern m en ts, th eir religiou s agen cies, an d wealth y m em bers of
th e bu sin ess com m u n ity p u m p ed in large am ou n ts of m on ey to
bu ild an d su p p ort m ad rasas. In Pakistan , a cou n try of som e 150
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Unholy W ar
m illion with a n early two-th ird s illiteracy rate an d an an n u al average per capita in com e of $450, th e m adrasas p rovided m u ch -n eeded
sh elter alon g with free edu cation for m illion s of Afgh an s wh o fou n d
refu ge th ere as well as for Pakistan is wh ose state (secu lar) ed u cation al system h ad collap sed d u e to lack of fu n d in g.
Pakist an ’s Deo b an d i est ab lish ed h u n d red s o f m ad rasas. Th e
Deoban d i m ovem en t began in In dia in th e n in eteen th cen tu ry as a
reform ist m ovem en t th at attem p ted to h arm on ize tradition al or
classical Islam with m odern life. Pakistan ’s Deoban di, h owever, h ave
in creasin gly esp ou sed a m ore rigid an d m ilitan t con servatism , forgin g close ideological an d p olitical ties with Sau di Arabia an d with
its Wah h abi u lam a. Most of Pakistan ’s m ain stream m adrasas offer a
sou n d classical Islam ic edu cation su p p lem en ted by a m odern cu rricu lu m . Deoban di m adrasas, h owever, are often ru n by religiou s
teach ers with little kn owledge of or ap p reciation for classical Islam
an d wh ose ch ief task was p rom otin g a m ilitan t jih ad ist vision an d
cu ltu re. Th e Deoban di vision becam e jih adist an d global in scop e,
in toleran t of com p etin g or altern ative Su n n i beliefs, an d fan atically
an ti-Sh ii. Th eir m adrasas train ed Taliban an d ten s of th ou san ds of
Pakistan is, m an y wh o wen t off to figh t th e jih ad in Afgh an istan .
Oth ers becam e religiou s leaders an d teach ers. Som e estim ate th at as
m an y as 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistan is train ed in Pakistan ’s m adrasas
an d fou gh t in Afgh an istan between 1994 an d1999.24
Th e Deoban di are rep resen ted by a m ajor religiou s p olitical p arty
th at h as been active sin ce th e creation of Pakistan , th e Jam iyyat-iUlam a-i-Islam (JUI). In 1996 th e Taliban tu rn ed over train in g cam p s
for th e ed u cation an d train in g of Pakistan is an d Arab m ilitan ts to
JUI p artisan s; in Ju ly 1999, th e JUI issu ed d eath th reats to all Am erican s in Pakistan if Pakistan extrad ited bin Lad en to th e Un ited
States. 25 Two radical JUI offsh oots, Sipah -Sah aba Pakistan (Pakistan ’s
Arm y of th e Com p an ion s of th e Prop h et) an d Lash kar-e-Jh an gvi
(Jh an gvi’s Arm y), becam e n otoriou s for th eir acts of violen ce an d
t erro rism , in clu d in g t h e slau gh t er o f h u n d red s o f Sh ii. W h en
Pakistan ’s p resid en t Nawaz Sh arif cracked d own on th eir organ ization s after two alleged attem p ts to assassin ate h im , th eir lead ers
T he Arm ies of God
111
fled to asylu m in Kabu l. Th e Taliban -JUI allian ce for m an y years
ben efited from sign ifican t su p p ort from Sau d i Arabia an d from
th e in telligen ce agen cy of Pakistan (th e ISI).
T H E W AH H ABI T H REAT I N
RU SSI A AN D C EN T RAL ASI A
W h ile t h e p rim ary u se o f t h e n am e Wah h abi d esign at es Sau d i
Arabia’s ultracon servative Islam , Wah h abi’s secon d an d m ore overtly
p olitical m ean in g is Islam ic extrem ism , radicalism , an d terrorism ,
with a d irect con n ection to th e Taliban an d bin Lad en . Th is u sage
is exp loited by m an y govern m en ts, in clu d in g th ose of Ru ssia an d
th e Cen tral Asian rep u blics. Govern m en ts fin d th e label “Wah h abi”
esp ecially u sefu l becau se it im p lies a foreign sou rce for in d igen ou s
p roblem s an d eq u ates th eir p olitical op p osition with an “Islam ic
th reat.” Local con d ition s an d grievan ces (failed econ om ies, corru p tion , an d self-in terested p ower h old ers), an d local op p on en ts
(esp ecially th e you n ger gen eration wh o wan t to rep lace or overth row th e old , corru p t system s) are p laced u n d er th e “Wah h abi
Th reat” u m brella an d are th ereby m ore easily d ism issed or ign ored .
Th e blan ket u se of Wah h abi to d escribe m ilitan t jih ad grou p s
obscu res m ore th an it en ligh ten s. Organ ization s an d m ovem en ts
are bran d ed as Wah h abi becau se th ey p ossess com m on “fam ily
resem blan ces” su ch as u ltracon servative, literalist, p u ritan ical, an d
exclu sivist religiou s doctrin es. However, m an y of th ese m ovem en ts,
as well as Osam a bin Lad en , actu ally owe m ore to th e m ilitan t
id eology of Sayyid Qu tb or Egyp tian rad ical grou p s su ch as Islam ic
Jih ad , Takfir wal Hijra, an d Gam aa Islam iyya th an to Sau d i Arabia’s
Wah h abi trad ition , wh ich by an d large is religiou sly an d p olitically con servative rath er th an revolu tion ary. Th at said , Sau d i p olicies o f su p p o rt in g Wah h ab i-o rien t ed sch o o ls wo rld wid e h ave
resu lted in u n in ten d ed con seq u en ces as witn essed by th e Taliban –
bin Lad en allian ce an d jih ad i m ad rasas.
Desp ite Soviet d om in ation an d an ti-Islam p olicies in Cen tral
Asia, Islam rem ain s a core com p on en t of in d ivid u al an d com m u n ity id en tity an d an im p ortan t p art of religiou s an d cu ltu ral life.
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Unholy W ar
Followin g th e breaku p of th e Soviet Un ion , Islam h as been in tegral to th e p rocess of n ation bu ild in g in p ost-in d ep en d en ce Cen t ra l Asia , co n t rib u t in g t o t h e d evelo p m en t o f n ew n a t io n a l
id en tities, valu e system s, gu id elin es for social an d p olitical life,
an d n ew relation s with th e Mu slim world .
Th e attitu d e of Cen tral Asia’s p ost-in d ep en d en ce ru lin g elite
t o ward Islam h as flu ct u at ed sin ce 1992. At first , go vern m en t s
coop ted Islam an d Islam ic sym bols as a com p on en t of n ation al
id en tity. However, as soon as Islam em erged as a p oten t p olitical
force, cou n tries like Uzbekistan an d Tajikistan m oved from coop tation to rep ression , resu ltin g in a d evastatin g civil war in Tajikistan
an d rep ression an d arm ed con flict in Uzbekistan .
Like m an y oth er p arts of th e Mu slim world , Cen tral Asia h as in
fact in recen t years faced a religiou s revival th at h as affected both
faith an d p olitics. Th e p ost-in d ep en d en ce boom in th e bu ild in g
of m osq u es, sch ools, an d libraries, th e d istribu tion of Qu ran s an d
oth er Islam ic m aterials, an d th e activities of m ission aries from oth er
Mu slim cou n tries like Sau d i Arabia, th e Gu lf, Pakistan , an d Tu rkey
h ave brou gh t greater p iety, religiou s d ivision s an d con flicts, an d
Islam ic p olitical activism an d op p osition m ovem en ts.
Militan t grou p s h ave been esp ecially active in Uzbekistan an d
Tajikistan , wh ose govern m en ts h ave been th e m ost rep ressive. Most
began as p rotest an d op p osition m ovem en ts again st govern m en ts
led by form er com m u n ist officials. Am on g th e m ore p rom in en t
h as been th e Islam ic Ren aissan ce Party (IRP) in Tajikistan , th e first
p op u list Islam ic m ovem en t in Cen tral Asia, brin gin g togeth er a
cro ss-sect io n o f religio u s lead ers, p ro fessio n als, an d d isaffect ed
you th to op p ose com m u n ist ru le. It em p h asized sp iritu al ren ewal
an d p olitical an d econ om ic in d ep en d en ce. Hizb al-Tah rir al-Islam i
(Th e Islam ic Liberation Party) is an im p ort from th e Mid d le East,
with roots in Jord an an d Sau d i Arabia. Its global goal h as been th e
establish m en t of an Islam ic calip h ate. Havin g en tered Cen tral Asia
in th e m id -1990s, it h as worked to sp read its in flu en ce first in th e
Fargh on a Valley, wh ich bord er both Tajikistan an d Uzbekistan , an d
th en th rou gh ou t Cen tral Asia.
T he Arm ies of God
113
Th e m o st feared m ilit an t gro u p is t h e Islam ic Mo vem en t o f
Uzbekistan (IMU), wh ich h as op erated in Uzbekistan , Tajikistan
an d Kyrgyzstan . In late Sep tem ber 2001, th e Un ited States govern m en t d eclared th e IMU both a foreign terrorist organ ization an d
an al-Q aed a m em b er, reit erat in g t h e p revio u s ad m in ist rat io n ’s
d esign ation of Sep tem ber 2000. Alth ou gh th e IMU grew as an op p osition m ovem en t in Uzbekistan , wid esp read rep ression u n d er
Presid en t Islam Karim ov’s govern m en t led to violen t con fron tation s in th e 1990s. IMU lead ers fou n d refu ge with an d su p p ort
from th e Taliban an d Osam a bin Lad en in Afgh an istan . Like m an y
oth er m ilitan t grou p s, th ey began as op p osition with in th eir h om e
cou n tries an d on ly wen t to Afgh an istan wh en in n eed of h elp an d
train in g or to set u p th eir own train in g cam p s. Man y obtain ed
train in g an d fou gh t with th e Taliban bu t th en retu rn ed h om e to
con tin u e th eir d om estic jih ad . In 1997, after several p olice officers were killed in Nam an gan , Uzbekistan , th e govern m en t arrested
h u n d red s on ch arges of belon gin g to extrem ist grou p s.
Th e IMU was blam ed (as were all op p osition grou p s in itially)
for bom bin g attacks in Febru ary 1999, p art of an alleged assassin ation attem p t again st Presid en t Karim ov of Uzbekistan wh ich led
to a blood y crackd own . Th e IMU stru ck back with a n u m ber of
h igh ly visible attacks in clu din g kidn ap p in gs of Jap an ese an d Am erican s. By th e late 1990s, its ran ks h ad been swelled with figh ters
from Cen tral Asia, Ch ech n ya, an d Pakistan , reflectin g th e growin g global jih ad cu ltu re. Blocked in Uzbekistan , IMU lead ers sh ifted
th eir activities to Kyrgyzstan in Au gu st 1999, takin g con trol of
som e areas in sou th ern Kyrgyzstan th at bord er Uzbekistan an d
Tajikstan . In Novem ber 2001, its legen dary leader Ju m a Nam an gan i
was rep orted killed in h eavy figh tin g n ear th e n orth ern Afgh an
city of Ku n d u z.
It is n ot easy to assess th e p resen ce, growth an d vitality of religiou s extrem ist grou p s in Cen tral Asia an d th e n orth ern Cau casu s.
Hard d ata are d ifficu lt to com e by becau se of th e grou p s’ clan d estin e n atu re bu t even m ore becau se of th e ten d en cies of regim es to
exaggerate terrorist grou p s’ p resen ce an d th reat.
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Unholy W ar
All m ajor con flicts or op p osition m ovem en ts ten d to be in terp reted as an Islam ic th reat to Ru ssia an d Cen tral Asia via Afgh an istan . Th e alleged Taliban -Wah h abi fu n d am en talist th reat was th e
basis for a p act am on g Ru ssia, Uzbekistan , an d Tajikistan in 1998,
d e sig n e d t o p r e v e n t Isla m fr o m d e st a b ilizin g t h e r e g io n .
Uzbekistan ’s p resid en t Islam Karim ov referred to “th e th reat wh ich
is com in g to u s from th e sou th . . . a th reat of aggressive fu n d am en talism , aggressive extrem ism , an d above all Wah h abism .” 26
Presid en t Karim o v’s sweep in g d efin it io n o f fu n d am en t alism as
religion th at in terferes in p olitics m ean s th at m ere in volvem en t
in p olitics, with ou t an y com m itm en t to violen ce an d terrorism ,
con stitu tes fu n d am en talism . Karim ov h as p resen ted h im self as th e
p rotector of Uzbekistan from Islam ic fu n d am en talism ’s th reat to
an d sp read in Cen tral Asia. Eq u atin g fu n d am en talism with rad icalism is so p ervasive th at even th ose Ru ssian an d Cen tral Asian
observers wh o strive to p resen t a balan ced accou n t ten d to d efin e
an y Mu slim op p osition to govern m en t as Islam ic rad icalism . Ru ssian p resid en t Vlad im ir Pu tin p rovid ed a vivid exam p le of th e exp loitation of th e rh etoric of “Islam ic th reat” wh en h e u sed th e
specter of Wah h abi fu n dam en talism an d Taliban -train ed m u jah idin
in th e Cau casu s to ju stify lau n ch in g a war to reassert Ru ssian au th ority over Ch ech n ya. A veteran h u m an righ ts activist wh o visited Grozn y, th e cap ital of Ch ech n ya, early in th e war d isp u ted
th e ch arges, d ism issin g official Ru ssian accou n ts as a “m on strou s
lie” an d was eq u ally d ism issive of th e claim s th at th ree h u n d red
Afgh an m u jah id in fou gh t fiercely again st th e Ru ssian troop s in
Grozn y. Visitin g all th e p laces in Grozn y wh ere th e Ru ssian govern m en t claim ed th ere were Afgh an m u jah id in , h e fou n d n o evid en ce of th eir p resen ce.
Ch ech n ya’s p resid en t Aslan Maskh ad ov also u sed th e th reat of
Wah h abism to crack d own on d om estic p olitical op p osition . In
an October 1998 speech before th e Con gress of th e Ch ech en People,
Presid en t Maskh ad ov rep u d iated Wah h abism as an u n welcom e
im p ort p reach ed in Ch ech n ya by foreign ers, alien to Ch ech n ya’s
trad ition al Islam , an d resp on sible for acts of violen ce.
T he Arm ies of God
115
Th e actu al size an d th reat of rad ical Wah h abi-in sp ired m ovem en ts is h otly con tested an d d ifficu lt to verify. Ru ssian an d Cen tral Asian govern m en ts ch arge th at Wah h abis train ed at bases in
co u n t ries su ch as Afgh an ist an , Pakist an , an d Su d an in filt rat e
m osq u es, Islam ic teach in g cen ters, an d ch aritable organ ization s
to in d octrin ate an d recru it. Wah h abi-in sp ired grou p s are accu sed
of wagin g a jih ad of violen ce an d terrorism , su icid e bom bin gs,
an d attacks on m arketp laces, sch ools, offices, an d p laces of worsh ip th at resu lt in civilian casu alties, an d of u sin g d ru g m on ey to
fin an ce terrorist cam p aign s. Dru g traffic is believed t o h ave fin an ced th e d evelop in g global terrorist n etworks, th e p u rch ase of
weap on s an d su p p lies, an d th e creation of social welfare organ ization s u n d er th e gu ise of m ain stream Islam ic activism .
Religiou s lead ers in cou n tries th at claim Wah h abi in flu en ce often criticize Wah h abism for ch allen gin g th eir religiou s au th ority
an d rejectin g trad ition al an d local Islam ic beliefs an d p ractices.
Th ey say Wah h abism breaks on e of th e card in al ru les of warfare in
Islam —th at Mu slim s sh ou ld n ot figh t oth er Mu slim s. Th e Wah h abi,
th eir critics ch arge, get arou n d th is by d ivid in g th e world strictly
in to believers an d n on believers wh o m u st be fou gh t.
Alth ou gh govern m en ts h ave clearly exaggerated th e th reat for
th eir own p u rp oses, Wah h abi religiou s id eology h as fou n d fertile
soil in societies wh ere econ om ic d evelop m en t is p oor an d m oral
an d p olitical d ecay are ram p an t. Its claim th at retu rn in g to a p u rer,
m ore m oral way of life will restore law an d ord er can be very attractive to th ose su fferin g from ch ron ic p overty an d p olitical rep ressio n . Th e Wah h abi co m p are very favo rably in ed u cat io n al
levels to local religiou s lead ers in Cen tral Asia; Soviet p olicy an d
p ersecu tion h ad a d evastatin g im p act on th e recru itm en t an d train in g of Islam ic sch olars. Th e you n ger gen eration , stru gglin g in au th oritarian states with a scarcity of jobs an d h ou sin g, is attracted
to Wah h abism as a m ean s to reject th e statu s q u o (th e Soviet-era
com m u n ist elite cu ltu re) in favor of an ap p aren tly m ore in d igen ou s sou rce of id en tity, n ation alism , an d valu es. Prosp erou s m erch a n t s a n d o t h ers a re so m et im es a t t ra ct ed b y t h e Wa h h a b i
116
Unholy W ar
em p h asis on law an d trad ition al m orality again st in d ivid u alism ,
liberalism , an d m ass cu ltu re.
Th e p owerfu l sym bolism an d revolu tion ary m ean in g of jih ad dom in ates m od ern Mu slim p olitics to an exten t u n p aralleled in h istory. Islam ic m ovem en ts an d organ ization s h ave becom e p rim ary
veh icles for its sp read an d im p lem en tation . If m an y th ou gh t th at
Iran ’s revolu tion was a sin gu lar even t, su cceed in g d ecad es h ave
d em on strated th e force an d p ervasiven ess of an Islam ic activism
th at h as m oved from th e p erip h ery to th e cen ter of Mu slim societies. Islam ic exp erim en ts in Egyp t, Palestin e, Algeria. an d Cen tral
Asia h ave also revealed th e m an y faces an d voices of p olitical Islam an d th e d iverse u n d erstan d in gs of jih ad . Peacefu l or violen t,
all sh are a com m on com m itm en t to an Islam ic revolu tion , a jih ad
or stru ggle to im p lem en t an Islam ic ord er or govern m en t.
Th e “arm ies of God ” h ave p assed th rou gh several stages, becom in g ever m ore global in ou treach . In itially, m ost grou p s focu sed o n t h eir o wn co u n t ries. Th ey were p rim arily Egyp t ian ,
Algerian , or Tu n isian m ovem en ts. Th e Afgh an jih ad again st Soviet occu p ation m arked a tu rn in g p oin t as Mu slim s in record n u m bers traveled to Afgh an istan to join in th e jih ad again st op p ression
of Mu slim s. Th e exp erien ce an d su ccess of th at jih ad created a
n ew, m ore global jih ad sen tim en t an d cu ltu re em bod ied in Arab
Afgh an s—Arabs an d oth er Mu slim s wh o h ad fou gh t in Afgh an istan —an d in a sen se of solid arity, wh ich su bseq u en tly brou gh t
Mu slim s from variou s p arts of th e world to p articip ate in jih ad s in
Bosn ia, Kosovo, Kash m ir, Cen tral Asia, an d Ch ech n ya. Som e few
h ave becom e m ercen aries in th e m ore rad icalized efforts n ot ju st
to d efen d Mu slim s again st op p ression , bu t to overth row world
p owers believed resp on sible for th eir su fferin g, th rou gh terrorist
strategies. Jih ad tod ay h as th u s becom e th e evocative sym bol an d
rallyin g cry for m obilization in h oly an d u n h oly wars, in wars of
resistan ce an d liberation as well as in global terrorism .
Jih ad s exp ressin g a “Rage for God ” h ave in creased an d h ave
sp read . From Algeria an d Egyp t to Afgh an istan an d Cen tral Asia,
T he Arm ies of God
117
govern m en ts, often au th oritarian , fou n d th em selves u n d er siege
in th e 1990s. Afgh an istan an d Pakistan becam e p rim ary cen ters
for th e globalization of jih ad an d th e cu ltu re of jih ad th rou gh
n etworks of m ad rasas an d train in g cam p s. Th e Taliban an d alQaed a p rovid ed refu ge an d train in g for m ilitan ts, m an y of wh om
h ave h ad to flee th eir h om e cou n tries, from Egyp t, Algeria, Yem en ,
Sau d i Arab ia, Malaysia, Th ailan d , t h e Ph ilip p in es, Uzb ekist an ,
Tajikist an , Kyrgyzst an , Ch ech n ya, as well as Uigh u rs fro m t h e
Xin jian g provin ce in Ch in a. A h ith erto little-n oted part of th e world
sp awn ed a Taliban –al-Qaed a allian ce th at becam e th e base for a
n etwork of organ ization s an d cells from across th e Mu slim world
th at h ijacked Islam , in d iscrim in ately slau gh terin g n on -Mu slim s
an d Mu slim s alike.
Sep tem ber 11, 2001, m arked a tu rn in g p oin t, sign alin g th e ability of terrorists to lan d a d evastatin g strike on its p rim ary in tern ation al target, th e Un ited States, at h om e. In th e m id -1990s both
Paris an d New York h ad been attacked by terrorists. North Am erican an d Eu rop ean cou n tries h ad been m on itorin g terrorists an d
p oten tial terrorist grou p s. However, few h ad an ticip ated so m assive an attack, a d iabolical act th at carried ou t bin Lad en ’s d eclaration of war an d m arked th e global exp an sion of al-Qaed a’s u n h oly
war of terror to th e West.
Havin g rou ted th e Taliban an d al-Qaed a in Afgh an istan , wh ere
d o we go from h ere? Sep tem ber 11 h as resu rrected old q u estion s,
givin g th em a n ew u rgen cy: Is th ere a clash of civilization s between Islam an d th e West? W h y d o th ey h ate u s? Is th ere a d irect
con n ection between Islam , an ti-Am erican ism , an d global terrorism ? Are Islam an d m od ern ity in com p atible? We n ow tu rn to th ese
an d oth er issu es th at will d eterm in e all of ou r fu tu res.
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Unholy W ar
4
Where Do We Go from Here?
In th e afterm ath of Sep tem ber 11, 2001, as we ask, W h y d id th is
h ap p en ?, govern m en t officials, p u n d its, an d exp erts bom bard u s
with a litan y of certitu d es: bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a are religiou s
fan atics; th is is p roof p ositive of a clash of civilization s between
Islam an d th e West; th e terrorists h ate ou r Am erican way of life—
ou r p ower, p rosp erity, an d freed om s; Islam is in com p atible with
m od ern ity an d d em ocracy; violen ce an d terrorism are in tegral to
Mu slim belief an d p ractice; we are n ow facin g a global jih ad again st
th e West.
Ma k i n g Se n se o f Isl a m a n d t h e Mu sl i m Wo rl d
Several d ecad es ago, a Mu slim am bassad or to th e Un ited Nation s
wrote a sh ort book, Islam : The Misunderstood Religion. At th at tim e,
given th e in visibility of Mu slim s on th e Am erican lan d scap e an d
in ou r ed u cation al cu rricu lu m , th e au th or’s ch oice of title seem ed
ap p rop riate. Tod ay, we kn ow m ore, bu t m u ch of ou r kn owled ge
h as been gain ed th rou gh h ead lin e even ts, from th e Iran ian Revolu tion to Sep tem ber 11. W h en th e Iran ian Revolu tion occu rred in
1978, d esp ite th e fact th at Islam was th e secon d largest of th e
world ’s religion s, en com p assin g m ore th an fifty cou n tries, d u rin g
th e h ostage crisis th e Today Show coan ch or fou n d it n ecessary to
in terru p t h is read in g of th e n ews to give Am erican s a brief backgrou n d on Islam . It was very brief: Islam is th e secon d largest world
religion ; it h as a scrip tu re called th e Qu ran an d a p rop h et n am ed
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Mu h am m ad . Th is m ost basic in form ation was d eem ed n ecessary
for viewers in on e of th e world ’s m ost ad van ced an d ed u cated n ation s! At th e sam e tim e, m ost Am erican s wou ld h ave exp ected
th at an y ed u cated p erson in th e world wou ld recogn ize th e term s
Ju d aism , Ch ristian ity, an d Bible an d th e n am es Moses an d Jesu s.
Ou r kn owled ge of th e Islam of th e vast m ajority of Mu slim s
an d its con n ection to th e Ju d eo-Ch ristian trad ition rem ain s m in im al or n on existen t. W h ile Ch ristian s tod ay h ave been raised to
ap p reciate fam ily resem blan ces with Ju d aism an d to sp eak of a
Ju d eo-Ch ristian trad ition , at best Islam h as been p resen ted as a
foreign , n on -Western religion , often grou p ed with Hin d u ism an d
Bu d d h ism . Th e fact th at Islam , like Ju d aism an d Ch ristian ity, h as
its origin s in th e Mid d le East, th at it rep resen ts belief in h eaven ,
h ell, an d th e Day of Ju d gm en t, an d ven erates p rop h ets from th e
Old an d New Testam en ts in clu d in g Abrah am , Moses, an d Jesu s is
u n kn own to th e vast m ajority of n on -Mu slim s.
How m an y Jews an d Ch ristian s kn ow th at th ey join Mu slim s as
“Ch ild ren of Abrah am ,” th at Mu slim s believe th at th ey are th e
religiou s d escen d an ts of Ism ail, th e first-born son of Abrah am an d
h is servan t Hagar? How m an y kn ow th at th e Qu ran ackn owled ges,
“We believe wh at yo u believe, yo u r Go d an d o u r Go d is o n e”
(29:46)? Yet, wh ile Yah weh is gen erally kn own to be th e Hebrew
n am e for th e God of th e Bible, Allah is often still regard ed as th e
p rop er n am e of an alien God rath er th an th e Arabic word for God ,
u sed by Arab Ch ristian s as well as Mu slim s wh en th ey p ray.
Ch ristian s h ave com e to kn ow an d valu e th eir Jewish n eigh bors
becau se of d ecades of livin g togeth er an d th e active efforts of m an y
to establish lin kages, in p articu lar an awaren ess of a sh ared religiou s h eritage, a Ju deo-Ch ristian tradition , an d th e scou rge of an tiSem itism wh ich cu lm in ated in th e Holocau st. Mu slim s h ave gon e
from th e u n kn own “oth er” or th e p rodu ct of orien tal stereotyp es of
Arabian Nigh ts—sh eiks an d h arem s an d flyin g carp ets—to m asked,
arm ed h ijackers an d h ostage takers. Wh ile m an y in th e Un ited States
h ave com e to ap p reciate th e h istoric p ersecu tion an d victim h ood
of Jews an d u n derstan d th e creation of Israel, Am erican textbooks
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an d m edia in p ast years h ad p reciou s little to say abou t th e Palestin ian side of th e story: th e Israeli occu p ation of Palestin e, th e h u n dreds of th ou san ds of refu gees an d gen eration s raised in refu gee
cam p s, stran gers in th eir h om elan d. Th e Palestin ian -Israeli con flict
is a tragedy for two p eop les with m u tu al claim s, en titlem en t, an d
h istories of su fferin g, violen ce, an d terrorism .
Desp ite in creased coverage an d awaren ess of Islam , th e n ecessity of resp on d in g to Osam a bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a forced m an y
p olicym akers, com m en tators, th e m ed ia, an d th e gen eral p u blic
to realize h ow little th ey really kn ew abou t a m ajor religion an d
strategic p art of th e world . As on e Sen ate lead er con fessed , “I kn ow
a lot abou t m an y th in gs bu t n oth in g abou t Islam an d th e Mu slim
world —an d n eith er d o m ost of m y colleagu es!” W h ile m an y are
sin cere in th eir d esire to kn ow m ore, oth ers ep itom ize th e sayin g:
“My m in d ’s m ad e u p , d on ’t con fu se m e with th e facts!” At on e
level, it is easy to p ortray Sep tem ber 11 as th e latest p h ase in a
h istoric battle between Islam an d th e West, as m ilitan t Islam h as
n ow gon e global. However, th is dan gerou s oversim p lification m im ics t h e d ist o rt ed , p o larized wo rld view an d m essage o f t h e b in
Lad en s of th e world . If we start ou t by p resu m in g th at th e oth er is
com p letely d ifferen t, we can fin d wh atever we are lookin g for.
As we m ove forward in th e twen ty-first cen tu ry, a key reality to
keep in m in d is th at Islam is th e secon d largest an d fastest growin g religion n ot on ly ou t th ere, bu t also in Eu rop e an d Am erica.
Im p rovin g ou r u n d erstan d in g of th e faith of ou r fellow citizen s
an d n eigh bors will req u ire th at we look at Mu slim s with n ew eyes
an d ju d ge Islam by th e totality an d teach in gs of th e faith , n ot ju st
th e beliefs an d action s of a rad ical few.
An im p ortan t first step is to gu ard again st ju d gin g Islam by a
d ou ble stan d ard . W h en we ap p roach Ju d aism or Ch ristian ity or
u n d erstan d ou r own faith , we op erate d ifferen tly. We in terp ret th e
violen t, blood y texts in th e Bible in th eir h istorical con texts. We
exp lain th e h istory of violen ce, slau gh ter, an d im p erialism in th e
n am e of Ju d aism or Ch ristian ity in term s of th e tim es an d con text, or we con d em n su ch acts as aberration s or extrem ist. Th e
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Ch ristian ity th at in sp ired Arch bish op Desm on d Tu tu an d m an y
oth ers in th e stru ggle again st ap arth eid in Sou th Africa h as also
been claim ed as th e religion of Afrikaan ers, th e faith of Am erican
slave own ers an d th eir p astors on th e on e h an d an d Martin Lu th er
Kin g, Jr., on th e oth er. Th e Ju d aism of m em bers of th e Jewish Defen se Leagu e or of th e you n g assassin of Yitzak Rabin is th e tran scen d en t, tran sform in g faith of th e p rop h ets of Israel an d cou n tless
p iou s Jews th rou gh th e ages. Most p eop le read ily recogn ize d istin ction s between th ose wh o are tru e exam p les of faith an d th ose
wh o h ijack th e faith , as well as between th e m ain stream an d extrem ists on th e frin ge.
Lookin g to th e fu tu re, as we becom e m ore fam iliar with Islam as
a m ajor world religion an d th e soon -to-be secon d largest faith in
Am erica, th e idea of a Ju deo-Ch ristian -Islam ic religiou s tradition
will becom e m ore in tern alized. We will recogn ize th at each faith
represen ts sh ared beliefs an d valu es as well as distin ctive differen ces.
