ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS:
EPISTEMOLOGY
Volume 1
PLATO’S THEAETETUS
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PLATO’S THEAETETUS
JOHN M. COOPER
First published in 1990
This edition first published in 2015
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© 1990 John M. Cooper
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Plato's Theaetetus
JohnM. Cooper
G arland P ublishing
N e w Y ork & L ondon
1990
Copyright © 1990 by
John M. Cooper
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cooper, John M. (John Madison), 1939Plato’s Theaetetus / John M. Cooper.
p. cm. — (Harvard dissertations in philosophy)
Thesis (Ph.D.)—Harvard University, 1967.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8240-3200-4
1. Plato. Theaetetus. 2. Knowledge, Theory of. I. Title. II.
Series.
B386.C66
1990
121—dc20 89-49392
All volumes printed on acid-free, 250-year-life paper
Manufactured in the United States of America
Design by Julie Threlkeld
I
Preface
JLn 1965 when I began work on the Theaetetus for my
dissertation not much was in print that discussed in a
philosophically responsible and illuminating way either the
progress of the dialogue as a whole or any of its more or less
separate sections. My aim was to do whatever with my
neophyte’s abilities and experience I could to bring our
philosophical understanding of the dialogue up to the
standards of clarity and penetration that my teacher G.E.L.
Owen had established in his publications and (even more) in
his lectures and seminars at Oxford on the pre-Socratics,
Plato, and Aristotle.
Through the work of a number of excellent philosophers
and scholars since the late 1960’s, the best of it inspired
directly or indirectly by Owen’s example, if not also his
teaching, our understanding of the Theaetetus has
dramatically and, I hope, permanently improved. Anyone
writing a dissertation on the Theaetetus in 1989 would have
vastly improved resources to use in grappling with the
interpretation of the dialogue, and the product would
necessarily read very differently from my own 1967 effort.
Obviously I cannot in the space available do justice to the
philosophical and scholarly literature on the Theaetetus
published over the past twenty-odd years in English and
other European languages. I must, however, mention two
papers that have significantly altered my own thinking.
These are: “Observations on Perception in Plato’s Later
Dialogues” by Michael Frede (first published in his Essays on
Ancient Philosophy (Minneapolis, 1987) but presented already
at a Princeton Ancient Philosophy conference in 1973), and
“Plato on the Grammar of Perceiving” by Myles Bumyeat
(Classical Quarterly, N.S. 26 [1967]). Both authors address
issues raised in a paper of mine, a reworking of material
found in chapter IV of my dissertation, published in
Phronesis XV (1970): “Plato on Sense-Perception and
Knowledge: Theaetetus 184-187.” This was my only
publication deriving from the dissertation.
—J.M.C.
Princeton, New Jersey
September 1989
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I
T A B L E OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
I N T R O D U C T I O N .......................................................................................................
I.
1
T H E A M A L G A M A T IO N O F T H E T H E O R IE S O F
T H E A E T E T U S , P R O T A G O R A S , AND H E R A C L E IT U S .
12
T h e E l e m e n t s of P r o t a g o r e a n i s m a n d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m
( 1 5 1 - 1 5 5 ) ........................................................................................
12
T h e H e r a c l e i t e a n T h e o r y of P e r c e p t i o n ( 1 5 6 a -1 5 7 b ) . .
37
H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m a n d th e T r u t h of P e r c e p t i o n
(15 7 e - I 6 0 d ) .............................................................................................46
II.
III.
T H E R E F U T A T I O N O F P R O T A G O R A S ........................................
59
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................ .......
59
T h e P r e l i m i n a r y A r g u m e n t s ( I 6 l c - l 6 5 e ) .............................
64
P r o t a g o r a s 1 D e f e n s e ( 1 6 6 a - l 6 8 c ) ............................................
72
T h e R e f u t a tio n a n d D i g r e s s i o n ( l 6 9 d - 1 7 9 c ) ........................
77
T H E R E F U T A T IO N O F H E R A C L E I T U S ........................................
88
T h e A r g u m e n t A g a i n s t F l u x in t h e T h e a e t e t u s (1 8 1 -1 8 3 )
IV.
V.
88
T h e F lu x A r g u m e n t in th e C r a t y l u s .......................................
108
R e s u l t s .......................................................................................................
116
T H E R E F U T A T IO N O F T H E S E N S E - P E R C E P T I O N
T H EO R Y O F K N O W L E D G E ...........................................................
118
F A L S E B E L I E F .........................................................................................
141
I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................................
141
CHAPTER
PAGE
E u th y d e m u s a n d S o p h i s t ...........................................................
151
C r a t y l u s a n d T h e a e t e t u s ...........................................................
179
R e f u t a tio n of th e S e c o n d D e f in iti o n of K n o w le d g e
( 2 0 1 a - c ) .........................................................................................
VI.
K N O W L E D G E AS T R U E B E L I E F P L U S LOGOS
. . . .
229
234
I n t r o d u c t i o n .........................................................................................
2 34
T h e D r e a m an d I ts R e f u ta tio n ( 2 0 1 c - 2 0 6 b ) ....................
249
The T h re e Subsequent S enses
268
FOOTNOTES.
of L o g o s (2 0 6 c -2 1 0 b ) .
..................................................................................................
280
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ..................................................................................................
309
I N TR O D U CT I ON
T h e T h e a e t e t u s is a l m o s t a lo n e a m o n g P l a t o 1s d ia lo g u e s in
b eing f a i r l y p r e c i s e l y d a t a b l e .
In th e ' ’p r e f a c e " w h ic h p r e c e d e s th e
d ia lo g u e p r o p e r T h e a e t e t u s is s a id to h a v e j u s t b e e n b r o u g h t b a c k f r o m
b a t tle n e a r C o r in th , w o u n d e d a n d s u f f e r i n g f r o m d y s e n t e r y ; it s e e m s
c l e a r th a t he i s a b o u t to d ie .
E u c l i d e s , who r e p o r t s t h e s e f a c t s to
T e r p s i o n , is r e m i n d e d of a c o n v e r s a t i o n S o c r a t e s o n c e h ad w ith T h e a e ­
t e t u s w h e n he w a s q u it e a young m a n , not long b e f o r e S o c r a t e s 1 d e a th .
On th is o c c a s i o n S o c r a t e s w a s m u c h i m p r e s s e d w ith T h e a e t e t u s 1 m e n t a l
p o w e r s , a n d p r e d i c t e d f o r h im th e i l l u s t r i o u s f u t u r e he in f a c t t u r n e d
o ut to h a v e .
It is t h is c o n v e r s a t i o n w h ic h th e m a i n d ia lo g u e r e c o r d s .
T he t r i b u t e s to T h e a e t e t u s 1 p r o w e s s in th e p r e f a c e a n d in th e d ia lo g u e
p r o p e r , w h e r e one of h is m a i n m a t h e m a t i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s is d e s c r i b e d
and c e l e b r a t e d (14 7d -1 4 8b ),
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t that P l a t o c o m p o s e d the
d ia lo g u e a s a m e m o r i a l to h im .
If so , th e d a te of c o m p o s i t i o n m u s t f a ll
not lon g a f t e r th e b a t t l e in w h i c h T h e a e t e t u s w a s f a t a l l y w ou n d e d .
Now
t h e r e w e r e only two b a t t l e s of C o r in th d u r in g P l a t o 1s l i f e t i m e , on e in
394 a n d one in 369, * a n d th e e a r l i e r d a te , th o u g h it h a s h ad s o m e s u p ­
p o r t e r s , n o ta b l e a m o n g t h e m L e w is C a m p b e l l , ^ i s h a r d l y a c c e p t a b l e if
th e d ia lo g u e w a s c o m p o s e d s h o r t l y a f t e r T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e a th , a n d h a s not
g e n e r a l l y b e e n a d o p te d by s c h o l a r s .
T h e T h e a e t e t u s , th e n , s e e m s
f a i r l y f i r m l y a s s i g n a b l e to th e e a r l y 360*s.
T h is d a te m a k e s th e T h e a e t e t u s p r e t t y c e r t a i n l y w r i t t e n a f t e r
th e R e p u b l i c , w h ic h is a t th e l a t e s t a c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e 370*s.
A nd
2
a s th e T h e a e t e t u s is th e f i r s t of th e s e r i e s of d i a l o g u e s - - T h e a e t e t u s ,
S o p h i s t , S t a t e s m a n , a n d P h i l e b u s - - w h i c h C a m p b e ll lik e d to c a l l “ d i a ­
l e c t i c a l " b e c a u s e of t h e i r m o r e a l e r t c r i t i c a l s t a n c e a n d t h e i r h e i g h t ­
en e d i n t e r e s t in e x a m in in g th e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s n ot only of S o c r a t i c but
4
a l s o of p r e - S o c r a t i c th o u g h t, t h i s d a t e f ix e s a l s o a t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e rn
f o r th e w h o le s e r i e s of d i a l e c t i c a l and c r i t i c a l d i a l o g u e s .
If w e a r e
j u s t i f i e d in th in k in g t h a t t h e P a r m e n i d e s a s w e l l , e v e n if it a n t e d a t e s
5
th e T h e a e t e t u s , h a s c l o s e t e m p o r a l a f f i n i t i e s to th e d i a l e c t i c a l g r o u p ,
th e n f r o m a b o u t 370 o n w a r d s , o r a l i t t l e e a r l i e r , a n d c e r t a i n l y a f t e r
th e c o m p l e t i o n of th e R e p u b l i c , a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of P l a t o rs p h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l w o r k w a s d e v o t e d to th e c l o s e a n d o ften a b s t r u s e a n d d i f f i c u l t
r e a s o n i n g w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e fiv e d i a l o g u e s .
In f a c t, P l a t o 1s
w h o le l i t e r a r y o u tp u t d u r in g t h e l a s t tw e n t y - o d d y e a r s of h is lif e p r o b ­
a b ly i n c l u d e s , b e s i d e s t h e s e w o r k s , only th e L a w s a n d , if n o w - t r a d i ­
t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of th e e v id e n c e c o n c e r n i n g P l a t o ’ s " l a t e r s t y l e "
a r e a c c e p t e d , th e T i m a e u s a n d C r i t i a s .
T h u s P l a t o ’ s l a s t tw o d e c a d e s
w e r e o c c u p ie d p a r t l y w ith t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d l e g a l r e s e a r c h e s of th e L a w s ,
a n d , so f a r a s h is m o r e p u r e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c t i v i t y is c o n c e r n e d ,
w e r e e i t h e r l i m i t e d to th e c o m p o s i t i o n of th e s e r i e s of c r i t i c a l d i a ­
l o g u e s (if t h o s e a r e r i g h t w ho p l a c e th e T i m a e u s a n d C r i t i a s b e f o r e th e
P a r m e n i d e s )^ o r a t a n y r a t e p r i m a r i l y d e v o te d to th e m .
T h e g r o w in g
i n t e r e s t of s c h o l a r s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s in th e P a r m e n i d e s a n d T h e a e t e t u s
a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s i s th u s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g .
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s , a n d p e r h a p s
p a r t i c u l a r l y of th e T h e a e t e t u s , h a s i n e v i t a b l y b e e n th e c e n t e r of
3
c o n sid erab le co n tro v e rsy .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e d ia lo g u e s h a v e in
g e n e r a l f a l le n in to two r o u g h c a t e g o r i e s .
On th e one hand, t h e r e a r e
s c h o l a r s w ho, th o u g h d i f f e r i n g w id e ly f r o m one a n o t h e r in o t h e r r e ­
s p e c t s , a g r e e in f in d in g th e a r g u m e n t s and c o n c l u s i o n s of th e d i a l e c t i ­
c a l d ia lo g u e s a t v a r i a n c e in i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s w ith th e c e n t r a l m e t a ­
p h y s i c a l a nd e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s of th e R e p u b lic a n d o t h e r m i d d l e
p eriod w ritin g s.
W hen s u c h i n t e r p r e t e r s s p e a k of th e c r i t i c a l c h a r a c ­
t e r of t h e s e w o r k s th e y a t l e a s t p a r t l y m e a n th a t th ey c o n ta in c r i t i c a l
r e e v a l u a t i o n s of th e d o c t r i n e s of m i d d l e p e r i o d P l a t o n i s m .
On th e
o t h e r s id e s ta n d th o s e w ho th in k th a t, in th e m a i n , the p h i l o s o p h i c a l
c o n c l u s i o n s of th e R e p u b lic a n d a l l i e d d ia lo g u e s a r e to be r e g a r d e d a s
c o n s tit u t in g th e p e r m a n e n t c o r e of P l a t o 1s p h ilo s o p h y w h ic h , o n c e he
a d o p te d it, he f i r m l y r e t a i n e d th r o u g h o u t th e r e m a i n d e r of his p h i l o ­
s o p h ic a l c a r e e r .
T h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s allow th e P a r m e n i d e s a n d T h e a e ­
t e t u s a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s to c o n ta in e l a b o r a t i o n s a n d d e f e n s e s , a n d in
s o m e c a s e s d e v e l o p m e n t s , b u t n e v e r r e v i s i o n s o r r e j e c t i o n s of th e
e a rlie r d o ctrin es.
W ith s u c h w r i t e r s th e t h e s i s t h a t th e a i m of th e
T h e a e t e t u s is to s u p p o r t by a n i n d i r e c t a r g u m e n t th e R e p u b l i c ^ c e n t r a l
c o n t e n t io n s a b o u t k n o w le d g e h a s b e e n v e r y p o p u l a r , a n d th is v iew i s in
f a c t th e m a i n t h e s i s of F . M. C o r n f o r d 's a n a l y s i s of th e d ia lo g u e in h is
w e ll- k n o w n book, P l a t o 1s T h e o r y of K n o w le d g e .
I w ill be a r g u i n g b e lo w f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of s e v e r a l p a r t i c u l a r
p a s s a g e s of th e T h e a e t e t u s w h i c h w i l l m a k e t h e i r a r g u m e n t s a n d c o n ­
c l u s i o n s in c o m p a t i b l e w i t h d o c t r i n e s m a i n t a i n e d in th e R e p u b lic an d
o th e r m id d le p e rio d d ia lo g u e s.
I t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t th e view th a t th e
4
T h e a e t e t u s j a t l e a s t , e n g a g e s in r e e v a l u a t i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m of s o m e of
t h e d o c t r i n e s of m i d d l e p e r i o d P l a t o n i s m , a n d is n o t r e s t r i c t e d in i t s
a i m s to th e r e a f f i r m a t i o n of th e R e p u b l ic 1s t h e o r i e s a b o u t k n o w le d g e .
I t m u s t be a d m i t t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t s c h o l a r s f a l l i n g in to th e g e n e r a l
c a t e g o r y of t h o s e w ho find in th e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s no i m p o r t a n t
r e v i s i o n s o r c r i t i c i s m s of m i d d l e p e r i o d d o c t r i n e s , h a v e up u n t i l now
g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e d th e d a y .
T h e i r i n f lu e n c e on th e p r e v a i l i n g u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g of P l a t o ' s w r i t i n g s h a s b e e n p r e p o n d e r a n t , a n d t h i s i s p a r t i c ­
u l a r l y t r u e of th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
F o r m a n y p e o p le in t h i s c o u n t r y i t i s
s i m p l y a x i o m a t i c t h a t c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m is to b e fou nd in th e R e p u b l i c ,
a n d t h a t th e d i a l o g u e s w h ic h fo llow m a i n t a i n , o r a t l e a s t do n o t d e s t r u c ­
t iv e l y c r i t i c i z e o r c o n t r a d i c t , th e m a i n d o c t r i n e s e x p o u n d e d t h e r e .
And
to a l l e g e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b e t w e e n w h a t is s a i d in l a t e r d i a l o g u e s a n d th e
d o c t r i n e s of c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m is o fte n ta k e n a s v i r t u a l p r o o f of f a u l t y
sch o larsh ip or a d iseased c ritic a l sen se.
Now I th in k i t is n o t a n e x a g ­
g e r a t i o n to s a y th a t t h i s w i d e s p r e a d a t t i t u d e i s to a g r e a t e x t e n t t r a c e ­
a b l e , s o f a r a t l e a s t a s P l a t o n i c s t u d i e s in A m e r i c a a r e c o n c e r n e d , to
th e i n f lu e n c e , d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t , of one m a n , P a u l S h o r e y .
S h o r e y 's w a r a g a i n s t th e w h o le i d e a of r e v i s i o n s o r d e v e l o p ­
m e n t s in P l a t o ' s v ie w s i s w e l l- k n o w n ; he r e j e c t e d n o t only t h e t h e s i s
t h a t t h e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s c r i t i c i z e a n d r e j e c t s o m e t h e o r i e s of
m i d d l e p e r i o d P l a t o n i s m b u t a l s o a n y a t t e m p t to fin d in t h e d i a l o g u e s
a n y s i g n i f i c a n t d e v e l o p m e n t o r a l t e r a t i o n of v ie w on a n y to p ic w h a t e v e r ,
w h e th e r b e fo re o r a f t e r the R e p u b lic .
It w a s S h o r e y 's o p in io n t h a t th e
d ia lo g u e s c o u ld b e a s s u m e d to h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n in w h a t e v e r o r d e r y o u
5
p l e a s e w ith o u t r e q u i r i n g any c h a n g e in th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P l a t o 1s
7
p h ilo s o p h ic a l v ie w s .
Now it is ob v io u s th a t in d en y in g d e v e l o p m e n t of
e v e r y s o r t S h o r e y p u ts h i m s e l f in to o p p o s i tio n to w id e ly d i f f e r i n g ty p e s
of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g q u ite d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s in an d a p p r o a c h e s
to P l a t o 1s w r i t i n g s .
T h u s one m a i n o b j e c t of h is a t t a c k w a s the s o -
c a l l e d g e n e tic s c h o o l of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h f l o u r i s h e d in th e l a t t e r
h a lf of the l a s t c e n t u r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in G e r m a n y .
T he c o n c e r n of
t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s to fin d in th e d ia lo g u e s a b e g in n in g p o in t a n d a d e f i ­
n ite d e v e l o p m e n t of th e t h e o r y of F o r m s , th e P l a t o n i c th e o r y of th e
so u l, e tc . , le d t h e m to e m p h a s i z e th e m a n n e r in w h ic h a view is s t a t e d
o r r e f e r r e d to, a n d to a r g u e f r o m th e a b s e n c e of a c e r t a i n d o c t r i n e in,
sa y , th e P h a e d o to i ts n ot y e t h av in g b e e n f o r m u l a t e d then; a nd in g e n ­
e r a l e v e r y p o s s i b l e n u a n c e of e x p o s it io n w a s found by s o m e o n e to be
g
f r a u g h t w ith m e a n i n g . T h u s s o m e w r i t e r s ,
in s e a r c h i n g f o r th e p l a c e
w h e r e th e F o r m s a r e f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d , h it upon th e p a s s a g e a t th e end
of th e C r a t y l u s (439c) w h e r e S o c r a t e s , by a c o n c e it, is p r e s e n t e d a s
h a v in g d r e a m e d a t h e o r y of F o r m s ; to t h e m th e t a l k of a d r e a m in c o n ­
n e c tio n w it h th e F o r m s m a r k e d t h i s r e f e r e n c e to th e d o c t r i n e a s t e n t a ­
tiv e and t h e r e f o r e e a r l i e r th a n p l a c e s li k e th e P h a e d o w h e r e th e d o c ­
t r i n e is openly d i s p l a y e d .
S h o r e y 1s e x a s p e r a t i o n w ith th e m e th o d s a n d
r e s u l t s of s u c h e n q u i r i e s is e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , a n d in th e m a i n h is
c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t th e d i s t o r t i o n s w h ic h th e y p r o d u c e d a r e w e l l - f o u n d e d .
B ut th o u g h it w a s p e r h a p s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th is s t y l e of c r i t ­
i c i s m w h ic h l e d h im to f o r m u l a t e h is t h e s i s of th e " u n ity of P l a t o ' s
t h o u g h t ," S h o r e y a l s o r e j e c t e d a n d a t t a c k e d , w h o l e s a l e , m e t h o d s of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h r e p r e s e n t q u i te d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to P l a t o ' s
6
w ritin g s.
F o r e x a m p l e , th e a t t e m p t of H e n r y J a c k s o n
9
to i n t e r p r e t
i m p o r t a n t a n d d if f ic u l t a r g u m e n t s of th e P h i l e b u s a nd o t h e r l a t e d i a ­
lo g u e s a s i n t r o d u c i n g a ne w , q u a s i - H e g e l i a n c o n c e p t io n of F o r m s , w a s
r e g a r d e d by S h o r e y a s j u s t a s u n b a l a n c e d a n d j u s t a s m u c h a t i s s u e of
d i s t o r t i o n s a s th e g e n e t i c i n t e r p r e t e r s * v i e w s .
B u t J a c k s o n ' s e f f o r t to
i n t e r p r e t P l a t o ' s a r g u m e n t s a n d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s t a t e m e n t s of P l a t o ' s
p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s is q u ite a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r f r o m th e r e l i a n c e
on s u c h te n u o u s e x t e r n a l in d ic a tio n s a s th e m a n n e r of e x p r e s s i o n o r
th e c o m p l e t e n e s s of e x p o s i t i o n o f s o m e r e f e r e n c e to a P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e .
To r e f u t e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n a r g u m e n t c o m p l e t e l y , on e m u s t p r o ­
v id e a b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of w h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s a y s .
If J a c k s o n ' s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a c e r t a i n a r g u m e n t c o n s t r u e s P l a t o a s h a v in g r e v i s e d
c e r t a i n of h is e a r l i e r v i e w s , a n d s o m e o n e th in k s t h i s a n u n lik e ly th in g
f o r P l a t o to h a v e d o n e , th e n w h a t he m u s t do is t r y to u n d e r s t a n d th e
a r g u m e n t a s c l o s e l y a n d c a r e f u l l y a s p o s s i b l e a n d show t h a t th e a l l e g e d
c o n f l i c t i s n o t in f a c t to b e found in it.
But in th e c a s e of J a c k s o n ' s
v ie w s , a n d in g e n e r a l w h e r e th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a r g u m e n t s in th e
l a t e r d i a l o g u e s i s c o n c e r n e d , S h o r e y f a i l s , a n d in d e e d r e f u s e s , to
m e e t h is o p p o n e n ts on t h e i r own g r o u n d .
T h u s he s i m p l y d e n i e s t h a t
th e p a s s a g e of th e P h i l e b u s (23c ff. ) on w h ic h J a c k s o n b a s e s h is v ie w s
c o n ta i n s a n y a r g u m e n t a t a l l b e a r i n g on g e n e r a l m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s ­
tio n s , ^
a n d he t h e r e f o r e r e f u s e s to c o m m i t h i m s e l f to a n y d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s of th e p a s s a g e . S i m i l a r t r i c k s a r e p l a y e d w it h t h e S o p h i s t ' s
>/
\ ./
e x a m i n a t i o n of Ov a n d
ov, w h e r e S h o r e y t a k e s P l a t o not to be d i s ; /
c u s s i n g t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n w h a t 0v/fi*. i s (a q u e s t i o n r a i s e d in
7
th e R e p u b l i c ), but r a t h e r w o r k in g out th e s o lu tio n to a q u e s t i o n of
" p r a c t i c a l l o g i c , " n a m e l y how w e c a n w ith o u t c o n t r a d i c t i n g o u r s e l v e s
speak about
S h o r e y h a s to b r i n g in th is d u b io u s d i s t i n c t i o n
in o r d e r to p r e v e n t th e o t h e r w i s e n a t u r a l i n f e r e n c e f r o m w h a t a c c o r d ­
ing to P l a t o c a n n o t be th o u g h t w ith o u t i n c o n s i s t e n c y , to w h a t in his
v iew c a n n o t be th e c a s e .
T h e s e r u s e s m u s t not, h o w e v e r , be t o l e r ­
a te d , a n d th e r i g h t to t r e a t p h ilo s o p h y a s p h i lo s o p h y a n d a r g u m e n t s a s
a r g u m e n t s m u s t be a b s o l u t e l y i n s i s t e d upon.
So f a r a s the d i a l e c t i c a l
d ia lo g u e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , th e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e a r g u ­
m e n t s found in t h e m c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d , in d e t a i l , so a s to a c c o r d w ith
th e t h e s i s of th e " u n ity of P l a t o 1s th o u g h t, " a n d I th in k it m u s t be
a d m i t t e d t h a t S h o r e y 1s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m is too s u p e r f i c i a l to c o m e
c l o s e to j u s t i f y i n g th e w i d e s p r e a d c o n v ic tio n t h a t c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m
is in no w ay t h r e a t e n e d by a r g u m e n t s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s of th e T h e a e t e t u s
a nd its s u c c e s s o r s .
T h e r e a r e of c o u r s e o t h e r s o u r c e s of th e p r e s e n t g e n e r a l a l l e ­
g ia n c e to th e v iew th a t th e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s p r o d u c e n o th in g f u n d a ­
m e n t a l l y a t v a r i a n c e w ith th e d o c t r i n e s of th e m i d d l e p e r i o d w o r k s .
A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , th e f a c t t h a t s u c h i m p o r t a n t s c h o l a r s a s C o r n f o r d
a n d H. F . C h e r n i s s h a v e v i g o r o u s l y t a k e n th is li n e h a s no d o u b t ha d its
in f lu e n c e .
In th e c o u r s e of m y a n a l y s i s I w i ll h a v e o c c a s i o n to c o n s i d e r
in c l o s e d e t a i l th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h e s e w r i t e r s h a v e a d o p te d of c r u c i a l
p a s s a g e s of th e T h e a e t e t u s ; a n d in g e n e r a l th e r e s u l t of s u c h e x a m i n a ­
tio n s is no t f a v o r a b l e to c u r r e n t l y a c c e p t e d v ie w s .
My c o m m e n t a r y on
th e T h e a e t e t u s c a n , in f a c t , be r e g a r d e d a s in p a r t a d e t a i l e d a t t e m p t
8
to s u b j e c t th e t h e s i s of th e " u n ity of P l a t o 1s th o u g h t" to th e one t e s t
th a t m a t t e r s - - i t s a b i l i t y to p r o d u c e a s u s t a i n e d a n d d e t a i l e d i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n of th e a r g u m e n t s P l a t o a c t u a l l y e m p l o y s in a s in g le d ia lo g u e .
If a
c a r e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s , a s a w h o le a n d a r g u m e n t by
a r g u m e n t , c a n n o t be m a d e in c o n f o r m i t y w ith t h a t t h e s i s , t h e n , w h a t ­
e v e r t u r n s out to be t h e c a s e f o r th e o t h e r d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s , it c a n
no l o n g e r be m a i n t a i n e d t h a t c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m w a s a lw a y s a c c e p t e d
by P l a t o .
T h e r e is one f u r t h e r m a t t e r w h ic h s h o u ld be m e n t i o n e d h e r e ,
e v e n if only b r i e f l y .
T h is is th e q u e s t i o n of th e d a tin g of th e T i m a e u s
(and i ts c o m p a n i o n - p i e c e , th e C r i t i a s ).
A s is w e ll know n, th e
T i m a e u s 1 c o s m o l o g y i s r a t h e r e m p h a t i c a l l y g r o u n d e d on th e c a n o n i c a l
t h e o r y of F o r m s , a n d m a i n t a i n s a n u m b e r of m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it.
S in c e th e e v id e n c e d r a w n f r o m
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of s t y l e i s u s u a l l y t a k e n to p o in t to a d a te f o r t h e T i m ­
a e u s a t l e a s t a s l a t e a s a n y of th e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s , th e T i m a e u s
s e e m s a p o w e r f u l w i t n e s s to th e c o r r e c t n e s s of th e p r e v a i l i n g v iew of
th e r e l a t i o n of th e d i a l e c t i c a l d ia lo g u e s to c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m .
If th e
T i m a e u s k no w s n o th in g of s u p p o s e d r e v i s i o n s in c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e s , so
th e a r g u m e n t r u n s , i t m u s t b e w r o n g to fin d d i a lo g u e s w r i t t e n a r o u n d
th e s a m e t i m e o r e a r l i e r a r g u i n g in f a v o r of s u c h c h a n g e s .
Now e v e n
if t h e T i m a e u s w e r e know n to be l a t e r th a n th e w h o le s e r i e s of c r i t i c a l
w o r k s , it w o u ld o b v io u s l y s t i l l b e n e c e s s a r y to stu d y th e a r g u m e n t s of
th e T h e a e t e t u s a n d its s u c c e s s o r s to s e e w h e t h e r o r not th e y w e r e c o m ­
p a t i b l e w i th th e R e p u b l i c s a n d T i m a e u s * v ie w s .
It m u s t be i n s i s t e d on
9
t h a t in a l l s u c h m a t t e r s th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r a r g u m e n t s m u s t
h a v e p r i o r i t y o v e r a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of p r o b a b i l i t y d r a w n f r o m s u c h
e x t e r n a l s a s r e l a t i v e d a tin g .
It m a y be i m p r o b a b l e a n d u n f o r t u n a te t h a t
th e T h e a e t e t u s a n d S o p h is t sh o u ld a r g u e a g a i n s t v ie w s a c c e p t e d bo th in
th e R e p u b lic a n d th e T i m a e u s , but it is no t i m p o s s i b l e , a n d th e only w ay
to find out w h e t h e r th e y do is to stu d y th e m c a r e f u l l y .
B ut in f a c t th e e v id e n c e a d d u c e d to s u p p o r t th e T i m a e u s 1 c l a i m
to b e lo n g to th e l a s t t w e n ty - o d d y e a r s of P l a t o 1s lif e c a n be, a n d h a s
been, stro n g ly q uestioned. ^
T h is is a v e r y l a r g e a n d c o m p l i c a t e d
to p ic , a n d I s h a l l m e n t i o n h e r e only one a s p e c t of one i s s u e , th o u g h a
v e r y i m p o r t a n t one.