Poin ts of con flict are on e p art of th e story bu t so are religiou s an d
cu ltu ral coop eration an d co-existen ce, p ast an d p resen t. Th eological sim ilarities an d com p etin g in terests p u t Ch ristian ity an d Islam ,
th e West an d th e Mu slim world on an early collision cou rse. Both
of th ese m ajor world religion s h ad a u n iversal m essage an d m ission , th e belief th at th eir coven an t with God was th e fin al an d com plete fu lfillm en t of God’s earlier revelation to a previou s com m u n ity
th at h ad gon e astray. We don ’t often rem em ber th at wh ile Ch risten d om exp erien ced Islam ’s exp an sion as a th reat to its h egem on y,
Islam p roved m ore toleran t an d p rovided greater religiou s freedom
for Jews an d in digen ou s Ch ristian s, an d it elim in ated th e p ersecu tion of h eretics for wh ich im p erial Ch ristian ity was n oted:
By an exq u isit e iro n y, Islam red u ced t h e st at u s of Ch ristian s to
t h at wh ich t h e Ch rist ian s h ad earlier t h ru st u p on t h e Jews, wit h
o n e d ifferen ce. Th e red u ct io n in Ch rist ian st at u s was m erely
ju rid ical; it was u n acco m p an ied by eit h er syst em at ic p ersecu t ion o r a blo o d lu st ; an d gen erally, t h ou gh n ot everywh ere an d
at all t im es, u n m arred by vexat io u s beh avior. 1
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As it becom es m ore com m on place to work with Muslim colleagues
an d live with Mu slim n eigh bors, it will be even m ore im p ortan t to
kn ow abou t even ts in ou r h istory th at h ave been overlooked. Man y
d o n ot kn ow th at th e develop m en t of im p erial Islam an d Jewish Ch ristian -Islam ic coexisten ce p rodu ced a rich Islam ic civilization
an d a religiou s an d cu ltu ral syn th esis an d exch an ge. With sign ifican t assistan ce from Ch ristian an d Jewish su bjects, Mu slim s collected th e great books of scien ce, m edicin e, an d p h ilosop h y from
th e West an d th e East an d tran slated th em in to Arabic from Greek,
Latin , Persian , Cop tic, Syriac, an d San skrit. Th e age of tran slation
was followed by a p eriod of great creativity as a n ew gen eration of
Mu slim th in kers an d scien tists m ade th eir own con tribu tion s to
learn in g: in p h ilosop h y, m edicin e, ch em istry, astron om y, algebra,
op tics, art, an d arch itectu re. Th en th e cu ltu ral traffic p attern was
again reversed wh en Eu rop ean s, em ergin g from th e Dark Ages,
tu rn ed to Mu slim cen ters of learn in g to regain th eir lost h eritage
an d to learn from Mu slim ad van ces. Th ese h istorical d yn am ics
sh ou ld be kep t in m in d wh en we are tem p ted to view Islam an d
Mu slim s as alien s with wh om we h ave n oth in g in com m on .
Mu slim s are n ow in a p osition sim ilar to oth er eth n ic an d religiou s grou p s in th eir relation sh ip to m od ern ity. In th e n ot too
d ist an t p ast , m an y n o n -WASP (W h it e An glo -Saxo n Pro t est an t )
im m igran ts to Am erica (Irish , Italian , Polish , etc.) were viewed as
th e oth er an d n ot accep ted as eq u als. My frien d s an d I grew u p
very co n scio u s t h at Cat h o lic et h n ics were seen as labo rers bu t
h ard ly m aterial for Ivy Leagu e sch ools an d corp orate lead ersh ip .
Years later, after I h ad en d u red a d in n er p arty of Italian jokes an d
sp ecu lation th at on e of ou r p rosp erou s n eigh bors m u st be m afia, a
frien d said to m e, “Rem em ber Joh n , to th em , you ’re n ot Italian ,
you h ave a Ph .D.”
Th ose wh o believe th at Arab or Mu slim cu ltu re is in h eren tly
in com p atible with m od ern ization n eed to reflect on Western attitu d es toward n on -Western societies in th e recen t p ast. On ly a few
d ecad es ago, if you received a gift th at was stam p ed “m ad e in Jap an ” you kn ew you h ad an in ferior p rod u ct, a ch eap im itation of
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good s from Paris, Lon d on , or New York. Western ers all kn ew th at
th e Jap an ese as well as oth er Asian civilization s or cu ltu res were
som eh ow Th ird World , th at th ey lacked Western kn owled ge, creativity, or work eth ic. History n ow tells a d ifferen t story. Tod ay,
Lexu s com p etes h ead to h ead with Mercedes an d Jagu ar, an d Toyota
an d Hon d a ou tsell Am erican bran d -n am e cars.
Religion s like societies ch an ge an d develop . Sim ilarly, civilization s are n ot m on olith ic an d static. New ideas began in on e civilizat io n —Ch in ese, Eu ro p ean , o r Islam ic—an d t h en sp read , were
ap p rop riated , an d fu rth er develop ed by oth ers. Scien ce, tech n ology, p h ilosop h y, an d m orality u ltim ately h ave n o fixed bou n daries.
Th ey are n ot th e p reserve of an y sin gle p eop le, civilization , or religion . Today, in a reverse p rocess, we see th e tran sfer of scien ce an d
tech n ology an d th e sp read of m odern n otion s of dem ocratization
an d p lu ralism from th e West to th e Mu slim world an d beyon d. Globalization h as also resu lted in collaborative efforts in m odern scien ce. In creasin g n u m bers of Mu slim s are train ed in th e scien ces,
m an y in th e best u n iversities of Am erica an d Eu rop e, an d work in
th e West or in th e Mu slim world with m u ltin ation al corp oration s.
To ask wh eth er Islam is com p atible with Western civilization is
to ign ore p ast an d p resen t exch an ges an d cross-fertilization s. It
also p rivileges Western civilization as th e u n iversal n orm an d im p lies th at civilization s are m u tu ally exclu sive an d d iam etrically
op p osed . In fact civilization s an d cu ltu res overlap ; th ey h ave sim ilarities an d d ifferen ces. W h at are th e essen tials of Western civilization —reason , in d ivid u alism , scien ce, d em ocracy, h u m an righ ts,
p lu ralism , secu larism , cap italism ? However d ifferen t an d d iverse,
m ost Mu slim s, like m ost p eop le on th is p lan et, rely on reason ,
scien ce, an d tech n ology, d esire greater p olitical p articip ation an d
freed om , an d seek econ om ic ad van cem en t an d p rosp erity. At th e
sam e tim e, like con servative Ch ristian s an d Jews, m an y Mu slim s
believe th at religion is u n d er siege from secu lar liberalism first an d
forem ost with in th eir own societies.
Historically, over m an y d ecad es, Ch ristian ity an d Ju d aism m ad e
th eir own accom m od ation s with m od ern ity. Th e p rocess p rod u ced
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fu rth er division s an d differen ces am on g th em : liberal, fu n dam en talist, an d evan gelical Protestan tism ; orth odox, con servative, reform ,
an d recon stru ction ist Ju daism ; orth odox or tradition alist an d liberal Cath olics. Cath olicism was for som e tim e a distan t th ird to
Protestan tism an d Ju daism in dealin g with m odern ity. Un til th e
secon d Vatican Coun cil in th e 1960s, pon tiffs h ad con dem n ed m uch
of m odern ity—in clu din g m odern biblical criticism , dem ocracy, plu ralism , an d wom en ’s righ ts. Desp ite ch an ge, all of th e ch ildren of
Abrah am con tin u e to stru ggle with m odern ity. Th e global resu rgen ce of religion is driven by a desire of m an y well-edu cated believers of differen t faith s to reth in k an d reevalu ate th e relation sh ip of
religion to m odern ity. Man y q u estion th e excesses of m odern ity,
tryin g to reassert a faith an d valu es th at lim it th e u n bridled u se of
scien ce an d tech n ology, th e sexu al freedom s th at weaken fam ily
life, th e em p h asis on in dividu al righ ts rath er th an on resp on sibilities, or th e accu m u lation an d m aldistribu tion of wealth .
Mu slim s stru ggle with m an y of th e sam e q u estion s an d issu es
of m od ern ity faced by th e West bu t with d istin ctive d ifferen ces.
Th ey h ave n ot h ad th e lu xu ry of tim e, th e cen tu ries th e West h ad
h ad to d evelop an d accom m od ate m od ern ity. Desp ite th e violen ce
we see tod ay, h owever, th e Mu slim en cou n ter with m od ern ity h as
occu rred with ou t an ywh ere n ear th e West’s h igh cost of blood y
wars (for exam ple, th e Fren ch an d Am erican revolu tion s, th e Am erican Civil War, an d th e wars of th e Reform ation ). Fu rth erm ore,
m an y Mu slim cou n tries face seriou s p olitical an d econ om ic h an d icap s. Th e Mu slim world ’s d om in an ce by th e West an d m argin alization as a world p ower, wh ich h as ch allen ged Islam ’s relevan ce
to m od ern life, an d its lack of con trol over th e forces of d evelop m en t h ave been d au n tin g barriers to p rogress. W h en in p ower,
Mu slim em p ires were o p en an d p lu ralist ic in en gagin g fo reign
cu ltu res an d civilization s. W h en in ch arge of th e p rocess, th ere
was little fear of loss of id en tity, faith , an d p rid e. In d efeat, Mu slim s faced q u estion s of id en tity as well as faith : Does bein g m od ern m ean ou r on ly op tion is to talk, d ress, th in k, live an d act like
th em ? How wou ld Am erican s or Eu rop ean s resp on d if m od ern iza-
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tion an d globalization m ean t d om in ation by Jap an , p olitically,
econ om ically, m ilitarily, lin gu istically, an d cu ltu rally? Th e closest
exam p le we h ave in th e West is p erh ap s th e wren ch in g ad ju stm en t form er Eu rop ean em p ires like En glan d an d Fran ce h ave h ad
to m ake to Am erican in tern ation al ascen d an ce .
Re l i g i o n , Mo d e r n i z a t i o n , a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Mod ern ization or d evelop m en t th eory in th e m id twen tieth cen tu ry cou ld be su m m arized by th e ad age: “Every d ay in every way,
th in gs are an d will con tin u e to get m ore an d m ore m od ern an d
secu lar,” wh ich m ean t better an d better. It was taken for gran ted
th at m od ern izin g m ean t th e p rogressive western ization an d secu larization of a society: p olitically, econ om ically, legally, an d ed u cation ally. 2 Th e ch oice faced by d evelop in g cou n tries su ch as th ose
in th e Mu slim world seem ed to be between th e p olar d ich otom ies
of trad ition an d m od ern ity, Mecca an d m ech an ization . Ch ristian ity en cou n tered th e sam e secu larizin g tren d s. Th eologian s sp oke
of d em yth ologizin g th e scrip tu res, of a secu lar gosp el for th e m od ern age, of th e triu m p h of th e secu lar city (as op p osed to Au gu stin e’s
City of God ), an d of a “d eath of God th eology.” 3 Religiou s faith
was at best su p p osed to be a p rivate m atter. In academ ia, th e degree
of on e’s in tellectu al sop h istication an d objectivity was ju dged accord in g to a secu lar liberalism an d relativism th at seem ed an tith etical to religion . In p olitics, wh ile ch u rch or syn agogu e m em bersh ip
was recogn ized as u sefu l, m ost can didates avoided d iscu ssin g th eir
faith or religiou s issu es in p u blic.
Th e global resu rgen ce of religion in th e late twen tieth cen tu ry
h as led p resid en ts, corp orate lead ers, an d ath letes to d o a wid e
tu rn arou n d , freely d iscu ssin g th eir faith an d m orality in th e m ed ia. Con gression al p rayer breakfasts an d p rayer grou p s of ath letes,
lawyers, an d p h ysician s are com m on p lace. A few d ecad es ago, it
was im p ortan t for a p resid en t to h ave a ch u rch to atten d on m ajor
h olid ays bu t n ot to p rofess h is faith in p u blic. Now p resid en ts
from Jim m y Carter to George Walker Bu sh p u blicly p rofess th at
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th ey are “born again ,” an d p resid en tial an d con gression al can d id ates m ake n o secret of th eir religiou s beliefs or th e fact th at som e
are clergy. In th e 2000 p resid en tial cam p aign , George W. Bu sh
com fortably cited Jesu s as h is h ero, an d Sen ator Josep h Lieberm an ,
an orth od ox Jew, freq u en tly ap p ealed to God in h is sp eech es.
Moreover, th e global religiou s resu rgen ce h as been esp ecially eviden t in in tern ation al p olitics. Religion , n ation alism , an d eth n icity
h ave p roven to be en du rin g sou rces of iden tity an d con flict from
Som alia an d Rwan da to Leban on , Bosn ia, Kosovo, Kash m ir, In dia,
an d Sri Lan ka.
Th ese ch an ges in th e p u blic p rofile of religion h ave ch allen ged
an d d iscred ited th e secu lar exp ectation s of m od ern ization m od els. Th e p rom in en t sociologist of religion Peter L. Berger, a key
figu re in articu latin g secu larization th eory, h as also ch an ged h is
m in d , d eclarin g th at “a wh ole bod y of literatu re by h istorian s an d
social scien tists loosely labeled ‘secu larization th eory’ is essen tially
m istaken .” 4 In d eed , m u ch is n ow m ad e of a “d esecu larization of
society” as religion is recogn ized as an in creasin gly key factor in
d om estic, tran sn ation al, an d in tern ation al relation s.
An In e v i t a b l e Cl a sh o f Ci v i l i z a t i o n s?
In a con troversial 1993 article, “Th e Clash of Civilization s?,” Sam u el
P. Hu n tin gton warn ed th at a “clash of civilization s will dom in ate
global p olitics” 5 an d p recip itated a h eated worldwide debate am on g
sch olars, p olitical lead ers, com m en tators, an d th e m ed ia. Man y in
t h e Mu slim wo rld saw t h is im p o rt an t Am erican acad em ic an d
op in ion m aker, wh o h ad also h eld a p rom in en t p osition in govern m en t, as articu latin g wh at th ey always th ou gh t was th e West’s
attitu d e toward Islam . If som e acad em ics an d govern m en t officials were q u ick to d istan ce th em selves from Hu n tin gton ’s p osition , th e sales of h is su bseq u en t book, its tran slation in to m an y
lan gu ages, an d th e sh eer n u m ber of in tern ation al con feren ces an d
p u blication s th at ad d ressed th e q u estion d em on strated th at th ere
was “a m arket for clash .” Th e attacks of Sep tem ber 11 an d th e
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global th reat of Osam a bin Lad en an d al-Qaed a h ave resu rrected a
kn ee-jerk resp on se of “th e clash of civilization s” for an easy an swer to th e q u estion , W h y d o th ey h ate u s?
Hu n tin gton , like m an y oth ers tod ay, p layed in to old stereotyp es
by ch aracterizin g Islam an d th e West as age-old en em ies—“Con flict alon g th e fau lt lin e between Western an d Islam ic civilization s
h as been goin g on for 1300 years” 6 —an d by citin g Islam ’s resistan ce to secu lar Western m od els as n ecessarily h ostile to h u m an
righ ts an d p rogress—“Western id eas of in d ivid u alism , liberalism ,
con stitu tion alism , h u m an righ ts, eq u ality, liberty, th e ru le of law,
d em ocracy, free m arkets, th e sep aration of ch u rch an d state, often
h ave little reson an ce in Islam ic [an d oth er] . . . cu ltu res.”
7
In h is 1997 follow-u p book, Hu n tin gton con clu d ed th at “Islam ’s
bord ers are blood y an d so are its in n ard s.” 8 His blan ket con d em n ation wen t beyon d Islam ic fu n d am en talism to Islam itself: “Th e
u n d erlyin g p roblem for th e West is n ot Islam ic fu n d am en talism .
It is Islam , a d ifferen t civilization wh ose p eop le are con vin ced of
th e su p eriority of th eir cu ltu re, an d are obsessed with th e in feriority of th eir p ower.” 9 Th ou gh Hu n tin gton h as n ow sign ifican tly
refin ed h is p osition , Sep tem ber 11 u n leash ed n ew, u p d ated version s as m an y fou n d it m ore exp ed ien t to fall back on con ven ien t
stereotyp es of a m on olith ic Islam an d h istoric clash of civilization s rath er th an to exam in e th e com p lex cau ses of terrorism .
Iron ically, th e clash of cu ltu res ap p ears as evid en t with referen ce to ou r allies in th e Mu slim world as with ou r en em ies. W h atever t h e co m m o n eco n o m ic an d p o lit ical in t erest s, p rim arily
cen tered on oil, th e con trasts between Sau d i Arabia an d th e Un ited
States are stark. Th e religiou s an d cu ltu ral trad ition s of Am erica’s
lon g-tim e ally—religiou sly p u ritan ical an d exclu sivist world view,
sexu ally segregated society, lack of p olitical p arties an d election s,
p u n ish m en t o f t h eft b y am p u t at io n , p ro h ib it io n o f b u ild in g
ch u rch es or p racticin g Ch ristian ity—as well as th e fact th at bin
Lad en an d so m an y of th e h ijackers of Sep tem ber 11 were Sau d i,
in d icate th at we live in two d ifferen t world s. Sim ilarly, th e d eclared war of religiou s extrem ists an d terrorists again st en tren ch ed
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Mu slim govern m en ts an d th e West—all in th e n am e of Islam —
seem s to u n d erscore th e in com p atibility of Islam an d d em ocracy.
However, wh ile th e action s of extrem ist grou p s an d of au th oritarian govern m en ts, religiou s an d n on religiou s, rein force th is p ercep tion of a cu ltu ral clash , th e facts on th e grou n d p resen t a m ore
com p lex p ictu re.
Neith er th e Mu slim world n or th e West is m on olith ic. Com m on sou rces of id en tity (lan gu age, faith , h istory, cu ltu re) yield
wh en n ation al or region al in terests are at stake. W h ile som e Mu slim s h ave ach ieved a tran sien t u n ity in th e face of a com m on en em y, as in th e Iran ian Revolu tion , th eir solid arity q u ickly d issip ates
on ce d an ger su bsid es an d com p etin g in terests again p revail. Th e
evid en ce th at th ere is n o m on olith ic Islam is abu n d an t. Th e in ability of Arab n ation alism / socialism , Sau d i Arabia’s p an -Islam , or
Iran ’s Islam ic Rep u blic revolu tion to u n ite an d m obilize th e Arab
an d Mu slim world s, th e com p etition an d con flict between cou n tries like Egyp t, Libya, Su d an , an d Sau d i Arabia, th e d isin tegration
of th e Arab (Iraq an d th e Gu lf states) coalition again st Iran after
th e Iran -Iraq war, an d th e su bseq u en t Iraq i in vasion of Ku wait
an d d ivision s in th e Mu slim world evid en t in th e 1991 Gu lf war
are bu t a few exam p les. As Jam es Piscatori observed , “Th e p roblem
with assu m in g a u n ified resp on se is th at it con ceals th e reality of
. . . en tren ch ed n ation al d ifferen ces an d n ation al in terests am on g
Mu slim s.” 10 Th e failu re of Osam a bin Lad en , like Sad d am Hu ssein
an d Kh om ein i before h im , to effectively m obilize th e Islam ic world
in h is u n h oly war, d esp ite h is global terrorist n etwork, is a rem in d er
th at Mu slim s, like every global religiou s com m u n ity, are in d eed
diverse. Moreover, as Islam ic h istory m akes abu n dan tly clear, m ain stream Islam , in law an d th eology as well as in p ractice, in th e en d
h as always rejected or m argin alized extrem ists an d terrorists from
th e Kh arijites an d Assassin s to con tem p orary rad ical m ovem en ts
su ch as al-Qaed a.
In resp on din g to th e attacks of Sep tem ber 11, som e ch arged th at
th e clash of civilization s revolved arou n d con flict with ou r m odern
Western way of life, with , for exam p le, d em ocracy, wom en ’s righ ts,
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an d cap italism . In fact, cap italism exists in th e Mu slim world both
in h om e-grown form s as well as Western -in sp ired version s. Th e
issu e for m an y in th e Mu slim world is n ot cap italism bu t th e d an gers of Western econ om ic h egem on y an d its sid e effects. In fact,
Islam d oes n ot h ave an y p roblem with m an y of th e essen tials of
Western cap italism . It is im p ortan t to recall th at Mu h am m ad’s early
followers in clu d ed p rosp erou s m erch an ts. He h im self en gaged in
fin an cial an d com m ercial tran saction s to m ake a livin g. Th e Qu ran ,
hadith (trad ition s abou t wh at th e Prop h et said an d d id ), an d Mu slim h istorical exp erien ce affirm th e righ t to p rivate p rop erty an d
trad e an d com m erce. As Maxim e Rod in son , a Fren ch sch olar an d
Marxist, wrote in h is Islam and Capitalism : “Econ om ic activity, th e
search for p rofit, trad e, an d con seq u en tly, p rod u ction for th e m arket, are looked u p on with n o less favor by Mu slim trad ition th an
by th e Koran itself.” 11 Mosq u es th rou gh ou t th e world , su ch as th e
Um ayyad m osq u e in Dam ascu s an d th e m agn ificen t m osq u es of
old Cairo an d Teh eran , are often ad join ed by m agn ificen t bazaars.
Trad ers an d bu sin essm en were am on g th e m ost su ccessfu l sectors
in society an d were resp on sible for th e sp read of th eir faith .
Perh ap s th e best resp on se to th ose wh o ask wh eth er Islam an d
cap italism are com p atible is to look at th e lives of th e m illion s of
Mu slim s wh o live an d work in ou r m id st in Am erica an d Eu rop e.
Man y h ave com e h ere to en joy freed om an d th e op p ortu n ities
offered by ou r econ om ic an d p olitical system s. Like oth er religiou s
an d eth n ic m in orities before th em , th ey too stru ggle with issu es
of id en tity an d assim ilation bu t n ot with th eir d esire to en joy th e
best th at we rep resen t.
An oth er freq u en tly cited issu e, u sed to d em on strate a civilization al clash , is Islam ’s treatm en t of wom en . If th ere is on e im age
u sed to d ep ict Islam an d Mu slim s, it is th at of op p ressed , gen d ersegregated wom en , covered by th e veil. Rath er th an con sid erin g
th at wom en ’s statu s m igh t be cau sed by th e con tin u ed stren gth of
p atriarch y, Islam is p resu m ed to be p articu larly m isogyn ist. Gen d er in Islam rem ain s a h igh ly ch arged issu e tod ay at th e p op u lar
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level an d am on g sch olars an d religiou s lead ers. If som e blam e Islam for th e op p ression of wom en , oth ers see it as a beacon of ligh t
an d reform . Still oth ers in sist th at th e statu s an d role of wom en in
Mu slim societies sh ou ld be attribu ted p rim arily to socioecon om ic
forces rath er th an to religiou s belief. Th e exp lan ation s are as d iverse as th e Mu slim world itself. 12 Th u s, ch artin g th e p rogress or
regression of wom en , wh eth er u n d er secu lar or religiou s govern m en ts, is a tricky task. Often we com p are ou r “id eal” to selected
“realities” in oth er religion s an d cu ltu res, overlookin g th e d iversity th at exists with in th em .
For several decades wom en in Mu slim societies h ave been p art of
th e d ialectics of ch an ge, an erratic, vacillatin g, an d con tradictory
p rocess th at creates m an y an om alies. In Egyp t, lon g regarded as
on e of th e m ost m odern izin g of Mu slim states, wom en can n ot serve
as ju d ges, an d yet in Morocco m ore th an 20 p ercen t of ju dges are
wom en . Wom en in Egyp t an d Malaysia h ave access to th e best edu cation an d h old resp on sible p rofession al p osition s in virtu ally every sector. Yet, like wom en in m ost Mu slim societies, th ey n eed a
m ale fam ily m em ber’s p erm ission to travel. Wom en in Sau di Arabia
own m u ch of th e real estate in Riyadh an d Jeddah , can own bu sin esses bu t can n ot drive a car, are sexu ally segregated, an d restricted
to “ap p rop riate” p rofession s. In n earby Ku wait, wom en fu n ction in
society, h old resp on sible p osition s in m an y areas, bu t h ave n ot been
able to get th e vote. In Iran , wh ere th ey m u st wear th e ch ador in
p u blic, wom en con stitu te th e m ajority in u n iversities, h old p rofession al position s, serve in Parliam en t, an d th ere is a fem ale vice presid en t in th e Islam ic rep u blic. Th ou gh Pakistan i wom en can vote,
serve as am bassadors an d as p rim e m in ister, th ey, p articu larly th e
p oor an d p owerless, also su ffer u n der Islam ic laws en acted by Gen eral Zia u l-Haq an d still in force. In Afgh an istan , th e Taliban in th e
n am e of Islam forced p rofession al wom en to give u p th eir jobs an d
p roh ibited girls from atten din g sch ool.
Critics ch arge th at fu n dam en talists, religiou s extrem ists, wan t to
drive m odern Mu slim societies back to a m edieval p ast. Fem in ist
organ ization s from Algeria to Malaysia warn th at Islam ist p ower-
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sh arin g wo u ld reverse t h e ed u cat io n al an d so cial gain s o f t h e
p ost-in d ep en d en ce p eriod , rem ove wom en from p u blic life, an d
again restrict th eir roles solely to th at of wife an d m oth er.
For th ose wh o wish to im p lem en t a m ore Islam ic ord er, reform s
affectin g wom en an d th e fam ily p rovid e a q u ick fix, legitim ated
in religiou s trad ition an d easy to ap p ly. Affirm in g th e cen trality of
th e fam ily in Islam is both an act of p iety an d of p olitical exp ed ien cy. Th e Mu slim fam ily h as lon g been regard ed as th e n u cleu s of
th e Islam ic com m u n ity, its id en tity, p iety, an d stren gth . Wom en
as wives an d m oth ers h ave p layed a p ivotal role in th e u p brin gin g, ed u cation , an d train in g of th eir fam ilies. If western ized reform s seem ed to th reaten th e id en tity an d valu es of fam ily life,
reestablish in g its Islam ic roots th rou gh th e Islam ization of th e fam ily can becom e th e p an acea. Form u latin g an d im p lem en tin g an
Islam ic state or retu rn in g to th e u se of Islam ic law (Shariah) in
p olitics, bu sin ess, an d econ om ics h as p roved d ifficu lt, an d so m an y
activists h ave fou n d it easier to focu s on wom en an d th e fam ily.
Viewed as cu ltu re bearers, wom en h ave been p u t at th e cen ter
of th e wars of religiou s an d cu ltu ral id en tity bein g fou gh t in m an y
Mu slim cou n tries tod ay. Som etim es th ey are agen ts of ch an ge bu t
often th ey are th e victim s. Th rou gh ou t th e twen tieth cen tu ry, regim es h ave u sed wom en ’s bod ies to p rove th eir m od ern orien tation an d id en tity. Reza Sh ah Pah lavi in Iran , Attatu rk in Tu rkey,
an d Bou rgh iba in Tu n isia ban n ed or d iscou raged veilin g an d en cou raged Western d ress as a sign of m od ern ity. Th e abolition of
th e veil in 1936 by Reza Sh ah Pah lavi h as often been celebrated as
a m ajor step toward wom en ’s em an cip ation . However, th is reform
ch iefly ben efited u p p er-class elite wom en . For m an y m id d le- an d
lower-class Iran ian wom en , th e forcible rem oval of th e veil was
trau m atic. In ad d ition , d esp ite th e sh ah ’s m od ern izin g sym bols,
th e regim e d id n ot su bstan tially ch an ge p atriarch al valu es an d attitu d es (its own or th ose of th e religiou s establish m en t): “I felt n o
m atter wh at class th ey belon ged to, wom en were con sid ered as
d olls an d objects by th eir m ale colleagu es.” 13
If m an y associate th e veil with th e op p ression of wom en , oth ers
regard veilin g as an au th en tic p ractice th at p reserves th e dign ity,
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freedom , an d m odesty of wom en , en ablin g th em to act an d to be
treated in term s of wh o th ey are an d n ot h ow th ey look. Sin ce th e
1970s, a sign ifican t n u m ber of m odern wom en from Cairo to Jakarta
h ave tu rn ed or retu rn ed to wearin g Islam ic dress. Often th is is a
volu n tary m ovem en t led by you n g, u rban , m iddle-class wom en ,
wh o are well edu cated an d work in every sector of society. In m an y
cases, th e p rocess is distin ctly m odern , with n ew fash ion s an d styles
en com passin g n ew u n derstan din gs of th e statu s an d role of wom en .
Su ch wom en are n ot p assive victim s of m ale-im p osed m ores bu t
active agen ts for ch an ge. Som e wh o wear Islam ic dress believe th at
th ey are better able to fu n ction as active, self-d irected , in d ep en d en t
su bjects, com m an din g resp ect, ackn owledged an d treated as p erson s rath er th an (sex) objects. Islam ic dress is also u sed as a sign of
p rotest an d liberation . It h as develop ed p olitical overton es, becom in g a sou rce of n ation al p ride as well as resistan ce to Western (cu ltu ral as well as p olitical) dom in an ce an d to au th oritarian regim es.
A n ew sou rce of wom en ’s em p owerm en t tod ay h as becom e active p articip ation in th e m osq u e an d u se of Islam ’s trad ition to
reclaim th eir righ ts in Islam . Reform ers tod ay em p h asize th at ju st
as wom en d u rin g th e tim e of th e Prop h et p rayed in th e m osq u e,
so too tod ay th ey actively exercise th at righ t. In th e cen tu ries after
th e d eath of Mu h am m ad , wom en p layed a sm all bu t sign ifican t
role as tran sm itters of h ad ith (p rop h etic trad ition s) an d in th e
d evelop m en t of Su fism (Islam ic m ysticism ). Grad u ally, h owever,
wom en ’s religiou s role an d p ractice, p articu larly th eir access to
ed u cation an d th e m osq u e, were severely restricted . Male religiou s
sch olars cited a variety of reason s, from m oral d egen eration in
society to wom en ’s brin gin g tem p tation an d social d iscord , to restrict both th eir p resen ce in p u blic life an d th eir access to ed u cation an d th e m osq u e. 14
Tod ay, in m an y Mu slim cou n tries an d com m u n ities, p articu larly th ose th at h ave been regard ed as am on g th e m ore m od ern ized , su ch as Egyp t, Jord an , Malaysia, an d in th e Un ited States,
wom en lead an d p articip ate in Qu ran stu d y an d recitation grou p s
as well as in m osq u e-based ed u cation al an d social services. In cou n -
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133
tries su ch as Iran , wom en serve as p rayer lead ers (im am s) for con gregation al prayers; h owever, th ey are on ly perm itted to lead grou ps
of wom en . Fem ale reform ers look to early Islam for exam p les of
wom en n oted for th eir learn in g, leadersh ip , an d p iety to stren gth en
th e ration ales for wom en ’s con tem p orary role in p u blic activities.
Stron g, p u blic fem ale figu res d u rin g th e Prop h et’s tim e in clu d e
Kh ad ija, Mu h am m ad ’s first wife of twen ty-five years, wh o own ed
h er own bu sin ess, in wh ich Mu h am m ad h ad been em p loyed , an d
p layed a form ative an d sign ifican t role in th e birth of th e Mu slim
com m u n ity. After Kh ad ija’s d eath , Mu h am m ad ’s wife Aish a was
very p rom in en t as a m ajor sou rce of religiou s kn owled ge, an au th ority in h istory, m ed icin e, an d rh etoric. 15
Th ou gh p atriarch y, legitim ated in th e p ast by religion , rem ain s
very m u ch alive as an id eology an d valu e system , in m an y Mu slim
cou n tries it is p rogressively ch allen ged by wom en in th e n am e of
religion as well as for econ om ic realities. Rath er th an breakin g with
trad ition , fem ale reform ers argu e th at th eir religiou s activism tod ay reclaim s an id eal forgotten by later gen eration s. As a resu lt of
th is n ew ap p roach , in creasin g n u m bers of wom en h ave an altern ative m od el th at en ables th em to broad en th eir exp ectation s both
in sid e an d ou tsid e th e h om e.
Vo i c e s o f Re f o r m a n d D i a l o g u e
Becau se acts of violen ce an d terrorism grab th e h ead lin es, we seem
to kn ow a lot m ore abou t Islam ic ad vocates of a “clash ,” th e m ilitan t jih ad ists, th an abou t th ose wh o are workin g toward a p eacefu l revolu tion an d civilization al d ialogu e. Tod ay, Islam ’s en cou n ter
with th e West an d th e n eed for Islam ic reform are bein g ad d ressed
by in tellectu als, religiou s leaders, an d activists alike. Like th e Islam ic
m odern ist m ovem en ts in th e late n in eteen th an d early twen tieth
cen tu ries an d later th e Islam ic (fu n dam en talist) m ovem en ts of th e
Mu slim Broth erh ood an d th e Jam aat-i-Islam i, today’s Islam ically
orien ted in tellectu als an d activists con tin u e th e p rocess of Islam ic
m odern ization an d reform . However, today’s reform ers rep resen t a
creative n ew stage in th at th ey n ot on ly reform u late Islam con -
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cep tu ally bu t also im p lem en t th eir id eas th rou gh th eir p osition s
in govern m en t an d th e p u blic aren a.
Th ree rem arkable exam p les reflect th e d iverse voices of Islam ic
refo rm an d civilizat io n al d ialo gu e t h at can be h eard fro m t h e
Mid d le East to Asia. 16 Active as in tellectu als an d p olitician s, An war
Ibrah im , form er d ep u ty p rim e m in ister of Malaysia, Moh am m ad
Kh atam i, p resid en t of th e Islam ic Rep u blic of Iran , an d Abd u rrah m an Wah id , form er p resid en t of In d on esia, h ave p layed im p ortan t roles in d efin in g th e term s for an in tercivilization al d ialogu e,
rath er th an a clash of civilization s. At th e sam e tim e, each takes a
p osition th at is u n iq u ely d ifferen t from th e West’s, reflective of
h is own cu ltu re an d p olitical en viron m en t. Th ou gh all th ree object to con cep ts of d evelop m en t th at p resu m e th e d esirability of
Western secu larization for Mu slim societies, th ey recogn ize th e
stren gth s an d weakn esses of Western -style m od ern ity. Th u s, th ey
ad vocate an active two-way d ialogu e am on g civilization s, esp ecially between Islam an d th e West.
AN W AR I BRAH I M : G LO BAL C O N V I V EN C I A
W h en An war Ibrah im , som etim es called “Malaysia’s own Islam ic
zea lo t ,” jo in ed t h e go vern m en t o f Prim e M in ist er M a h a t h ir
Moh am m ed in 1980, h e stu n n ed frien d s an d foes alike. 17 Neverth eless, h e sh owed th at h e cou ld su cceed in both world s, rap idly evolvin g from a ch arism atic op p osition leader to dep u ty p rim e m in ister
an d fin an ce m in ister. Ibrah im worked effectively with diverse p olitical forces an d n avigated Malaysia’s com p lex m u ltireligiou s (Mu slim , Ch ristian , Hin du , Bu ddh ist) an d m u ltieth n ic (Malay, Ch in ese,
In dian ) society. He h ad im p ressed m an y at h om e an d abroad with
h is ability to bridge religion s an d cu ltu res an d to work effectively to
ach ieve com m on goals. He h ad earn ed th e rep u tation of “an u n abash ed globalist well su ited to th e m od ern world of m arkets an d
m ed ia” 18 an d a “liberal.” 19 Eigh teen years later, h e wou ld be tried
an d con victed on politically in spired ch arges, an action con dem n ed
in tern ation ally by m an y p olitical an d religiou s lead ers an d h u m an righ t s o rgan izat io n s. H e rem ain s, alt h o u gh in p riso n , a
sign ifican t voice on issu es of sociop olitical an d econ om ic d evel-
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135
o p m en t , ad vo cat in g p lu ralism in m u lt ireligio u s so ciet ies an d
in tercivilization al d ialogu e as th e on ly altern ative to a d ead ly clash
of civilization s.
A p ragm atic m an of p olitics as well as of faith , Ibrah im argu ed
th at both Marxist an d Western m od els of secu lar m aterialism h ad
failed . “Marxism . . . severs m an from h is m oorin gs in faith . . . .
Th ere was n o p lace for eth ics, m orality or sp iritu ality,” 20 an d th e
West also rejects “an y referen ce to m oral an d eth ical con sideration s.
Cu ltu ral p reservation is regard ed as retrogressive in th e m arch for
d evelop m en t.” 21
In con trast to m ore con servative Islam ist grou p s th at called for
a retu rn Islam ic law, Ibrah im said ,
[So u t h east Asian Mu slim s] wo u ld rat h er st rive t o im p rove t h e
welfare o f t h e wo m en an d ch ild ren in t h eir m id st th an sp en d
t h eir d ays elabo rat ely d efin in g t h e n at u re an d in stit u t ion s of
t h e id eal Islam ic st at e. Th ey d o n o t believe it m akes on e less a
Mu slim t o p ro m o t e eco n o m ic gro wt h , to m aster th e in form at ion revo lu t io n an d t o d em an d ju st ice for wom en . 22
An war Ibrah im ’s Islam is a dyn am ic, d evelop in g trad ition th at
resp on ds to diverse tim es an d p laces. He rejected th e con servative
im itation (taqlid) of th e p ast in favor of in dep en den t an alysis an d
rein terp retation (ijtihad), believin g th at Islam is “a p ragm atic religion wh ose real stren gth an d dyn am ism was in its on goin g revitalization . . . .” 23 A stron g p rop on en t of East-West dialogu e, h e believes
Islam is also in clu sive, an d as in th e p ast, so too today Islam sh ou ld
be op en to all cu ltu res.
Plu ralism an d toleran ce based u p on m u tu al resp ect an d u n d erstan d in g are corn erston es of An war Ibrah im ’s vision of a civilizat io n al d ialo gu e o r convivencia, t h at h as d eep ro o t s in m ed ieval
Islam ic h istory. Convivencia (livin g togeth er) allu d es to th e sp irit
of Roger II’s twelfth -cen tu ry Sicily an d Mu slim ru le in th e Iberian
Pen in su la in cen ters like Toled o, Cord oba, an d Gran ad a. In Iberia,
Ch ristian s, Mu slim s, an d Jews lived togeth er in a con text of social
in tercou rse an d cu ltu ral exch an ge. It was a tim e of p rosp erity an d
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ach ievem en t; th e arts, literatu re, p oetry, astron om y, an d m ed icin e
flou rish ed . Man y Ch ristian s becam e kn own as Mozarabs becau se
of th e exten t to wh ich th ey ad op ted elem en ts of Arab d ress, cu ltu re, an d lan gu age, in clu d in g Arabic n am es. Som e Ch ristian sch olars wrote in Arabic in stead of Latin .
Ibrah im fin d s th e roots of convivencia su p p orted both in Islam ic
h istory an d in th e Qu ran , as illu strated by th e verse, “Oh m an kin d ! Verily we h ave created you all from a m ale an d a fem ale, an d
h ave m ad e you in to n ation s an d tribes th at you m ay com e to kn ow
on e an oth er” (49:13). 24
Convivencia, for Ibrah im , is an Islam ic form of p lu ralism , a vision q u ite d ifferen t from th e typ ical Islam ist p rogram s th at m ake
a p lace for n on -Mu slim s in a trad ition ally con ceived Islam ic society. It is based on th e p rim acy of social an d econ om ic ju stice an d
eq u ality, recogn ized as fu n d am en tal to oth er religion s as well as
Islam . Th is p lu ralist visio n is t h e fo u n d at io n fo r h is call fo r
civilization al d ialogu e:
Fo r u s, t h e d ivin e im p erat ive as exp ressed in th e Q u r’an is u n am bigu ou s. Hu m an ity h as been created to form tribes, races an d
n ation s, wh ose d ifferen ces in p h ysical ch aracteristics, lan gu ages
an d m o d es o f t h o u gh t are bu t t h e m ean s for t h e p u rp ose of
lita’arafu— “get t in g t o kn o w o n e an o th er.” 25
Ibrah im ap p reciated th e u rgen cy of diffu sin g global con fron tation s, stressin g th at convivencia is a n ecessity for p rogress. However,
it m u st be an en cou n ter am on g eq u als. 26 Old Western im p erialist
attitu des of th eir “civilizin g m ission ” as well as fu n dam en talist rejection s of th e en em y West th reaten h u m an su rvival.
M O H AM M AD KH ATAM I :
D I ALO G U E O F C I V I LI ZAT I O N S
For m ore th an twen ty years Am erica an d Iran were locked in a
cycle of “m u tu al satan ization .” Mem ories of th e Iran ian revolu tion , Am erican d ip lom ats h eld h ostage, Iran ’s am bitiou s attem p ts
W here Do W e Go from Here?
137
to exp ort its revolu tion , an d Ayatollah Kh om ein i’s fatwa con d em n in g to d eath British au th or Salm an Ru sh d ie for h is book The Satanic Verses m ad e Iran th e ep itom e of an Islam ic global th reat.
In August 1997, eigh teen years after th e Iran ian revolution h ad
stun n ed th e world, th e n ewly elected presiden t of th e Islam ic Republic surprised th e in tern ation al com m un ity in h is in augural address.
Moh am m ad Kh atam i called for a dialogue of civilization s, “in our
world, dialogue am on g civilization s is an absolute im perative.”27 Th e
presiden t of a coun try th at Am erica labeled terrorist becam e on e of
th e m ajor advocates for a n ew policy debate with in Iran an d with in
th e global com m un ity about th e clash of civilization s.
Th e n ew clim ate was d ram atically con veyed to th e world in a
t elevised CNN in t erview wit h Ch rist ian e Am an p o u r in wh ich
Kh atam i su rp rised m an y by statin g th at Western civilization an d
th e Un ited States were worth y of resp ect, citin g in p articu lar th e
exp erien ce of th e Pilgrim s at Plym ou th as an im p ortan t even t in
affirm in g religiou s freed om , an d th e im p ortan ce of th e exam p le
of Abrah am Lin coln . 28
Kh atam i articu lated a d istin ctive altern ative ap p roach to relation s between Islam an d th e West. Th e old -fash ion ed jih ad –clash of-civilization s p ersp ective offered stark altern atives of victory or
d efeat. Kh atam i’s vision com bin ed a n on m ilitan t jih ad ist d efen se
of Islam ic id en tity an d valu es with a call for civilization al d ialogu e
by wh ich all societies cou ld ben efit th rou gh th e exch an ge of in form ation an d id eas. 29
Kh atam i’s m odel for dialogu e does n ot p reclu de stron g criticism
of Western p olicies, esp ecially th ose of th e Un ited States. Sp eakin g
of a flawed U.S. policy of dom in ation , Kh atam i den oun ced Am erica’s
u se of san ction s again st Iran an d oth ers. Am erica, h e said, attem p ts
to “im p ose th eir own dom estic law on th e world . . . [bu t th e] world
will n ot tolerate a m aster an y m ore—n ot on ly will we n ot tolerate a
m aster, n eith er will th e world.” 30 Th u s, Kh atam i com bin es stron g
affirm ation of Iran ’s p rin cip les an d critiq u e of U.S. p olicy with an
em p h atic advocacy of th e dialogu e of civilization s an d of im p roved
Iran ian -U.S. relation s in p articu lar.
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Moh am m ad Kh atam i’s d ialogu e of civilization s is an altern ative both to th e old m ilitan t jih ad ist rh etoric an d to u n critical
depen den ce on th e West (wh at som e h ave term ed “westoxication ”).
In con trast to th e h ard -lin e p osition of Ayatollah Ali Kh am en ei,
Kh om ein i’s su ccessor as Su p rem e Gu id e of th e Islam ic rep u blic,
Kh atam i bold ly asserts th at Islam ic reform , op en to a d yn am ic
in teraction with Western civilization , m u st bu ild a brid ge between
trad ition an d m od ern ity:
We m u st co n ced e t h at t h e in co m p at ibilit y of m od ern civilizatio n wit h o u r t rad it io n -bo u n d civilizat ion is on e of t h e m ost
im p o rt an t cau ses o f t h e crisis in o u r societ y. W h at is t o be d on e?
Sh o u ld we in sist o n rem ain in g im m ersed in ou r t rad ition , or
sh o u ld we m elt fu lly in t o West ern civilizat ion ? O r is t h ere an o t h er way o f rem o vin g t h is co n t rad ict ion ?31
Kh atam i’s vision of th e h istory an d d evelop m en t of civilization s is d yn am ic; civilization s con stan tly ch an ge an d evolve. Th e
West is th e latest,
bu t n o t t h e u lt im at e h u m an civilizat ion , wh ich like all ot h er
h u m an art ifact s, is t en t at ive an d su scep t ible t o d ecay. . . . Civilizat io n s ch an ge an d t h ere is n o su ch th in g as an u ltim at e an d
et ern al civilizat io n . 32
Kh atam i believes th at at th e begin n in g of th e twen ty-first cen tu ry th e n eed is for th e creation of a n ew civilization . However, h is
call for dialogu e m u st be seen with in th e con text of h is p articu lar
worldview, wh ich differs from th at of m an y in Am erica an d Eu rop e. Man y in th e West assu m e th at dialogu e with th e West m ean s
th at even tually n on -Western peoples will see th e advan tages of Western civilization an d becom e m ore western ized. Th is wou ld be a com p lete m isu n derstan din g of Kh atam i’s vision of dialogu e, wh ich is
n ot a p assive p olicy of accom m odation bu t a com p etitive strategy
for stren gth en in g an d tran sform in g Islam ic civilization . It tran -
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139
scen ds a m ilitan t vision of jih ad an d offers a way to avoid destru ctive con flict. Dialogue with th e West is an im portan t way of stren gth en in g Islam . Kh atam i’s vision h olds ou t th e h op e th at, as th e West
evolves an d p ossibly declin es, Islam will regain its p osition as th e
leadin g p rogressive world civilization .
In th e con tin u ed en cou n ter of Islam an d th e West in th e twen tyfirst cen tu ry, Kh atam i’s dialogu e of civilization s reflects a sign ifican t p ersp ective very differen t from th at of both Western an alysts
su ch as Sam u el Hu n tin gton an d old-style Islam ic advocates of m ilitan t jih ad such as Sayyid Qutb an d, m ore recen tly, Osam a bin Laden .
ABD U RRAH M AN W AH I D :
C O SM O P O LI TAN I SLAM AN D G LO BAL D I V ERSI T Y
In October 1999, Abd u rrah m an Wah id , lead er of th e Nah d atu l
Ulam a, (Ren aissan ce of Religiou s Sch olars), th e biggest (35 m illion m em bers) Islam ic organ ization in th e world ’s largest Mu slim
cou n try, becam e th e first elected p resid en t in In d on esia’s h istory.33
Nah d atu l Ulam a (NU) is a p red om in an tly con servative, ru ral-based
sociocu ltu ral organ ization fou n d ed in 1926 to d efen d th e in terests of trad ition al Islam an d cou n ter th e th reat of m od ern ism .
Wah id , h o wever, is b est d escrib ed as a m o d ern , u rb an , lib eral
Mu slim in tellectu al. As a religiou s lead er an d social an d p olitical
refo rm er, h e h as st au n ch ly o p p o sed t h o se wh o wo u ld reassert
Islam ’s role in p olitics an d h as warn ed of th e d an gers of Islam ic
fu n d am en talism .
Brid gin g th e world s of trad ition al Islam an d m od ern th ou gh t,
Wah id esp ou ses a reform ist in tellectu al syn th esis an d social agen d a
th at d istin gu ish es between u n ch an gin g religiou s d octrin es or laws
an d th ose th at can be altered to accom m odate social ch an ge. Wah id
is am on g a gen eration of reform ers wh o ad vocate a p rogressive
Islam , on e th at is in clu sive, d em ocratic, p lu ralistic, an d toleran t.
Wah id ad vocates a cosm op olitan Islam , th e p rod u ct of creative
rein terp retation or reform u lation , resp on sive to th e d em an d s of
m od ern life an d reflectin g In d on esian Islam ’s d iverse religiou s an d
eth n ic h istory an d com m u n ities.
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Unholy W ar
Wah id believes th at con tem p orary Mu slim s are at a critical crossroad . Two ch oices or p ath s con fron t th em : to p u rsu e a trad ition al,
static legal-form alistic Islam or to reclaim an d refash ion a m ore
d yn am ic cosm op olitan , u n iversal, p lu ralistic world view. 34 In con trast to m an y “fu n d am en talists” tod ay, h e rejects th e n otion th at
Islam sh ou ld form th e basis for th e n ation -state’s p olitical or legal
system , 35 a n otion h e ch aracterizes as a Mid d le Eastern trad ition ,
alien to In d on esia. 36 In d on esian Mu slim s sh ou ld ap p ly a m od erate, toleran t bran d of Islam to th eir d aily lives in a society wh ere
“a Mu slim an d a n on -Mu slim are th e sam e,” a state in wh ich religion an d p olitics are sep arate. 37 Rejectin g legal-form alism or fu n d am en t alism as an aberrat io n an d a m ajo r o bst acle t o Islam ic
reform an d to Islam ’s resp on se to global ch an ge, 38 Wah id h as sp en t
h is life p rom otin g th e d evelop m en t of a m u ltifaceted Mu slim id en tity an d a d yn am ic Islam ic trad ition cap able of resp on d in g to th e
realities of m od ern life. Its corn erston es are free will an d th e righ t
of all Mu slim s, both laity an d religiou s sch olars (ulam a) to “p erp etu al rein terp retation ” (ijtihad) of th e Qu ran an d trad ition of th e
Prop h et in ligh t of “everch an gin g h u m an situ ation s.” 39
Wah id’s cosm op olitan Islam is p lu ralistic an d global, affirm in g
th e diversity of p eop les an d civilization s. Th e ch allen ge for con tem p orary Mu slim s is to articu late an d p reserve an au th en tic iden tity in form ed by th eir Islam ic h eritage bu t open to th e cosm opolitan
realities of a global en viron m en t. It is based on a recogn ition of
u n iversal basic righ ts, resp ect for oth er faith s, ideologies, an d cu ltu res, an d op en to th e best th at m odern scien ce an d tech n ology
h ave to offer. 40
A p olitical realist wh o recogn ized th e n eeds to create n ation al
u n ity in th e face of com m u n alism , to establish th e ru le of law, an d
to develop viable econ om ic fram eworks for th e eq u itable distribu tion of wealth , Wah id also p u t h is fin ger on a m ajor cau se of violen ce an d terrorism in Mu slim cou n tries. Most govern m en ts in th e
Mu slim world rely on sociop olitical en gin eerin g, au th oritarian ism ,
p olitical su p p ression , an d violen ce to im p ose th eir vision . Wah id
m ain tain s th at govern m en ts close th eir eyes to a fu n d am en tal issu e
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141
of d evelop m en t wh en th ey red u ce n atio n al p ro blem s so lely t o
p olitical an d socioecon om ic an d tech n ical factors. Th e failu re to
ad d ress th e relation sh ip of faith to n ation al id en tity an d to in stitu tion bu ild in g con tribu tes to in stability an d risks “m assive social
exp losion s.” 41 Govern m en ts th at rely on social con trol rath er th an
con su ltation , th at em p loy violen ce an d rep ression , create a clim ate th at con tribu tes to rad icalization an d violen ce again st th e
state. Wah id h as astu tely id en tified th e h eart of th e stru ggle in
Islam tod ay. Movem en ts are faced with two op tion s, “th e ch oice
of followin g eith er a rad ical ap p roach or a grad u al resp on se in
th eir stru ggle for social ju stice, eq u al treatm en t before th e law an d
freed om of exp ression .” 42
An war Ibrah im , Moh am m ad Kh atam i, an d Abd u rrah m an Wah id
are bu t th ree of m an y voices for Islam ic reform . Th ey d em on strate
th at th ere is n o essen tialist or m on olith ic Islam or Mu slim society.
All m ay sh are a com m on faith , at tim es articu late an Islam ically
in sp ired world view, an d u se Islam as a sou rce of legitim acy an d
m obilization . Still, th eir vision s, goals, an d strategies are sh ap ed
as m u ch by d iverse p olitical an d cu ltu ral con texts as by faith . Th ey
ch allen ge th ose wh o see th e world of th e early twen ty-first cen tu ry in p olarities, eith er con fron tation an d con flict or d ialogu e
an d coop eration , to ap p reciate th e lim itation s an d failu res of old
p arad igm s an d t o d evelo p n ew p arad igm s fo r go vern an ce an d
p olicy th at are sen sitive to th e im p ortan ce of religion an d cu ltu re.
Fin ally, in an in creasin gly global society, defin in g Islam an d th e
Muslim world m on olith ically becom es m ore difficult as clear boun daries between Islam an d th e West evap orate. Not on ly are Mu slim
cou n tries, societies, an d in stitu tion s d eep ly in volved with n on Mu slim societies an d com m u n ities bu t, m ore im p ortan t, Islam is so
p resen t in Am erica an d Eu rop e th at Mu slim s h ave becom e p art of
th e fabric of Western societies, as citizen s, p rofession als, an d n eigh bors. Man y Mu slim s are th ird- an d fou rth -gen eration citizen s in
Western societies, n o m ore an d n o less Am erican or Eu rop ean th an
Jews, Ch ristian s, an d Hin du s. An d yet, on e of th e q u estion s we con stan tly h ear is, Can th ey be dem ocratic?
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Unholy W ar
Isl a m a n d D e m o c ra c y
Th e m ost glarin g d ifferen ce between th e Mu slim world an d th e
West tod ay is th e con trast between au th oritarian an d d em ocratically elected govern m en ts. Au th oritarian ism h as been th e n orm
n ot th e excep tion in Mu slim p olitics, cu ttin g across th e p olitical
an d id eological sp ectru m . Th e track record of govern m en ts both
n on -Islam ist (Algeria, Tu n isia, an d Egyp t) an d Islam ist (Afgh an istan , Su d an , an d Iran ) reveals a cu ltu re of au th oritarian ism th at is
in cap able of toleratin g an y sign ifican t op p osition .
Th ose alread y con vin ced abou t h ow d ifferen t “th ey” are—th at
Islam is in com p atible with m od ern ization an d th at th e m ixin g of
religion an d p olitics is an exp losive form u la for violen t extrem ism
an d terrorism an d an in evitable clash of civilization s—h ave solid
exam p les to bu ttress th eir argu m en ts. In th eory, Islam an d d em ocratic or p arliam en tary form s of govern m en t are n ot in com p atible. In actu al p ractice, th e resu lts h ave been m ixed , with strikin gly
con trad ictory exp erien ces. Kh om ein i’s Iran , Afgh an istan ’s Taliban ,
Su d an ’s Islam ic govern m en t h ave p rovid ed d am n in g exam p les of
p olitical op p ression , sexu al d iscrim in ation , d om estic an d in tern ation al violen ce an d terrorism .
Th e case of Iran , th e lon gest-lastin g exp erim en t in creatin g a
m od ern Islam ic system , d em on strates th e ch an gin g d yn am ic relation sh ip between religion an d sociop olitical realities. Du rin g its
first decade, th e Islam ic rep u blic rem ain ed au th oritarian , with strict
an d n arrow lim itation s on p olitical p articip ation . However, th e
p olitical system h as exp erien ced a p u sh from both above an d below alon g th e d em ocratization p ath . Presid en t Kh atam i’s em p h asis on th e im p ortan ce of civil society, d em ocratization , an d th e
ru le of law h as been a resp on se to societal p ressu re, esp ecially from
wom en an d th e you n ger gen eration wh o m ake u p a sign ifican t
n u m ber of Iran ian voters. However, given th e on goin g stru ggle
between reform ers an d a m ore h ard -lin e con servative p olitical an d
religiou s establish m en t led by Ayatollah Ali Kh am en ei, th e ou tcom e rem ain s u n certain .
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W h y th e glarin g absen ce of d em ocratic govern m en ts? As we
h ave seen , th e Mu slim world is d ealin g with a legacy th at created
a p owerfu l cu ltu re of au th oritarian ism still d eep ly en tren ch ed in
m an y cou n tries. It is p erp etu ated tod ay by ru lers wh o in h erited or
seized p ower: from th e u n elected kin gs an d em irs of Sau d i Arabia,
Jord an , Morocco, an d Ku wait to th e m ilitary an d ex-m ilitary p resid en ts of Su d an , Pakistan , Egyp t, Libya, an d Iraq . So too, p olitical
au th oritarian ism , wh eth er religiou s or secu lar, h as often been th e
n orm , n ot on ly in th e Islam ic govern m en ts of Iran , Su d an , Pakistan , Afgh an istan , an d Sau d i Arabia bu t also in th e m ore secu lar
govern m en ts of Tu n isia, Egyp t, Syria, Algeria, an d In d on esia, wh ere
th e situ ation h as ch an ged with th e fall of Su h arto an d d em ocratic
election s bu t rem ain s p recariou s.
Mo st Mu slim co u n t ries rem ain secu rit y (m ukhabarat) st at es
wh ose ru lers are focu sed on retain in g th eir p ower an d p rivilege at
an y cost th rou gh stron g m ilitary an d secu rity forces. Man y ru lers
h ave been “reelected” in govern m en t-con trolled election s in wh ich
th ey garn er 95 to 99.91 p ercen t of th e vote. Political p arties an d
trad e u n ion s are n on existen t or severely restricted , election s are
often rigged , an d th e cu ltu re an d in stitu tion s of civil society are
weak. Dem ocratic election s h ave occu rred in a n u m ber of cou n tries (Tu rkey, Pakistan , Malaysia, Ban glad esh , Jord an , Morocco, an d
Egyp t) bu t m ost rem ain lim ited or gu id ed d em ocracies at best.
Tu rkey an d Pakistan h ave exp erien ced m ilitary in terven tion an d
ru le. Jord an an d Morocco are m on arch ies. Th e recen t su ccession
of Syria’s Bash ir Assad after th e d eath of h is fath er, Hafez al-Assad ,
an d th e ap p aren t groom in g of Sad d am Hu ssein ’s son in Iraq p orten d a n ew n on d em ocratic p arad igm . Th e m od ern Mu slim exp erien ce su p p o rt s t h e im p ressio n t h at Islam an d d em o cracy are
in com p atible. 43
Man y say th at Islam an d d em ocracy d o n ot m ix becau se trad ition al Islam ic in stitu tion s su ch as th e calip h ate p reclu d e sign ifican t p op u lar p olitical p articip ation an d d em ocratic in stitu tion s.
Yet, th e h istory of religion s d em on strates th at religiou s trad ition s,
like p olitical id eologies su ch as d em ocracy an d com m u n ism , are
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Unholy W ar
cap able of m u ltip le in terp retation s an d relation s to th e state. Mod ern reform s tran sform ed Eu rop ean m on arch ies an d p rin cip alities,
wh o se ru le h ad b een religio u sly ju st ified b y d ivin e righ t , in t o
m od ern Western d em ocratic states. Moreover, d em ocracy itself h as
m ean t d ifferen t th in gs to d ifferen t p eop les at d ifferen t tim es, from
an cien t Greece to m od ern Eu rop e, from d irect to in d irect d em ocracy, from m ajority ru le to m ajority vote. 44 Ju d aism an d Ch ristian it y, o n ce su p p o rt ive o f p o lit ical ab so lu t ism an d d ivin e righ t
m on arch ies, h ave been rein terp reted to accom m od ate th e d em ocratic id eal. As a resu lt, m an y Jews an d Ch ristian s n ow believe
th at m od ern d em ocracy is rooted in th e Ju d eo-Ch ristian trad ition
or at least n ot in con flict with th eir religion .
Islam th rou gh ou t h istory h as p roven d yn am ic an d d iverse. It
ad ap ted to su p p ort th e m ovem en t from th e city-state of Med in a
to em p ires an d su ltan ates, was able to en com p ass d iverse sch ools
of th eology, law, an d p h ilosop h y as well as d ifferen t Su n n i an d
Sh ii bran ch es, an d h as been u sed to su p p ort both extrem ism an d
con servative orth od oxy. Islam con tin u es tod ay to len d itself to
m u ltip le in terp retation s of govern m en t; it is u sed to su p p ort lim ited d em ocracy an d d ictatorsh ip , rep u blican ism , an d m on arch y.
Like oth er religion s, Islam p ossesses in tellectu al an d id eological
resou rces th at can p rovid e th e ju stification for a wid e ran ge of
govern in g m od els from absolu te m on arch y to d em ocracy. In recen t years, th e d em ocracy d ebate h as in ten sified .
Exp erts an d p olicym akers wh o worry th at Islam ic m ovem en ts
will u se electoral p olitics to “h ijack d em ocracy” often fail to sh ow
eq u al con cern th at few cu rren t ru lers in th e region h ave been dem ocratically elected an d th at m an y wh o sp eak of d em ocracy on ly
believe in “risk-free d em ocracy.” Th ey p erm it p olitical p articip ation an d liberalization as lon g th ere is n o risk of a stron g op p osition (secu lar or religiou s) or a p oten tial loss of p ower. Failu re to
ap p reciate th at th e issu e of th e h ijackin g of d em ocracy is a twoway street was reflected in th e resp on ses (awkward silen ce or su p p ort) of m an y western govern m en ts an d exp erts for th e Algerian
m ilitary’s in terven tion an d th eir abrogation of th e resu lts of th e
d em ocratic electoral p rocess, th e Tu rkish m ilitary’s su p p ression of
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th e Islam ic Refah p arty, an d th e growin g au th oritarian ism of th e
Mu barak govern m en t in Egyp t.