T h e m o s t i m p o s in g g r o u n d
13
for a ssu m in g a late
d a te f o r th e T i m a e u s is t h a t it, in c o m m o n w ith j u s t fiv e o t h e r d i a lo g u e s
( C r i t i a s , S o p h i s t , S t a t e s m a n , P h i l e b u s , a nd L a w s ), sh o w s s u c h a
m a r k e d te n d e n c y to a v o id i l l e g i t i m a t e h ia tu s th a t, a s C h e r n i s s and
o t h e r s hav e e m p h a s i z e d , th e d e c i s i o n to w r i t e in th is w ay m u s t h a v e
b e e n q u ite d e l i b e r a t e .
T ay lor ju stly r e m a r k s
14
th a t in t h e s e d i a lo g u e s
P l a t o a t t e m p t s to " a d a p t th e s t y l e in v e n te d f o r th e t o p i c a l p a m p h l e t by
I s o c r a t e s to th e p u r p o s e s of s u s t a i n e d p h il o s o p h ic a l a n d s c i e n t i f i c e x p o ­
s i t io n . . . [w ithj . . . t h e g e n e r a l e ffe c t . . . t h a t w e no l o n g e r h a v e
th e a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the to n e of w e l l - b r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n [ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of th e R e p u b li c , but i n s te a d ] . . . a r e g e ttin g s o m e th in g m u c h m o r e
lik e a f o r m a l t r e a t i s e o r e s s a y . "
Now it is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d , a n d i s ro u n d ly a s s e r t e d by C h e r niss,
15
th a t th e d e c i s i o n to a v o i d h i a tu s w a s m a d e onc e a n d f o r a l l f o r
l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y of a l l t y p e s , so t h a t an y w o r k w h ic h a v o id s h ia tu s i s
10
l a t e r th a n any w h ic h d o e s not.
And th is a t o n c e r a n k s th e T i m a e u s a s
l a t e r th a n th e T h e a e t e t u s a nd P a r m e n i d e s .
r e a s o n to a c c e p t t h i s u n a r g u e d a s s u m p t i o n .
But I s e e a b s o l u t e l y no
If th e e f f e c t of th e a v o i d ­
a n c e of h i a tu s i s , a s T a y l o r s a y s , to w r i t e in th e s t y l e of a t r e a t i s e o r
e s s a y , why s h o u ld w e no t th in k t h a t th e d e c i s i o n to a v o id h i a t u s in
w o r k s w h e r e th e e s s a y s t y l e w a s th o u g h t a p p r o p r i a t e p r e c e d e d th e d e c i ­
s i o n to a v o id it g e n e r a l l y ?
Why s h o u ld n o t th e to n e of w e l l - b r e d c o n ­
v e r s a t i o n h a v e b e e n d e s i r e d in s o m e w o r k s (say th e T h e a e t e t u s ) e v e n
a f t e r e s s a y s t y l e had b e e n a d o p te d f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s a n d in o t h e r
w o r k s (sa y th e T i m a e u s )?
this a lte rn a tiv e , ^
S in c e O w en h a d a l r e a d y c l e a r l y e n u n c i a t e d
it is d i s t r e s s i n g to fin d th a t C h e r n i s s h a s m i s u n -
d e r s t o o d th e s u g g e s tio n .
17
C h e r n i s s th in k s it f o llo w s f r o m Owen*s
e m p h a s i s on th e f a c t th a t th e T i m a e u s i s , a f t e r a l l , a n e s s a y , to w h i c h
P l a t o m i g h t have th o u g h t a n I s o c r a t e a n e s s a y s t y l e a p p r o p r i a t e e v e n
w h ile not a v o id in g h ia tu s in c o n v e r s a t i o n a l d i a l o g u e s , t h a t P l a t o w o u ld
a t a n y t i m e in h is lif e h a v e a v o id e d h ia tu s in w r i t i n g it.
A nd he t h e n
g o e s on to p o in t out t h a t th e S y m p o s i u m a n d M e n e x e n u s , w h ic h th o u g h
no t e s s a y s a r e a t l e a s t l ik e th e T i m a e u s in b e in g t o u r s de f o r c e of
s t y l e , do n ot e x h ib it th is f e a t u r e .
T h is is of c o u r s e a n i g n o r a t i o e l e n -
c h i : th e s u g g e s t i o n is t h a t a t s o m e t i m e P l a t o d e c i d e d to a d o p t a n
I s o c r a t e a n e s s a y s t y l e f o r t r e a t i s e s , not t h a t he a l w a y s h a d tw o s t y l e s ,
one f o r e s s a y s (and o t h e r s t y l i s t i c t o u r s de f o r c e ) a n d o n e f o r d i a l o g u e .
And C h e r n i s s h a s no t, in f a c t , r e b u t t e d t h i s s u g g e s t i o n in a n y w a y .
s e e m s e v id e n t to m e th a t, in th e p r e s e n t s t a t e of o u r r e s e a r c h in to
q u e s t i o n s of P l a t o 1s s t y l e , O w e n 1s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e a v o i d a n c e of
It
11
h ia tu s in th e T i m a e u s h a s a t l e a s t a s m u c h p l a u s i b i l i t y a s th e o r th o d o x
view .
I do n ot, t h e r e f o r e , s e e any f o r c e a t a l l in th e c l a i m t h a t a n i n ­
t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h a t t r i b u t e s to th e T h e a e t e t u s v ie w s w h ic h a r e i n c o n ­
s i s t e n t w ith th o s e of th e R e p u b lic f l i e s in th e fa c e of v e r y w e l l e s t a b ­
l i s h e d f a c ts a b o u t th e o r d e r of P la to * s d ia l o g u e s .
In s u m , t h e r e i s , so f a r a s I c a n s e e , no j u s t i f i e d g e n e r a l p r e ­
s u m p tio n in f a v o r of th e p r e v a l e n t t h e s i s th a t th e d i a l e c t i c a l d i a l o g u e s ,
in c lu d in g th e T h e a e t e t u s , m u s t be i n t e r p r e t e d a s m a i n t a i n i n g th e d o c ­
t r i n e s of c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i s m .
T h e r e is no ev e n p r i m a f a c i e r e a s o n
n ot to t u r n to th e e x a m i n a t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s w ith a w i l l i n g n e s s to
c o n s t r u e i ts a r g u m e n t s in w h a t e v e r w a y s e e m s m o s t n a t u r a l , g iv e n
t h e i r c o n te x t w ith in th e d ia lo g u e i t s e l f , to a n a l e r t a n d s o b e r p h i l o s o p h ­
ical re a d e r .
fo llo w s.
It is th is e f f o r t t h a t I u n d e r t a k e in th e c o m m e n t a r y w h ic h
CHAPTER I
T H E A M A L G A M A T IO N O F T H E T H E O R IE S O F T H E A E T E T U S ,
P R O T A G O R A S , AND H E R A C L E IT U S (1 5 1 -1 6 1 )
A.
T h e E l e m e n t s of P r o t a g o r e a n i s m a n d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m (1 5 1 -1 5 5 )
T h e m a i n d ia lo g u e of th e T h e a e t e t u s , a c o n v e r s a t i o n b e tw e e n
S o c r a t e s , th e g e o m e t e r T h e o d o r u s , a n d h is pu p il T h e a e t e t u s , b e g in s
w i t h a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t o r y d i s c u s s i o n (143d 1 -151 d 6) in w h ic h S o c r a t e s
e n g a g e s T h e a e t e t u s (146c) a s h is r e s p o n d e n t in a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e
q u e stio n , W h a t i s k n o w le d g e ?
A t f i r s t T h e a e t e t u s r e p l i e s by c iti n g
v a r i o u s s c i e n c e s , a r t s , a n d c r a f t s a s " k n o w l e d g e s 1' ( f c l n c T ^ ^ A i ^ m u c h
a s u n d e r s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s M e n o th in k s to s a y w h a t v i r t u e is by
e x p la in in g w h a t th e v i r t u e of a m a n , a w o m a n , a n d so on, c o n s i s t in
(M e n o 71 e ff. ).
S o c r a t e s e x p la in s t h a t he w a n t s to know w h a t k n o w le d g e
i t s e l f is a n d n o t how m a n y v a r i e t i e s of it t h e r e m a y be, a nd a f t e r a
d i g r e s s i o n sh o w in g T h e a e t e t u s 1 g e o m e t r i c a l p r o w e s s a n d e x p la i n in g S o c ­
r a t e s 1 a v o c a t i o n a s i n t e l l e c t u a l m id w if e , th e d i s c u s s i o n t u r n s in e a r n e s t
to th e a t t e m p t to d e f i n e k n o w le d g e .
O n c e T h e a e t e t u s u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t in a s k i n g
*
t
UN
otc
Trorf
ov S o c r a t e s w i s h e s to b e g iv e n a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of
a l l th in g s t h a t a r e c a l l e d
, he i s p r e t t y e a s i l y p e r s u a d e d to
p u t a s i d e h is i n i t i a l d if f id e n c e (148e) a n d p r o p o s e a d e f in i tio n of k n o w l ­
ed g e .
T h e d e f in it io n , th a t k n o w le d g e is n o th in g e l s e th a n p e r c e p t i o n ,
i s no s o o n e r a n n o u n c e d th a n S o c r a t e s e m b a r k s on a le n g th y d e v e l o p m e n t
13
of th e g r o u n d s w h i c h m ig h t l e a d one to a c c e p t th is d o c t r i n e .
He f i r s t
a s s o c i a t e s T h e a e t e t u s ' t h e s i s w ith th e P r o t a g o r e a n d o c t r i n e th a t m a n
is th e m e a s u r e of a l l th in g s a n d th e n c o n t r i v e s to m a k e P r o t a g o r a s 1
t h e o r y i t s e l f a k in d of e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o ffsh o o t of a H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y
of r e a l i t y .
T h e v ie w s of T h e a e t e t u s , P r o t a g o r a s , a n d H e r a c l e i t u s a r e
s a id , a s S o c r a t e s c o n c lu d e s h is d e v e lo p m e n t a n d e x p o s itio n of t h e m , to
" c o m e to th e s a m e th in g " (l6 0 d ), a n d T h e a e t e t u s is r e p r e s e n t e d a s
h o ld in g t h a t if H e r a c l e i t u s 1 a n d P r o t a g o r a s ' v ie w s a r e c o r r e c t th e n p e r ­
c e p t io n t u r n s out to be k n o w le d g e ( l 6 0 e 1 -2 ). ^ In th e s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i ­
c i s m of th e a m a l g a m a t e d d o c t r i n e t h e s e d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s a r e , in th e
m ain , s e p a ra te ly in v e stig a te d and te ste d .
F i r s t P ro ta g o re a n ism
( I 6 0 c - 1 7 9 c ) a n d th e n H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m (1 8 1 b -1 8 3 c ) a r e e x a m in e d a n d
found to be f a l s e d o c t r i n e s a n d t h e r e f o r e no t s a f e b a s e s on w h ic h to
d e fe n d T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in itio n of k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n .
It is only a t
th is p o in t in t h e a r g u m e n t ( 1 8 4 b -1 8 6 e ) th a t S o c r a t e s a n d T h e a e t e t u s
c o n f r o n t d i r e c t l y th e p r o p o s e d d e f in itio n , w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e e i t h e r to
P r o t a g o r e a n o r to H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e s ; a n d , in f a c t, it d o e s no t
ta k e S o c r a t e s v e r y lo n g to show th a t p e r c e p t i o n , c o r r e c t l y c o n c e iv e d ,
is n ot only no t i d e n t i c a l w i th k n o w le d g e bu t n e v e r a m o u n ts to k n o w le d g e
a t a ll.
T h e f i r s t l a r g e s e c t i o n of th e d ia lo g u e ( 1 5 1 d - l 6 l b ) , th e n , h a s
the p u r p o s e of c o n s t r u c t i n g a t w o - s i d e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r p in n in g f o r
T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in itio n of k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n .
P l a t o ' s i n t e r e s t s in
th e d ia lo g u e a r e , n o n e t h e l e s s , a s m u c h e n g a g e d by P r o t a g o r e a n i s m a n d
H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m on t h e i r own a c c o u n t a s th e y a r e by t h e s e d o c t r i n e s a s
14
s u p p o r t s f o r th e s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of k n o w le d g e .
T h is is why
h is s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m c o n s i d e r s e a c h s t r a n d in th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
e x p a n s io n of T h e a e t e t u s 1 t h e o r y in i s o l a t i o n f r o m th e o t h e r , a s w e l l a s
in v i r t u a l i n d e p e n d e n c e of its r o l e in th e e x p a n s io n a n d d e f e n s e of
T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in itio n .
T h e r e is l i t t l e d if f ic u lty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g how th e t h e s i s c o m e s
to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P r o g a g o r a s * d o c t r i n e t h a t m a n i s th e m e a s u r e of
a l l th in g s .
P r o t a g o r a s , a s P l a t o r e p r e s e n t s h im , ^ h o ld s w h a t m a y be
c a l l e d a r e l a t i v i s t p o s i t i o n a b o u t t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e : he b e l i e v e s t h a t
it i s i n c o r r e c t e v e r to s a y t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s t r u e , o r is^ t h e c a s e , o r
th a t a n y th in g e x i s t s o r i £ s u c h - a n d - s u c h , w ith o u t s a y in g to w h o m o r f o r
w h o m t h e s e t h in g s a r e so .
L a t e r on (1 6 6 - 1 6 8 ) in r e s p o n s e to c r i t i c i s m
P r o t a g o r a s * t h e o r y w ill b e e x p la i n e d m o r e a t l a r g e , b u t h e r e (152) o n ly
th e f u n d a m e n t a l d o c t r i n e i s s t a t e d .
A nd a lth o u g h P r o t a g o r a s e v id e n tly
m e a n s to a s s e r t his t h e s i s q u ite u n r e s t r i c t e d l y a n d f o r j u d g m e n t s of a l l
t y p e s , i t is h e r e i l l u s t r a t e d only by r e f e r e n c e to j u d g m e n t s a b o u t t h e
q u a l i t i e s a th in g i s p e r c e i v e d to h a v e .
> ,^ c
w in d is t h a t it is n o t in i t s e l f (^-q
T h e c o r r e c t th in g to s a y a b o u t a
152b 5) e i t h e r c o l d o r n o t
cold: it i s c o ld to a p e r s o n w ho f e e l s i t s o a n d n o t c o ld to o ne w h o f e e l s
i t no t so.
W h a t a n y o n e f e e l s o r s e e s o r o t h e r w i s e p e r c e i v e s to b e t h e
c a s e is th e c a s e f o r h im (c 2 - 3 ) .
Thus P r o ta g o r a s 1 th e o ry im p lie s th at
e v e r y p e r c e p t i o n i s t r u e (to h im w h o h a s it) a n d t h a t p e r c e p t i o n i s a l ­
w a y s of s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s o r is th e c a s e (fo r h im w h o h a s it) (c 5 - 6 ) .