D e m o c ra t s a n d D i ssi d e n t s
A d iversity of voices, som e h arm on iou s an d oth ers strid en t, d iscu ss an d d ebate p olitical p articip ation . Secu larists argu e for th e
sep aration of religion an d th e state. Rejection ists (both m od erate
an d m ilitan t Mu slim s) m ain tain th at Islam ’s form s of govern an ce
d o n ot con form to d em ocracy. Kin g Fah d of Sau d i Arabia, a lon gtim e ally of th e West, says th at “th e d em ocratic system p revalen t
in th e world is n ot ap p rop riate in th is region . . . . Th e election
system h as n o p lace in th e Islam ic creed , wh ich calls for a govern m en t of ad vice an d con su ltation an d for th e sh ep h erd ’s op en n ess
t o h is flo ck, an d h o ld s t h e ru ler fu lly resp o n sib le b efo re h is
p eop le.” 45 Extrem ists agree, con d em n in g an y form of d em ocracy
as haram (forbid d en ), an id olatrou s th reat to God ’s ru le an d d ivin e
sovereign ty. Th eir u n h oly wars to top p le govern m en ts aim to im p ose an au th oritarian Islam ic ru le. Con servatives often argu e th at
p op u lar sovereign ty con trad icts th e sovereign ty of God , with th e
resu lt th at th e altern ative h as often been som e form of m on arch y.
Reform ers rein terp ret key trad ition al Islam ic con cep ts an d in stitu tion s: con su ltation (shura) of ru lers with th ose ru led , con sen su s (ijm a) of th e com m u n ity, rein terp retation (ijtihad), an d legal
p rin cip les su ch as th e p u blic welfare (m aslaha) of society to d evelop Islam ic form s of p arliam en tary govern an ce, rep resen tative
election s, an d religiou s reform . Ju st as it was ap p rop riate in th e
p ast for Mu h am m ad ’s sen ior Com p an ion s to con stitu te a con su ltative assem bly (m ajlis al-shura) an d to select or elect h is su ccessor
(caliph) th rou gh a p rocess of con su ltation , Mu slim s n ow rein terp ret an d exten d th is n otion to th e creation of m od ern form s of
p olitical p articip ation , p arliam en tary govern m en t, an d th e d irect
or in d irect election of h ead s of state.
Som e ad vocates of Islam ic d em ocracy argu e th at th e d octrin e
of th e on en ess of God (tawhid) or m on oth eism req u ires som e form
of d em ocratic system . “No Mu slim q u estion s th e sovereign ty of
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God or th e ru le of Sh ariah , Islam ic Law. However, m ost Mu slim s
d o (an d d id ) h ave m isgivin gs abou t an y claim s by on e p erson th at
h e is sovereign . Th e sovereign ty of on e m an con trad icts th e sovereign ty of God , for all m en are eq u al in fron t of God . . . . Blin d
obed ien ce to on e-m an ru le is con trary to Islam .” 46
Th e Tu n isian Islam ist leader of th e Ren aissan ce Party an d p olitical exile Rash id Gh an n ou sh i p rovided an early exam p le of a growin g d em ocratic tren d: “If by dem ocracy is m ean t th e liberal m odel
of govern m en t p revailin g in th e West, a system u n der wh ich th e
people freely ch oose th eir represen tatives an d leaders, in wh ich th ere
is an altern ation of p ower, as well as all freedom s an d h u m an righ ts
for th e p u blic, th en Mu slim s will fin d n oth in g in th eir religion to
op p ose dem ocracy, an d it is n ot in th eir in terests to do so.” 47
However, reform ist efforts toward p olitical liberalization , electoral p olitics, an d d em ocratization in th e Mu slim world d o n ot
im p ly u n critical accep tan ce of Western d em ocratic form s. Most
accom m od ation ists wou ld agree th at it is im p ortan t for Mu slim s
n ot to u n critically cop y wh at th e West h as d on e, em p h asizin g th at
th ere are d ifferen t form s th at legitim ate d em ocracy can take. Iran ’s
p resid en t Moh am m ad Kh atam i, in a television in terview in Ju n e
2001 before h is cou n try’s p resid en tial election s, n oted th at “th e
existin g d em ocracies d o n ot n ecessarily follow on e form u la or asp ect. It is p ossible th at a d em ocracy m ay lead to a liberal system . It
is p ossible th at d em ocracy m ay lead to a socialist system . Or it
m ay be a d em ocracy with th e in clu sion of religiou s n orm s in th e
govern m en t. We h ave accep ted th e th ird op tion .” Kh atam i p resen ts a view com m on am on g th e ad vocates of Islam ic d em ocracy
th at “tod ay world d em ocracies are su fferin g from a m ajor vacu u m
wh ich is th e vacu u m of sp iritu ality,” 48 an d th at Islam can p rovid e
th e fram ework for com bin in g d em ocracy with sp iritu ality an d religiou s govern m en t.
Gra ss-Ro o t s D e m o c ra t i z a t i o n
Th e m ost p ervasive an d vibran t exam p le of th e p u sh from below
for greater d em ocratization an d p ower sh arin g is th e growin g p res-
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en ce an d im p lem en tation of Islam in civil society, in n on govern m en tal in stitu tion s an d association s (NGOs). Th e d evelop m en t of
a stron g civil society is a critical in gred ien t for bu ild in g d em ocratic in stitu tion s. It in corp orates an d in cu lcates th e p rin cip les an d
valu es of p ower sh arin g: greater p olitical p articip ation , rep resen tation , self-d eterm in ation , govern m en t accou n tability, th e ru le of
law, an d social ju stice.
Alth ou gh for m u ch of th e 1980s revolu tion ary Iran an d extrem ist
m ovem en ts p rovid ed th e d om in an t n ote, th e late 1980s an d 1990s
revealed th e m an y faces of Islam ic social an d p olitical activism .
Islam ic m ovem en ts an d association s becam e p art an d p arcel of
m ain st ream in st it u t io n al fo rces in civil so ciet y. Islam ic act ivist
organ ization s an d NGOs created n etworks of m osq u es, h osp itals,
clin ics, d ay-care cen ters, you th clu bs, legal aid societies, foreign
lan gu age sch ools, ban ks, d ru g reh abilitation p rogram s, in su ran ce
com p an ies, an d p u blish in g h ou ses. Th ey fill a void an d th u s serve,
in som e cou n tries, as an im p licit in d ictm en t of th e govern m en t’s
ability to p rovid e ad eq u ate services, in p articu lar for th e n on elite
sectors of society. Th eir services p rovid e an altern ative to exp en sive p rivate in stitu tion s an d overcrowd ed p u blic facilities. At th e
sam e tim e, th ey rein force a sen se of com m u n ity id en tity as well as
sp iritu al an d m oral ren ewal.
Th ou gh m an y Islam ic association s an d NGOs are n on p olitical
an d n on violen t, oth ers like Leban on ’s Hizbollah an d Ham as in
Palestin e h ave com bin ed exten sive an d effective ed u cation al an d
social services with p olitical action an d m ilitan t jih ad . Th eir violen t con fron tation s with Israel an d acts of terrorism h ave led two
su ccessive Am erican p resid en t ial ad m in ist rat io n s t o d esign at e
Ham as an d Hizbollah as terrorist organ ization s an d to sh u t d own
several Am erican Mu slim organ ization s ch arged with ch an n elin g
fu n d s to th em . At th e sam e tim e, Hizbollah p rovid es an in stru ctive exam p le of th e exten t to wh ich Islam ic m ovem en ts are sh ap ed
n ot sim p ly by a religiou s im p u lse bu t by p olitical con texts. Hizbollah was p rim arily a m ilitan t Sh ii resp on se to Israel’s in vasion
an d occu p ation of Leban on an d th e Leban ese Civil War. With th e
en d of th e civil war, Hizbollah p u t d own its arm s in th e n orth ,
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becam e a p olitical p arty, an d won seats in Parliam en t. However, it
kep t u p its m ilitan t resistan ce to Israeli occu p ation of Sou th ern
Leban on , figh tin g IsraeIi forces u n til Israel’s with d rawal from Leban on . Th ou gh Hizbollah rem ain s on som e cou n tries’ list of terrorist states (in clu d in g th e lists of th e Un ited States an d Israel), it
fu n ction s tod ay with in m ain stream Leban ese society, com bin in g
p olitics with a vast n etwork of ed u cation al an d social services.
Man y Islam ic m ovem en ts in recen t years h ave esch ewed violen ce an d terrorism . Alon gsid e th e terrorist trail of u n h oly wars,
th ere exists a d em ocratic track record of Islam ically orien ted can d id ates wh o h ave been elected p resid en t of In d on esia, p rim e m in ist er o f Tu rkey, d ep u t y p rim e m in ist er o f Malaysia, sp eakers o f
p arliam en ts in In d on esia, Iran , Jord an , an d Su d an , cabin et m in isters an d p arliam en tarian s in Egyp t, Algeria, Su d an , Ku wait, Pakistan , Jord an , Yem en , Malaysia, In d on esia, Tu rkey, an d Leban on .
Th e p erform an ce of Islam ist grou p s in n ation al an d m u n icip al election s d efied th e p red iction s of th ose wh o h ad in sisted th at Islam ic
m ovem en ts were u n rep resen tative an d wou ld n ot attract voters.
An Isl a m i c D e m o c ra t i c Th re a t ?
Th e wid e p articip ation of religiou sly m otivated Mu slim s (p olitical
an d ap olitical) in Islam ic p rofession al association s an d oth er p rivate volu n tary organ ization s h as led to th e grad u al Islam ization
of society from below, in creasin gly evid en t th rou gh ou t m u ch of
th e Mu slim world . Iron ically, th e n on violen t p articip ation an d
ap p aren t stren gth of Islam ists in m ain stream society h as led to
m ore strin gen t lim its on p olitical liberalization an d d em ocratization in th e 1990s.
Au th oritarian govern m en ts an d secu lar elites wh o fear an y sign ifican t op p osition as a p oten tial ch allen ge to th eir p ower an d
p rivilege h ave raised th e sp ecter of fan atic fu n dam en talism an d terrorism , ch argin g th at radical Islam ists were ou t to h ijack dem ocracy, to com e to power th rough ballots as well as bullets. Th e Algerian
m ilitary seized p ower, im p rison ed Islam ists, an d den ied th em th eir
electoral victory. Tu n isia an d Egyp t backed away from th eir com -
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m itm en t to op en election s an d in stead cru sh ed (Tu n isia) or cu rtailed (Egyp t) m ain stream , n on violen t Islam ist p articip ation , m akin g little distin ction between treatm en t of m oderates, wh o op erated
abovegrou n d an d with in th e system , an d violen t revolu tion ary extrem ists. Yieldin g to p ressu res from its p owerfu l m ilitary, Tu rkey’s
govern m en t forced Prim e Min ister Ecm ettin Erbakan to resign an d
su bseq u en tly ou tlawed h is Welfare Party. A n ew, m ore broad-based
Islam ic p arty, Virtu e, was created on ly to h ave Tu rkey’s Parliam en t
refu se to seat a wom an p arliam en tarian wh o in sisted on wearin g a
h ead scarf; fin ally th e p arty itself was ban n ed.
At best th e attitu d e of m an y ru lers m ay be ch aracterized , in th e
word s of on e Western d ip lom at, as an op en n ess to “risk-free d em ocracy” or, as an oth er p u t it, “dem ocracy with ou t dissen t.” Op en n ess t o go vern m en t -co n t ro lled an d -d o m in at ed ch an ge—yes;
op en n ess to a ch an ge of govern m en t th at wou ld brin g to p ower
Islam ic activists (or for th at m atter to any opposition party)—n o.
Recen t years h ave sh o wn t h at , at b est , o p p o sit io n p art ies an d
grou p s, wh eth er secu lar or religiou s, are tolerated on ly as lon g as
th ey rem ain relatively weak or u n d er govern m en t con trol an d d o
n ot th reaten th e regim e or ru lin g p arty at th e ballot box. However, q u estion s rem ain . Can th e ills of societies be red u ced to a
sin gle cau se or blam ed on “fu n d am en talist fan atics”? Are th e activities of a rad ical m in ority a con ven ien t excu se for th e failu re of
m an y govern m en ts to bu ild stron g an d eq u itable m od ern states?
Does th is p erceived th reat su p p ort au th oritarian , m ilitary or secu rity govern m en ts, wh ose n on elected ru lers’ p rim ary wish is to p erp etu ate th eir own p ower?
Th e issu e of d em ocratization , like th at of au th oritarian ism , in
Mu slim societies is n ot p rim arily on e of religion bu t of h istory
an d p olitical an d econ om ic d evelop m en t. Cen tu ries of Eu rop ean
colon ial ru le followed by d ecad es of au th oritarian govern m en ts
h ave created an d p erp etu ated con d ition s th at are n ot con d u cive
to d em ocratization . On e-m an or on e-p arty govern m en ts, lim ited
political participation , restricted freedom of sp eech an d of th e p ress,
govern m en t con trol of politics, econ om ic, social, edu cation al develop m en t, an d of th e m edia p rodu ce au th oritarian p olitical cu ltu res
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an d valu es. Th e absen ce or weakn ess of civil society (n on govern m en tal in stitu tion s an d association s) con tribu tes to th e in evitability th at m an y govern m en ts in th e Mu slim world will follow
on e of two p ath s, religiou s or secu lar au th oritarian ism . Desp ite
th e od d s, h owever, d em ocratization h as in creasin gly becom e an
issu e in Mu slim p olitics.
Th e p olitical an d econ om ic realities of m an y states con tin u e to
foster alien ation , op p osition , an d rad icalism or extrem ism . Desp ite th e growin g d esire for greater p olitical p articip ation an d govern m en t accou n tability, au th oritarian govern m en ts with lim ited
p olitical p articip ation an d freed om s rem ain th e n orm in m an y
cou n tries. Regard in g th e fu tu re role of Islam in Mu slim p olitics,
th e com m en t of on e exp ert on Egyp t is eq u ally relevan t to oth er
states: “Egyp t’s ru lers can exp ect to see an Islam th at faith fu lly
reflects th e skill or folly of th eir own statecraft.” 49
Dem ocracy is an in tegral part of m odern Islam ic political th ou gh t
an d p ractice, accep ted in m an y Mu slim cou n tries as a litm u s test
by wh ich both th e op en n ess of govern m en t an d th e relevan ce of
Islam ic gro u p s o r o t h er p o lit ical p art ies are cert ified . Ho wever,
q u estion s abou t wh at p articu lar form s d em ocratization m igh t take
in d iverse Mu slim p olitical cu ltu res rem ain d ifficu lt t o an swer.
Mu slim p olitical trad ition s an d in stitu tion s, like social con d ition s
an d class stru ctu res, con tin u e to evolve an d are critical to th e fu tu re of d em ocracy in th e Mu slim world .
Western govern m en ts are ch allen ged to balan ce lon gstan d in g
relation sh ip s with regim es again st th e p rin cip les an d valu es of selfd eterm in ation , d em ocratization , an d h u m an righ ts th at th ey claim
to stan d for an d su p p ort. Govern m en ts in th e Mu slim world are
ch allen ged to p rom ote an d stren gth en th e d evelop m en t of civil
society—th ose in stitu tion s, valu es, an d cu ltu re th at are th e fou n d ation for tru e p articip atory govern m en t. Th ey m u st be willin g to
allow altern ative p olitical voices to fu n ction freely in society an d
exp ress th eir op in ion s an d d issen t th rou gh th e form ation of p olitical p arties, p rivate association s, n ewsp ap ers, an d th e m ed ia. Islam ic activists an d m ovem en ts are ch allen ged to m ove beyon d
slogan s to p rogram s. Th ey m u st becom e m ore self-critical in sp eak-
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in g ou t n ot on ly again st local govern m en t abu ses bu t also again st
th ose of Islam ic regim es in Su d an , Afgh an istan , an d u n til recen tly
Iran , as well as acts of terrorism com m itted in th e n am e of Islam
by extrem ists. Th ey are ch allen ged to p rovid e an Islam ic ration ale
an d p olicy th at wou ld exten d to th eir op p osition an d to m in orities th e very p rin cip les of p lu ralism an d p olitical p articip ation th at
th ey d em an d for th em selves.
All are ch allen ged to recogn ize th at d em ocratization an d th e
bu ildin g of stron g civil societies in th e Mu slim world are p art of a
p rocess of exp erim en tation , n ecessarily accom p an ied by failu re as
well as su ccess. Th e tran sform ation of th e West from feu dal m on arch ies to d em ocratic n ation -states took tim e, trial an d error. It was
accom p an ied by p olitical an d in tellectu al revolu tion s th at rocked
both state an d ch u rch in a lon g, drawn -ou t p rocess, am on g con ten d in g voices an d faction s with com p etin g vision s an d in terests.
Gl o b a l Te r ro ri sm a n d Isl a m
Terrorism h as been a worldwide th reat, affectin g cou n tries as dissim ilar as Italy, Germ an y, Peru , Jap an , an d Greece, Israel/ Palestin e,
Egyp t, Yem en , Iran , Tu rkey, an d Iraq . Terrorists h ave targeted local
population s often in th e n am e of n ation alist groups or govern m en ts.
In recen t years, radical groups h ave com bin ed n ation alism , eth n icity,
or tribalism with religion an d u sed violen ce an d terrorism to ach ieve
th eir goals: Serbs in Bosn ia, Hin du n ation alists in In dia, Tam il an d
Sin h alese in Sri Lan ka, Jewish fu n dam en talists in Israel, Ch ristian
extrem ists in th e Un ited States. However, th e m ost widesp read exam p les of religiou s terrorism h ave occu rred in th e Mu slim world.
Al-Qaeda (m odern in term s of edu cation al p rofiles, kn owledge an d
u se of m odern tech n ology from com p u ters, faxes, th e In tern et, an d
cell p h on es to weap on s) rep resen ts a n ew form of terrorism , born of
tran sn ation alism an d globalization . It is tran sn ation al in its iden tity an d recru itm en t an d global in its id eology, strategy, targets,
n etwork of organ ization s, an d econ om ic tran saction s.
Th ou gh global terrorism h as n o sin gle location or sou rce, for
th e tim e bein g it h as becom e associated with Islam an d jih ad. W h ile
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Presid en t George W. Bu sh an d oth er n ation al an d religiou s lead ers
h ave d istin gu ish ed between Islam an d terrorism , an d m an y average Am erican s h ave p roven rem arkably su p p ortive of Arab an d
Mu slim colleagu es an d n eigh bors, oth ers h ave n ot. Alth ou gh th e
U.S. ad m in istration h as rem ain ed con sisten t in its statem en ts, th e
action s of th e attorn ey gen eral an d p rop osed con gression al an titerrorism legislation , as well as th e d eten tion of in d ivid u als for
in d efin ite p eriod s with ou t trial or access to evid en ce, raise d eep
con cern s abou t th e erosion of civil liberties an d h u m an righ ts for
Arabs an d Mu slim s, an d oth ers as well. Th e issu e goes to th e core
of wh at th e Un ited States is an d stan d s for, wh o we are n ow, an d
wh at we m igh t becom e.
Like all th e world ’s m ajor religiou s trad ition s, Islam h as its extrem ist frin ge. However, Osam a bin Lad en ’s stead y d ose of p roclam ation s an d th reats h as assu red th at Islam , n ot ju st extrem ism or
terrorism , receives sp ecial treatm en t. Th e clim ate tod ay is on e in
wh ich q u estion s can be asked an d statem en ts can be m ad e abou t
Islam , n ot sim p ly abou t th e beliefs an d action s of extrem ists, th at
wou ld n ot be tolerated if d irected at Ju d aism or Ch ristian ity. Th e
d an ger of th is ap p roach is to overlook th e fact th at m ilitan t jih ad
m ovem en ts an d terrorism are n ot ju st th e p rod u cts of warp ed in d ivid u als or religiou s d octrin e, wh eth er m ain stream or extrem ist
in terp retation s, bu t of p olitical an d econ om ic con d ition s.
Re a c t i n g t o Te r ro ri sm :
Am e ri c a n Fo re i g n P o l i c y i n t h e Mu sl i m Wo rl d
After Sep tem ber 11, th e d ep th of h atred exp ressed by bin Lad en
an d h is al-Qaed a followers alon g with scen es of som e Arabs celebratin g in th e streets revolted m an y bu t also led som e to ask,
W h y do th ey h ate u s? Th e tem p tation for som e govern m en t officials an d p olitical com m en tators was to con dem n an d dism iss, to
explain away an ti-Am erican ism as irration ality, in gratitu de, jealou sy
of ou r su ccess, or h atred for “ou r way of life.” Slogan s to th e effect
th at we are in a war between th e civilized world an d terrorists; a war
between fu n dam en talists wh o h ate Western dem ocracy, cap italism ,
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an d freed om ; or a war again st evil an d m erch an ts of death m ay
reflect th e rh etoric of som e extrem ists an d be em otion ally satisfyin g, bu t th ey fail to get at deeper realities an d lon g-term issu es. Sim ilarly, belief th at overwh elm in g force h as brou gh t a q u ick victory
an d p roven an effective an swer an d m essage to oth er terrorists or
p oten tial terrorists also overlooks real an d fu tu re th reats. Oth er bin
Lad en s exist as do th e p olitical an d econ om ic con dition s th at th ey
can exp loit to recru it n ew soldiers for th eir u n h oly wars.
Osam a bin Lad en , like th e secu lar Sad d am Hu ssein an d th e cleric
Ayatollah Kh om ein i before h im , cleverly id en tified sp ecific grievan ces again st Mu slim regim es an d th e Un ited States th at are sh ared
across a broad sp ectru m of Mu slim s, m ost of wh om are n ot extrem ists. He th en u sed religiou s texts an d d octrin es to ju stify h is
jih ad of violen ce an d terrorism . An ti-Am erican ism is d riven n ot
on ly by th e blin d h atred of th e terrorists bu t also by a broad erbased an ger an d fru stration with Am erican foreign p olicy am on g
m an y in Arab an d Mu slim societies: govern m en t officials, d ip lom ats, th e m ilitary, bu sin essm en , p rofession als, in tellectu als, an d
jou rn alists. Man y en joy close frien d sh ip s with th eir Western cou n terp arts. Th ey h ave grad u ated from an d sen d t h eir ch ild ren to
Western sch ools, vacation an d own p rop erty in Am erica an d Eu rop e, ad m ire m an y of th e p rin cip les an d valu es (p olitical p articip ation , accou n tability, th e basic freed om s of sp eech , th ou gh t, an d
th e p ress). Bu t th ey also believe th at th ese p rin cip les are ap p lied
selectively or n ot at all wh en it com es to th e Mu slim world .
Lost in ou r litan y of slogan s an d easy an swers is th e recogn ition
th at th ey see m ore th an we see. In recen t years, th e Un ited States
h as becom e less in tern ation al-m in d ed an d m ore p reoccu p ied with
d om estic issu es. Man y m em bers of Con gress see n o reason to travel
abroad; a p rom in en t con gression al leader freely q u ip p ed th at h e
h ad been to Eu rop e on ce an d saw n o reason to retu rn . Major m edia
n etworks an d n ewsp ap ers h ave cu t back on th e n u m ber of foreign
bu reau s an d corresp on den ts; dom estic n ews coverage h as exp an ded
at th e exp en se of p u blic awaren ess of in tern ation al affairs. By con trast, an d u n like in th e p ast, m an y in th e Mu slim world are n o
lon ger d ep en d en t on CNN an d th e BBC for n ews of th e world .
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In tern ation al Arab an d Muslim publication s an d m edia provide daily
coverage of foreign affairs. Fam ilies sit glu ed to th eir television sets,
watch in g daily coverage on al-Jazeera, an d see in vivid color live
n ews from Palestin e/ Israel, Iraq , Ch ech n ya, an d Kash m ir.
Man y see th e Un ited States’ esp ou sal of self-determ in ation , dem ocratization , an d h u m an righ ts as disin gen u ou s in ligh t of its foreign policies. Wh ile average Am erican s m igh t see th e latest explosive
h ead lin e even t su ch as a sp ectacu lar terrorist attack in Israel, th ey
are n ot bom barded daily with im ages of acts of Israeli violen ce an d
bru tality, th e disp rop ortion ate firep ower, th e n u m ber of Palestin ian death s an d casu alties, th e u se of Am erican weap on s in clu din g
F-16s an d Ap ach e h elicop ters p rovided to Israel an d u sed again st
Palestin ian s, in cludin g civilian s, in th e occupied territories. Am erica’s
relation sh ip with Israel h as p roved to be a ligh tn in g rod. W h ile
som e in th e West down p lay or den y th e sign ifican ce of th e Palestin ian issu e, su rveys con tin u e to verify its im p ortan ce to Mu slim s
globally. A su rvey in sp rin g 2001 of five Arab states (Egyp t, Sau di
Arabia, th e Un ited Arab Em irates, Ku wait, an d Leban on ) dem on strated th at th e “m ajority in all five cou n tries said th at th e Palestin ian issu e was th e sin gle m ost im p ortan t issu e to th em p erson ally.” 50
In a Zogby In tern ation al p oll of Am erican Mu slim s taken in Novem ber an d Decem ber 2001, 84 p ercen t believed th at th e Un ited
States sh ou ld su p p ort a Palestin ian state, 70 p ercen t believed th at it
sh ou ld red u ce fin an cial su p p ort to Israel.51
Th e Am erican govern m en t’s tou gh stan d (often fu lly ju stified )
with Yasser Arafat bu t kid -glove treatm en t of Israeli Prim e Min ister Ariel Sh aron ’s aggressive an d bru tal p olicies in th e West Ban k
an d Gaza, an d Am erica’s lon g record of relatively u n critical su p p ort of Israel—exp ressed in its levels of m ilitary an d econ om ic aid
to Israel, its votin g record in th e Un ited Nation s, official statem en ts by Am erican ad m in istration s an d govern m en t officials, an d
votes by Con gress (often op p osed by ad m in istration s in th e p ast)
to m ove th e Am erican em bassy from Tel Aviv to Jeru salem in d irect con traven tion of lon gstan d in g UN resolu tion s—are seen by
m an y in th e Mu slim world as p roof of Am erican h yp ocrisy.
W here Do W e Go from Here?
155
Oth er critical foreign p olicy issu es in clu d e th e im p act of san ction s on m ore th an a h alf-m illion in n ocen t Iraq i ch ild ren (with
little d irect effect on Sad d am Hu ssein ), an d san ction s again st Pakistan wh ile failin g to h old In d ia an d Israel to sim ilar stan d ard s
for th eir n u clear p rogram s. Th e m oral will so evid en t in Kosovo is
seen as totally absen t in U.S. p olicy in th e Ch ech n ya an d Kash m iri
con flicts. A n ative-born Am erican con vert to Islam , Ivy Leagu e–
ed u cated an d form erly a govern m en t con su ltan t, sp oke with a fru stration sh ared by m an y Mu slim s: “Every in form ed Mu slim wou ld
p oin t to Am erica’s bizarre com p licity in th e gen ocid al d estru ction
of Ch ech n ya, its tacit su p p ort of In d ia’s in cred ibly bru tal occu p ation of Kash m ir, its p assivity in th e eth n ic clean sin g of Bosn ia,
an d even Am erica’s in sisten ce on zero casu alties in stop p in g th e
eth n ic clean sin g of Kosovo. Th ese are h ot sp ots in th e so-called
‘rin g of fire’ arou n d th e ed ge of th e Mu slim world , wh ere Mu slim s
are th rowin g off th e sh ackles of old em p ires.” 52
To u n d erstan d th e love-h ate relation sh ip , th e attraction -rep u lsion toward Am erica th at exists in m an y p arts of th e world an d is
wid esp read in th e Mu slim world , we m u st n ot on ly kn ow wh o we
th in k we are an d h ow we view oth ers bu t try to u n d erstan d h ow
oth ers m igh t see u s. As Pau l Ken n ed y h as observed , few of u s ask:
[H]o w d o we ap p ear t o them , an d wh at wou ld it be like were ou r
p laces in t h e wo rld reversed . . . . Su p p ose th at th ere exist ed tod ay a p o werfu l, u n ified Arab-Mu slim st at e t h at stretch ed from
Algeria t o Tu rkey an d Arabia—as t h ere was 400 years ago, t h e
O t t o m an Em p ire. Su p p o se t h is u n ified Arab-Mu slim st at e h ad
t h e biggest eco n o m y in t h e wo rld , an d t h e m ost effect ive m ilit ary. Su p p o se by co n t rast t h is Un it ed States of ou rs h ad sp lit
in t o 12 o r 15 co u n t ries, wit h d ifferen t regim es, som e con servative an d corru p t. Su p p ose th at th e great Arab-Mu slim p ower h ad
it s aircraft carriers cru isin g o ff o u r sh o res, its aircraft flyin g over
o u r lan d s, it s sat ellit es wat ch in g u s every d ay. Su p p ose t h at it s
m u lt in at io n al co rp o rat io n s h ad reach ed in t o Nort h Am erica t o
ext ract o il, an d p aid t h e co rru p t , co n servat ive govern m en ts big
ro yalt ies fo r t h at . Su p p o se t h at it d o m in ated all in t ern ation al
156
Unholy W ar
in st it u t io n s like t h e Secu rit y Co u n cil an d t h e IMF. Su p p o se t h at
t h ere was a sp ecial st at e set u p in No rt h Am erica fift y years ago ,
o f a d ifferen t religio n an d lan gu age t o o u rs, an d t h e gian t ArabMu slim p ower always gave it su p p ort. Su p p ose th e Colossu s state
was bom bard in g u s wit h cu lt u ral m essages, abou t th e statu s of
wo m en , abo u t sexu alit y, t h at we fou n d offen sive. Su p p ose it
was always u rgin g u s t o ch an ge, t o m od ern ize, t o go global, t o
fo llo w it s exam p le. Hm m . . . in t h ose con d ition s, wou ld n ot
m an y Am erican s st ead ily gro w t o lo at h t h at Colossu s, wish it
h arm ? An d p erh ap s t ry t o h arm it ? I t h in k so. 53
Th e war again st global terrorism sh ou ld n eith er becom e a green
ligh t for au th oritarian regim es in th e Mu slim world to fu rth er lim it
th e ru le of law an d civil society or to rep ress n on violen t op p osition , n or ju stify a grad u al erosion of im p ortan t p rin cip les an d valu es at h om e an d abroad . Man y govern m en ts u se th e d an ger of
“Islam ic fu n d am en talism ” as an excu se for au th oritarian resp on ses
an d p olicies, labelin g all Islam ic m ovem en ts, extrem ist as well as
m od erate (wh om th ey ch aracterize as wolves in sh eep ’s cloth in g),
as a th reat. Man y Mu slim an d Western govern m en ts op p ose an y
Islam ic can d id ates’ p articip ation in election s, fearin g th at th ey will
h ijack election s. Th ese fears often obscu re th e fact th at m an y govern m en ts th em selves h ave p roven n on d em ocratic or au th oritarian track record s.
Am erican , as well as Eu rop ean , resp on ses m u st rem ain p rop ortion ate, from m ilitary strikes an d foreign p olicy to d om estic secu rity m easu res an d an titerrorism legislation . A reexam in ation an d ,
wh ere n ecessary, reform u lation of U.S. foreign p olicy will be n ecessary to effectively lim it an d con tain global terrorism . Sh ort-term
p olicies th at are n ecessitated by n ation al in terest m u st be balan ced
by lon g-term p olicies an d in cen tives th at p ressu re ou r allies to
p ro m o t e a grad u al an d p ro gressive p ro cess o f bro ad er p o lit ical
p articip ation an d p ower sh arin g. Failu re to d o so will sim p ly p erp etu ate th e cu ltu re an d valu es of au th oritarian ism , secu lar as well
as religiou s, an d feed an ti-Am erican ism . If foreign p olicy issu es
are n ot ad d ressed effectively, th ey will con tin u e to p rovid e a breed -
W here Do W e Go from Here?
157
in g grou n d for h atred an d rad icalism , th e rise of extrem ist m ovem en ts, an d recru its for th e bin Lad en s of th e world .
Gl o b a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Ji h a d
W h at is d istin ctive abou t global jih ad tod ay? Th e Soviet-Afgh an
war m arked a n ew tu rn in g p oin t as jih ad wen t global to a d egree
n ever seen in th e p ast. Th e m ujahidin h oly war d rew Mu slim s from
m an y p arts of th e world an d su p p ort from Mu slim an d n on -Mu slim cou n tries an d sou rces. In its afterm ath , th e n ew global jih ad
sp read as jih ad becam e th e com m on sym bol an d rallyin g cry for
h oly an d u n h oly wars. Most m ajor Mu slim stru ggles were d eclared
a jih ad . Afgh an Arabs m oved on to figh t oth er jih ad s in th eir h om e
cou n tries an d in Bosn ia, Kosovo, an d Cen tral Asia. Oth ers stayed
on or were train ed an d recru ited in th e n ew jih ad i m adrasas an d
train in g cam p s.
Tod ay, th e term jih ad h as becom e com p reh en sive; resistan ce
an d liberation stru ggles an d m ilitan t jih ad s, h oly an d u n h oly wars,
are all declared to be jih ads. Jih ad is waged at h om e n ot on ly again st
u n ju st ru lers in th e Mu slim world bu t also again st a broad sp ectru m of civilian s. Jih ad ’s scop e abroad becam e ch illin gly clear in
th e Sep tem ber 11 attacks again st both th e World Trad e Cen ter an d
th e Pen tagon , targetin g n ot on ly govern m en ts bu t also civilian s.
Terro rist s su ch as bin Lad en an d o t h ers go beyo n d classical
Islam ’s criteria for a ju st jih ad an d recogn ize n o lim its bu t th eir
own , em p loyin g an y weap on s or m ean s. Th ey reject Islam ic law’s
regu lation s regard in g th e goals an d m ean s of a valid jih ad (th at
violen ce m u st be p rop ortion al an d th at on ly th e n ecessary am ou n t
of force sh ou ld be u sed to rep el th e en em y), th at in n ocen t civilian s sh ou ld n ot be targeted , an d th at jih ad m u st be d eclared by
th e ru ler or h ead of state. Tod ay, in d ivid u als an d grou p s, religiou s
an d lay, seize th e righ t to d eclare an d legitim ate u n h oly wars in
th e n am e of Islam .
On th e oth er h an d , Islam ic sch olars an d religiou s lead ers across
th e Mu slim world su ch as th ose at th e Islam ic Research Cou n cil at
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Unholy W ar
al-Azh ar Un iversity, regard ed by m an y as th e h igh est m oral au t h o rit y in Islam , h ave m ad e st ro n g, au t h o rit at ive d eclarat io n s
again st bin Lad en ’s in itiatives: “Islam p rovid es clear ru les an d eth ical n orm s th at forbid th e killin g of n on -com batan ts, as well as
wom en , ch ild ren , an d th e eld erly, an d also forbid s th e p u rsu it of
th e en em y in d efeat, th e execu tion of th ose wh o su rren d er, th e
in fliction of h arm on p rison ers of war, an d th e d estru ction of p rop erty th at is n ot bein g u sed in th e h ostilities.” 54
Globalization of com m u n ication s, tech n ology, an d travel h as
h eigh ten ed a n ew con sciou sn ess of th e tran sn ation al iden tity an d
in tercon n ectedn ess of th e Islam ic com m u n ity (um m ah) th at follows
even ts across th e Mu slim world on a daily, even h ou rly basis. Th ey
rein force a sen se of solidarity an d iden tification . Regardless of n ation al an d cu ltu ral iden tities, m ost Mu slim s are n ot secu lar; th ey
do self-con sciou sly iden tify th em selves as Mu slim . Th ey celebrate
or bem oan su ccesses an d failu res of Mu slim stru ggles for self-determ in ation , freedom from op p ression , an d econ om ic develop m en t
across th e world, as well as of m ilitan t jih ads, h oly an d u n h oly wars.
Th e dark side of globalization an d in tercon n ectedn ess is th at com m u n ication s an d tech n ology su p p ort th e existen ce of global terrorist n etworks in th e twen ty-first cen tu ry.
If Western p owers n eed to reth in k, reassess foreign p olicies an d
th eir su pport for au th oritarian regim es, m ain stream Mu slim s worldwid e will n eed to m ore aggressively ad d ress th e th reat to Islam
from religiou s extrem ists. Th eir jih ad or stru ggle will be religiou s,
in tellectu al, sp iritu al, an d m oral. Bu t it m u st be a m ore rap id an d
wid esp read p rogram of Islam ic ren ewal th at bu ild s on p ast reform ers bu t th at follows th e lead of en ligh ten ed religiou s lead ers an d
in tellectu als tod ay m ore forcefu lly, an d th at m ore effectively en gages in a wid e-ran gin g p rocess of rein terp retation (ijtihad) an d
reform . Th ere are form id able obstacles to be overcom e—th e con servatism of m an y (th ou gh n ot all) u lam a, reform in th e train in g
of religiou s sch olars an d lead ers, th e cou n terin g of m ore p u ritan ical exclu sivist Wah h abi or Salafi bran d s of Islam , an d th e d iscred itin g of m ilitan t jih ad ist id eas an d id eologies.
W here Do W e Go from Here?
159
Like th e p rocess of m od ern reform in Ju d aism an d Ch ristian ity,
q u estion s of lead ersh ip an d th e au th ority of th e p ast an d trad ition
are critical. W h ose Islam ? W h o lead s an d d ecid es? Is it ru lers, th e
vast m ajority of wh om are u n elected kin gs, m ilitary, an d form er
m ilitary? Or elected p rim e m in isters an d p arliam en ts? Is it th e
u lam a or clergy, wh o con tin u e to see th em selves as th e p rim ary
in terp reters of Islam , alth ou gh m an y are ill p rep ared to resp on d
creatively to m od ern realities? Or is it m od ern ed u cated , Islam ically
orien ted in tellectu als an d activists? Lackin g an effective lead ersh ip , will oth er Osam a bin Lad en s fill th e vacu u m ?
Th e secon d m ajor q u estion is, W h at Islam ? Is Islam ic reform sim p ly retu rn in g to th e p ast an d restorin g p ast doctrin es an d laws, or is
it a reform ation or reform u lation of Islam to m eet th e dem an ds of
m odern life? Som e call for an Islam ic state based on th e reim p lem en tation of classical form u lation s of Islam ic laws. Oth ers argu e
th e n eed to rein terp ret an d reform u late law in ligh t of th e n ew realities of con tem p orary society.
Religiou s trad ition s are a com bin ation of text an d con text—
revelat io n an d h u m an in t erp ret at io n wit h in a sp ecific so cio h istorical con text. Th is h as gon e on for m an y cen tu ries. All religiou s
trad ition s d em on strate d yn am ism an d d iversity an d th at is wh y
th ere are con servative elem en ts as well as m od ern ist or p rogressive elem en ts in all religion s. Ju d aism an d Ch ristian ity, th e Hebrew Bible an d th e New Testam en t h ave been u sed to legitim ize
m on arch ies an d feu d alism in th e p ast, an d d em ocracy an d cap italism , as well as socialism in th e p resen t. Th e Gosp els an d Ch ristian ity h ave been u sed to legitim ize th e accu m u lation of wealth
an d m arket cap italism as well as religiosocial m ovem en ts su ch as
th ose of Fran cis of Assisi an d, in th e twen tieth cen tu ry, Doroth y
Day’s Cath olic Worker Movem en t, an d liberation th eology in Latin
an d Cen tral Am erica. Th e p rocess con tin u es today regardin g issu es
of gen d er relation s, birth con trol, abortion , h om osexu ality, an d
social ju stice, yieldin g m u ltip le an d diverse p osition s. W h ile u sin g
th e sam e text an d referrin g to a com m on h istory, p eop le com e ou t
with differen t in terp retation s. Islam too is an ideal th at h as taken
160
Unholy W ar
m an y form s h istorically an d h as been cap able of m u ltip le in terp retation s, con dition ed by reason an d social con texts. For exam p le,
m u ch of th e debate over th e relation sh ip of Islam to wom en ’s righ ts
m u st be seen in term s n ot on ly of religion bu t also, as in oth er
religion s, of p atriarch y. Th e statu s an d role of Mu slim wom en in
law an d society was defin ed in a p atriarch al p ast an d by th e m ale
religiou s elites wh o were th e in terp reters of religion .
Th is is a tim e to rem em ber th e even ts of Sep tem ber 11 an d to
resp on d : a tim e to rem em ber th e victim s, th ose wh o d ied an d th eir
fam ilies. It is also a tim e for th e in tern ation al com m u n ity, govern m en ts, religiou s lead ers, op in ion m akers, in tellectu als, acad em ics,
an d citizen s to respon d. Th e Un ited States–led coalition h as brou gh t
an en d to Taliban ru le, th e first m ajor step in th e war again st global terrorism . W h eth er Osam a bin Lad en is cap tu red an d h owever
su ccessfu l are attem p ts to con tain al-Qaed a, religiou s terrorism in
th e Mu slim world an d beyon d will con tin u e to be a th reat to n ation s an d to th e in tern ation al com m u n ity.
As Presid en t George W. Bu sh an d oth er p olitical lead ers h ave
recogn ized , we will n ot d efeat global terrorism solely by m ilitary
or econ om ic m ean s. Pu blic d ip lom acy m u st be a critical com p on en t. Th ere can be n o excu se for terrorism in th e n am e of Islam .
Su icid e attacks, bom bin gs, assassin ation s in th e n am e of an y cau se,
wh eth er ju stified in th e n am e of God , ju stice, or state secu rity, are
still terrorism . Qu ick an d easy resp on ses, su ch as m oves to q u iet
th e Arab street th rou gh overwh elm in g force, m ay be em otion ally
satisfyin g bu t will in th e lon g ru n p rove in effective an d con tribu te
to greater rad icalization an d an ti-Am erican ism . W h ile som e form s
of terrorism , like som e form s of can cer, resp on d to rad ical su rgery,
th is d ead ly d isease can on ly be effectively cou n tered first by u n d erstan d in g h ow it origin ates, grows stron ger, an d sp read s an d
th en by takin g action . Th e can cer of global terrorism will con tin u e to afflict th e in tern ation al bod y u n til we ad d ress its p olitical
an d econ om ic cau ses, cau ses th at will oth erwise con tin u e to p rovid e a breed in g grou n d for h atred an d rad icalism , th e rise of extrem ist m ovem en ts, an d recru its for th e bin Lad en s of th e world .
Notes
Ch a p t e r 1
1. In d ira A.R. Laksh m an an , Boston Globe, Sep t em ber 26, 2001.
2. Abo u t t h e bin Lad en Fam ily, PBS O n lin e an d W GBH/ Frontline: h t t p :/
/ w w w. p b s . o r g / w g b h / p a g e s / f r o n t l i n e / s h o w s / b i n l a d e n / w h o /
fam ily.h t m l
3. Ibid .
4. A Bio grap h y o f O sam a bin Lad en , PBS O n lin e an d W GBH/ Frontline:
h t t p :/ / w w w.p b s.o rg/ w gb h / p a ges/ fro n t lin e/ sh o w s/ b in la d en / w h o /
bio .h t m l
5. Ibid .
6. Ibid .
7. Yo ssef Bo d an sky, Bin Laden: T he Man W ho Declared W ar on Am erica
(New Yo rk: Prim a, 2001), p . 5.
8. Jo h n K. Co o ley, Unholy W ar: Afghanistan, Am erica and International
Terrorism (Lo n d o n : Plu t o Press, 2000), p . 87.
9. As q u o t ed in Pet er L. Bergen , Holy W ar Inc.: Inside the Secret W orld of
Osam a bin Laden (New Yo rk: Free Press, 2002), p . 53.
10. Ibid .
11. Ro bert Fisk, “An t i-So viet warrio r p u t s h is arm y o n t h e ro ad t o p eace,”
T he Independent, Decem ber 6, 1993.
12. M. Nazif Sh ah ran i, “Afgh an ist an ,” in T he Oxford Encyclopedia of the
Modern Islam ic W orld, ed . Jo h n L. Esp o sit o (New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y Press, 1995), vo l. 1, p p . 27–32.
13. Ah m ed Rash id , Taliban: Militant Islam , Oil and Fundam entalism in Central Asia, (New Haven , Co n n .: Yale Un iversit y Press, 2000), p . 136.
14. Vern o n Lo eb Wash in gt o n , “Terro rism En t rep ren eu r Un ifies Gro u p s
Fin an cially, Po lit ically, W ashington Post, Au gu st 23, 1998.
15. Ibid .
16. Jane’s Intelligence Review, O ct o ber 1, 1998.
162
N otes to Pages 15–45
17. Wash in gt o n , W ashington Post, Au gu st 23, 1998.
18. As q u o t ed in Bergen , Holy W ar Inc, p . 88.
19. Rich ard Lacayo, “Pu blic En em y No. 2,” Tim e.com , Novem ber 12, 2001,
vo l. 158.
20. Sco t t Bald au f, “Th e ‘cave m an ’ an d Al Q aed a,” Christian Science Monitor, O ct o ber 31, 2001: h t t p :/ / www.csm o n it o r.co m 20001/ 1031/ p 6s1wo sc.h t m l
21. Reuters, Febru ary 28, 1997.
22. “Bin Lad en ’s Warn in g: Fu ll Text,” BBC News, Su n d ay, October 7, 2001:
h t t p : / / w w w. n e w s . b b c . c o . u k / h i / En g l i s h / w o r l d / s p o u t _ a s i a /
n ewsid _1585000/ 1585636.st m
23. Ibid .
24. Ham id Mir, “O sam a claim s h e h as n u kes: If U.S. u ses N-arm s it will
get sam e resp o n se,” Dawn: T he Internet Edition, No vem ber 10, 2001.
25. In t erview wit h O sam a bin Lad en (May 1998), “Hu n t in g t h e En em y, ”
Frontline: h ttp :/ / www.p bs.org/ wgbh / p ages/ fron tlin e/ sh ows/ bin lad en /
wh o / fam ily.h t m l
26. Ibid .
27. Ibid .
28. Ibid .
29. Ibid .
30. Ibid .
31. Ibid .
Ch a p t e r 2
1. Sayyid Q u t b, Milestones (St u t t gart : Ern st Klet t Prin t ers, 1978), p . 21.
2. Ibid ., p p . 88–89.
3. Bern ard Lewis, T he Arabs in History (New Yo rk: Harp er & Ro w, 1966),
p . 149; Dan iel C. Pet erso n , “Ism ailiyah ,” in T he Oxford Encyclopedia
of the Modern Islam ic W orld, ed . Jo h n L. Esp o sit o (New Yo rk: O xfo rd
Un iversit y Press, 1995), vo l. 2, p p . 341–42.
4. Q u t b, Milestones, p p . 32–33.
5. See Jo h n O . Vo ll, “Ren ewal an d Refo rm in Islam ic Hist o ry: Tajd id
an d Islah ,” in Voices of Resurgent Islam (New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y
Press, 1983), ch . 2.
6. Em m an u el Sivan , Radical Islam : Medieval T heology and Modern Politics
(New Haven , Co n n .: Yale Un iversit y Press, 1985), p . 96.
7. Ron ald Nettler, “Ibn Taym iyya,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islam ic W orld, ed . Jo h n L. Esp o sit o (New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y
Press, 1995), vo l. 2, p . 165.
N otes to Pages 52–56
163
8. Hasan al-Ban n a, “Th e New Ren aissan ce,” in Islam in Transition, ed .
Jo h n L. Esp o sit o an d Jo h n J. Do n o h u e (New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y
Press, 1992), p . 78.
9. As q u o t ed in Ch rist in a Ph elp s Harris, N ationalism and Revolution in
Egypt (Th e Hagu e: Mo u t o n , 1964), p . 144.
10. David Cu m m in s, “Hasan al-Ban n a (1906–49), in Pioneers of Islam ic
Revival, ed . Ali Rah n em a (Lo n d o n : Zed Bo o ks, 1994), p . 136.
11. S. Abu l A’la Mawd u d i, Jihad in Islam (Pakist an : Islam ic Pu blicat io n s,
(Pvt .) Lim it ed , 1998), p . 3.
12. Ibid ., p . 15.
13. Ibid .
14. Ibid ., p p . 4–5.
15. Ibid .
16. Ibid ., p . 8.
17. Ibid ., p p . 23–24.
18. Rich ard Mit ch ell, T he Society of Muslim Brothers (New Yo rk: O xfo rd
Un iversit y Press, 1969), p p . 35–71.
19. Q u t b, Milestones, p . 261.
20. Ash ad S. Mo u ssalli, Radical Islam ic Fundam entalism : T he Ideology and
Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb (Beiru t: Am erican Un iversity of Beiru t,
1992), p . 42.
21. Q u t b, Milestones, p . 12.
22. Ibid ., p . 239.
23. Ibid ., p p . 17–18.
24. Ibid ., p p . 32–33.
25. Ibid ., p . 34.
26. Ibid .
27. Ibid ., p . 221.
28. Ru h o llah Kh o m ein i, Islam and Revolution: W ritings and Declarations
of Im am Khom eini, t ran s Ham id Algar (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1983),
p p . 75–76.
29. Joh an n es J. G. Jan sen , The Neglected Duty (New York: Macm illan , 1986),
p . 161.
30. Ibid .
31. Ibid ., p . 193.
32. As q u o t ed in Saad Ed d in Ibrah am , Egypt, Islam and Dem ocracy (Cairo :
Th e Am erican Un iversit y o f Cairo , 1966), p . 63.
33. Jihad and Shahadat: Struggle and Martyrdom in Islam , ed . Meh d i Abed i
an d Gary Tegen h au sen (Ho u st o n , Tex.: In st it u t e fo r Research an d Islam ic St u d ies, 1986), p . vi.
164
N otes to Pages 67–69
34. Ibn Kh ald u n , The Muqqadim ah: An Introduction, tran s. Fran z Rosen th al
(Prin cet o n , N.J.: Prin cet o n Un iversit y Press, 1967), p . 183.
35. Ibid ., p p . 109–10.
36. See Kh aled Abo u El Fad l, “Th e Place o f To leran ce in Islam ,” Boston
Review, Decem ber 2001/ Jan u ary 2002, 36.
Ch a p t e r 3
1. Jo sep h A. Kech ich ian , “Islam ic Revivalism an d Ch an ge in Sau d i
Arabia,” Muslim W orld 80 (Jan u ary 1990): 8–12.
2. “Th e h at e t h at will n o t d ie,” Guardian, Decem ber 17, 2001.
3. Ru h o llah Kh o m ein i, “Message t o t h e Pilgrim s,” in Islam and Revolution: W ritings and Declarations of Im am Khom eini, t ran s. Ham id Algar
(Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1983), p . 195.
4. Tah a Hu sayn , “Th e Fu t u re o f Cu lt u re in Egyp t ,” in Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives, ed . Jo h n J. Do n o h u e an d Jo h n L. Esp o sit o
(New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y Press, 1982), p . 74–75.
5. Egyptian Gazette, Febru ary 1, 1979.
6. Fed wa El-Gu in d i, “Th e Killin g o f Sad at an d Aft er: A Cu rren t Assessm en t o f Egyp t ’s Islam ic Mo vem en t ,” Middle East Insight 2 (Jan u aryFebru ary 1982): 21.
7. Saad Ed d in Ibrah im , Egypt, Islam and Dem ocracy (Cairo : Th e Am erican Un iversit y in Cairo Press, 1996), p . 212.
8. Ibid ., p . 23.
9. Walid Mah m o u d Abd eln asser, T he Islam ic Movem ent in Egypt: Perceptions of International Relations, 1967–81 (Lo n d o n : Kegan Pau l, 1994),
p p . 239–43.
10. Ch ris Hed ges, “Egyp t Begin s Crackd o wn o n St ro n gest O p p o sit io n
Gro u p ,” N ew York Tim es, Ju n e 12, 1994.
11. Jack Kelley, “Devo t io n , d esire d rive yo u t h s t o ‘m art yrd o m ’,” USA Today, Ju ly 5, 2001.
12. T he Covenant of the Islam ic Resistance Movem ent (Jeru salem 1988), Art icle 1.
13. Ibid .
14. In t erview wit h Ham as lead er Mah m o u d Zah ar, q u o t ed in Beverley
Milton -Ed ward s, Islam ic Politics in Palestine (Lon d on : Tau ris Acad em ic
St u d ies, 1996), p . 186.
15. Hish am H. Ah m ad , Ham as: From Religious Salvation to Political Transform ation (Jeru salem : Palest in ian Acad em ic So ciet y fo r t h e St u d y o f
In t ern at io n al Affairs, 1994), p . 114.
16. Kelley, “Devo t io n , d esire d rive yo u t h s.”
N otes to Pages 100–125
165
17. An th on y Sh ad id , Legacy of the Prophet: Despots, Dem ocrats and the N ew
Politics of Islam (Bo u ld er, Co lo .: West view Press, 2001), p . 124.
18. Sayyid Abu Mu sam eh , as q u o t ed in Sh ad id , Legacy of the Prophet: Despots, Dem ocrats and the N ew Politics of Islam , p . 124.
19. Kelley, “Devo t io n , d esire d rive yo u t h s.”
20. For backgro u n d an d an alysis see Dirk Van d ewalle, “Islam in Algeria:
Religion , Cu lt u re an d O p p o sit io n in a Ren tier Stat e,” in Political Islam : Revolution, Radicalism , or Reform ?, ed . Joh n L. Esp osito (Bou ld er,
Colo.: Lyn n e Rien n er Pu blish ers, 1997); I. William s, “Algeria: A Deaf
Ear to Am n est y,” Middle East International 21 (Novem ber 1997): 15.
21. J. P. En telis, “Bo u t eflika’s Algeria: Pro sp ects for a Dem ocratic Peace,”
Middle East Insight 14 (No vem ber-Decem ber 1999): 7.
22. R. Tiem can i, “Fro m Bu llet s t o Ballo t s,” Middle East Insight 14 (Novem ber-Decem ber 1999): 12.
23. H. Am irou ch e, “Algeria’s Islam ist Revo lu t ion : Th e Peop le Versu s Dem ocracy?,” Middle East Policy 5 (Jan u ary 1998): 100.
24. Ah m ed Rash id , “Th e Taliban : Exp o rt in g Extrem ism ,” Foreign Affairs
78 (Novem ber-Decem ber 1999): 22–35.
25. Ibid .
26. Ibid ., p . 6.
Ch a p t e r 4
1. Fran cis E. Pet ers, “Th e Early Mu slim Em p ires: Um m ayad s, Abbasid s,
Fatim id s,” in Islam : T he Religious and Political Life of a W orld Com m unity (New Yo rk: Praeger, 1984), p . 79.
2. See, for exam p le, Dan iel Lern er, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1958); Man field Halp ren ,
T h e Politics of Social Ch an ge in th e Middle East an d N orth A frica
(Prin cet o n , N.J.: Prin cet o n Un iversit y Press, 1963). Fo r an an alysis
an d crit iq u e o f t h e fact o rs t h at in flu en ced t h e d evelo p m en t o f
m o d ern izat io n t h eo ry, see Fred R. vo n d er Meh d en , Religion and Modernization in Southeast Asia (Syracu se, N.Y.: Syracu se Un iversit y Press,
1988).
3. See, fo r exam p le, Harvey Co x, T he Secular City: Urbanization and Secularization in T heological Perspective (New Yo rk: Macm illan , 1965), an d
Religion in the Secular City: Toward a Post Modern T heology (New Yo rk:
Sim o n & Sch u st er, 1984); Diet rich Bo n h o effer, Letters and Papers from
Prison, rev. ed . (New Yo rk: Macm illan , 1967); William Ham ilt o n an d
Th o m as Alt izer, Radical T heology and the Death of God (In d ian ap o lis:
Bo bbs Merrill, 1966).
166
N otes to Pages 126–134
4. Pet er L. Berger, “Th e Desecu larizat io n o f t h e Wo rld : A Glo bal O verview,” in The Desecularization of the W orld: Resurgent Religion and W orld
Politics, ed . Peter L. Berger (Wash in gton , D.C.: Eth ics an d Pu blic Policy
Cen t er, 1999), p . 2.
5. Sam u el P. Hu n t in gt o n , “Th e Clash o f Civilizat io n s?,” Foreign Affairs
(Su m m er 1993): 22, 39.
6. Ibid ., p . 31.
7. Ibid ., p . 40.
8. Sam u el P. Hu n t in gt o n , T he Clash of Civilizations and the Rem aking of
W orld Order (New Yo rk: Sim o n & Sch u st er, 1997), p . 258.
9. Ibid ., p . 217.
1 0 . Fo r a d iscu ssio n o f t h is p o in t , see Jam es Piscat o ri, Islam in a W orld
of N ation States (C am b rid ge: C am b rid ge Un iversit y Press, 1 9 8 6 ), p .
149.
11. Maxim e Ro d in so n , Islam and Capitalism (Au st in : Un iversit y o f Texas
Press, 1978), p . 76.
12. See Nikki Ked d ie’s co m m en t s in “In t ro d u ct io n : Decip h erin g Mid d le
East ern Wo m en ’s Hist o ry,” W om en in Middle Eastern History, ed . Nikki
R. Ked d ie an d Bet h Baro n (New Haven : Yale Un iversit y Press, 1991),
p p . 1–2.
13. As q u o t ed in Haleh Esfan d iari, Reconstructed Lives: W om en and Iran’s
Islam ic Revolution (Balt im o re: Jo h n s Ho p kin s Un iversit y Press, 1997),
p . 85.
14. Valerie J. Ho ffm an -Lad d , “Wo m en ’s Religio u s O bservan ces,” T he Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islam ic W orld, ed . Joh n L. Esp osito (New
Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversit y Press, 1995), vo l. 4, p . 327.
15. Ibid ., p p . 327–28.
16. Th is sect io n is based o n Jo h n L. Esp o sit o an d Jo h n Vo ll, “Islam an d
t h e West : Mu slim Vo ices o f Dialo gu e,” Millennium (Jan u ary 2001).
See also o u r lo n ger st u d y Makers of Contem porary Islam (New Yo rk:
O xfo rd Un iversit y Press, 2001).
17. See, fo r ex am p le, Ju d it h N agat a, “Religio u s Id eo lo gy an d So cial
Ch an ge: Th e Islam ic Revival in Malaysia,” Pacific Affairs 53, n o . 3
(1980): 425, an d Fred R. vo n d er Meh d en , “Malaysia in 1980: Sign als
t o Wat ch ,” Asian Survey 21, n o . 2 (1981): 246.
18. Ian Joh n son , “How Malaysia’s Ru lers Devou red Each Oth er an d Mu ch
Th ey Bu ilt ,” W all Street Journal, O ct o ber 30, 1998.
19. See, fo r exam p le, t h e ed it o rial “Malaysia o n Trial,” N ew York Tim es,
No vem ber 4, 1998.
N otes to Pages 135–140
167
20. Ibid .
21. An war Ibrah im , “Develop m en t, Valu es, an d Ch an gin g Political Id eas,”
Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia 1 (Febru ary 1986): 2.
22. An war Ibrah im , “Th e Ard en t Mo d erat es,” Tim e, Sep t em ber 23, 1996,
24.
23. Ad d ress by An war Ibrah im at t h e Ism ail Faru q i Award Presen t at io n
Cerem o n y, In t ern at io n al Islam ic Un iversit y Malaysia, Febru ary 28,
1996.
24. Su rah 49:13. Th e t ran slat io n is as it was p resen t ed in t h e t ext o f
Ibrah im ’s “Islam an d Co n fu cian ism .”
25. An war Ibrah im , “Th e Need for Civilization al Dialogu e,” O ccasion Pap ers Series, Cen ter for Mu slim -Ch ristian Un d erstan d in g, Georgetown
Un iversit y, 1995, p . 5.
26. An war Ibrah im , T he Asian Renaissance (Sin gap o re: Tim es Bo o ks In t ern at io n al, 1996), p . 45.
27. Mo h am m ad Kh at am i, Islam , Liberty, and Developm ent (Bin gh am t o n ,
N.Y.: In st it u t e o f Glo bal Cu lt u ral St u d ies, Bin gh am t o n Un iversit y,
1987), p . 150.
28. Th e in terview received exten sive coverage in th e n ews m edia. See Elain e
Sciolin o, “Seekin g to Op en a Door to U.S., Iran ian Prop oses Cu ltu ral
Ties,” New York Tim es, Jan u ary 8, 1998; Barton Gellm an , “Iran ian Leader
Urges Exch an ges with U.S.,” W ashington Post, Jan u ary 8, 1998; an d “A
wh isp er in th e Wolf’s Ear,” The Econom ist, Jan u ary 10, 1998.
29. An in t erest in g co n t em p o rary an alysis o f t h e sign ifican ce o f t h e n ew
ap p ro ach is Sau l Bakh ash , “Fro m Iran , an Un d erst at ed O vert u re,”
W ashington Post, Decem ber 18, 1997.
30. Elain e Scio lin o , “At Kh o m ein i’s To m b, Iran ’s Presid en t Swit ch es Tu n e
o n U.S.,” N ew York Tim es, Jan u ary 20, 1998.
31. Kh at am i, Islam , Liberty, and Developm ent, p . 24.
32. Ibid ., p p . 28, 30.
33. Eigh t y-seven p er cen t o f In d o n esia’s p o p u lat io n o f 220 m illio n are
Mu slim .