In t h i s w a y P r o t a g o r a s * d o c t r i n e m a i n t a i n s th e e x i s t e n c e of t h e
q u a l i t i e s a n d o b j e c t s w h ic h a n y one p e r c e i v e s .
t i r e l y c l e a r how he m e a n s to a r g u e f o r t h i s :
It is not h o w ev er e n ­
h e s e e m s to be s a y i n g
(152a 6 - 8 ) t h a t t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e , t a k e n w it h o u t e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e to
15
th e p e r s o n to w h o m s o m e th in g i s t r u e o r f o r w h o m it e x i s t s , a r e e m p ty
c o n c e p ts - - t h a t t h e r e i s n !t any t r u t h o r e x i s t e n c e , but only t r u t h - f o r - x
an d e x i s t e n c e - f o r - x .
If, h o w e v e r , h is in t e n tio n is to do a w a y w ith the
c o n c e p ts of t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e and i n t r o d u c e i n s t e a d h is r e l a t i v e t r u t h
and r e l a t i v e e x i s t e n c e , it is not e a s y to s e e how he c a n a r g u e th a t p e r ­
c e p tio n is a c a s e of k n o w le d g e .
F o r " T h e w in d is c o ld to m e M w ill th e n
not d if f e r m a t e r i a l l y f r o m " T h e w ind a p p e a r s co ld to m e . "
T h u s , in
the f i r s t p l a c e th e e ffe c t w ill be to r e d u c e a l l th in k in g to th e r e p o r t i n g
of a p p e a r a n c e s ; a n d , in th e s e c o n d p l a c e , in t h e s e r e p o r t s t h e r e w ill
be no th in g t r u e but, a t b e s t , t r u e - f o r - t h e - r e p o r t e r .
But k n o w le d g e (as
P r o t a g o r a s is r e p r e s e n t e d a s a r g u i n g , 152c 5 -6 ) i m p l i e s t r u t h a n d th e
e x i s t e n c e of i ts o b je c t , not m e r e t r u t h - f o r - x a n d e x i s t e n c e - f o r - x (w hich
c o m e s to no m o r e th a n a p p e a r a n c e ) .
It s e e m s th e n t h a t if he w i s h e s to
i n t r o d u c e t h e s e new c o n c e p t s he ought to c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e r e is nothing
th a t e x i s t s an d no k n o w le d g e , only a p p e a r a n c e s a n d r e p o r t s of a p p e a r ­
a n c e s , r a t h e r th a n th a t p e r c e i v i n g is g e ttin g a t w h a t e x i s t s , an d , t h e r e ­
f o r e , a m o u n t s to k n o w le d g e .
I t s e e m s p o s s i b l e , th e n , th a t w h a t he
r e a l l y w i s h e s to a r g u e f o r is n o t th e a b a n d o n m e n t of th e c o n c e p ts of
e x i s t e n c e a n d t r u t h , w ith t h e i r f r e e d o m f r o m " f o r - x " s u f f i x e s , but
r a t h e r a n a d j u s t m e n t in th e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n : a th in g is hot
not if it so a p p e a r s to th e n o r m a l o b s e r v e r (o r w h a t e v e r ) but if it so
a p p e a r s to any one (and th e p a r a d o x t h a t t h e n th e s a m e th ing w ill have
c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r e d i c a t e s c a n be s o f te n e d s o m e w h a t by p o in tin g out th a t
if a th in g is b oth h o t a n d co ld it is so f o r d i f f e r e n t o b s e r v e r s ) .
But h o w e v e r e x a c tly P r o t a g o r a s w i s h e s to e x p la in and s u p p o r t
16
h is t h e s i s (the a l t e r n a t i v e s w i l l b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t l a t e r on in c o n n e c ­
tio n w ith P l a t o 1s r e f u t a t i o n of h is d o c t r i n e ) , h e r e a t the b e g in n in g th e
p o s i t i o n is so b r i e f l y s t a t e d t h a t a l l on e h a s a r i g h t to c o n c l u d e is t h a t
P r o t a g o r a s i s a p p e a l i n g to t h e f a c t s a b o u t p e r c e p t u a l r e l a t i v i t y to s u p ­
p o r t s o m e d o c t r i n e to th e e f f e c t t h a t w h a t one p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s c a n ­
n o t be a ll o w e d to d i s c r e d i t t h e j u d g m e n t s a n y one e l s e m a k e s on th e
b a s i s of h is e x p e r i e n c e .
T h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e
is th e n b r o u g h t in on th e g r o u n d t h a t no p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t c a n be
refu ted .
(Since t h e r e a r e o t h e r t y p e s of j u d g m e n t s b e s i d e s p e r c e p t u a l
o nes, and P ro ta g o ra s * th e o ry has the s a m e im p lic a tio n s fo r a ll ju d g ­
m e n t s , it d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t e v e r y c a s e of k n o w le d g e i s a c a s e of p e r ­
c e p ti o n a n d t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t T h e a e te tu s * i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
p e r c e p t i o n a n d k n o w le d g e .
B u t a d i s c r e e t s i l e n c e is m a i n t a i n e d h e r e ,
a n d in d e e d th r o u g h o u t th e w h o le d i s c u s s i o n , a b o u t th is d i s c r e p a n c y
betw een P r o t a g o r a s and T h e a e te tu s . )
H a v in g e s t a b l i s h e d t h i s d e g r e e of h a r m o n y b e t w e e n th e v ie w s of
T h e a e t e t u s a n d P r o t a g o r a s , P l a t o g o e s r i g h t on (152d ff. ), w ith o u t
Dause, to c o n n e c t P r o t a g o r a s w i t h H e r a c l e i t u s * d o c t r i n e of u n i v e r s a l
flux.
T h is he d o e s by s u g g e s t i n g , f a c e t i o u s l y , t h a t th e d o c t r i n e a b o u t
t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e j u s t o u t lin e d w a s a m e r e p o p u l a r v e r s i o n of th e d o c ­
t r i n e w h ic h P r o t a g o r a s r e a l l y m e a n t to u p h o ld a n d w h i c h he t a u g h t h is
p u p ils in p r i v a t e .
H is p r i v a t e d o c t r i n e , w e a r e g iv e n to u n d e r s t a n d ,
c o i n c i d e d w ith t h a t of H e r a c l e i t u s .
In a t t r i b u t i n g t h i s v ie w to P r o t a g ­
o r a s a s h is s e c r e t t e a c h i n g P l a t o is no d o u b t g iv in g a h in t, if h in t i s
n e e d e d , th a t it is he a n d n o t P r o t a g o r a s w h o f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d th e
17
a f f in ity b e tw e e n th e tw o d o c t r i n e s . ^
It is not e a s y to s e e a t f i r s t how th e tw o v ie w s c a n c o m e to th e
s a m e , o r how P r o t a g o r e a n i s m c a n be c o n s t r u e d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e of
H e ra c le itea n ism .
H e r a c l e i t u s * d o c t r i n e is a d o c t r i n e a b o u t c h a n g e ,
w h i c h is to s a y a b o u t th e c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n of q u a l i t i e s a n d o t h e r
p r o p e r t i e s , w h e r e a s P r o t a g o r a s is e v id e n tly i n t e r e s t e d in th e s i m u l t a ­
n e o u s p r e d i c a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t a n d a p p a r e n t l y c o n f lic tin g q u a l i t i e s .
T h e y do , in d e e d , s h a r e one f e a t u r e , n a m e l y th e d e n i a l t h a t a n y th in g is
in i t s e l f (152b 5 - 6 , d 2 - 3 , 7 - 8 ) any g iv e n th in g o r of an y p a r t i c u l a r
q u a l i t y : b u t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s p o in t to th e f a c t th a t q u a l i t i e s c o m e a n d
go, a r i s i n g u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d p a s s i n g aw ay o r f a ilin g to
a r i s e u n d e r o t h e r s , w h e r e a s P r o t a g o r a s * a p p e a l w o uld s e e m to be to
th e f a c t t h a t a t one a n d th e s a m e t i m e d i f f e r e n t p e r c e i v e r s s e e a th in g
a s (e. g. ) b lu e a n d g r e e n .
And to s a y t h a t s o m e th in g is not in i t s e l f
g r e e n b e c a u s e it lo o k s b lu e to s o m e p e o p le a t th e s a m e t i m e a s it lo o k s
g r e e n to o t h e r s , i s a t l e a s t a p p a r e n t l y q u it e a s e p a r a t e p o in t f r o m th e
H e r a c l e i t e a n v ie w t h a t you s h o u ld not s a y a th in g is in i t s e l f g r e e n
b e c a u s e b e f o r e you know i t it w il l h a v e b e c o m e b lu e .
T h e one s e e m s
to e n v i s a g e l a c k of d u r a t i o n a s th e c a u s e w hy n o th in g i£ a n y th in g o r of
any q u a lity , w h e r e a s th e o t h e r is p r e o c c u p i e d w ith i n d e t e r m i n a c y a n d
a m b i g u i t y a t a ny s in g le m o m e n t .
T h e r e i s , th e n , a n i n i t i a l d oubt how
P l a t o th i n k s P r o t a g o r e a n i s m r e d u c e s to H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m .
Now P l a t o d o e s p r o v i d e a n a r g u m e n t of s o r t s w h ic h is in te n d e d
to show how P r o t a g o r a s * p o in t is b a s i c a l l y j u s t t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n flux
s t o r y a p p l i e d to p e r c e p t i o n : I t a k e it t h a t th e d i s c u s s i o n (1 5 4 b -1 5 5 e ) of
18
th e p u z z l e s a b o u t s i z e a n d n u m b e r is s u p p o s e d to p r o v i d e th e r a t i o n a l e
f o r th e r e d u c t i o n of P r o t a g o r e a n i s m to H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , a n d t h a t th e
t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n th e n o u tlin e d (1 5 6 a -1 5 7 c ) is in te n d e d to c a r r y
th r o u g h th e a s s i m i l a t i o n .
But e v e n b e f o r e t h o s e a r g u m e n t s a r e p r o ­
d u c e d th e tw o t h e o r i e s a r e a l r e a d y q u ite a b r u p t l y a s s o c i a t e d .
F o r in
t h e i n i t i a l s t a t e m e n t of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m (152d 2 - e 1) i t s e l f it i s a p p a r ­
e n tly th e P r o t a g o r e a n ty p e of r e l a t i v i t y t h a t is i n t r o d u c e d a s p o s i n g th e
p r o b l e m to w h ic h th e H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e of flux is th e a n s w e r .
The
passage reads:
N o th in g i s , t a k e n by i t s e l f , on e th in g , n o r c o u ld y o u r i g h t l y
c a l l it j u s t th is th in g o r a th in g of j u s t th is s o r t , b ut if yo u s a y
i t i s l a r g e it w il l a p p e a r s m a l l a s w e l l, a n d if h e a v y it w ill
a p p e a r l ig h t , a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r a l l p r e d i c a t e s , s i n c e n o th in g
i s on e th in g o r j u s t t h i s th in g o r of j u s t t h i s s o r t . A ll th e t h in g s
w h ic h w e s a y , s p e a k i n g not c o r r e c t l y , a r e , b e c o m e a s a r e s u l t
of m o t i o n a n d c h a n g e a n d m i n g lin g w ith one a n o t h e r : f o r n o th in g
e v e r i s , b u t a lw a y s b e c o m e s .
Now th e f i r s t s e n t e n c e of th is s t a t e m e n t r e l i e s in i t s e x a m p l e s
e x c l u s i v e l y upon th e k in d of i n d e t e r m i n a c y w h ic h is a s s o c i a t e d w it h th e
b e h a v i o r of p r e d i c a t e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n c o n v e n ie n t ly d u b b e d ' ' i n c o m p l e t e . 1'
N on e of t h e s e - - u g l y a n d b e a u t i f u l , e q u a l a n d u n e q u a l a r e o t h e r e x a m p l e s
d w e lt upon in P l a t o 1s m i d d l e p e r i o d d ia l o g u e s - - c a n b e s i m p l y p r e d i c a t e d
of an y s u b j e c t , a t l e a s t n o t of a n y th in g in th e o r d i n a r y w o r l d , b u t on e a c h
o c c a s i o n th e p r e d i c a t e m u s t b e " c o m p l e t e d " by m e a n s of a r e f e r e n c e to
a p e r s o n to w h o m t h e t h i n g s a r e e q u a l, o r to th in g s in c o m p a r i s o n w ith
w h ic h a th in g i s b e a u tif u l, a n d s o f o r t h .
N o th in g is j u s t b e a u tif u l, bu t,
a s P l a t o s a y s in th e H ip p ia s M a j o r (2 8 9 a - b ) , not e v e n H e le n is b e a u tif u l
w h a t e v e r s h e is c o m p a r e d w i t h (fo r e x a m p l e th e go ds): one oug ht to c a l l
a w o m a n b e a u ti f u l w i th th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n " f o r a h u m a n b e i n g . "
A nd one
4
19
s e e m s to be in v ite d to th in k of P r o t a g o r a s ' i n t e r e s t in p e r c e p t u a l p r e d ­
i c a t e s a s in v o lv in g th e v iew th a t th e y a r e a l l of th e m i n c o m p l e t e in j u s t
th e s a m e w a y - - o n e c a n n e v e r sa y a th in g is j u s t g r e e n w ith o u t a d d in g
( e i t h e r e x p lic itly o r im p l i c i t l y ) to w h a t o b s e r v e r it is so.
e f f e c t of P r o t a g o r a s
d e n ia l th a t th e w ind is e v e r
The a p p a re n t
taoT oo c o ld , but
a lw a y s only c o ld to th e m a n w ho s h i v e r s (and not to h im who d o e s not
s h i v e r ) , is to r e q u i r e a c o m p l e t i o n w h e n e v e r any of t h e s e p r e d i c a t e s
is a p p lie d to a n y th in g .
In th e m i d d l e p e r i o d d i a l o g u e s , a s h e r e , it is a r g u e d th a t , b e ­
c a u s e a th in g t h a t is h e a v y in one r e s p e c t o r in r e f e r e n c e to one s t a n d ­
a r d of m e a s u r e m e n t w i l l e q u a lly t u r n out lig h t in a n o t h e r r e s p e c t o r
r e f e r e n c e , it m u s t be w r o n g to s a y of any s u c h th in g th a t it i ^ h e a v y :
only s o m e th in g w h ic h h a s th e q u a lity of h e a v i n e s s h o w e v e r it m e a s u r e d
a n d in w h a t e v e r r e s p e c t c a n be t r u l y s a i d to b£ h e a v y .
W hen t h i s to p ic
is d i s c u s s e d in th e R e p u b lic (4 7 9 a -d ) th in g s o t h e r th a n F o r m s , w h ic h
a lo n e b e a r th e p r e d i c a t e s in q u e s t i o n w ith o u t r e q u i r i n g q u a lif ic a tio n ,
a r e s a i d to w a v e r b e tw e e n b e in g a n d n o t- b e in g , s i n c e one c a n n o t be
s a t i s f i e d to th in k e i t h e r th a t th e y a r e (e. g. ) h e a v y o r t h a t th e y a r e not,
n o r t h a t th e y a r e b o th , n o r y e t t h a t th e y a r e n e i t h e r . A nd n e i t h e r in
5
th is p a s s a g e n o r , I th in k , a n y w h e r e in th e R e p u b lic is t h e r e a n y s u g ­
g e s tio n th a t w h e n a p r e d i c a t e is u s e d in a n in c o m p l e t e a p p l i c a t i o n one
ou ght to sa y t h a t th e th in g b e c o m e s (e. g. ) h e a v y in c o m p a r i s o n w it h s o a n d - s o , r a t h e r th a n t h a t i t is o r a p p e a r s h e av y in one r e f e r e n c e a n d
n o t in a n o t h e r .