34. Mu jib u rrah m an , “Islan d an d Po lit ics in In d o n esia: Th e Po lit ical
Th o u gh t o f Ab d u rrah m an Wah id ,” Journal of Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 10, n o . 3 (1992): 342.
35. “W h ere To : In t erview wit h Abd u rrah m an Wah id ,” Inside Indonesia,
O ct o ber 8, 1986, p . 3.
36. “An Islam ic Awaken in g,” Econom ist, Ap ril 17, 1993.
37. “Yes, I h ave en em ies. Bu t it is im p o rt an t t h at I d o t h e righ t t h in gs,”
Business Tim es (Sin gap o re), March 24, 1999.
168
N otes to Pages 140–158
38. Abd u rrah m an Wah id , “Reflect io n s o n t h e Need for a Con cep t of Man
in Islam ,” Mem o ran d u m t o t h e rect o r o f t h e U.N. Un iversity, May 1,
1983, n .p ., n .d , p . 3.
39. Ibid .
40. Ibid ., p . 4.
41. Abd u rrah m an Wah id , “Religio n , Id eo lo gy, an d Develop m en t ,” n .p .,
n .d ., p . 4.
42. Abd u rrah m an Wah id , “Islam , No n vio len ce, an d Nation al Tran sform ation ,” n .p ., n .d ., p . 3.
43. For an an alysis o f t h is issu e, see Jo h n L. Esp osito an d Joh n O . Voll,
Islam and Dem ocracy (New Yo rk: O xfo rd Un iversity Press, 1997); Joh n
L. Esp osito an d Jam es P. Piscatori, “Dem ocratization an d Islam ,” Middle
East Journal 45 (Su m m er 1991): 427–40; Jo h n O . Vo ll an d Jo h n L.
Esp osito, “Islam an d Dem ocracy in a Violen t World ,” Hum anities (Fall
2002, fo rt h co m in g); Mah m o u d Mo n sh ip o u ri an d Ch rist o p h er G.
Ku kla, “Islam an d Dem o cracy an d Hu m an Righ t s,” Middle East Policy
3 (1994): 22–39; Ro bin Wrigh t , “Islam , Dem o cracy an d t h e West ,”
Foreign Affairs (Su m m er 1992): 131–45.
44. Joh n O. Voll an d Joh n L. Esposito, “Islam ’s Dem ocratic Essen ce,” Middle
East Quarterly (Sep tem ber 1994): 3–11, with rip ostes, 12–19: Voll an d
Esp osito rep ly, Middle East Quarterly (Decem ber 1994): 71–72.
45. Mideast Mirror, March 30,1992, p . 12.
46. Abd elwah ab El-Affen d i, Islam 21 (O ct o ber 2000).
47. Jo h n L. Esp o sit o an d Jo h n D. Vo ll, “Islam an d Dem o cracy,” Hum anities (No vem ber-Decem ber 2001): 24.
48. Ibid .
49. R. Bian ch i, “Islam an d Dem o cracy in Egyp t ,” Current History, Febru ary 1989: 104.
50. Sh ibley Telh am i, “Defeat in g Terro r: Co n fro n t Su p p ly an d Dem an d ,”
Middle East Insight 16 (No vem ber-Decem ber 2001): 7.
51. “ Am e r i c a n M u sl i m Po l l ” (W a sh i n g t o n , D . C . : Pr o j e c t M APS,
Geo rget o wn Un iversit y, 2001), p . 7.
52. Robert Cran e, “Re-th in kin g Am erica’s Mission : Th e Role of Islam ,” Am erican Journal of Islam ic Social Sciences 19, n o. 2 (Sprin g 2002), forth com in g.
53. Pau l Ken n ed y, “As Oth ers See Us,” W all Street Journal, October 5, 2001.
54. Al-Hayat, Islam ic Research Co u n cil o f al-Az^ h ar Un iversit y, No vem ber
5, 2001.
Glossary
ayato llah (ayatullah )
“Sign of God ,” title of a h igh -ran kin g Sh ii
religiou s lead er.
bida
in n ovation , d eviation from Islam ic trad ition .
caliph
for Su n n i Mu slim s, su ccessor of Mu h am m ad as lead er of
th e Islam ic com m u n ity.
ch ado r trad ition al garm en t, worn in p u blic, coverin g a wom an
from h ead to foot.
dar al-h arb
“abod e of war,” n on -Islam ic territory.
dar al-Islam
“abod e of p eace,” Islam ic territory, i.e., wh ere Is-
lam ic law is in force.
daw ah
“call to Islam ,” p rop agation of th e faith ; m ore broad ly,
social welfare an d m ission ary activities.
dh im m i
“p rotected ” or coven an ted p eop le; n on -Mu slim citizen
wh o is su bject to p oll tax (jizya).
faqih (fuqah a)
fatw a
legal exp ert; ju risp ru d en t.
form al legal op in ion or d ecision of a m u fti on a m atter of
Islam ic law.
h adith
n arrative rep ort of th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad ’s sayin gs an d
action s.
h ajj an n u al p ilgrim age to Mecca req u ired of all Mu slim s at least
on ce in th eir lifetim e.
h alal
p erm itted , lawfu l activities.
170
Glossary
h araka
“m ovem en t.”
h aram
p roh ibited , u n lawfu l activities.
h ijab
veil or h ead coverin g worn by Mu slim wom en in p u blic.
h ijra
em igration of Mu h am m ad from Mecca to Med in a in
A. D .
622, wh ere h e establish ed ru le of th e Mu slim com m u n ity-state.
h izbo llah
ijm a
p arty of God .
con sen su s, or agreem en t of th e com m u n ity, a sou rce of Is-
lam ic law.
ijtih ad
in d ep en d en t an alysis or in terp retation of Islam ic law.
ikh w an
broth erh ood .
im am
“Lead er,” p rayer lead er. In Sh ii Islam , refers to su ccessor
of Prop h et Mu h am m ad , d escen d an t of Ali, wh o govern s as d ivin ely in sp ired religiop olitical lead er of Islam ic com m u n ity.
im an
“faith ,” religiou s belief or con viction in th e fu n d am en tal
d octrin es of Islam .
in tifada
islah
Palestin ian “u p risin g” again st Israeli occu p ation .
reform or revitalization of th e Mu slim com m u n ity th rou gh
retu rn to th e Qu ran an d exam p le of th e Prop h et.
islam
su bm ission or su rren d er to th e will of God .
Islam ist
Islam ic p olitical or social activist; often com m on ly re-
ferred to as a fu n d am en talist.
jah iliyyah
p eriod of ign oran ce, i.e., p re-Islam ic Arabia; u sed by
con tem porary revivalists to refer to un -Islam ic beh avior in society.
jih ad
“strive, effort, stru ggle” to follow Islam ; can in clu d e d e-
fen se of faith , arm ed stru ggle, h oly war.
jizya
p oll-tax on d h im m i (n on -Mu slim s) th at en titled th em to
p rotection an d to p ractice th eir faith .
kaba
cu b e-sh ap ed sh rin e lo cat ed in t h e cen t er o f t h e Gran d
Mosq u e in Mecca, th e focal p oin t for d aily p rayer an d th e p ilgrim age.
kafir (var., kufir)
“u n believer” or in fid el, on e wh o is “u n grate-
fu l” an d rejects th e m essage of Islam .
Glossary
171
kalam
“sp eech ,” th eology.
m adrasa
Mah di
religiou s college or u n iversity, sem in ary.
d ivin ely gu id ed lead er wh o is to com e in th e fu tu re to
establish God ’s ru le on earth an d a socially ju st society.
m ajlis al-sh ura
m aslah a
con su ltative cou n cil.
“p u blic in terest” or “h u m an welfare.”
m ih rab
“n ich e” in th e wall of a m osq u e, in d icatin g th e d irec-
tion of Mecca, wh ich Mu slim s face wh en p erform in g th eir d aily
p rayers (salat).
m ufti
sp ecialist on Islam ic law com p eten t to d eliver a fatwa or
legal in terp retation or brief
m ujaddid
“ren ewer,” on e wh o brin gs abou t th e ren ewal (tajd id )
of Islam ; a wid ely h eld Mu slim belief based on Prop h etic trad ition teach es th at God sen d s a m u jad d id at th e begin n in g of
each cen tu ry to restore or stren gth en Islam .
m ujah id (pl., m ujah idin )
m ujtah id
sold ier of God .
on e wh o p ractices ijtih ad or in terp rets Islam ic law.
m ullah
a local religiou s lead er.
Muslim
on e wh o su bm its (islam ) to God ’s will.
qadi
ju d ge wh o ad m in isters sh ariah law.
salafi
“an cestors,” th e first gen eration s of th e Mu slim com m u -
n ity; becau se of th eir p roxim ity to th e Prop h et Mu h am m ad ,
th eir beliefs an d p ractice are con sid ered au th oritative.
salat
official p rayer or worsh ip observed five tim es d aily.
sh ah adah
th e con fession or p rofession of faith : “th ere is n o god
bu t Allah an d Mu h am m ad is His Prop h et.”
sh ah id
m artyr, witn ess to faith .
sh ariah
“p ath ,” Islam ic law.
sh aykh
h ead of a tribe or Su fi ord er; term ap p lied to a ru ler, reli-
giou s teach er, or tribal lead er.
Sh ii
“p arty or faction ” of Ali; th ose Mu slim s wh o believe th at
172
Glossary
Mu h am m ad d esign ated Ali an d h is righ tfu l d escen d an ts to be
th e tru e lead ers of th e Mu slim com m u n ity.
sh ura
Sufi
con su ltation .
follower of Su fism , Islam ic m ysticism .
sultan
ru ler, m ilitary com m an d er in m ed ieval Islam ic states.
Sun n ah
n orm ative practice or exem plary beh avior of Muh am m ad.
Sun n i
Mu slim s, th e m ajority com m u n ity, wh o believe th at th ey
rep resen t th e au th ority of th e Su n n ah or exam p le of th e Prop h et
Mu h am m ad an d th e early Mu slin com m u n ity.
tajdid
revival or ren ewal of Islam th rou gh retu rn to its sou rces,
th e Qu ran , an d th e exam p le of th e p rop h et.
takfir excom m u n ication , th e p roclaim in g of a fellow believer
as an in fid el.
taqlid
u n q u estion ed im itation or followin g of trad ition , p ast le-
gal or d octrin al p reced en ts; th e op p osite of ijtih ad .
taw h id
u n ity of God (absolu te m on oth eism ); Allah ’s absolu te
sovereign ty over th e u n iverse.
ulam a
religiou s sch olars or clergy.
u m m ah
Islam ic co m m u n it y; refers t o t h e wo rld wid e Mu slim
com m u n ity.
w aqf
en dowm en t of property for religiou s pu rposes su ch as bu ild-
in g m osq u es, sch ools, h osp itals.
zakat
an n u al alm s tax or tith e of 2 + p ercen t levied on wealth
an d d istribu ted to th e p oor.
Index
Ababa, Ad d is, 14
Abbasid d yn ast y, 38, 43, 45
Abd u h , Mu h am m ad , 79
Abd u laziz ibn Sau d , 6–7
Abd u llah , 81
abo rt io n , 159
Abrah am (biblical figu re), 119
act ivism
in Asia, 112
o f al-Ban n a, 51–52
fo cu s o n wo m en an d fam ily
issu es, 131
o f Ibn Taym iyya, 45
o f Mawd u d i, 51–52
m em bersh ip in gro u p s,
82–83, 84
m o d ern izat io n an d , 133
p ervasiven ess o f, 116
p o lit ical m o bilizat io n an d
religio u s refo rm , 49
resu rgen ce, 147
Salafiyyah m o vem en t , 106
Ad d is Ababa, 91
Ad vice an d Refo rm Co m m it t ee,
14
Afgh an ist an
See also So viet -Afgh an war
Arab Afgh an s in , 12, 104
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
bin Lad en ’s escap e t o , 12, 15
civil war, 12–13
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce,
83
go vern m en t abu ses, 151
Islam ic Rep u blic o f
Afgh an ist an , 15
m ed ia an d , 41
m ujahidin d esire t o liberat e, 70
No rt h ern Allian ce, 12, 15,
16, 26
Pakist an is in Afgh an war, 110
Pash t u n s, 9, 12–13, 15
religio n in p o lit ics, 142
Taliban ru le, 15–16
t erro rism , 85
U.S. t ro o p s in , 75
Wah h abi Islam , 47, 115
wo m en o f, 130
Africa an d African s, 33, 36, 75, 76,
121
AIS (Islam ic Salvat io n Arm y), 103
Aish a (Mu h am m ad ’s seco n d wife),
133
al- (No t e: Nam es begin n in g wit h
art icles su ch as “al-” m ay
be alp h abet ized u n d er t h e
m ain n am e.)
al-Q aed a. See under Q aed a
Alam u t (m o u n t ain fo rt ress), 43
alco h o l, 54, 57
Alexan d ria, Egyp t , 92
algebra, 122
Algeria
Arab Afgh an s fro m , 12, 104
“arm ies o f Go d ,” 116–17
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
ch an ge o f go vern m en t , 82
Islam in , 102–5
m ilit ary’s in t erven t io n , 144,
148
t erro rism , 85
wo m en o f, 130–31
Ali, 37, 41
Ali, Mu h am m ad , 48
174
alien ation , 150
Allah . See Go d
Am an p ou r, Ch rist ian e, 137
Am os (biblical p ro p h et ), 30
An d alu sia (so u t h ern Sp ain ), 7
an ti-Am erican ism
of Islam ic Jih ad , 91
Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam
(JUI), 16
ju stificatio n s fo r, 73–74
of Sh ii Islam , 36
u n d erstan d in g, xi, 152–53
U.S. foreign p o licy, 156, 160
ap ostates, 34, 42, 68
al-Aq sa Mosq u e, 84
Arab Afgh an s
on bin Lad en , 11
d efen se of Sau d i Arabia, 12
in GIA, 104
Gu lf War, 11–12
jih ad in Algeria, 104
origin s, 10
Arab-Israeli (Six Day) War (1967)
afterm ath , 62
bin Lad en in flu en ced by, 6
creation of Israel, 81
effect on Mu slim yo u t h , 95
effect on Zawah iri, 18
n ation alism / so cialism
d iscred it ed by, 83
sym bolic o f Mu slim im p o t en ce,
83
as t u rn in g p o in t in Islam , 8
Arabia
See also Sau d i Arabia and specific
countries
fo reign t ro o p s in , 20–21, 22, 73
h ist o ry, 29
im p act o f Wah h abism o n , 47
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n t o
Brit ish , 75
p o lit ical act ivism , 84
religio u s revivalism in , 47
u n ificat io n o f t ribes, 39, 128
Arabic in Ch rist ian sch o larsh ip ,
136
Arafat , Yasser, 95, 99, 101, 102,
154
arch it ect u re, 122
Arm ed Islam ic Gro u p (GIA —
Groupe Islam ique Arm é), 26,
103–5
Index
Arm y o f Go d (Jund Allah), 87
art (Mu slim ), 122, 136
Asia
Brit ish co lo n ialism , 75, 79
jih ad s, 67, 116
“m issio n t o civilize,” 76
Mu slim ru le, 51
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n , 75
religio u s revivalism , 47
So viet d o m in at io n , 111–12
Wah h abi Islam , 106
Assad , Bash ir, 143
al-Assad , Hafez, 143
assassin at io n s an d at t em p t s at , 91,
100, 110–11, 113, 160
Assassin s, 41, 43, 50, 128
ast ro n o m y, 122, 136
At at u rk (Mu st afa Kem al), 81, 131
at h eism , 91
au t h o rit arian ism , 142, 143,
148–50, 156
au t o m o biles, wo m en d rivin g, 130
avarice, Q u ran ’s co n d em n at io n o f,
30
Azerbaijan , 69
al-Azh ar Un iversit y, 7, 18, 77,
87, 89
Azzam , Abd u llah , 7, 19
Badr (Sad at ’s jih ad ), 8
Bagh d ad , fall o f, 45
Bakr, Abu (Mu h am m ad ’s fat h erin -law), 37
Ban glad esh (fo rm erly East
Pakist an ), 80, 84, 109,
143
ban ks, 147
al-Ban n a, Hasan
act ivism an d p h ilo so p h y,
51–56
assassin at io n , 55, 57
in flu en ce, 50, 62
o n jih ad , 65–66
p ro d u ct o f Egyp t , 85
Q u t b an d , 56, 61
t ran slat io n s o f, 107
Bash ir, O m ar al-, 13
bazaars ad jo in in g m o sq u es, 129
BBC (Brit ish Bro ad cast in g
Co rp o rat io n ), 41, 75, 153
beard s req u ired o f m en , 17
Bed o u in t ribesm en , 6
Index
Beiru t , 4
Believer-Presid en t . See Sad at ,
An war
Berger, Pet er L., 126
Bh u t t o , Zu lfiq ar Ali, 109
Bible, 120–21, 124, 159
bida (in n o vat io n ), 47
Bin Baz, Abd u l-Aziz, 72
bin Lad en , Mu h am m ad , 3, 4
bin Lad en , O sam a
d escribed by Ah m ad , 11
ed u cat io n , 4–5, 8
effect o n Islam , 152
en t o u rage, 17–18
failu re t o m o bilize Islam ic
wo rld , 128
fat h er, 3, 4
fatwa o n killin g civilian s, 20, 21
go als, 20–21, 22
Gu lf War, 11–13
hijra (em igrat io n fro m jahiliyya),
32
Ibn Taym iyya an d , 45, 46
im p ressio n abilit y, 11
in flu en ces, 5–13, 18, 20, 56, 58
jih ad s, x, 20, 32, 67, 70
Kh arijit es co m p ared t o , 42
legit im izin g agen d as, 28
m arriage, 4
m o t ivat io n s, ix–x
Mu slim h ist o ry an d p h ilo so p h y
u sed by, 73
in Nat io n al Islam ic Fro n t
(NIF), 13
p h ysical d escrip t io n , 10
p rivileged life, 3
Q u t b an d , 8, 56, 58
reject io n o f Islam ic laws, 157
rh et o ric, xi
Sau d i cit izen sh ip revo ked , 14
So viet -Afgh an war, 9–11
in Su d an , 14
Taliban asso ciat io n , 17
o n t erro rist at t acks, 14, 15
U.S. p u rsu it o f, 160
Wah h abi Islam , 5, 7, 111
Zawah iri an d , 18, 20
Bin Lad en Gro u p (co n st ru ct io n
co m p an y), 4
birt h co n t ro l, 159
Bo kh ara, 7
bo o t y fro m war, 7
175
Bo sn ia
d est ru ct io n o f cem et eries, 108
jih ad s, 26, 116
m art yrd o m , 69
m ed ia, 41
so u rces o f id en t it y an d co n flict ,
126
t erro rism , 151
Un it ed St at es an d , 155
Bo u rgh iba, Habib, 131
Bo u t eflika, Abd elaziz, 104–5
Brit ain , 49, 75, 76, 80
See also West ern in flu en ce
Bru n ei, 75
Bu d d h ism , 119
Bu d d h ist m o n u m en t s in
Afgh an ist an , 48, 108–9
Bu rm a, 7
Bu sh , Geo rge H. W., 80–81
Bu sh , Geo rge W., 75, 100–101,
125–26, 152, 160
bu sin esses o f wo m en , 130
Byzan t in e Em p ire, 29, 33
Cairo , Egyp t , 92, 129
Cairo Un iversit y, 18
calen d ar o f Islam , 31, 71
calip h s an d calip h at e
ap p aren t co n q u est o f, 45
d esire fo r rest o rat io n o f, 62, 90
First Fo u r Righ t eo u s Calip h s, 46
u n d er Kh arijit es’ ru le, 42
o rigin s, 37
p o lit ical p art icip at io n an d , 143
select io n o f su ccesso rs, 145
Su n n is an d Sh iit es o n , 38–39
call t o beco m e bet t er Mu slim s
(dawah), 53, 54, 94–102,
107
Cam p David Acco rd s (1978-1979),
87, 88, 101
cap it alism
clash o f civilizat io n an d , 129
Islam ic reject io n o f, 52, 152
legit im izin g wit h religio n , 159
Q u t b o n , 57
valu ed in West ern civilizat io n ,
123
cars, wo m en d rivin g, 130
Cart er, Jim m y, 125–26
Cat h o lic Wo rker Mo vem en t , 159
Cat h o licism , 104, 122, 123–24
176
Cau casu s, 106
cease-fires, 93, 104
cem eteries in Bo sn ia an d Ko so vo ,
108
Cen t ral Am erica, 159
Cen t ral In t elligen ce Agen cy
(CIA), 11
Ch ad , 7
ch arit able p ro gram s, 90, 95,
97, 101
Ch ech n ya an d Ch ech en s
jih ad s, 26, 67, 73–74, 116
m art yrd o m , 69
m ed ia an d , 41
refu gees, 117
Un it ed St at es an d , 155
Wah h abi Islam , 106, 114
ch em ist ry, 122
ch ild ren
effect o f Iraq i san ct io n s, 73, 155
Ibrah im o n st at u s o f, 135
p ro h ibit ed fro m killin g, 22, 32
Ch in a, 67, 117
Ch rist ian it y an d Ch rist ian s
Bible, 120–21, 124, 159
Ch rist ian ext rem ist s, 151
Cru sad es, 7, 61, 73, 74–75, 90
d em o cracy an d , 144
d o m in an ce in West , 76
d yn am ism o f, 159
Gam aa Islam iyya’s at t ack o n , 92
in Iberia, 135
Islam ic Jih ad ’s in t o leran ce, 90
Islam ism an d , 121–22
Ju d aism an d , 119
ju st ificat io n s fo r war, 29
Leban ese Civil War, 80
m o d ern izat io n , 123–24
as Peo p le o f t h e Bo o k, 34–35
Q u ran o n , 68
in Sau d i Arabia, 127
sep arat io n o f ch u rch an d
so ciet y, 57
Ch u rch ill, Win st o n , 81
CIA (Cen t ral In t elligen ce Agen cy),
11
civil libert ies, ero sio n o f, 152
civil so ciet y (n o n go vern m en t al
in st it u t io n s an d
asso ciat io n s)
Islam ic m o vem en t s, 147
Kh at am i’s em p h asis o n , 142
Index
war again st glo bal t erro rism
an d , 156
weak in Mu slim co u n t ries, 105,
143, 150
civilian s
bin Lad en o n n ecessit y o f
t erro rism , 22, 24–25
fatwa o n killin g civilian s, 20, 21
Islam ic law o n , 157–58
Q u ran o n d eat h s o f, 32
su icid e bo m bers t arget in g, x,
99–100, 160
civilizat io n , 138, 152–53
clash o f civilizat io n s
co n t rast s bet ween cu lt u res,
128–29
wit h in Mu slim co m m u n it y, 78
p erceived in evit abilit y o f, 142
p ro vo cat io n , x
t erro rism an d , 118
“Th e Clash o f Civilizat io n s?”
(Hu n t in gt o n ), 126–27
clin ics, 107, 147
Clin t o n , William Jefferso n , 14–15,
100–101
CNN (n ews n et wo rk), 41, 153
co alit io n bu ild in g, call fo r, x
co exist en ce, p ro m o t io n o f, x
Co ld War, 57, 61, 70, 73
co lo n ialism o f Eu ro p e
See also im p erialism
Cru sad es an d , 90
d em o crat izat io n an d , 149
effect s o n Mu slim so ciet y,
74–79
as t h reat t o Islam , 49, 51, 61
co m m u n icat io n s, in flu en ce o n
Islam , 40
Co m m u n ism , ix, 9–10, 106–7
Co m p an io n s o f Pro p h et
Mu h am m ad , 47, 145
“co m p u lsio n ” in religio n , Q u ran
o n , 33, 66
co n sen su s (ijm a), 145
co n su lt at io n (shura), 145
co n su lt at ive assem bly (m ajlis alshura), 145
convivencia (livin g t o get h er),
135–36
Co p t s im p riso n ed , 89
Co rd o ba, 135
co rru p t io n , 51, 83
Index
Cru sad es (Ch rist ian ), 7, 61, 73,
74–75, 90
cu lt u re bearers, wo m en as, 131
“Cu st o d ian o f t h e Two Ho ly Sit es”
o f Mecca an d Med in a, 23,
107
Dagest an , 26, 106
Dam ascu s Un iversit y, 7
dar al-harb (lan d o f warfare), 21,
35, 46, 59, 60
dar al-Islam (lan d o f Islam ), 21,
35, 46, 59, 60
dar al-sulh (lan d o f t reat y), 35
Dar al-Ulu m (co llege), 56
Dariyya, 6
Dau d , Mu h am m ad , 9
David (biblical figu re), 29
dawah (call t o beco m e bet t er
Mu slim s), 53, 54, 94–102,
107
Day, Do ro t h y, 159
d ay-care cen t ers, 147
“d eat h o f Go d ” t h eo lo gy, 125
Declarat io n o f Jih ad (1996), 20–21
d em o cracy
clash o f civilizat io n an d , 128
Fah d o n , 145
fu n d am en t alist ’s react io n t o ,
152–53
Islam an d , 128, 142–51
Kh at am i o n , 142
legit im izin g wit h religio n , 159
Mawd u d i’s reject io n o f, 54
valu ed in West ern civilizat io n ,
123, 124
Wah id o n , 139
Deo ban d i m o vem en t , 16, 110
Dh ah ran , Sau d i Arabia, 15
d ict at o rsh ip s, 144
d ip lo m acy, 160
d iso rd er (fitnah), 36
d iversit y, 68, 140
Do m e o f t h e Ro ck (h o ly sit e), 84
d o u ble st an d ard s, 120
d ru g reh abilit at io n p ro gram s, 147
eco n o m ics
o f Algeria, 105
d eclin e, 87
go vern m en t co n t ro l o f, 149
Ibrah im o n , 135
177
in co m e d ist ribu t io n , 27, 83,
110, 124, 140
legit im izin g wit h religio n , 159
p o vert y, 51, 99, 130
Sad at ’s p o licies, 88
so cio eco n o m ics an d wo m en ,
130
u n em p lo ym en t rat es, 51, 83,
92, 93, 99, 105, 115
Wah h abi Islam in flu en ce, 115
Wah id o n , 140
o f wo m en , 130
ed u cat io n
o f bin Lad en , 4–5, 8
civil so ciet y an d , 147
d est ru ct io n o f sch o o ls, 108
o f ext rem ist gro u p m em bers, 92
go vern m en t co n t ro l o f, 149
Ham as su p p o rt fo r, 97
o f Hu sayn , 77
illit eracy rat es, 110
o f Ju h aim an , 72
m o d ern izat io n an d , 77–78, 82
o f Q u t b, 56
Q u t b as st ap le o f Islam ic
ed u cat io n , 8
sch o o ls in Asia, 112
Wah h abi Islam fin an cin g, 107
wo m en , 130, 131, 132
Egyp t
Arab Afgh an s fro m , 12
Arab so lid arit y, 128
“arm ies o f Go d ,” 116–17
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
d em o cracy, 148–49
Egyp t ian -Israeli p eace t reat y, 87
elect io n s, 143
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce, 83
go vern m en t , 82, 143, 145
Islam in , 85–94, 150
Islam ic Jih ad an d , 19
jih ad again st Egyp t ian st at e,
63–64
m art yrd o m , 69
Milestones (Q u t b), 58
m o d ern izat io n , 77
Mu barak ad m in ist rat io n , 145
m uftis (legal exp ert s) o f, 100
Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d
su p p ressed , 56, 58, 61, 87,
93, 94
Ru ssia’s relat io n sh ip wit h , 57
178
Egyp t (continued)
su rvey on Israeli o ccu p at io n ,
154
t erro rism , 85, 151
Un it ed St at es an d , 85, 88
wo m en o f, 130
Egyp t ian Un iversit y in Cairo , 77
elect io n s
in Algeria, 103–4, 105
co rru p t io n , 143
d em o cracy an d , 148
as d ifferen ce bet ween cu lt u res,
127
Islam ic can d id at es, 148
wo m en ’s su ffrage, 130
elit es in Mu slim wo rld
in Algeria, 105
m o d ern izat io n an d , 78
Q u t b o n co rru p t io n o f, 61
reject io n o f ceasefire, 115
veilin g p ract ices, 131
em bargo , o il (1973), 8, 106
em bassy bo m bin gs, 91
“Em ir o f Jih ad ” (Azzam ), 7
em p lo ym en t
in Algeria, 105
Mu barak’s resp o n se t o
u n em p lo ym en t , 93
recru it m en t in t o t erro rist
o rgan izat io n s, 92
in Sau d i Arabia, 108
su icid e bo m bers an d
u n em p lo ym en t rat es, 99
u n em p lo ym en t as resu lt o f
Islam ’s failu re, 51, 83
Wah h abi Islam in flu en ce, 115
o f wo m en , 130
En glan d ’s ad ju st m en t t o Am erican
ascen d an ce, 123–26
en viro n m en t al issu es, 105
éradicateurs (secu rit y fo rces), 103
Erbakan , Ecm et t in , 149
Erit eria, 7
et h n icit y
et h n ic m in o rit ies, 13
id en t it y based u p o n , 51, 126
p ersecu t io n , 122
in t erro rism , 151
Eu ro p e
co lo n ialism , 49, 51, 61, 74–79,
90, 149
co n d em n at io n o f Su d an , 13
Index
m o d ern izat io n , 78
Mu slim s in , 141
West ern in flu en ce o f, 52
execu t io n s, 87, 158
See also assassin at io n s an d
at t em p t s
exp lo it at io n o f t h e h u m an an d
n at u ral reso u rces, 27
ext ralegal m ilit ary co u rt s, 93
ext rem ist m o vem en t s
See also Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d
and other specific groups
crackd o wn o n , 87
d o m in an ce o f, 147
eco n o m ics an d , 150
in Egyp t , 86, 87
Farag’s in flu en ce o n , 64
fu n d in g an d fin an cial su p p o rt ,
49
im p riso n m en t o f ext rem ist s, 89
Islam ’s acco m m o d at io n o f, 144
jih ad s, 65 (see also m ain entry for
jihads)
m ain st ream react io n t o , 92–93
p o lit ics an d , 142, 150
religio n an d , 142
U.S. fo reign p o licy an d , 156–57
Wah h abi Islam , 47, 105–6, 111
wo m en ’s t reat m en t , 130
Fah d , 11–12, 14, 23, 145
Faisal, 81, 106
fam ily in Islam , 3–4, 87, 131
Farag, Mu h am m ad al-, 45,
62–64, 85
Fargh o n a Valley, 112
Fat ah o rgan izat io n , 95
fatwas (legal o p in io n s)
o n jih ad , 34
o n Ju h aim an ’s seizu re o f Gran d
Mo sq u e, 72
o n killin g civilian s, 20, 21
o n Lu xo r m assacre (1997), 91
o n Mo n go ls, 46
o n Ru sh d ie, 137
o n t rain in g as religio u s d u t y, 12
fem in ism , 130–31
feu d al m o n arch ies, 158
First Fo u r Righ t eo u s Calip h s, 46
FIS (Islam ic Salvat io n Fro n t ),
102–3, 104–5
fitnah (d iso rd er), 36
Index
FLN (Nat io n al Liberat io n Fro n t ),
103
Fo d a, Farag, 92
fo o d rio t s (1977), 88
Fran ce, 75, 76, 81, 104, 125
Fran cis o f Assisi, 159
freed o m o f sp eech , 149, 153
freed o m o f t h e p ress, 93, 149, 153
fu n d am en t alism
d em o cracy an d , 148
Karim o v’s d efin it io n o f, 114
resu rgen ce, 83
Wah h abi Islam as, 105
Wah id o n , 139–40
wo m en ’s t reat m en t , 130
fu n d in g an d fin an cial su p p o rt
o f Ham as, 97
Islam ic Develo p m en t Ban k, 107
Nat io n al Islam ic Fro n t (NIF), 13
fro m Sau d is, 49
o f So viet -Afgh an jih ad , 10–11
fo r Taliban , 17
T he Future of Culture in Egypt
(Hu sayn ), 77
Galilee, Israel, 99
Gam aa Islam iyya
ceasefire, 93
as ext rem ist t erro rist
o rgan izat io n , 86
m ilit an t id eo lo gy, 111
Mu sa’s in flu en ce o n bin
Lad en , 18
Rah m an ’s in flu en ce, 91–92
reem ergen ce as t h reat t o
Egyp t , 91
gam blin g, 54
Gaza, 83, 89, 95, 98, 154
Gen gh is Kh an , 46
Germ an y, 151
Gh an n o u sh i, Rash id , 146
Go d
See also m u jah id in ; religio n ;
Sh ii Hizbo llah
act io n em p h asis o f Islam , 5
Allah an d Yah weh n am es, 119
Arm y o f Go d (Ju n d Allah ), 87
“d eat h o f Go d ” t h eo lo gy, 125
o f Islam an d Ch rist ian it y, 121
Israeli o ccu p at io n as
p u n ish m en t fro m Go d , 96
jih ad as “Rage fo r Go d ,” 116–17
179
on en ess of God (tawhid), 145–46
Q u ran o n jih ad , 32
“Go d fat h er o f Jih ad ” (Azzam ), 7
Go lan Heigh t s, 83, 89
Go ld st ein , Baru ch , 99
go vern m en t
in Islam ic co u n t ries, 142–51
sep arat io n o f ch u rch an d st at e,
67–68, 88, 142, 145
wo m en ’s p art icip at io n in , 130
Gran ad a, 135
Gran d Mo sq u es o f Mecca an d
Med in a, 3, 9, 22, 48, 71–73
Greece, 151
greed , Q u ran ’s co n d em n at io n
o f, 30
gu errilla warfare, 14, 42, 97, 98
gu est h o u se o f bin Lad en , 10, 14
Gu evera, Ern est o (Ch e), 11
Gu lf, 73, 84
See also Arabia and specific
countries
Gu lf War fatwas, 34
al-Had a ro ad , 3
hadith (n arrat ive t rad it io n s), 33,
34, 129, 132
Hagar (biblical figu re), 119
hajj (p ilgrim age t o Mecca), 3
Ham as (“fervo r”)
act ivism o f, 94–102
Azzam as fo u n d er, 7
ed u cat io n al an d so cial services,
97, 147
jih ad again st Israel, 26, 66,
95–97, 98, 101–2
Han bali sch o o l o f law, 45
haraka (Islam ic m o vem en t ), 59
haram (fo rbid d en ), 72, 145
h at red o f Un it ed St at es, ix, 118,
152
Hazaras, 9, 13
Hebro n m assacre, 99
“h id d en Im am ” d o ct rin e, 38,
43, 44
Hijra, Takfir wal, 97, 111
hijra (em igrat io n fro m jahiliyya)
in Islam ic cu lt u re, 5, 6–7
Kh arijit es’ ad o p t io n o f, 42
o rigin s, 5, 31
o f resist an ce m o vem en t , 76–77
Hin d u s an d Hin d u ism , 51, 80, 119
180
“hittists” (th o se wh o lean again st
walls), 103
Hizb al-Tahrir al-Islam i (Islam ic
Liberat io n Part y), 112
Hizbollah . See Sh ii Hizbo llah
Holy Mosq u es o f Mecca an d
Med in a, 3, 22, 48, 71–73,
107
h o m o sexu alit y, 159
h o sp it als, 107, 147
Ho u se o f Sau d
bin Lad en ’s d en u n ciat io n o f, 14
Ju h aim an ’s o p p o sit io n t o ,
71–73
legit im acy o f Q u ran an d Islam ic
law, 81
siege o f Gran d Mo sq u e, 9, 48,
71–73
Un it ed St at es d efen d in g, 12
Wah h abism ’s relat io n sh ip wit h ,
48–49
h o u sin g sh o rt ages, 105, 115
h u m an righ t s
in Algerian , 105
ero sio n o f civil libert ies in U.S.,
152
FIS su p p ressio n , 103
Ibrah im ’s co n vict io n , 134
Taliban ’s vio lat io n s o f, 17
West ern civilizat io n s an d , 123,
150
h u m an it arian wo rk, 90, 95, 97,
101
Hu n t in gt o n , Sam u el P., 126–27
Hu sayn , Tah a, 77
Hu ssein , Sad d am
bin Lad en co m p ared t o , 21
failu re t o m o bilize Islam ic
wo rld , 128
jih ad , ix, 34
Ku wait i in vasio n (1990), 11, 80,
128
san ct io n s o n Iraq , 22, 73, 155
so n gro o m ed fo r secessio n , 143
U.S. su p p o rt o f Iraq , 11
u se o f religio n , 153
Hu ssein (so n o f Ali), 37, 38, 47–
48, 69–70
Iberian Pen in su la, 135
Ibn Kh ald u n , 67
Ibn Sau d , Abd u laziz, 48
Index
Ibn Sau d , Mu h am m ad , 6, 48
Ibn Taym iyya, Taq i al-Din Ah m ad ,
28, 44–46, 62
Ibrah im , An war, 134–36
Ibrah im , Saad Ed d in , 89
id en t it y so u rces, 128
Ikhwan (bro t h erh o o d ), 48
illit eracy rat es, 110
im am s (religio u s o fficials)
in Ham as, 97
“h id d en Im am ” d o ct rin e, 38,
43, 44
“Im am Kh o m ein i,” 44
jih ad d eclarat io n s, 39
o rigin s, 37–38
t rain in g o f, 107
im it at io n (taqlid), 135
im p erialism
See also co lo n ialism o f Eu ro p e
Arabic su bservien ce t o , 8
in Bible, 120
blam ed fo r d eclin e o f Mu slim
so ciet y, 51
“civilizin g m issio n ,” 136
im p o t en ce o f Mu slim wo rld , 83
in co m e d ist ribu t io n , 27, 83, 110,
124, 140
in d ep en d en ce m o vem en t s (p o st Wo rld War II), 79, 81
In d ia
creat io n o f, 80
early Islam in , 33
n u clear p ro gram s, 155
rep ressio n o f Kash m iris, 67,
155
so u rces o f id en t it y an d co n flict ,
126
t erro rism , 151
Wah h abi Islam , 106
In d ian su bco n t in en t
Brit ish d ivisio n o f, 79
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n in , 75
p o lit ical act ivism , 84
religio u s revivalism in , 47
in d ivid u alism , 116, 123
In d o n esia, 75, 134, 139–41, 143,
148
in fan t icid e, 30
in n o cen t civilian s
bin Lad en o n n ecessit y o f
t erro rism , 22, 24–25
fatwa o n killin g civilian s, 20, 21
Index
Islam ic law o n , 157–58
Q u ran o n d eat h s o f, 32
su icid e bo m bers t arget in g, x,
99–100, 160
in su ran ce co m p an ies, 147
In t ern et , 109
intifada (sh akin g), 73, 95, 98, 99,
102
Iq bal, Mu h am m ad , 79
Iran
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
d em o cracy an d , 148
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce, 83
go vern m en t abu ses, 151
Iran -Iraq War, 11, 39, 69, 70,
128
Islam ic revo lu t io n
as d efen sive jih ad , 66
as d o m in an t issu e in 1980s,
147
effect o n kn o wled ge o f Islam ,
36, 118
effect o n m o d ern izat io n ,
81, 83
failu re t o u n ify Arabs an d
Mu slim s, 128
Sau d i in flu en ce co u n t ered by,
108, 109
Su n n i Mu slim s in sp ired
by, 39
um m ah rein fo rced by, 40
U.S. t h reat en ed by, 10, 137
Kh at am i, 134, 136–39
m art yrd o m , 69
Mu slim m o d ern izat io n , 77,
81, 83
religio n in p o lit ics, 142
san ct io n s, 137
Su d an ’s relat io n sh ip wit h , 13
t erro rism , 151
U.S. relat io n sh ip wit h , 10, 70,
84, 136–38
wo m en o f, 130, 142
Iraq
Brit ain ’s in flu en ce, 75, 80
Faisal, 81
go vern m en t , 82, 143
Gu lf War fatwas, 34
Iran -Iraq War, 11, 39, 69, 70,
128
Ku wait i in vasio n , 11, 80, 128
m ed ia an d , 41
181
san ct io n s, 22, 73, 155
t erro rism , 151
Islam (No t e: As t h e en t ire bo o k
d iscu sses Islam , read ers are
ad vised t o search t h e in d ex
fo r sp ecific en t ries in
referen ce t o Islam )
See also Sh ii Islam ; Su n n i Islam ;
Wah h abi Islam
first Islam ic co m m u n it y, 29–31
as glo bal p o wer, 40
u n fam iliarit y o f West wit h ,
118–25
Islam : T he Misunderstood Religion
(Q u t b), 118
Islam and Capitalism (Ro d in so n ),
129
Islam abad , Pakist an , 19, 91
Islam bu li, Kh alid , 90
Islam bu li, Mo h am m ed , 90
Islam ic Develo p m en t Ban k, 107
Islam ic Jih ad (Jam aat al-Jihad
o rgan izat io n )
in Egyp t , 86
Ham as co m p ared t o , 97
Ibn Taym iyya an d , 46
Kh arijit es an d , 41, 42
m ilit an t id eo lo gy, 111
al-Q aed a an d , 20
Rah m an ’s in flu en ce, 91–92
resu rgen ce, 87
Sad at ’s assassin at io n , 90
sco p e an d m issio n , 90–92
as t h reat t o Egyp t ian
go vern m en t , 62
Zawah iri in , 18–19
Islam ic Jih ad Palest in e, 26
Islam ic Liberat io n O rgan izat io n ,
62
Islam ic Liberat io n Part y (Hizb alTahrir al-Islam i), 112
Islam ic m o vem en t (haraka), 59
Islam ic Mo vem en t o f Uzbekist an
(IMU), 113
Islam ic Refah p art y, 145
Islam ic Ren aissan ce Part y (IRP),
112
Islam ic Rep u blic o f Afgh an ist an ,
15
Islam ic Research Co u n cil at alAzh ar Un iversit y, 157–58
Islam ic Resist an ce Mo vem en t , 96
182
Islam ic revolu t io n o f Iran
as d efen sive jih ad , 66
as d om in an t issu e in 1980s, 147
effect on kn o wled ge o f Islam ,
36, 118
effect on m o d ern izat io n , 81, 83
failu re to u n ify Arabs an d
Mu slim s, 128
Sau d i in flu en ce co u n t ered by,
108, 109
Su n n i Mu slim s in sp ired by, 39
um m ah rein fo rced by, 40
U.S. th reat en ed by, 10, 137
Islam ic Salvat io n Arm y (AIS), 103
Islam ic Salvat io n Fro n t (FIS), 102–
3, 104–5
The Islam ic T hreat: Myth or Reality?
(Esp osit o ), ix
Islam ic Un iversit y, 19
Ism ail (biblical figu re), 119
Israel
Arab-Israeli (Six Day) war
(1967), 6, 8, 18, 62, 81,
83, 95
Cam p David Acco rd s (1978), 89
creation of, 51, 73, 81, 96, 99
Egyp tian -Israeli p eace t reat y, 87
Ham as’s jih ad , 66, 95–97, 98,
101–2
Hizbollah as react io n t o
occu p at io n , 38, 147–48
Jewish fu n d am en t alist s, 151
n u clear p ro gram s, 155
occu p ation as p u n ish m en t fro m
God , 96
su icid e bom bers, 99–100
su rvey on o ccu p at io n issu e, 154
as Trojan h o rse, 91
U.S. su p p o rt o f, 23, 38, 84, 88,
154
West ern p ercep t io n s, 120
It aly, 151
jahiliyya (ign o ran ce an d u n belief),
30, 44, 59–60
Jam aat al-Muslim in (So ciet y o f
Mu slim s), 62
Jam aat-i-Islam i (Islam ic So ciet y)
abilit y t o fu n ct io n wit h in
syst em , 56
dawah (call t o beco m e bet t er
Mu slim s), 54
Index
gro wt h , 84
m o d ern izat io n , 133
o rigin s, 50, 51
p o lit ical m o bilizat io n , 49
refo rm em p h asis, 49, 133
Sau d i go vern m en t an d , 107
Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam (JUI),
16–17, 110–11
Jap an , 122–23, 125, 151
al-Jazeera (t elevisio n st at io n ), 41,
154
Jed d ah , Sau d i Arabia, 5, 130
Jeru salem , 74, 83–84, 99, 154
Jewish Defen se Leagu e, 121
Jewish Zio n ism , 91
jihad (st ru ggle)
See also under specific individuals
and organizations
Declarat io n o f Jih ad (1996),
20–21
d efen sive jih ad
claim o f all jih ad as, 39
d efin in g an d ju st ifyin g,
65–67
o f first Mu slim s, 31–32
Kh at am i o n , 137, 138–39
legit im acy o f d eclarat io n , 41
Mawd u d i o n , 54–55
as o bligat io n , 24, 32–35
as d efin in g co n cep t o f Islam ,
26–28, 41
glo bal jih ad
at t acks o f Sep t em ber 11t h ,
117
Azzam o n , 7
bin Lad en ’s ro le in , x, 19
fo u n d at io n s fo r, 64
Islam ic Jih ad ’s lead ersh ip o f,
91, 93
as o bligat io n , 21
resp o n d in g t o , 157–60
Sau d i Arabia an d , 73
sco p e o f, 151–52
great er jih ad , 28, 38
h ist o rical m an d at e, 6
Islam ic law o n , 34, 157
fo r Islam ic refo rm an d n o n vio len t revo lu t io n , 53–54
Jih ad Service Bu reau , 19
again st kafirs (u n believers), 46
m ilit an t jih ad , 8, 16, 42, 56,
62–64, 73, 158
Index
n o n vio len t jih ad , 62–63
o bligat io n o f Mu slim s, 21, 24,
27, 32–35, 38, 40, 46
o ffen sive jih ad , 54–55, 65–67
o rigin s an d co n cep t , 5, 30–31
as “Rage fo r Go d ,” 116–17
sco p e an d m issio n , 157
versio n s an d m ean in g, 64–68
“Jih an ’s laws,” 87
Jo rd an
creat io n o f, 81
d em o cracy, 148
elect io n s, 143
go vern m en t , 143
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n in , 75
p o lit ical act ivism , 84
Jo sh u a (biblical figu re), 29
jo u rn alist s im p riso n ed , 89
Ju d aism
Ch rist ian it y an d , 119–20
d em o cracy an d , 144
d o m in at io n o f Mu slim s, 21
d yn am ism o f, 159
Ham as’s jih ad , 66, 95–97, 98,
101–2
Hebrew Bible, 29
in Iberia, 135
Islam co m p ared t o , 5
Islam ic Jih ad ’s in t o leran ce, 90
Jewish fu n d am en t alist s, 151
Jews in W TC, 74
m o d ern izat io n o f, 123–24
as Peo p le o f t h e Bo o k, 34–35
T he Protocols of the Elders of Z ion
(ap o cryp h al t ext ), 97
Q u ran o n , 68
Zio n ism an d , 96
Ju h aim an al-Ut aiba, 71–73
ju rist s in Mu slim t rad it io n s, 34–35
Kaaba (st o n e m arkin g cen t er o f
Islam ), 72
Kabu l, 16, 111
kafirs (u n believers), 46
Kalash n iko v (rifle), 70
Karbala (p ilgrim age sit e), 37, 38,
47–48
Karim o v, Islam , 113, 114
Kash m ir an d Kash m iris
In d ian an d Pakist an i d ivisio n ,
79–80
In d ian rep ressio n o f, 67, 155
183
jih ad s, 26, 73–74, 116
m art yrd o m , 69
m ed ia an d , 41
p o lit ical act ivism , 84
so u rces o f id en t it y an d co n flict ,
126
Un it ed St at es an d , 155
Kem al, Mu st afa (At at u rk), 81, 131
Ken n ed y, Pau l, 155–56
Kh ad ija (Mu h am m ad ’s first wife),
133
Kh am en ei, Ali, 142
Kh an , Agh a, 36
Kh arijit es, 41–43, 48, 50, 60–61,
128
Kh at am i, Mo h am m ad , 134,
136–39, 142, 146
Kh awarj (ext rem ist gro u p ), 72
Kh o bar To wers t ru ck bo m b
(1996), 15
Kh o m ein i, Ru h o llah (Ayat o llah )
ap p eal t o Sh ii Islam , 38
bin Lad en co m p ared t o , 21
failu re t o m o bilize Islam ic
wo rld , 128
fatwa o n Ru sh d ie, 137
as “Im am Kh o m ein i,” 44
Iraq as co u n t erbalan ce, 11
Islam ic revo lu t io n o f Iran , 39
jih ad , x, 39, 55, 61, 66, 70
Q u t b’s in flu en ce, 58
religio n in p o lit ics, 142, 153
o n West ern im p erialism , 75–76
West ’s en co u n t er wit h , 36
kid n ap p in gs by ext rem ist gro u p s,
87
Kin g, Mart in Lu t h er, Jr., 121
Kin g Abd u laziz Un iversit y, 5,
7, 19
Ko ran . See Q u ran
Ko so vo
d est ru ct io n o f cem et eries, 108
jih ad s, 26, 116
so u rces o f id en t it y an d co n flict ,
126
Un it ed St at es an d , 155
kufr (u n belief), 6, 16, 42, 68, 90
Ku n d u z, Afgh an ist an , 113
Ku rd s, su p p ressio n o f, 80
Ku wait
Brit ain ’s p lacem en t o f bo rd ers,
80
184
Ku wait (continued)
dawah of, 107
d em ocracy an d , 148
govern m en t , 143
Iraqi in vasion (1990), 11, 80, 128
su rvey o n Israeli o ccu p at io n ,
154
wo m en o f, 130
Kyrgyzst an , 113, 117
lan d o f Islam (dar al-Islam ), 21,
35, 46, 59, 60
lan d o f t reat y (dar al-sulh), 35
lan d o f warfare (dar al-harb), 21,
35, 46, 59, 60
lan gu age
Arabic lan gu age in Ch rist ian
sch o larsh ip , 136
d o m in an ce o f Eu ro p ean , 82
id en t it y based u p o n , 51
Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (Jh an gvi’s
Arm y), 110
Last Day, 35, 68
Lat in Am erica, 159
Leban o n
d em o cracy an d , 148
as Islam ic st at e, 7
Leban ese Civil War (19751990), 80
m art yrd o m , 69
Sh ii Hizbo llah ’s jih ad , 38
so u rces o f id en t it y an d co n flict ,
126
su bo rd in at io n t o Fren ch , 75
survey on Israeli occu pation , 154
Left ist s, 88, 109
legal aid so ciet ies, 147
Len in , Vlad im ir Illich Ulyan o v, 11
liberalism , 116, 123
liberat io n t h eo lo gy, 159
libraries, 107, 108, 112
Libya, 47, 82, 83, 128, 143
Lieberm an , Jo sep h , 126
Lin co ln , Abrah am , 137
lita’arafu (get t in g t o kn o w o n e
an o t h er), 136
lit erat u re, 136
Lo n d o n , 14
Lu xo r m assacre (1997), 19–20, 91
m ad rasas (religio u s sch o o ls)
Islam ic refo rm ism in , 79
Index
o f Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam
(JUI), 16–17, 110
in Pakist an , 109–10
So viet -Afgh an vet eran s in
Taliban , 15
t erro rist t rain in g in , 157
Wah h abi Islam , 109, 111
Mahdi (m essian ic figu re), 38, 44,
71–73
Mah fu z, Nagu ib, 92
Malaya (Malaysia, Sin gap o re, an d
Bru n ei), 75
Malaysia
An war Ibrah im , 134–36
d em o cracy an d , 148
elect io n s, 143
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce, 83
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n in , 75
refu gees, 117
wo m en o f, 130–31
Mao ism , 9
m arriage, 4, 30
m art yrd o m
co n cep t o f, 69–70
Farag o n , 63
o f Hu ssein , 37, 38
Q u ran an d h ad it h lit erat u re o n ,
33–34
o f Q u t b, 8
reward s fo r, 7, 69
su icid e bo m bers, x, 99–100, 160
Marxism , 9, 52, 88, 89, 135
Maskh ad o v, Aslan , 114
m ass cu lt u re, 116
m at erialism , 30, 57, 135
m at h em at ics, 122
Mawd u d i, Mawan a
act ivism an d p h ilo so p h y o f,
51–56
in flu en ce o f, 50, 59, 62
Q u t b an d , 56, 59, 61
t ran slat io n s o f, 108
Mazd a al-Sh arif, Afgh an ist an , 17
Mecca, Sau d i Arabia
arrest o f ulam a, 48
bin Lad en ’s go al t o liberat e, 21
Gran d Mo sq u e, 3, 9, 22, 48,
71–73
h ijra fro m , 31
h ist o rical p ro blem s, 29
h o ly sit es, 107
p ilgrim age (hajj), 3
Index
siege o f Gran d Mo sq u e, 9, 48,
71–73
Wah h abism in , 6
m ed ia
Arab an d Mu slim n ews
co verage, 153–54
ban n in g o f p u blicat io n s, 89
bin Lad en ’s u se o f, 21
effect o n um m ah (Islam ic
co m m u n it y), 40–41
fo reign bu reau s an d
co rresp o n d en t s, 153
go vern m en t co n t ro l o f, 149
Islam in h ead lin es, 36
react io n t o ext rem ist
m o vem en t s, 92
Sad at in , 86
West ern cu lt u re, 88
m ed icin e, 122, 136
Med in a, Sau d i Arabia
bin Lad en ’s ed u cat io n in , 5
bin Lad en ’s go al t o liberat e, 21
cit y-st at e go vern m en t , 144
h ijra t o , 31
m o d el fo r Islam ic st at e, 46
Mu h am m ad ’s Islam ic
co m m u n it y, 32
um m ah, 39, 48
Wah h abism in , 6
Med in a Un iversit y, 72
m ercen aries, 116
m erch an t s in Q u ran , 30
Mid d le East , 75, 76
Milestones (Q u t b), 57, 58, 59
m ilit an cy o f Mu slim wo rld , ix,
106
m ilit ary co u rt s, 93
Mir, Ham id , 20
m iso gyn ism o f Islam , 129–30
m o d ern izat io n
Egyp t , 86
Islam ic beliefs an d , 93, 142
Islam ic revo lu t io n ’s effect o n ,
83
Kh at am i o n , 138
religio n an d , 123–26
valu ed by Islam ic act ivist s, 133
West ern izat io n an d , 77–78,
81–82
Mo gad ish u , So m alia, 14
Mo h am m ed , Mah at h ir, 134
m o n arch ies, 143, 144, 151, 158
185
Mo n go ls, 43, 45, 46
m o n ks, 32
m o n o t h eism , 47, 145–46
Mo ro cco , 130, 143
Mo sq u e o f t h e Pat riarch in
Hebro n , 99
m o sq u es
al-Aq sa Mo sq u e, 84
in Asia, 112
bazaars ad jo in in g m o sq u es, 129
civil so ciet y an d , 147
d est ru ct io n o f, 108
fo reign t ro o p s in lan d o f Ho ly
Mo sq u es, 22
Ho ly Mo sq u es o f Mecca an d
Med in a, 3, 9, 22, 48, 71–73
Ju h aim an ’s seizu re o f Gran d
Mo sq u e, 9, 48, 71–73
legislat io n t o co n t ro l, 93
Mo sq u e o f t h e Pat riarch in
Hebro n , 99
rest o rat io n co n t ract s fo r
m o sq u es, 3
Sad at in , 86
Um ayyad m o sq u e in Dam ascu s,
129
Wah h abi Islam , 107, 115
wo m en ’s p art icip at io n in ,
132–33
Mo ssad ru m o r, 74
Mo vem en t fo r So ciet y an d Peace,
104
Mo vem en t fo r t h e Disp o ssessed ,
66
Mo zarabs, 136
Mu barak, Ho sn i, 14, 91, 93
m uftis (legal exp ert s), 34, 100
Mu h am m ad
cap it alism an d , 129
ext rem ist s’ claim t o legit im acy
t h ro u gh , x, 28, 43–44
first Islam ic co m m u n it y, 32–33
hijra (em igrat io n fro m jahiliyya),
5
jihad (st ru ggle), 5, 24, 28, 29–32
Ju d aism ’s reject io n o f, 97
o n killin g civilian s, 20
su ccesso r, 37
Su n n i an d Sh ii Islam , 37–39
t o m b, 47
u n ificat io n o f Arabian t ribes, 39
Mu h am m ad ’s Yo u t h , 62, 87
186
m ujaddids (religio u s refo rm ers), 44
m ujahidin (so ld iers o f Go d )
bin Lad en as, 9, 11
in Grozn y, 114
Islam ic revo lu t io n co n t rast ed
with , 70
jih ad of, 26
recru itm en t , 157
su ccess of, 10
m ullahs (religio u s lead ers), 15, 16
Mu n kar (an gel), 34
Mu sa, Rifai Tah a, 18
m u sic ban n ed by Taliban , 17, 108
Mu slim Brot h erh o o d
activism an d so cial revo lu t io n ,
94
assassin at io n o f p rim e m in ist er,
55
al-Ban n a assassin at ed , 57
dawah (call t o beco m e bet t er
Mu slim s), 54
Egyp t ian su p p ressio n o f, 56, 58,
61, 87, 93
em ergen ce as o p p o sit io n al
fo rce, 8–9
Ham as o rigin s, 95
im p riso n m en t o f ext rem ist s, 89
jihad again st Israel, 89
m em bersh ip , 82–83, 84
m o d ern izat io n an d refo rm , 133
o p p o sit io n t o Brit ish
o ccu p at io n , 55
o rigin s, 50, 51, 54
p o lit ical m o bilizat io n , 49
p riso n m assacre, 58
Q u t b an d , 8, 57–58
religio u s refo rm , 49
Sau d i go vern m en t an d , 107
Zawah iri in , 18
Mu slim s (No t e: As t h e en t ire bo o k
d iscu sses Mu slim s an d
Islam , read ers are ad vised
t o search t h e in d ex fo r
sp ecific en t ries in referen ce
t o Mu slim s an d Islam ).