In th e T h e a e t e t u s , h o w e v e r , th e r e f e r e n c e to th e b e h a v i o r of
20
i n c o m p l e t e p r e d i c a t e s is fo llo w e d up i m m e d i a t e l y w ith a s t a t e m e n t t h a t
w e s h o u ld n e v e r s a y t h a t a n y th in g is (e g. ) h e a v y b u t r a t h e r t h a t in i t s
i n t e r m i n g l i n g w i t h o t h e r th in g s it b e c o m e s so .
W e n e e d to know how
th e t h e o r y of b e c o m i n g i n t r o d u c e d h e r e i s to be a p p l i e d to t h e i n c o m ­
p l e t e p r e d i c a t e s , a m o n g t h e m th e p e r c e p t u a l o n e s .
It is in t h e a n a l y s i s
of th e p u z z l e s a b o u t s i z e a n d n u m b e r t h a t , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y s a i d , P l a t o
i n d i c a t e s how th e t h e o r y of b e c o m i n g i s s u p p o s e d to a c c o u n t f o r t h e
b e h a v i o r of i n c o m p l e t e p r e d i c a t e s .
But b e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t p a s s a g e
w e m u s t h a v e a m o r e d e f i n i t e n o tio n a b o u t w h a t th e t h e o r y of b e c o m i n g
m a in tain s.
T h e t h e s i s t h a t n o th in g i s a n y t h in g , bu t m e r e l y b e c o m e s t h i s o r
t h a t , is v a r i o u s l y g iv e n in th e T h e a e t e t u s a s h o ld in g t h a t (156a 5) e v e r y ­
th in g i s c h a n g e a n d t h e r e is n o th in g b e s i d e s c h a n g e , a n d a s p r o p o s i n g
(157b 1) to r e m o v e Mi s M e v e r y w h e r e in f a v o r of " b e c o m e s . "
The in te n ­
tio n of t h e t h e o r y , g iv e n t h e s e tw o c l a i m s , is to a s s e r t (181 d 8 - e 7 )
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g is c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g in e v e r y r e s p e c t .
T o fin d ou t m o r e p r e c i s e l y w h a t th e t h e o r y of flux i n v o l v e s it is
n e c e s s a r y to r e c a l l th e T i m a e u s . ^ T h e T i m a e u s b e g i n s i ts c o s m o l o g y
(27d 6 f. ) w i t h a d i v i s i o n b e tw e e n t o ov
TO y cy vopifvov jjxfv
yfv'e-Ctv C* Ook
and
ov f t ou<feTr©Te; a n d t h i s s e c o n d r e a l m is
V
\
p a t e n t l y one in w h ic h th e t h e s i s of t h e T h e a e t e t u s , £fT< ^ f v
0\)Sivt ae< £*■ v/iyvtTViij a p p l i e s w i th fu ll r i g o r .
v
> s '
oooc-lror
\
Now w h e n t h e T i m a e u s
s a y s t h a t a l l atrG'vjTA, w h ic h m a k e up th e r e a l m of \(tyVO|Jx(-v0^
becom e
bu t n e v e r a r e , i t h a s in m in d a c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n th i n g s t h a t u n d e r g o
c h a n g e a n d th in g s (th e F o r m s ) th a t n e v e r c h a n g e in a n y r e s p e c t a n d
21
c a n n o t in d e e d e v e r h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t e n s e d p r o p o s i t i o n s a s s e r t e d
about th em (37e-38a).
P e r c e p t i b l e th in g s a r e c r e a t e d (28b), h a v e a
c a r e e r in t i m e , a n d p a s s a w a y .
E x i s t e n c e o r b e in g s o - a n d - s o b e lo n g s
only to th in g s w h ic h a r e e t e r n a l a n d h a v e w h a t e v e r p r o p e r t i e s th e y h a v e
a lw a y s an d w ith o u t c h a n g e (28a 2, 38a 2 - 6 ) .
O t h e r th in g s bo th c o m e
into b e in g a n d c o m e to be ho t o r a h o u s e , p a s s i n g out of b e in g l a t e r on
a n d lo s in g w h a t e v e r p r o p e r t i e s th ey m a y c h a n c e to ha v e .
T h ese facts
a r e t a k e n to show t h a t b e in g a n d e x i s t e n c e do n o t b e lo n g to t r a n s i e n t
t h in g s , a n d t h i s m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t b e in g a n d e x i s t e n c e a r e th o u g h t to
t
im p ly a d u r a t i o n a n d s t a b i l i t y to w h ic h no y ( y v 0 |a*v ov c a n la y c l a i m .
T h u s th e f a c t t h a t th e p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t s g iv e p l a c e to one a n o t h e r in a n
u n e n d in g c y c l e , n on e of t h e m r e t a i n i n g i ts own c h a r a c t e r , sh o w s (49 b-d)
t h a t it c a n n o t be r i g h t to s a y th a t a n y th in g in th e w o r l d is_ f i r e : th e m o s t
7
one s h o u ld s a y is t h a t s o m e p a r t of th e w o r l d b e c o m e s f i e r y (51b 4 -6 ).
T h e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n
t
and
> 1
is h e r e a c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n
change and p e rm a n e n c e .
Now th e T i m a e u s m a i n t a i n s not m e r e l y t h a t p h y s i c a l , p e r c e p t i /
/ /
b le o b je c t s u n d e r g o c h a n g e , bu t a l s o t h a t, a s
cxet, th e y a r e
/
a lw a y s c h a n g in g a n d n e v e r a t r e s t . T h e c o n t r a s t of
and
)
/
O u n <k is t h e r e f o r e a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t is a lw a y s the s a m e a n d
w h a t n e v e r r e m a i n s th e s a m e e v e n f o r th e s h o r t e s t p e r i o d of t i m e .
T h is d o c t r i n e of y e v e C i j
is t r a n s f e r r e d into W h it e h e a d i a n t e r m i n o l g
ogy by T a y l o r , w ho w r i t e s t h a t " ‘p a s s a g e 1 is a f u n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r "
9
of th e s e n s i b l e u n i v e r s e a n d t h a t th e p h y s i c a l w o r l d c o n s i s t s of e v e n ts
in w h ic h " o b j e c t s " a r e i n g r e d i e n t .
E v e r y t h i n g in th e p h y s i c a l w o r l d
22
l o s e s i t s c h a r a c t e r s a s so o n a s it g e ts t h e m a n d n e v e r h a s f o r an y
s t r e t c h of t i m e a n y c h a r a c t e r w h a t e v e r ; d u r i n g a n y p e r i o d , h o w e v e r
s h o r t , i t t a k e s on a s u c c e s s i o n of d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s .
fo re T im a e u s d en ies
to
W hen t h e r e -
he m e a n s to d e n y t h e m
n o t only th e a b s o l u t e p e r m a n e n c e of th e F o r m s b u t a l s o t h e l e s s e r
s t a b i l i t y th a t w o u ld be im p l i e d by th e c o n tin u e d p o s s e s s i o n of s o m e
p r o p e r t y f o r a n y p e r i o d of t i m e .
T h i s is s o f a r i n t e l l i g i b l e enou gh :
/
a n d c o n s ta j it
a l t o g e t h e r w ith o u t
/
m ean s change,
> /
Ovjqrtcv. m e a n s c o n s t a n t
c h a n g e w ith o u t s t a b l e p o s s e s s i o n of a n y p r o p e r t y .
A nd t h i s w a y of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t h e o r y f its n i c e l y w i th w h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s s a y s in
d e f e n s e of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e .
Thus S o c rates
p o in t s out t h a t w a r m t h , w h i c h c r e a t e s a n d p r e s e r v e s l i f e , i s i t s e l f th e
p r o d u c t of r u b b i n g , w h ic h in v o lv e s m o t i o n a n d c h a n g e (153a); l i k e w i s e ,
it is a c t i v i t y w h ic h p r e s e r v e s a good c o n d i tio n of m i n d a n d body (153b),
so t h a t m o t i o n a n d c h a n g e f o r p h y s i c a l t h i n g s m e a n s e x i s t e n c e a n d l a c k
of i t m e a n s t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n .
H e n c e S o c r a t e s p a r a p h r a s e s t h e flux
t h e s i s by s a y i n g (156a) th a t th e w o r l d i s j u s t c h a n g e a n d b e s i d e s c h a n g e
t h e r e i s n o th in g .
On th e o t h e r h a n d , S o c r a t e s a l s o s a y s t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n a n d
e f f e c t of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y i s to r e m o v e a l t o g e t h e r th e v e r b
o
f r o m u s e in c o n n e c tio n w it h p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s ( 1 5 7 a - b ). T h is
of c o u r s e m e a n s t h a t p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s m u s t n o t b e i m p l i e d to h a v e
s e t t l e d p o s s e s s i o n of a n y c h a r a c t e r f o r a n y p e r i o d of t i m e , a s th e e m ­
p h a s i s in th e c o n t e x t on th e d e n i a l of r e s t a n d s t a b i l i t y (157b 5, 7)
23
sh o w s .
But it a p p e a r s th a t th e t h e o r y a s I h a v e so f a r b e e n c o n s t r u i n g
Z?'
it d o es no t in f a c t b a n e v e r y u s e of fiv'A (,
a s th e th e o r y l i t e r a l l y
i n t e r p r e t e d w i s h e s to do.
F o r if th e t h e o r y h olds th a t, f o r e x a m p le , a
c h a i r is a l w a y s c h a n g in g i t s c o l o r - - t h e r e is a s u c c e s s i o n of s h a d e s of
g r e e n fo llo w e d w ith o u t i n t e r v a l by a s u c c e s s i o n of s h a d e s of blu e, no ne
of w h ic h r e m a i n s in th e c h a i r f o r tw o m o m e n t s t o g e t h e r - - i t m u s t a llo w
\
a m i n i m u m u s e of <-(vac
to e x p r e s s th e p o s s e s s i o n of e a c h of the
c h a r a c t e r s f o r th e m o m e n t a t w h ic h it is p r e s e n t .
If a t m o m e n t Jt_ th e
c h a i r b e c o m e s g r e e n , th e n a t t h a t m o m e n t it i_s g r e e n - - n o t in any s e n s e
w h ic h i m p l i e s th e c o n ti n u e d e x i s t e n c e of t h a t c o l o r but in th e m i n i m a l
s e n s e t h a t it is g r e e n t h a t th e n c o m e s to bje. ^
It is ob v io u s to u s , b e ­
c a u s e of th e s t r u c t u r e of th e E n g l i s h w o r d " b e c o m e s , " t h a t th is m i n i ­
m a l " i s " c a n n o t be a v o id e d ; th e i m p l i c a t i o n w ou ld not be s o o bv io us to
a G r e e k , w h o s e w o r d f o r " b e c o m e ” ( y <• y v^-<rt3a i ^ b e a r s no e v id e n t
/ji
r e l a t i o n to th e v e r b " t o b e " ( £ < v a i V
F o r th is r e a s o n P l a t o 1s
H e r a c l e i t e a n s c a n e x p r e s s th e s u c c e s s i v e m o m e n t a r y p o s s e s s i o n of
c h a r a c t e r s by u s e only of " b e c o m e s " l o c u t i o n s , w ith o u t b r in g in g in a ny
o v e r t u s e of
h o w e v e r m i n i m a l : th e y c a n s a y " I t b e c o m e s
g r e e n , th e n b lu e , th e n p u r p l e , " a n d a b s t a i n f r o m s a y in g , w h a t e v id e n tly
a m o u n ts to th e s a m e , "N ow it i s g r e e n , now b lu e , now p u r p l e . "
T here
w ill in any c a s e be no h a r m in s u c h u s e of w h a t one m a y c a l l m o m e n -
'i
t a r y - 6-ls /a t )
s i n c e i t is e v id e n tl y only d u r a t i o n - ^
H e r a c l e i t e a n s w i s h to r e m o v e a l t o g e t h e r .
?
th a t the
Only d u r a t i o n -
in v o lv e s r e s t a n d a b s t e n t i o n f r o m c h a n g e , w h i c h it is th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s 1
p r i m a r y a i m to do a w a y w ith .
24
Now I th in k it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t i c e th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
m o m en tary -
a n d d u r a t i o n - £■»
a n d to o b s e r v e t h a t th e
H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y i s a t h e o r y of c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e
i
d e n i e s only th e a p p l i c a t i o n of d u r a t i o n to p h y s i c a l t h i n g s ,
»
b e in g c o n te n t to u s e m o m e n t a r y e v e n th o u g h w ith o u t a v o w in g
th e f a c t .
F o r s o m e t i m e s c o m m e n t a t o r s , p e r h a p s h a l f - a w a r e of th e
a n o m a l y of a t h e o r y w h ic h h o ld s t h a t
*<
t
'T o
Tr^vTa^O®fc-v
'
(157b 1 ) n e v e r t h e l e s s a llo w in g a u s e of fciv'ou,
speak
a s if th e y t h o u g h t t h e t h e o r y of flux i n v o lv e d th e s u b s t i t u t i o n of
/
^
yiyvtrvti
for
in a l l c o n t e x t s , in c lu d in g t h o s e w h e r e only
m o m e n t a r y - fcCV'Ac
o c c u r s a n d not d u r a t i o n - £ I
c•
Thus w hen
T a y l o r s p e a k s , a s h e o f te n d o e s , of th e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e a s a l w a y s
" i n th e m a k i n g " a n d e s s e n t i a l l y i n c o m p l e t e , ^
he s o m e t i m e s s e e m s to
h a v e in m i n d n ot th e f a c t th a t n e i t h e r it n o r a n y p a r t of it e v e r a c q u i r e s
a ny c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r go od o r f o r a n y l e n g t h of t i m e , b ut t h a t it n e v e r
e v e n m o m e n t a r i l y q u i t e e x e m p l i f i e s a n y q u a lity .
i n t e r p r e t s T i m a e u s i c l a s s of >y ( y
7
€-v<*
>
f
T h u s he s o m e t i m e s
a s th in g s w h i c h a r e
a lw a y s b e c o m in g s o m e t h i n g b u t n e v e r f i n a lly a r e t h a t s o m e t h i n g ( C o m ­
m e n t a r y , p. 128); a n d t h i s is in t u r n to be e x p la in e d (p. 348; c f p. 63)
by r e f e r e n c e to th e r e m a r k in th e P h a e d o (75a 2) t h a t p h y s i c a l e q u a ls
" d e s i r e " to be s u c h a s t h e F o r m of th e e q u a l b ut, f a l lin g s h o r t of t h i s ,
th e y m e r e l y " t e n d t o b e s o m e t h i n g to w h ic h th e y n e v e r do m o r e th a n
a p p r o x i m a t e " (p. 348).