See Sh ii Islam ; Su n n i Islam ;
Wah h abi Islam
Mu t ah h ari, Mu rt aza, 65–66
m yst icism (Su fism ), 46, 108, 132
N ahdatul Ulam a (NU—Ren aissan ce
o f Religio u s Sch o lars), 139
Index
Nakir (an gel), 34
Nam an gan i, Ju m a, 113
n am es o f regio n s, o rigin s o f, 75
Nasser, Gam al Abd el
assassin at io n at t em p t , 58
Islam ic act ivism su p p ressio n , 83
Mu slim Broth erh ood
suppression , 8, 56, 58, 61, 87
Ru ssia an d , 57
Sad at ’s su ccessio n o f, 86
Sau d i Arabia an d , 106
Nat io n al Assem bly sp eaker killed ,
91
Nat io n al Dem o crat ic Rally, 104
Nat io n al Islam ic Fro n t (NIF), 13
n at io n alism
o f Arab wo rld , 18
d issat isfact io n wit h , 82
failu re t o u n ify Arab an d
Mu slim wo rld s, 128
Ham as as alt ern at ive t o , 95
Hin d u secu lar n at io n alism , 51
id en t it y based u p o n , 126
Mawd u d i’s reject io n o f, 54
in t erro rism , 151
Wah h abi Islam an d , 106, 115
T he N eglected Duty (al-Farag),
62–64
Th e Net h erlan d s, 75
New Jih ad Gro u p , 92
New Yo rk Cit y, 117
NGO s. See civil so ciet y
Nigerian religio u s revivalism , 47
No ble Prizes, 87, 92
No rt h ern Allian ce, 12, 15, 16, 26
n u clear p ro gram s, 155
al-Nu m eiry, Jafar, 83
o il exp o rt s, 8, 71, 106, 107
O ld Man o f t h e Mo u n t ain , 43
O m an , 36
O m ar, Mu llah , 17
o n en ess o f Go d (tawhid), 145–46
o p p o sit io n m o vem en t s an d
p art ies
in Cen t ral Asia, 112
p o lit ical an d eco n o m ic issu es,
102, 150
p ro liferat io n o f, 8–9
ru lers’ t o leran ce o f, 149
su p p ressio n o f, 156
Wah h abi Islam an d , 106
Index
o p p ressio n , jih ad s as react io n t o ,
116
o p t ics, 122
O rgan izat io n o f t h e Islam ic
Co n feren ce (O IC), 107
O rien t , t rad e ro u t es t o , 29
o rp h an s, exp lo it at io n o f, 30
o rt h o d o xy acco m m o d at ed by
Islam , 144
O slo Acco rd s (1993), 98, 99, 101
O t t o m an Em p ire
arch it ect u ral rem n an t s, 108
d ism em berm en t o f, 51
d o m in an ce o f, 155–56
m o d ern izat io n an d , 77
Tu rkey as last o f, 81
Wah h abism cru sh ed , 6
o vercro wd in g in Mu slim
co m m u n it ies, 83
Pah lavi, Reza Sh ah , 131
Pakist an
See also In d ian su bco n t in en t
Afgh an ist an civil war, 13
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
bin Lad en in , 12
creat io n o f, 79, 80
d em o cracy an d , 148
Deo ban d i m o vem en t , 16
elect io n s, 143
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce, 83
go vern m en t , 143
m adrasas (religio u s sch o o ls) in ,
109
n u clear p ro gram s, 155
Pesh awar, 10
Taliban reco gn ized by, 17
t rain in g o f m ilit an t Pakist an is,
16–17
Wah h abi Islam , 115, 117
Palest in ian Liberat io n
O rgan izat io n (PLO ), 95,
97–98, 101
Palest in ian Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d ,
7, 94, 97
Palest in ian Nat io n al Au t h o rit y
(PNA), 99, 102
Palest in ian s an d Palest in ian St at e
Arab lead ersh ip an d , 87
bin Lad en ’s p rim ary issu e, 23
Cam p David Acco rd s (1978), 89
d isp lacem en t o f Palest in ian s, 51
187
Ham as (“fervo r”), 66, 94–102
(see also m ain entry for
Ham as)
Hizbo llah as react io n t o
o ccu p at io n , 147–48 (see
also m ain entry for Sh ii
Hizbo llah )
jih ad fo r, 26
m art yrd o m , 69
m ed ia an d , 41
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n t o
Brit ish , 75
Palest in ian -Israeli co n flict , 4, 7,
22, 94–97
su icid e bo m bers, 99–100
su rvey o n Israeli o ccu p at io n ,
154
t erro rism , 85, 151
West ern p ercep t io n s, 120
Parad ise an d m art yrd o m , 7, 69
Paris, Fran ce, 117
p arliam en t ary d em o cracy, 54
Pash t u n s, 9, 12–13, 15
p at riarch y, 133, 160
p at rio t ism , 54
Pax Islam ica o f Islam , 65
p eacefu l revo lu t io n , 133
Peo p le o f t h e Bo o k (dhim m i),
34–35, 90
Peo p le’s Dem o crat ic Part y o f
Afgh an ist an , 9
p er cap it a in co m e, 110
p ersecu t io n , 121
Persian Em p ire, 29, 33
Peru , 151
Pesh awar, Pakist an , 10
p h arao h , Egyp t ian , 89
Ph ilip p in es, 7, 26, 66, 69, 117
p h ilo so p h y, 122
p h o t o grap h y ban n ed by Taliban ,
17
Pilgrim s at Plym o u t h , 137
Piscat o ri, Jam es, 128
p lace n am es, o rigin s o f, 75
PLO (Palest in ian Liberat io n
O rgan izat io n ), 95, 97–98,
101
p lu n d er fro m war, 7
p lu ralism
convivencia (livin g t o get h er) as,
136
Ibrah im o n , 135
188
p lu ralism (continued)
m ain stream in t erest in , 93
valu ed in West ern civilizat io n ,
123, 124
Wah id on , 139
p oetry, 136
p olarities in Q u t b’s p ersp ect ive,
59–60
p olice, religio u s, 108
p olitical an d religio u s p art ies
See also specific nam es of parties
lack o f, 143
in Sau d i Arabia, 127
p o ll o n Israeli o ccu p at io n , 154
p o lyt h eism , 30, 34, 108
p o vert y, 51, 99, 130
See also eco n o m ics;
u n em p lo ym en t
p rayer m ark (callo u s), 86
p ress, freed o m o f, 93, 149, 153
p ro fessio n al asso ciat io n s, 93, 148
p ro fesso rs im p riso n ed , 89
p ro p ert y, 129
p ro st it u t io n , 54
Pro t est an t ism , 124
The Protocols of the Learned Elders of
Zion (ap ocryp h al text), 97
p u blic welfare (m aslaha), 145
p u blish in g h o u ses, 147
p u n ish m en t s, 17, 42, 63, 96, 127
p u rgat o ry, 34
p u rificat io n , 108
Pu t in , Vlad im ir, 114
Q ad d afi, Mu am m ar, 107
al-Q aed a (“t h e base”)
at t em p t s t o co n t ain , 160
Egyp t ian in flu en ce, 85
glo bal sco p e, 151
Ham as co m p ared t o , 97, 101
Islam ic Jih ad an d , 20
Islam ic Mo vem en t o f
Uzbekist an (IMU), 113
Kh arijit es’ in flu en ce o n , 41
New Jih ad Gro u p an d , 92
o rigin s, 10
Q u t b’s in flu en ce, 56
rad icalism , x
reject ed by m ain st ream , 128
Taliban allian ce, 117
t rain in g cam p s, 117
Wah h abi Islam an d , 106
Index
Q assem Brigad e, 98, 99, 101
Q o m (religio u s cen t er), 66
Q u ran
See also h ad it h ; Su n n ah
in Asia, 112
bin Lad en ’s u se o f, x, 70, 153
cap it alism an d , 129
o n co n d u ct o f war, 32, 35,
65–66, 115, 158
o n convivencia (livin g t o get h er),
136
o n co rru p t io n an d o p p ressio n ,
29
o n evan gelism , 33, 66
as fo u n d at io n fo r Mu slim
life, 52
in t erp ret at io n o f religio u s
scrip t u res, 64
o n jih ad , ix, 27–28, 32, 68
Kh arijit es’ in t erp ret at io n , 42
lit eral in t erp ret at io n , 6, 42,
45–46, 106
as p u re so u rce fo r t rain in g, 59
o n religio u s t o leran ce, 68
select ive u se o f, 43–44
Su n n i an d Sh ii Islam , 39
“swo rd verses” o n warfare, 35,
65–66
t ran slat io n s d ist ribu t ed by
Wah h abi Islam , 107
wo m en ’s st u d y o f, 132
Q u t b, Mu h am m ad , 8, 107
Q u t b, Sayyid
o n first Islam ic co m m u n it y,
30–31
Ibn Taym iyya an d , 45
in flu en ce, 6, 8, 50, 62
o n jih ad , 55
m ilit an t id eo lo gy, 111
p ro d u ct o f Egyp t , 85
o n ret u rn t o p u re Islam , 43
ro le in Islam ic rad icalism , 56–61
terrorists’ claim s to legitim acy, 28
t ran slat io n s o f, 108
o n um m ah (Islam ic
co m m u n it y), 40
rabbis, 32
racism , 57
rad icalism , Islam ic
al-Q aed a, x
fu n d am en t alism an d , 114
Index
p o lit ical an d eco n o m ic realit ies,
150
p ro liferat io n , 61, 62
ro le o f Q u t b in , 56
Wah h abi Islam , 106
Wah id o n , 141
Rah m an , O m ar Abd el, 18, 91–92
Ran t isi, Abd el Aziz, 100
Rash id , Ah m ed , 11
refo rm m o vem en t s in Islam
act ivist s in , 134–41
o n d em o cracy, 145
m o d ern ism an d , 78–79
rise in , 8
vio len t an d n o n -vio len t jih ad s,
85
refu gee cam p s, 99
rein t erp ret at io n (ijtihad), 135, 140,
145, 158
religio n
See also Q u ran ; revivalist
m o vem en t s; secu larizat io n
act io n em p h asis o f Islam , 5
Allah an d Yah weh n am es, 119
au t h o rit arian ism , 150
bin Lad en ’s u se o f, 153
breakd o wn o f religio u s valu es,
83–84
Cat h o licism , 104, 122, 123–24
clash o f civilizat io n s, x
“co m p u lsio n ” in religio n ,
Q u ran o n , 33, 66, 67
“d eat h o f Go d ” t h eo lo gy, 125
eq u alit y o f wo m en an d m en , 30
Go d o f Islam an d Ch rist ian it y,
121
id en t it y based u p o n , 126
Islam ’s rat e o f gro wt h , 120
Israeli o ccu p at io n as
p u n ish m en t fro m Go d , 96
jih ad as “Rage fo r Go d ,” 116–17
liberat io n t h eo lo gy, 159
m issio n aries fro m Mu slim
co u n t ries, 112
m o d ern izat io n an d , 123–26
m o n o t h eism , 47, 145–46
m ujaddids (religio u s refo rm ers),
44
on en ess of God (tawhid), 145–46
p o lyt h eism , 30, 34, 108
Pro t est an t ism , 124
religio u s freed o m , 137
189
religio u s p o lice, 108
resu rgen ce, 125
sep arat io n o f ch u rch an d
so ciet y, 57
sep arat io n o f ch u rch an d st at e,
67–68, 88, 142, 145
t erro rism , 151
t o leran ce, 68, 121
t rain in g as religio u s d u t y, 12
u n fam iliarit y o f West wit h
Islam , 118–25
wo m en in , 30, 132–33, 159
Ren aissan ce Part y, 104
rep u blican ism , 144
resist an ce m o vem en t , 76–77, 95
revivalist m o vem en t s
See also religio n ; specific
organizations such as
Mu slim Bro t h erh o o d
al-Ban n a an d , 50, 51–52
in Egyp t ian so ciet y, 93
fu n d am en t alist m o vem en t s
sp awn ed by, 83
in flu en ce o f, 47, 73
in ju st ifyin g jih ad , 43–45
Mawd u d i an d , 50, 51–52
Q u t b an d , 8, 50
“rin g o f fire,” 155
Riyad h , Sau d i Arabia, 14, 48, 130
Ro d in so n , Maxim e, 129
Ro ger II, 135
Ro m e, Islam ic co m m u n it y
co m p ared t o , 33
ro yal fam ily, 3, 4, 11, 108
ru le o f law, 142
Ru sh d ie, Salm an , 137
Ru ssia, 67, 106, 111, 114
Rwan d a, 126
Saad awi, Nawal, 89
Sabian s, Q u ran o n , 68
Sad at , An war
assassin at io n , 18, 19, 42, 46, 87,
89–90
Believer-Presid en t , 86, 90
Cam p David Acco rd s (19781979), 87, 88, 101
Egyp t ian assassin s, 85
jih ad again st Israel, 8
Nasser’s su ccesso r, 86–90
Q u t b’s in flu en ce o ver
assassin at io n , 56
190
Sad r, Mu sa, 66
St. Egid io Cat h o lic co m m u n it y,
104
Salafiyyah m ovem en t, 79, 106, 158
san ct io n s
o n Iran , 137
o n Iraq , 22, 73, 155
o n Pakist an , 155
T he Satanic Verses (Ru sh d ie), 137
sat ellit e d ish es, 109
Sau d i Arabia
Afgh an ist an civil war, 13
Am erican t ro o p s in , 12
Arab so lid arit y an d , 128
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
bin Lad en ’s ext rad it io n , 14
bin Lad en ’s go al t o o vert h ro w
st at e, 20–21, 22, 67
bin Lad en ’s st ru ggles wit h , 6,
12, 14, 23
“Cu st o d ian o f t h e Two Ho ly
Sit es,” 23, 107
go vern m en t , 143
h ist o ry, 6
Iraq an d , 11
Islam ic m o vem en t s, 107, 108
Ju h aim an ’s seizu re o f Gran d
Mo sq u e, 9, 48, 71–73
m uftis (legal exp ert s) o f, 100
Nasser an d , 106
refu gees, 117
survey on Israeli occu pation , 154
Taliban reco gn ized by, 16, 17
U.S. allian ce, 12
U.S. co m p ared t o , 127
U.S. t ro o p s in , 12, 34, 73
Wah h abi Islam , 6, 47, 105, 107,
111
wo m en o f, 130
Sau d i Hizbo llah , 15
See also Sh ii Hizbo llah
scien ce an d t ech n o lo gy
al-Ban n a an d Mawd u d i o n ,
52, 53
glo balizat io n ’s effect o n , 123
Islam an d , 40
o f Mu slim s, 122, 123
Sau d i an d Taliban co n t ro ls o n ,
109
in t erro rism , 73
Wah id o n , 140
sect arian ism , 36
Index
secu larizat io n
See also religio n
avo id an ce o f, 53
as co m m o n en em y, 107
faced by Ch rist ian it y, 125
Ham as o n , 95–96
Ibrah im o n , 135
wit h in Mu slim co m m u n it y, 78
as resp o n se t o co lo n ialism , 76
“secu larizat io n t h eo ry,” 126
o f Tu rkey, 81
in West ern civilizat io n , 123
secu rit y fo rces (t h e éradicateurs),
103
secu rit y issu es, 109
secu rit y st at es, Mu slim co u n t ries
as, 143
sed it io n , 89
Sen at e, 120
sep arat io n o f ch u rch an d st at e,
67–68, 88, 142, 145
Sep t em ber 11, 2001, at t acks. See
under t erro rism
Seven ers (bran ch o f Sh ii Islam ), 38
sexu alit y
p erm issiven ess o f West ern
cu lt u re, 57, 124
wo m en as sexu al o bject s,
131–32
Sh afii (sch o o l o f law), 35
Sh ah , Zah ir, 9
Sh ah o f Iran , 38
shahada (p ro fessio n o f fait h ), 69
shahids (m art yrs), 69
Sh alt u t , Mah m u d , 68
Shariah (Islam ic law)
as blu ep rin t fo r Mu slim so ciet y,
53
calip h at e’s go vern an ce, 37
d em o cracy an d , 146
difficulty of im plem en tation , 131
Mo n go ls’ d isregard o f, 46
Sad at ’s failu re t o im p lem en t , 87
Taliban ru le, 16
t erro rist s’ reject io n o f, 157
Sh arif, Nawaz, 110–11
Sh aro n , Ariel, 99–100, 154
Sh eikh , Sh aykh al-, 100
Shii Hizbollah (Part y o f Go d )
See also Sh ii Islam
all jih ad co n sid ered d efen sive,
39
Index
ed u cat io n al an d so cial services,
147
em ergen ce, 66
jih ad again st Israel, 15, 26,
38, 39
as react io n t o Israeli
o ccu p at io n , 66, 147
Sau d i Hizbo llah , 15
Sh ii Islam asso ciat ed wit h , 36
Sh ii Islam
See also Sh ii Hizbo llah ; Su n n i
Islam
Afgh an ist an civil war, 13
Assassin s o ffsh o o t , 41, 43, 50,
128
bran ch es, 144
Deo ban d i m o vem en t an d , 110
“h id d en Im am ” d o ct rin e, 38,
43, 44
Hizbo llah as react io n t o Israeli
o ccu p at io n , 66, 147–48
Hu ssein ’s rep ressio n o f, 80
Iran ’s su p p o rt o f, 108
Islam ic revo lu t io n , 36, 39, 40
jih ad , 39, 66
Karbala p ilgrim age sit e, 47–48
m art yrd o m , 33–34, 69–70
as m in o rit y, 9–10
o rigin s an d beliefs, 36–38
Sau d i Hizbo llah , 15
slau gh t er o f, 110
u n d er Taliban ru le, 17
as t arget fo r p u rificat io n , 108
Wah h abi Islam an d , 106
West ’s en co u n t er wit h , 36
Sicily, 135
Sin ai Pen in su la, 83, 88
Sin gap o re, 75
Sin h alese, 151
sin n ers gu ilt y o f u n belief, 42
Sipah-Sahaba Pakistan (Pakist an ’s
Arm y o f t h e Co m p an io n s
o f t h e Pro p h et ), 110
Six Day war. See Arab-Israeli war
slavery, 121
so cial issu es
h o u sin g sh o rt ages, 105, 115
o vercro wd in g, 83
so cial valu es breakd o wn , 83–84
st an d ard o f livin g, 87, 93
u n em p lo ym en t , 51, 83, 92, 93,
99, 105, 115
191
so cial ju st ice, 141
so cial p ro gram s, 90, 95, 97, 101,
147
so cialism , 18, 106, 109, 128
so cio eco n o m ics an d wo m en , 130
so lid arit y, 116, 128
So m alia, 7, 126
So u t h Africa, 121
So u t h east Asia, 75, 76
So u t h ern Yem en , 7
So viet -Afgh an war
See also Afgh an ist an ; So viet
Un io n
aft erm at h , 12–13
bin Lad en ’s p art icip at io n , 9–11
Egyp t ian s in , 91
Ju h aim an ’s in cid en t an d , 73
as t u rn in g p o in t , 116–17, 157
um m ah rein fo rced by, 40
vet eran s’ t ran sit io n t o Taliban ,
15
So viet Un io n
See also So viet -Afgh an war
Co ld War, 57, 61, 70, 73
Egyp t ’s align m en t wit h Ru ssia,
57
fall o f, ix
Mu slim go vern m en t s an d , 83
Nasser an d , 106
Sri Lan ka, 126, 151
st an d ard o f livin g, 87, 93
St at e Dep art m en t o f U.S., 13–14
su bm it (islam ), 40
Su d an
Arab so lid arit y an d , 128
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
bin Lad en ’s exp u lsio n , 13–15
ch an ge o f go vern m en t , 82
d em o cracy an d , 148
fu n d am en t alist resu rgen ce, 83
go vern m en t , 143, 151
p o lit ical act ivism , 83, 84
religio n in p o lit ics, 142
religio u s revivalism in , 47
Wah h abi Islam , 115
su ffrage, 130
Su fism (Islam ic m yst icism ), 46,
108, 132
su icid e bo m bers, x, 99–100, 160
Sunnah (exam p le)
o n co rru p t io n an d o p p ressio n ,
29
192
Sunnah (exam p le) (continued)
as fou n d at io n fo r Mu slim
life, 52
in terp retat io n o f religio u s
scrip tu res, 64
literal in terp ret at io n , 6, 45–46
Su n n i Islam
Afgh an istan civil war, 13
bran ch es, 144
Deoban d i m o vem en t , 16, 110
Hu ssein ’s rep ressio n o f Ku rd s,
80
Ibn Taym iyya as sp irit u al
fat h er, 45
Islam ic revo lu t io n o f Iran , 39
jih ad , 38–39, 66
as m ajo rit y, 9–10
m art yrd o m , 33–34, 69
o rigin s, 37
o n revit alizat io n , 44
Wah h abi Islam an d , 106
su rvey o n Israeli o ccu p at io n , 154
“swo rd verses” o f Q u ran , 35,
65–66
Syria
au t h o rit arian ism , 143
ch an ge o f go vern m en t , 82
Faisal as ru ler, 81
Go lan Heigh t s, 83
Leban o n creat ed fro m , 80
Mu slim su bo rd in at io n t o
Fren ch , 75
Tajikst an an d Tajiks, 9, 13,
112–13, 117
takfir (exco m m u n icat io n ), 42,
46, 60–61
Takfir wal Hijra
(Exco m m u n icat io n an d
Fligh t ), 86, 87
Taleq an i, Mah m o u d , 65–66
Taliban
in Afgh an ist an , 15–16, 26
al-Q aed a allian ce, 117
bin Lad en ’s asso ciat io n wit h , 17
co n t ro l o ver t ech n o lo gy, 109
Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam
allian ce, 16–17, 111
o fficial reco gn it io n o f, 17
O m ar’s lead ersh ip , 17
p ro m in en ce o f, 15–18, 160
religio n in p o lit ics, 142
Index
t rain in g cam p s o f t erro rist s,
110, 117
Wah h abi Islam an d , 17, 106,
109, 114
wo m en ’s t reat m en t , 130
Tam il, 151
Tan t awi, Sh aykh , 100
taqlid (im it at io n ), 135
Tash ken t , 7
tawhid (u n it y), 47
t axes, 35
Teh eran , Iran , 129
Tel Aviv, Israel, 99, 154
t elevisio n ban n ed by Taliban , 17,
108
t erro rism
See also specific terrorists,
organizations, and concepts
such as jih ad , al-Q aed a, bin
Lad en , and Ham as
at t acks o f Sep t em ber 11, 2001
bin Lad en ’s ju st ificat io n s,
22–23
clash o f civilizat io n s, 126–27
as d eclarat io n o f war, x
frin ge gro u p resp o n sible
fo r, 73
Mo ssad in vo lvem en t (ru m o r),
74
m o t ivat io n s fo r, 118, 152
resp o n d in g t o , ix, 160
Sau d i-bo rn t erro rist s, 127
sco p e o f jih ad , 157
as t u rn in g p o in t , 117
Zawah iri as m ast erm in d
beh in d , 20
at t acks o f vario u s ven u es
bu s bo m bin g in Tel Aviv
(1994), 99
Hebro n m assacre (1994), 99
Islam abad em bassy bo m bin g
(1996), 91
Kh o bar To wers t ru ck bo m b
(1996), 15
Lu xo r m assacre (1997),
19–20, 91
t ru ck bo m bin g in Riyad h
(1995), 14
U.S. t ro o p s in Mo gad ish u
(1993), 14
Wo rld Trad e Cen t er bo m bin g
(1993), 14, 92
Index
clash o f civilizat io n s, 126–27
d em o cracy an d , 148
p o lit ics an d religio n , 142
reject io n o f, xi, 148
religio u s ju st ificat io n , 153
resp o n d in g t o , ix, 152–57, 160
su icid e bo m bers, x, 99–100, 160
t ech n o lo gy an d scien ce in , 73
as t h reat t o Islam ic co m m u n it y,
36
t rain in g cam p s, 13, 14, 16–17,
110, 157
u n d erst an d in g, xi
Wah id o n , 140
war again st glo bal t erro rism ,
160
Th ailan d , 117
Today Show, 118–19
To led o , 135
t o leran ce
Ibrah im o n , 135
Islam ic Jih ad ’s reject io n o f, 90
o f Islam ism , 121
Q u ran o n , 68
Wah id o n , 139
t o rt u re, 19, 58, 93
t o u rism in Egyp t , 85, 92
t rain in g cam p s o f t erro rist s
aft er So viet -Afgh an war, 157
bin Lad en ’s est ablish m en t o f, 14
Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam (JUI),
16–17, 110
in Su d an , 13
Tran sjo rd an (n o w Jo rd an ), 75, 81
t ran slat io n s in t o Arabic lan gu age,
122
t ravelin g, 130, 153
t reaso n o f sin n ers, 42
t ribes an d t ribalism
o f Arabia, 39, 48
id en t it y based u p o n , 51
t ribalism in t erro rism , 151
u n ificat io n o f t ribes, 128
Tu n isia, 116, 143, 148–49
al-Tu rabi, Hasan , 13
Tu rkey
d em o cracy in , 143, 148, 149
as secu lar st at e, 81
su p p ressio n o f Islam ic Refah
p art y, 144–45
t erro rism , 151
Tu rkm en , 13
193
Tu t u , Desm o n d , 121
Twelvers (bran ch o f Sh ii Islam ), 38
Uigh u rs, 67, 117
ulam a (“t h e learn ed ” religio u s
sch o lars)
arrest o f, 48
co n servat ism , 158
o rigin s, 34
righ t t o rein t erp ret at io n
(ijtihad), 140
Su n n is an d Sh iit es o n , 38–39
Zia u l-Haq ’s p at ro n age o f, 109
Um ayyad d yn ast y, 38
Um ayyad m o sq u e in Dam ascu s,
129
um m ah (glo bal Islam ic
co m m u n it y)
Eu ro p ean im p erialism an d , 49
Farag o n st at e o f, 63
in t erco n n ect ed n ess o f, 158
in Islam ic cu lt u re, 5
jih ad fo r, 66
fo r ren ewal, 44
sign ifican ce in Islam ic
co m m u n it y, 39–40
warrio rs fro m d iverse p art s
o f, 73
u n belief (kufr), 6, 16, 42, 68, 90
u n em p lo ym en t rat es
in Algeria, 105
Mu barak’s resp o n se t o , 93
recru it m en t in t o t erro rist
o rgan izat io n s, 92
as resu lt o f Islam ’s failu re,
51, 83
su icid e bo m bers an d , 99
Wah h abi Islam in flu en ce, 115
u n ificat io n o f Arabian t ribes, 128
Un it ed Arab Em irat es, 17, 107,
154
Un it ed Nat io n s, 17, 23, 101, 154
Un it ed Nat io n s Secu rit y Co u n cil,
23, 101
Un it ed St at es
o n Algerian su m m it agreem en t ,
104
bin Lad en ’s ext rad it io n , 14
bin Lad en ’s p u rsu it by, 160
Ch rist ian ext rem ist s, 151
civil libert ies’ ero sio n in U.S.,
152
194
Un ited States
Cold War, 57, 61, 70, 73
d eath th reat s again st
Am erican s, 110
Egyp t as ally, 85, 88
foreign p olicy, 152–57
on Ham as, 98
h atred of Un it ed St at es, ix, 118,
152
Ho u se o f Sau d d efen d ed by, 12
Iran an d , 136–37
Israel’s relat io n sh ip wit h , 23,
38, 84, 88, 154
jih ad t h reat s (1996), 21 (see also
m ain entry for jih ad )
Kh at am i’s crit icism o f, 137
Kh o bar To wers t ru ck bo m b
(1996), 15
Mu slim s in , 129, 141, 152
Mu slim s’ m o d ern izat io n
an d , 82
n eo co lo n ialism , 73
Palest in e an d , 23
Q u t b’s visit , 57
Sau d i Arabia co m p ared t o , 127
o n So viet -Afgh an jih ad , 10–11,
12
o n Su d an , 13–14
t erro rist s id en t ified by, 70
t ro o p s in Mo gad ish u , So m alia,
14
t ru ck bo m bin g in Riyad h
(1995), 14
Un it ed St at es em bassy, 154
valu es, xi
West ern cu lt u re, 27
Urban (Po p e), 74
Urd u lan gu age, 80
u su ry, 54
Uzbekist an an d Uzbeks, 9, 13,
112, 113, 117
valu es, p reservin g Am erican , xi
Van gu ard s o f Co n q u est , 92
Vat ican Co u n cil, 124
veilin g p ract ices o f wo m en ,
131–32
Viet n am war, 24
vio len ce
in Algeria, 102
in Ch rist ian it y an d Ju d aism ,
120–21
Index
Ham as o n legit im acy o f, 98
Islam crit icized fo r, 65, 127
o f Islam ic Jih ad m em bers, 90
in Islam ic revo lu t io n , 61
u n d er Kh arijit es’ ru le, 42
Lash kar-e-Jh an gvi (Jh an gvi’s
Arm y), 110
reject io n o f, 148
religio u s ju st ificat io n , 153
Sipah-Sahaba Pakistan
(Pakist an ’s Arm y o f t h e
Co m p an io n s o f t h e
Pro p h et ), 110
Wah h abi Islam , 114
Wah id o n , 140–41
Virt u e (Islam ic p art y), 149
vo lu n t eer o rgan izat io n s, 148
vo t in g righ t s, 130
al-Wah h ab, Mu h am m ad ibn Abd ,
6, 47–48
Wah h abi Islam
Abd u laziz ibn Sau d , 7
in Asia, 111–17
bin Lad en in flu en ced by, 5, 73
co u n t erin g, 158
fu n d in g an d fin an cial su p p o rt ,
49
Ho u se o f Sau d ’s relat io n sh ip
wit h , 48–49
Ibn Taym iyya an d , 45, 46
as Islam ic revivalism , 47–49
Jam iyyat i-Ulam a-i-Islam an d ,
16, 17
Kh arijit es’ in flu en ce o n , 41
o rigin s, 6
in Ru ssia, 111–17
sco p e an d m issio n , 105–17
vio len ce, 114
Wah id , Abd u rrah m an , 134,
139–41
waqf (religio u s en d o wm en t ), 96
wars an d co n flict s
See also Arab-Israeli (Six Day)
war; So viet -Afgh an war
Afgh an ist an civil war, 12–13
Algerian civil war, 103
bo o t y fro m war, 7
civil wars in Islam ic
co m m u n it ies, 36
Co ld War, 57, 61, 70, 73
Gu lf War, 34
Index
Iran -Iraq War, 11, 39, 69, 70,
128
Leban ese civil war, 80
m art yrd o m as m o t ivat io n , 69
Pakist an civil war, 80, 109
again st p o lyt h eist s, ap o st at es,
an d Peo p le o f t h e Bo o k,
34–35
Q u ran o n co n d u ct o f war, 32,
35, 65–66, 115, 158
Tajikst an civil war, 112
Uzbekist an arm ed co n flict s,
112
Viet n am war, 24
Wah h abi Islam , 115
war again st glo bal t erro rism , xi,
160
in West ern co u n t ries, 124
Welfare Part y, 149
West Ban k, 83, 89, 95, 98, 154
West ern in flu en ce
d em o cracy, 146, 151
Gam aa Islam iyya’s at t ack
o n , 92
Ibrah im o n , 135
im age o f Islam , 67
im p erialism , 74
Mu slim lead ers’ allian ce
wit h , 73
Mu slim valu es in co n flict wit h ,
127
o p p ressive n at u re o f, 27
resp o n d in g t o co lo n ialism , 76
o n Sad at , 87
salafi (an t i-west ern gro u p s), 79
so cial sp lit fro m , 78
as t h reat t o Islam ic co m m u n it y,
61, 131
in Tu rkey, 81
u n fam iliarit y wit h Islam ,
118–25
“wh it e m an ’s bu rd en ,” 76
wo m en
d ress (chadors), 17, 108, 130,
131–32
ed u cat io n , 17, 131
em p lo ym en t , 17
fem in ism , 130–31
Ibrah im o n st at u s o f, 135
o f Iran , 142
Islam ’s t reat m en t o f, 129–33,
142, 160
195
p ro h ibit io n again st killin g,
22, 32
Q u ran o n righ t s o f, 30
Q u t b o n , 57
religio n , 30, 132–33, 159
segregat io n o f, 108, 127, 130
veilin g p ract ices, 131–32
wife an d m o t h er ro les, 131
wo m en ’s righ t s, 30, 93, 124,
128
Wo rld Islam ic Fro n t fo r Jih ad
Again st Jews an d
Cru sad ers, 21
Wo rld Islam ic Leagu e, 107
Wo rld Trad e Cen t er at t acks
bin Lad en ’s ju st ificat io n s,
22–23
bo m bin g (1993), 14, 18, 92
clash o f civilizat io n s, 126–27
as d eclarat io n o f war, x
frin ge gro u p resp o n sible fo r, 73
Mo ssad in vo lvem en t (ru m o r),
74
m o t ivat io n s fo r, 118, 152
resp o n d in g t o , ix, 160
Sau d i-bo rn t erro rist s, 127
sco p e o f jih ad , 157
as t u rn in g p o in t , 117
Zawah iri as m ast erm in d
beh in d , 20
writ ers im p riso n ed , 89
Yah weh . See Go d
Yassin , Sh aykh Ah m ad , 97, 100,
102
Yazid (calip h ), 37, 38
Yem en
d em o cracy an d , 148
as Islam ic st at e, 7
refu gees, 117
t erro rism , 151
t rain in g cam p s o f t erro rist s, 14
Yo u sef, Ram zi, 14
yo u t h
o f Algeria, 103
Ibrah im o n st at u s o f, 135
o f Iran , 142
Islam ic Ren aissan ce Part y (IRP),
112
Wah h abi Islam , 111, 115
wo m en ’s d ress, 132
yo u t h clu bs, 147
196
al-Zam ou r, Abbo u d , 92
Zawah iri, Aym an alcap ital con vict io n ,
91–92
in flu en ce o f, 18–20
Islam ic Jih ad an d , 91
Index
p ro d u ct of Egyp t, 85
reject ion of ceasefire, 93
Zero u al, Liam in e, 104
Zia u l-Haq , Moh am m ad , 109, 130
Zio n ism , 96
Zo ro astrian s, 34–35