Now in th e P h a e d o th e f a i l u r e i s n o t d u e to th e
f a c t t h a t a p h y s i c a l e q u a l d o e s n !t r e m a i n e q u a l to a n y th in g f o r a n y p e r i od of t i m e bu t c h a n g e s to b e c o m e u n e q u a l b e f o r e yo u know it; r a t h e r
12
it is t h a t a p h y s i c a l e q u a l i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n e q u a l, e. g. , e q u a l to one
25
th in g a n d not eq u a l to a n o t h e r .
13
T h e t h e s i s i s , th e n , th a t no p h y s i c a l
e q u a l is r e a l l y e q u a l b e c a u s e it i s n e v e r a t any g iv e n m o m e n t u n a m b i g ­
u o u s ly e q u a l.
T h e s u g g e s t i o n in T a y lo r* s r e f e r e n c e s to it a n d h is w ay
/
of c o n n e c tin g it to th e t h e o r y of
is th a t th e r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n
a p h y s i c a l e q u a l a n d th e E q u a l i t s e l f is a t a n y g iv e n m o m e n t one of i n ­
co m p lete
o r i n c o m p l e t e e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n - - t h e p h y s i c a l th in g
is b e c o m in g e q u a l but d e s t i n e d n e v e r to c o m p l e t e th e p r o c e s s ; it w ill
n e v e r be e q u a l ev e n f o r a m o m e n t .
B ut th i s s e n s e of b e c o m in g is q u ite
a d i f f e r e n t one f r o m th a t w h ic h w e h a v e s e e n to be i n t r o d u c e d an d s u p ­
p o r t e d in both T i m a e u s a n d T h e a e t e t u s by r e f e r e n c e s to c h a n g e an d
m o tio n .
F o r , to a l t e r th e e x a m p l e , if s o m e t h i n g is a y c y v 0 |*6v ov
in th e s e n s e th a t it u n d e r g o e s a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d s u c c e s s i o n of c o l o r s , no
o ne of w h ic h it p o s s e s s e s d u r in g a ny p e r i o d of t i m e , w e s h a l l not w a n t
to s a y th a t no p r o c e s s it u n d e r g o e s is e v e r c o m p l e t e d .
To be s u r e , w e
w i l l not s a y t h a t any p r o p e r t y b e c o m e s i t s l a s t i n g p o s s e s s i o n , but th e
p r o c e s s of b e c o m in g r e d , e. g. , w ill t e r m i n a t e in t h e m o m e n t a r y of r e d ( e v e n th o u g h t h e r e w i l l be a new p r o c e s s i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r w a y ) ;
a n d t h e r e i s no in d i c a t i o n in th e T i m a e u s * a c c o u n t of
T h e a e t e t u s 1 i n t r o d u c t i o n of o V u
y ivj v O |A t v a
IS
o r th e
oo^VirOTe^
t h a t th e m o m e n t a r y p o s s e s s i o n of r e d n e s s o r e q u a lity o r
w h a t e v e r is to be d i s a l l o w e d on th e g r o u n d th a t a t an y g iv e n m o m e n t
n o th in g e x h ib its t h e s e q u a l i t i e s b ut a t b e s t te n d s to e x e m p lif y o r is in
p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a n i n s t a n c e of th e m .
The
t h e o r y , to
be i n t e l l i g i b l e a t a l l , m u s t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m th e p o in t, w h a t e v e r
e x a c tly it i s , t h a t i s b e in g a r g u e d w h e n th e P h a e d o s a y s th a t p h y s i c a l
26
,
e q u a ls
/
6-T a i
q
&iv a i
. . •
r
o<ov
* >/
t o iQ'OV'
(75a 2).
If w h e n
s o m e t h i n g i s , a s w e s h o u ld s a y , e q u a l to s o m e t h i n g e l s e i t is r e a l l y
only s t r i v i n g a f t e r e q u a lit y a n d in th a t s e n s e m e r e l y b e c o m in g e q u a l but
n e v e r q u it e f in is h in g th e p r o c e s s , th is is q u ite a d i f f e r e n t u s e of " b e ­
c o m e s 1' f r o m t h a t w h i c h t h e T i m a e u s in v o k e s to e x p la in how th e e l e ­
m e n t s ( e a r t h , f i r e , e tc . ) s u c c e e d one a n o t h e r w ith o u t c e s s a t i o n .
The
T i m a e u s 1 p o in t w o u ld be r u i n e d if one r e f u s e d to s a y w h e n p a r t of th e
R e c e p t a c l e b e c o m e s f i e r y t h a t i t is a t t h a t m o m e n t f i e r y , a n d r e c o m ­
m e n d e d i n s t e a d s a y in g t h a t e v e n th e n it i s only in p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g
fiery .
14
F o r th e n w e w o u ld h a v e no s u c c e s s i o n of p r o p e r t i e s b u t a s u c ­
c e s s i o n of i n c o m p l e t e m o m e n t a r y p r o c e s s e s , w h ic h if i n t e l l i g i b l e a t a l l
i n t r o d u c e s tw o l e v e l s of p r o c e s s e s w h e r e t h e t h e o r y of c o n s t a n t c h a n g e
e v id e n tly only w a n ts one.
It i s , th e n , i m p o r t a n t to d i s t i n g u i s h m o m e n t a r y f r o m d u r a t i o n
^ .iv a (
a n d to s e e t h a t it i s only t h e l a t t e r w h o s e u s e th e t h e o r y of
flux i s r e f u s i n g to g r a n t .
In T h e a e t e t u s 1 5 2 d - e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , P l a t o i s
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t P r o t a g o r a s 1 v ie w s a b o u t t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e a m o u n t to
th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y t h a t e v e r y t h i n g in th e w o r l d i s c o n s t a n t l y ta k i n g
on a n d l o s i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d t h a t t h e r e is n o th in g t h a t h a s a n y
c h a r a c t e r for any d u ra tio n .
t e r s (152d 5 - 6 ,
t
(TOp.'TTa v U
A nd t h i s a c c o u n t is to a p p ly to a l l c h a r a c /
T6
*/
\
O o f v o S ) , c o l o r s , w e ig h t, a n d s i z e
a s w e l l a s p r o p e r t i e s l i k e f i e r i n e s s a n d b e in g a m a n .
The in c o m p le te
p re d ic a te s " l a r g e , " " s m a l l , " " h e a v y ," and " lig h t ," m en tio n ed a t
152d 4 - 5 , a r e to b e c o n c e i v e d a s c o m in g to be t r u e of a n o b je c t a t a
c e r t a i n m o m e n t , a n d n e v e r r e m a i n i n g t r u e of it, j u s t a s " f i e r y " in th e
27
T i m a e u s c o m e s to be t r u e but d o e s not r e m a i n t r u e of a p a r t of th e
R e c e p t a c l e in th e u n c e a s i n g c y c l e of th e e l e m e n t s .
As w e s h a l l s e e in
a m o m e n t , a c c o r d i n g to H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e s a th in g b e c o m e s s m a l l
w h e n b r o u g h t in to c o m p a r i s o n w ith one o b je c t o r g r o u p of o b j e c t s , a n d
b e c o m e s l a r g e w h e n c o m p a r e d w ith o t h e r s .
And if th e s a m e th in g m a y
be both l a r g e a nd s m a l l a t o n ce (in d i f f e r e n t c o n n e c tio n s ) th is w ill be
e x p la in e d by s a y in g t h a t a th in g m a y c o m e in to c o m p a r i s o n a t o n c e w ith
two s e t s of o b j e c t s , a n d so b e c o m e a t o n c e l a r g e in one c o m p a r i s o n a n d
s m a l l in th e o t h e r .
In t h i s w a y , a s w e s h a l l s e e m o r e fu lly j u s t b e lo w ,
th e H e r a c l e i t e a n flux s t o r y , a s im p ly in g c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n of c h a r a c ­
t e r s , a l s o d o e s duty f o r th e k in d of s i m u l t a n e o u s i n d e f i n i t e n e s s w h i c h
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e i n c o m p l e t e p r e d i c a t e s a t t e n d e d to in th e R e p u b l i c .
T h e w ay in w h i c h a H e r a c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t c a n be m a d e to y ie ld
b a s i c a l l y th e s a m e r e s u l t a s P r o t a g o r a s * t h e o r y a b o u t p e r c e p t u a l q u a l i ­
t i e s , but w ith an i m p r o v e m e n t , is i l l u s t r a t e d a t 153d 8 - 1 5 5 e 2 .
Soc­
r a t e s b e g in s by s u g g e s t i n g on b e h a lf of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s (153d 8 - e 2 )
th a t c o l o r s (w hich do d u ty p r e t t y m u c h t h r o u g h o u t f o r p e r c e p t u a l p r o p ­
e r t i e s in g e n e r a l ) m u s t n o t be th o u g h t of a s p o s s e s s i o n s of b o d ie s ;
r a t h e r th e y a r i s e u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e n b o d ie s c o m e in to
c o n ta c t .
No body e v e r is r e d (if th a t i m p l i e s f ix e d p o s i t i o n a n d r e s t ,
e 1 - 2 ) bu t a t m o s t b e c o m e s r e d on s o m e o c c a s i o n u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m ­
stan ces.
T h is f i r s t r o u g h s t a t e m e n t of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of s e n s e
p e r c e p t i o n is e x p a n d e d belo w ( 1 5 6 a - 1 5 7 c ) , b ut b e f o r e th a t S o c r a t e s
p a u s e s to c o n s i d e r tw o p u z z l e s c o n c e r n i n g s i z e a n d n u m b e r w h ic h a r e
s u p p o s e d to i l l u s t r a t e th e n e c e s s i t y of a d o p tin g th e H e r a c l e i t e a n th e o r y
28
t h a t th in g s only b e c o m e l a r g e o r w h ite o r w a r m ( u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m ­
s t a n c e s ) a n d n e v e r a r e a n y of t h e s e th i n g s .
T h e p u z z l e s t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e l e s s o n to be d r a w n f r o m t h e m
a r e e x t r e m e l y d if f ic u lt to c o n s t r u e .
They a r e in tro d u c e d as an e x a m ­
p l e of th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w h ic h a r i s e if w e s a y t h a t th e th i n g s w e p e r ­
c e i v e a r e w h i t e o r h o t o r l a r g e , e tc .
T h e f a c t s of p e r c e p t i o n s e e m to
show t h a t no p e r s o n p e r c e i v e s th e s a m e th in g in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a n o b ­
j e c t a s any o t h e r p e r s o n ( s t i l l m o r e a s a n y dog); a s i n g l e g iv e n m a n
d o e s n 't e v e n h a v e t h e s a m e e x p e r i e n c e s on two d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s , d u e
to th e f a c t t h a t h e is n e v e r in a c o n s t a n t s t a t e (154a).
A nd f r o m t h i s i t
is s u p p o s e d to fo llo w (154b 1 - 6 ) t h a t one o u g h t n o t to s a y t h a t e i t h e r
p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t o r p e r c i p i e n t o r g a n is w h i t e , w a r m , e tc .
Now P r o ­
t a g o r a s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d (152b) a s h o ld in g t h a t o ne s h o u l d
n e v e r s a y t h a t a w in d i s in i t s e l f c o ld , b u t he h a s a llo w e d th e u s e of
" i s , 11 so lo ng a s one a d d s to o r f o r w h o m th e w in d is c o ld .
But P r o t a g ­
o r a s d id n o t, in a llo w in g th e u s e of " i s , " t a k e a c c o u n t of th e f a c t , u r g e d
by th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s , t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g .
It s e e m s
t h e r e f o r e t h a t th e a r g u m e n t a t 154b s h o u ld n o t b e m e r e l y a r e p e t i t i o n
of P r o t a g o r a s ' p o in t a b o u t th e t e m p e r a t u r e of th e w in d , a n d i t s e e m s
p o s s i b l e t h a t a c o r r e c t i o n o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n in P r o t a g o r a s ' t h e s i s is b e in g
urged.
F o r if h is v ie w i s to b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s 1, h is
u s e of " i s c o ld to m e " m u s t m e a n no m o r e t h a n " b e c o m e s c o ld to m e , "
a n d h e n c e m u s t n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s in v o lv in g a u s e of d u r a t i o n - " i s . "
T h a t i s to s a y , w h e n in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h P r o t a g o r a s ' v ie w s s o m e o n e
s a y s t h e w in d i s c o ld to h im h e m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s i m p ly in g t h a t
29
it h a s b e e n so f o r h im f o r s o m e t i m e o r th a t i t w ill go on h a v in g th a t
p r o p e r t y f o r h im f o r a n y p e r i o d .
B e c a u s e P r o t a g o r a s w a s not c o n ­
c e r n e d w ith c h a n g e but w ith s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v e r - r e l a t i v i t y he h a s
le f t i t a n open q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r in s a y in g th e c h a i r is g r e e n to m e I
i m p ly th e c o n tin u e d p o s s e s s i o n of th is c o l o r (fo r m e ) by th e c h a i r .
But
in o r d e r to r e d u c e P r o t a g o r e a n i s m to H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m th is i m p l i c a t i o n
m u s t be d e n ie d .
H e n c e in 154b and th e d i s c u s s i o n w h ic h fo llo w s P r o ­
t a g o r a s 1 " i s g r e e n to m e " is b e in g r e p l a c e d by th e H e r a c l e i t e a n " b e ­
c o m e s g r e e n in c o n n e c ti o n w it h m e . "
But if th is is w h a t S o c r a t e s i n te n d s to be a r g u i n g a t 1 5 4 a - b and
r e i n f o r c i n g by th e e x a m p l e w h ic h f o llo w s , i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t th e
p o in t is o b s c u r e l y b r o u g h t out.
He s a y s : " T h e r e f o r e if th e th in g w e
m e a s u r e o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t o r to u c h w e r e l a r g e o r w h ite o r w a r m
Lwhen w e so p e r c e i v e it], it c o u ld not e v e r h a v e b e c o m e d i f f e r e n t by
e n c o u n te r in g s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t Li- e. , by b e in g p e r c e i v e d by s o m e o n e
e l s e ] , a t an y r a t e if it d o e s no t i t s e l f c h a n g e . "
(154b 1 -3 ).
T h is e v i ­
d e n tly a s s u m e s th a t th e t h e s i s to be o v e r t u r n e d h o ld s b o th th a t o b je c ts
ha v e c o n tin u in g p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h a t one c a n a t t r i b u t e t h e s e to t h e m
w ith o u t h a v in g to m e n t i o n a ny p e r s o n f o r w h o m th e p r o p e r t y e x i s t s .
And w h e r e a s P r o t a g o r a s * o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n m i g h t be c o n s t r u e d a s i n ­
clu d in g th e f i r s t p o in t it s e e m s t h a t t h e s e c o n d is e x p lic itly d e n ie d by
h im .
On th e o t h e r han d , a s w e s h a l l s e e in a m o m e n t , in th e e x a m p le
w h i c h fo llo w s S o c r a t e s r e f u s e s to d r a w a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n a t h i n g 's
be in g l a r g e r th a n s o m e t h i n g e l s e a n d i t s b e in g l a r g e r s i m p l i c i t e r (i. e. ,
th a n it w a s ); a n d t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t S o c r a t e s is f o r s o m e r e a s o n
30
a s s u m i n g t h a t if s o m e o n e s a y s s o m e t h i n g i s w a r m to h im o r l a r g e r
th a n s o m e th in g e l s e , a n d m e a n s to a t t r i b u t e c o n tin u in g p r o p e r t i e s to
th e th in g , he m u s t a c c e p t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e th a t th e th in g i s w a r m o r
l a r g e r (s a n s p h r a s e ).
I m p l a u s i b l e th o u g h t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s , if S o c ­
r a t e s is a c c e p t i n g i t th e n he m a y th i n k t h a t by sh o w in g d i f f i c u l t i e s in
th e c o n tin u e d p o s s e s s i o n of p r o p e r t i e s s a n s p h r a s e he c a n sh ow th e
n e c e s s i t y of not a llo w in g a n y l a s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of an y s o r t f o r a n y
tim e .
In a n y c a s e th e a r g u m e n t p r e s e n t e d in c o n n e c ti o n w ith th e p u z ­
z l e s a b o u t s i z e a n d n u m b e r d o e s r e l y upo n th is a s s u m p t i o n , in o r d e r ,
a p p a r e n t l y , to d r a w th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t one s h o u ld n e v e r s p e a k of c h a r ­
a c t e r s a s p o s s e s s e d by a n y th in g f o r a n y d u r a t i o n but only f o r a n i n d i ­
v i s i b l e m o m e n t d u r i n g a p e r i o d of u n i n t e r r u p t e d c h a n g e .
T h e e x a m p l e S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s in o r d e r to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s
p o in t c o n c e r n s , in th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , six d ic e .
If w e c o m p a r e six d i c e
w i t h a n o t h e r g r o u p of f o u r , w e s h a l l h a v e to s a y t h a t th e six a r e m o r e
th a n th e f o u r ; a n d l i k e w i s e i n c o m p a r i n g t h e m w ith tw e lv e d i c e w e h a v e
no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t to s a y th e y a r e l e s s .
( L a t e r on [ l 5 5 b 6 f f . ] a p a r a l ­
l e l c a s e c o n c e r n i n g n o t n u m b e r b u t s i z e is i n t r o d u c e d : S o c r a t e s is a t
one t i m e l a r g e r t h a n T h e a e t e t u s , b u t l a t e r , d u e to T h e a e t e t u s 1 g r o w in g ,
he i s s m a l l e r . ) W e m u s t t h e n , i t s e e m s , s a y of th e d i c e t h a t th e y a r e
m o r e a n d , a g a i n , t h a t th e y a r e l e s s , a n d s i m i l a r l y of S o c r a t e s t h a t he
is l a r g e r a n d , l a t e r , t h a t he i s s m a l l e r .
B u t if w e do s a y t h e s e t h i n g s w e a p p e a r to c o m e in to c o n f l i c t
w i t h c e r t a i n o t h e r t r u e s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h w e c a n n o t h e lp a f f i r m i n g .
31
These a re :
(1) N othing c a n b e c o m e g r e a t e r o r l e s s in s i z e o r n u m b e r so
lo n g a s it r e m a i n s th e s a m e s i z e a s it w a s (lit. , " s o long a s it is e q u a l
to i t s e l f " ) (155a 3 -5 ).
(2) W hat h a s n o t b e e n a d d e d to o r ta k e n a w ay f r o m n e i t h e r
g r o w s n o r s h r i n k s , b u t i s a l w a y s e q u a l to i t s e l f (a 7 -9 ).
(3) W h at w a s n o t (i. e. , w h a t w a s not in e x i s t e n c e o r w a s n ot
th e c a s e ) a t a n e a r l i e r t i m e c a n n o t be a t a l a t e r u n l e s s t h e r e i n t e r v e n e s
s o m e p r o c e s s of c h a n g e (b 1 - 2 ).
T h e c o n f li c t a r i s e s b e c a u s e w e w i s h to s a y a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s
t h a t th e d ic e a r e m o r e a n d t h a t th e y a r e l e s s a n d th is c o m m i t s u s , by
(3 ), to s a y in g t h a t s o m e p r o c e s s of c h a n g e m u s t i n t e r v e n e b e tw e e n th e
t i m e w h e n th e y a r e m o r e a n d th e t i m e w h e n th e y a r e l e s s .
B u t w e do
n o t th in k the d i c e h a v e b e e n a d d e d to o r s u b t r a c t e d f r o m , s o th a t, by
(2 ), th e y do not (at a n y r a t e ) u n d e r g o th e c h a n g e s c a l l e d g r o w th o r
s h r i n k i n g ; t h e r e a r e a l w a y s j u s t th e s a m e n u m b e r of t h e m .
But in th a t
c a s e , by (1 ), th e y c a n n o t be a t one t i m e m o r e a n d a t a n o t h e r l e s s , b e ­
c a u s e th e only p r o c e s s of c h a n g e th a t c o u ld b r i n g t h i s a b o u t is i n c r e a s e
o r d i m in u ti o n of t h e i r n u m b e r (w hich w e h a v e r u l e d out).
H e n c e if w e
s a y t h a t th e d ic e a r e g r e a t e r w h e n c o m p a r e d w it h th e s m a l l e r q u a n tit y
w e c a n n o t a l s o s a y t h a t th e y r e m a i n th e s a m e in n u m b e r a s th e y w e r e ;
a n d c o n v e r s e l y if w e s a y th e y r e m a i n th e s a m e th e y c a n n o t be f i r s t l e s s
a n d th e n m o r e th a n a n y th in g :
th e t h r e e e n u m e r a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s “ fig h t
a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s 1' w h e n w e s a y th e th in g s w e h a v e d e c i d e d w e m u s t
s a y a b o u t th e d ic e (155b 4 - 6 ) .
15
32
Now it is e v id e n t t h a t th e a i r of p a r a d o x h e r e i s g e n e r a t e d by
f i r s t p e r m i t t i n g th e i n f e r e n c e f r o m j u d g m e n t s of th e ty p e of " T h e s e
d i c e a r e m o r e th a n t h o s e d i c e " to " T h e s e d ic e a r e m o r e (s i m p l i c i t e r ),"
a n d t h e n c o v e r t l y i n t e r p r e t i n g th e l a t t e r to m e a n " T h e s e d i c e a r e m o r e
th a n th e y w e r e . "
T h u s th e w o r d " m o r e " is b e in g t r e a t e d a s if it h a d a
re la tiv e and a n o n -re la tiv e use:
r e l a t i v e w h e n a r e f e r e n c e to s o m e
s e c o n d th in g is i n te n d e d , a n d n o n - r e l a t i v e w h e n no e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e
i s i n te n d e d bu t, a t m o s t , a r e f e r e n c e to th e f o r m e r s t a t e of th e one
th in g b ein g t a l k e d a b o u t.
T h e p a r a d o x th u s a r i s e s b e c a u s e w e a r e p e r ­
m i t t e d to go f r o m th e o ne to th e o t h e r of t h e s e u s e s w ith o u t n o tic i n g
t h a t th e y a r e d i f f e r e n t .
O b v io u s ly no e v e n a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n w o u ld
a r i s e if a t e v e r y p o in t in th e a r g u m e n t th e tw o u s e s w e r e c a r e f u l l y k e p t
a p a r t by a d d in g th e q u a lif y in g c l a u s e s w h e r e v e r n e c e s s a r y .
Thus th e re
i s n o th in g r e m o t e l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y a b o u t s a y in g t h a t S o c r a t e s c o m e s to
b e s m a l l e r th a n T h e a e t e t u s e v e n th o u g h he r e m a i n s h is s a m e s i z e , b e ­
c a u s e b e c o m in g s m a l l e r t h a n T h e a e t e t u s is q u ite a d i f f e r e n t th in g f r o m
becom ing s m a l l e r s i m p l i c i t e r .
A nd t h i s sh o w s th a t p r o p o s i t i o n s (1 )
a n d (3) a b o v e a r e a c c e p t a b l e o nly if q u a l i f i e d s o a s to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e
tw o th i n g s .
B u t, th o u g h P l a t o d o e s n o t e x p li c it ly s a y w h a t m o r a l h e w i s h e s
to e l i c i t f r o m t h e s e p u z z l e s , he c a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d i n g t h a t w e d i s ­
t i n g u i s h r e l a t i v e f r o m n o n - r e l a t i v e u s e s of s u c h w o r d s a s " m o r e . "
T h e p u z z l e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e to b e r e s o l v e d by fo llo w in g H e r a c l e i t e a n
p r i n c i p l e s a s i n t r o d u c e d e a r l i e r a n d a p p l i e d in th e s e q u e l to th e c a s e
of p e r c e p t u a l p r o p e r t i e s (cf. 155d 5 ff. }; h e n c e t h e d o c t r i n e of c o n s t a n t
33
c h a n g e s h o u ld p r o v i d e th e s o l u tio n of th e c o n f lic t w h ic h P l a t o h e r e c r e ­
ates.
If th is is s o th e n th e s o u r c e of th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n a s P l a t o c o n ­
s t r u e s it m u s t be l o c a t e d in th e a t t e m p t to d e s c r i b e th e d ic e a s c o n tin u ­
ing to be th e s a m e n u m b e r a n d S o c r a t e s a s c o n tin u in g to m a i n t a i n his
s a m e size.
If n o th in g r e m a i n s the s a m e a n d noth in g h a s th e s t a b l e
p o s s e s s i o n of a n y f e a t u r e , th e n it m u s t be wrong to s p e a k of S o c r a t e s 1
s i z e a n d th e n u m b e r of th e d ic e a s e v e r c o n s t a n t .
N um ber and size
a r e th in g s w h ic h th e y a r e c o n s ta n tly a c q u i r i n g an d lo s in g , a s th e y c o m e
in to c o n t a c t w ith o t h e r th in g s ; t h a t b e in g s o , if S o c r a t e s 1 b e c o m in g
s m a l l e r th a n T h e a e t e t u s in v o lv e s a c h a n g e in S o c r a t e s a s w e l l a s in
T h e a e t e t u s (as S o c r a t e s i m p l i e s t h a t it d o e s ) , th is c a n n o t c a u s e d i f f i ­
c u lty , s i n c e p r o p o s i t i o n s ( 1 ) a n d (2 ), w h ic h s p e a k of S o c r a t e s 1 s i z e a s
a c o n tin u in g p o s s e s s i o n , h a v e no a p p l i c a t i o n to a n y th in g in a w o r l d of
c o n s t a n t flux.
If a c h a n g e in th e th in g s a g a i n s t w h ic h you m e a s u r e
s o m e th i n g i m p l i e s a c h a n g e in th e th in g m e a s u r e d , a s S o c r a t e s ha s
e v id e n tly b e e n a s s u m i n g , t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e c a n be a c c e p t e d w ith e q u a ­
n im i t y by a H e r a c l e i t e a n , s i n c e he th in k s e v e r y th in g is a l w a y s ch a n g in g
in e v e r y r e s p e c t .
S o c ra te s a t tim e
T h e a e t e t u s , a n d in th is
becom es sm aller.
K(*S(TiS T r^ o £
i s b ro u g h t in to c o n n e c tio n w ith
cxAAvyAfl.
(152d 7) S o c r a t e s
T a k e n t o g e t h e r w ith o t h e r o b je c t s a t o t h e r t i m e s
o t h e r p r e d i c a t e s c o m e to be t r u e , m o m e n t a r i l y , of h im ; bu t a s e v e r y
p r e d i c a t e i s t r u e only f o r a m o m e n t a n d (at l e a s t in th e c a s e s w e h a v e
b e e n c o n s i d e r i n g ) only c o m e s to a p p ly w ith in a c e r t a i n c o n f ig u r a tio n of
o b je c ts a t th a t t i m e , th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n a l l e g e d by S o c r a t e s c a n n o t a r i s e .
T h e u p s h o t i s th a t in a ll e g in g a d iff ic u lty w h ic h u n w a r y n o n -
34
H e r a c l e i t e a n s f a l l in to w h e n th e y t r y to t a lk a b o u t d ic e o r S o c r a t e s
u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , P l a t o h a s not g iv e n a n y good a r g u m e n t
f o r p r e f e r r i n g H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m to o r d i n a r y w a y s of s p e a k in g .
If
" l a r g e r 11 is t r e a t e d a s a r e a l c o m p a r a t i v e , r e q u i r i n g c o m p l e t i o n on
e v e r y o c c a s i o n of u s e , no c o n t r a d i c t i o n a r i s e s , a n d a n o n - H e r a c l e i t e a n
c a n go on s p e a k in g of th in g s a s e x i s t i n g a n d b e in g s o - a n d - s o f o r a p e r i ­
od of t i m e , a s w e ll a s b e c o m in g s o - a n d - s o . ^
The ex am p les c o n s id ­
e r e d do not r e a l l y r e q u i r e , if t r e a t e d in a n o n - H e r a c l e i t e a n w a y , a
c h a n g e w h e r e t h e r e is no c h a n g e .
S o c r a t e s , h o w e v e r , th in k s t h a t th e y
do i m p l y t h i s i m p o s s i b i l i t y , a n d e v id e n tl y d r a w s th e c o n s l u s i o n t h a t th e
H e r a c l e i t e a n v ie w t h a t t h e r e is a l w a y s c h a n g e e v e r y w h e r e o f f e r s th e
only w a y out.
B u t th e i n t e r e s t i n g p o in t in th e p a s s a g e is t h a t by c o n s i d e r i n g
w h a t S o c r a t e s e v id e n tl y r e c o m m e n d s on b e h a l f of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s it
i s p o s s i b l e to s e e how P r o t a g o r e a n i s m is b e in g r e d u c e d to H e r a c l e i t e ­
an ism .
If th e m o r a l e x t r a c t e d a b o v e is a p p lie d to th e c a s e of p e r c e p ­
t u a l q u a l i t i e s , a s 154b i m p l i e s i t i s m e a n t to be, th e n th e f o llo w in g
account em erges.
One m u s t a b a n d o n e v e r y e f f o r t to s p e a k of a n y c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c s a s b e lo n g in g to a n y th in g f o r a ny p e r i o d of t i m e .
W h e n one
s a y s , " T h e w in d is c o ld f o r m e , " t h i s m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e r e p o r t
of a m o m e n t a r y e v e n t, a n d a c o m p l e t e l y a c c u r a t e w a y of s p e a k i n g w o u ld
be to s a y " T h e w in d b e c o m e s c o ld f o r m e n o w . "
P e rc e p tu a l p re d ic a te s,
l i k e " l a r g e r " a n d " m o r e " a s i l l u s t r a t e d in th e p u z z l e s , c o m e to a p p ly
to a th in g only w ith in a c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o b j e c t s .
W hen s o m e t h i n g b e ­
c o m e s g r e e n i t d o e s so in c o n n e c t i o n w ith s o m e p a r t i c u l a r p e r c i p i e n t
35
a t s o m e d e f in ite m o m e n t of t i m e , j u s t a s it is by ta k in g S o c r a t e s t o ­
g e t h e r w ith T h e a e t e t u s a t a c e r t a i n t i m e th a t one c a n sa y t h a t he b e ­
com es sm a lle r.
W h en ta k e n t o g e t h e r w ith s o m e t h i n g e l s e a t a n o t h e r
t i m e o r ev en a t th e s a m e t i m e S o c r a t e s m a y w e ll b e c o m e l a r g e r :
his
p o s s e s s i o n of th e p r e d i c a t e " l a r g e r " is a lw a y s l i m i t e d to a c e r t a i n
c o n te x t of o t h e r o b j e c t s .
L i k e w i s e c o l o r s a lw a y s q u a lify a th in g in a
c o n te x t in v o lv in g a p e r c e i v e r (as w e l l , no d ou bt, a s o t h e r s u r r o u n d i n g
c i r c u m s t a n c e s ) , an d if a th in g b e c o m e s g r e e n in one c o n te x t it m a y
v e r y w e l l in a n o t h e r c o n te x t l a t e r on o r a t t h e s a m e t i m e b e c o m e b lu e .
T h is c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u g g e s t s an a n s w e r to th e q u e s t i o n w h ic h
a r o s e a t th e v e r y b e g in n in g (p. 17 a b o v e ) , a b o u t how P l a t o t h in k s P r o ­
ta g o ra s * p o in t a b o u t th e r e l a t i v i t y of p e r c e p t u a l (and o t h e r ) q u a l i t i e s to
th e o b s e r v e r c a n be a n o ffsh o o t of a t h e o r y of c o n s t a n t c h a n g e .
For
s o m e q u a l i t i e s , a m o n g th e m th e p e r c e p t u a l o n e s , a r i s e only w ith i n a
c e r t a i n c o n te x t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o b j e c t s , a n d if a n a l t e r a t i o n of c o n ­
te x ts c a n b r in g w ith it a n a l t e r a t i o n of a t h i n g 's q u a l i t i e s , th e n w h e n a
thing i s a t o n c e p a r t of s e v e r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s it w ill h a v e a t one a n d
th e s a m e t i m e a l l th e d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s w h ic h it w o u ld a c q u i r e in s u c ­
c e s s i o n if it e n t e r e d th e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s one a f t e r a n o t h e r .
P ercep ­
tu a l r e l a t i v i t y th u s c o m e s down to c h a n g e of p e r c e p t u a l c o n te x t, w ith
its c o n s e q u e n t c h a n g e of p e r c e p t u a l q u a li ty .
A th in g c a n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
b e c o m e b lue a n d g r e e n , b e c a u s e it b e lo n g s to tw o d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t u a l
c o n te x ts .
In th is w ay th e p r i v a t e d o c t r i n e a t t r i b u t e d to P r o t a g o r a s s u b ­
s t i t u t e s f o r h is l o o s e " i s to m e " th e c o m p l e t e l y a c c u r a t e " b e c o m e s in
c o n n e c tio n w ith m e . "
P r o t a g o r a s * " w h a t a p p e a r s to e a c h is f o r h im "
36
is a c c e p t a b l e a s a n i n f o r m a l a n d p o p u l a r w a y of p u ttin g th e r e a l t r u t h ,
w h i c h i s t h a t w h a t a p p e a r s to e a c h in p e r c e p t i o n b e c o m e s in c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h h i m and so m e o b ject.
And s in c e th e s e beco m in g s a r e alw ay s c o n ­
n e c t e d w i t h s o m e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t it is n e c e s s a r y , in o r d e r to i d e n tif y
a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e a c o l o r - p r o c e s s , to r e f e r to th e p e r s o n f o r w h o m th e
p r o c e s s h a p p e n s (154a 2
T h i s f a c t a t o n c e j u s t i f i e s P r o t a g o r a s ' i n s i s t e n c e th a t e v e r y p e r c e p t u a l
p r e d i c a t e s h o u ld be q u a l i f i e d by a r e f e r e n c e to s o m e p e r s o n , a n d e x ­
p l a i n s how H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m c a n s e e m to s u p p o r t th e v iew t h a t p e r c e p ­
tio n is k n o w le d g e .
F o r a c c o r d i n g to th i s t h e o r y e v e r y ju d g m e n t a b o u t
c o l o r , f o r e x a m p l e , w i l l b e a r e p o r t of th e c o l o r - p r o c e s s w h i c h c o m e s
in to b e in g in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p e r s o n m a k in g t h e ju d g m e n t , a n d m a t ­
t e r s h a v e b e e n s o a r r a n g e d t h a t he m u s t a p p a r e n t l y be r i g h t in h is
rep o rt.
T h e r e f o r e , e v e n th o u g h one c a n n o t s a y a b o u t h is own o r a n y
one e l s e xs p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t th e y r e p o r t w h a t e x i s t s o r is; th e c a s e f o r
h im , i t a p p e a r s to b e e n o u g h to s a y t h a t th e y r e p o r t i n f a llib ly w h a t
c o m e s to b e , o r c o m e s to b e t h e c a s e , f o r h im .
E v e n in t h i s l a t t e r
c i r c u m s t a n c e p e r c e p t i o n s e e m s to a m o u n t to k n o w le d g e .
T h i s o p e n in g e x p o s i t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e s , th e n , s h o w s
how a n u n c r i t i c a l P r o t a g o r e a n t h e o r y a b o u t p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s is to
b e r e f a s h i o n e d in to a c o m b i n e d H e r a c l e i t e a n - P r o t a g o r e a n a c c o u n t .
It
i s a r g u e d t h a t c e r t a i n p r e d i c a t e s - - " l a r g e r , 11 " m o r e " - - c a n n o t w ith o u t
g e n e r a t i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s be a p p l i e d s o lo n g a s a t h e o r y of c o n s t a n t c h a n g e
is n o t a d o p t e d .
T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t is in v o k e d to show th a t d i f f i c u l t i e s
a r i s e w h e n o n e t r i e s to a p p ly p e r c e p t u a l p r e d i c a t e s .
The H e r a c le ite a n
37
w ay of h a n d lin g s u c h p r e d i c a t e s is r e c o m m e n d e d a s th e r e m e d y f o r th e
e m b a r r a s s m e n t s r e f e r r e d to, and a b r i e f i n d ic a tio n (153d 8 - 1 5 4 a 2) is
g iv e n of how th is m e t h o d w i ll t r e a t p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s .
T he d e t a i l e d
H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n is e x p o u n d e d in th e s e c t i o n i m m e d i ­
a t e l y fo llo w in g .
B.
T h e H e r a c l e i t e a n T h e o r y of P e r c e p t i o n (15 6 a - 1 5 7 b )
T h e p u z z l e s a b o u t s i z e a n d n u m b e r a n d S o c r a te s * a p p a r e n t i n ­
f e r e n c e f r o m t h e m h a v e s u g g e s t e d how th e P r o t a g o r e a n t h e o r y of th e
r e l a t i v i t y of p e r c e p t u a l q u a l i t i e s is to be r e d u c e d to a H e r a c l e i t e a n
a c c o u n t of r e a l i t y .
T h e p r o p e r o b je c ts of p e r c e p t i o n - - c o l o r s , t e m p e r ­
a t u r e s , t a s t e s , s o u n d s , e tc . - - a r e going to be r e g a r d e d a s a r i s i n g
m o m e n t a r i l y in a w o r l d of t o ta l flux a s a r e s u l t of th e m u t u a l in f lu e n c e
of p e r c e p t u a l o r g a n s a n d e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s .
T h e e m p h a s i s on th e c o n ­
t e x t in w h ic h th e y a r i s e w il l e n s u r e t h e i r r e l a t i v i t y to o b s e r v e r s , a n d
by t r e a t i n g t h e m a s m o m e n t a r y b e c o m i n g s th e a c c o u n t w ill m a k e t h e m
a m e n a b l e to a g e n e r a l H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s .
In t h e i m m e d i a t e l y
s u c c e e d i n g p a s s a g e (156a 2 ff. ) a t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d
w h ic h c l a i m s to be a H e r a c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t a n d w h ic h in its b r o a d o u t ­
l i n e s c l e a r l y fo llo w s th e p a t t e r n j u s t a d u m b r a t e d .
On th e b a s i s of th is
t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n i t is th e n a r g u e d ( 1 5 7 e - l 6 0 c ) t h a t e a c h m an*s p e r ­
c e p t io n s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , e a c h m a n h a s a r i g h t to
c l a i m k n o w le d g e a b o u t w h a t he
p erceiv es.
T h e u l t i m a t e e ffe c t, th e n ,
of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n is to v i n d i c a t e P r o t a g o r a s *
c l a i m t h a t w h a t a p p e a r s to e a c h m a n is t h e c a s e f o r h im , and t h e r e f o r e
38
to s u p p o r t T h e a e te tu s * d e f in it io n of k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f b e g in s by c i tin g its a l l e g i a n c e to
th e H e r a c l e i t e a n p r i n c i p l e t h a t To TT(*v
T o Gt o
k i V'Y^IS
^v\ v
aAAo
(156a 5), a n d c o n c l u d e s w i th th e a n n o u n c e m e n t
O o <$Vv
t h a t a s e x p o u n d e d j u s t b e f o r e it h a s k e p t to th e s t r i c t u r e t h a t T o
<cl^cU
TTcxvTa.
^
0
b r i n g a n y th in g to r e s t (b 7 - 8 ) .
(157b 1) a n d t h a t one m u s t n e v e r
B ut if t h e s e s t r i c t u r e s e x p r e s s th e
i d e a l s d i r e c t i n g th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e t h e o r y , it c a n n o t be d e n ie d t h a t
th e e x p o s i t i o n i t s e l f f a i l s to p u t t h e m in t o p r a c t i c e .
T h e t h e o r y is a t
l e a s t c a r e l e s s in it s m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g a b o u t th e e l e m e n t s of t h e p e r ­
c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n w h ic h it i n t r o d u c e s ; a n d u l t i m a t e l y , a s I s h a l l show
b e lo w , th e a c c o u n t i t g iv e s i s r e a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w ith H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m .
T h e e x p o s itio n b e g in s by d i s t i n g u i s h i n g two k in d s of c h a n g e ,
th o s e w ith a n “ a c t i v e c a p a c i t y 1' a n d t h o s e w ith a " p a s s i v e c a p a c i t y . 11
T h is d i s t i n c t i o n is a l l e g e d to be th e b a s i s of th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
t h in g s c a p a b l e of b e in g p e r c e i v e d ( a g e n ts ) a n d o r g a n s o r p e r s o n s c a p a ­
b le of p e r c e i v i n g ( p a tie n ts ) ; b u t how w e a r e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e d i f f e r ­
e n c e s a s d i f f e r e n c e s in ty p e of m o t i o n i s n e i t h e r i n d i c a t e d n o r , p r o b a b l y ,
w o r t h i n q u i r i n g in to .
In a n y e v e n t it is th e o t h e r b r o a d d i v i s i o n of k in d s
of m o t i o n , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n w i th r e s p e c t to s p e e d of c h a n g e (156c 6 ff. ),
w h i c h is m o s t i m p o r t a n t .
The a c tiv e and p a s s iv e m o tio n s ju s t m e n ­
tio n e d a r e s a i d to g e n e r a t e , by c o m in g t o g e t h e r a n d i n t e r f e r i n g w ith
one a n o t h e r , tw o o t h e r m o t i o n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a p e r c e i v e d q u a li ty
a n d t h e p e r c e i v i n g of it.
T h is l a t t e r p a i r of m o t i o n s i s c o n t r a s t e d w it h
th e f o r m e r a s b e in g v e r y r a p i d , in c o m p a r i s o n w ith th e slo w r a t e of
39
c h a n g e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g th e o t h e r p a i r .
A " s lo w m o tio n " is f u r t h e r
e x p la in e d by the r e m a r k th a t it " h a s its m o tio n in th e s a m e p l a c e an d
w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e th in g s t h a t c o m e w ith in its v ic in ity " (156c 9-f);
th e m o r e r a p i d m o t i o n s a r e e x p lic itly s a i d to be c h a n g e s of p l a c e , and
t h e i r g r e a t e r r a p i d i t y i s s u p p o s e d to be due to th e f a c t th a t l o c o m o t i o n
is t h e i r m o d e of c h a n g e (d 2 - 3 ) .
T h is s u g g e s t s , th o u g h it d o e s not
q u it e s a y , t h a t th e slo w m o tio n s a r e c h a n g e s in q u a lity w h il e th e r a p i d
a r e c h a n g e s in p l a c e ; a n d , p e r c o n t r a , a s th e th in g s th a t u n d e r g o q u a l it a t i v e c h a n g e a r e s a i d to ha v e lo c a tio n , th e
(X i
S,
<
* £\
j
a
/
n
d
w h i c h a r e c h a n g in g p l a c e , a r e a p p a r e n t l y a t r e s t w ith
r e s p e c t to c h a n g e of q u a l ity .
If th is is c o r r e c t , th e n th e t h e o r y b e in g s u g g e s t e d h e r e a m o u n t s
to th e fo llo w in g .
A s t i c k o r a s to n e is to be r e g a r d e d a s c o n s t a n t l y
lo s i n g a n d g a in in g q u a l i t i e s .
E a c h q u a lity it g a in s c o m e s in to b e in g
to g e t h e r w ith a n a w a r e n e s s of it on th e p a r t of s o m e b o d y , a n d th o u g h
e a c h q u a lity m o v e s in p l a c e c o n s t a n t l y s o long a s it e x i s t s , it is n e v e r ­
t h e l e s s q u ite f i r m l y s o m e on e q u a l i t y - - s a y w h i t e n e s s - - a n d not a ny
o t h e r d u r in g th e t i m e i t is m o v in g in p l a c e .
T h e r e f o r e it is d e f i n ite l y
w h i t e n e s s th a t c o m e s to b e a n d e x i s t s d u r in g th e t i m e it i s p e r c e i v e d ;
a n d e q u a lly , th e s t i c k r e a l l y is w h i te a t t h a t t i m e , a t l e a s t f o r th e p e r ­
c i p i e n t in q u e s t i o n .
T h e q u a l i t i e s w h ic h a s i t w e r e s u c c e e d on e a n o t h e r
in th e s t i c k do e x i s t a n d a r e w h a t e v e r th e y a r e d u r i n g th e t i m e th e y a r e
perceiv ed .
S u c h a t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n w o u ld r e s u l t in th e s t i c k 1s b e ­
c o m in g w h ite to m e f o r a c e r t a i n t i m e in s u c h a s e n s e t h a t d u r i n g t h a t
t i m e i t i £ w h ite to m e ; in s h o r t , th e s e n s e of b e c o m in g s u c h a t h e o r y
40
w o u ld e m p lo y w o u ld be one w h i c h w a s not i n c o m p a t i b l e w ith e x i s t e n c e ,
b u t s t r i c t l y im p l i e d it.
T h e p r o c e s s in q u e s t i o n w o u ld t e r m i n a t e in
f ix e d a n d l a s t i n g s t a t e s , a n d f o r th e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e s t a t e s n ot
but
(J-tvai
w o u ld be th e c o r r e c t lo c u tio n .
B u t, a s I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d , a lth o u g h th e a c t u a l a c c o u n t of
p e r c e p t i o n th u s l e a v e s o pen, a n d p e r h a p s e v e n e n v i s a g e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
>
of r e q u i r i n g , s o m e u s e s of d u r a t i o n - £ l v < u a f t e r a l l , th e H e r a c l e i t T
e a n s e x p r e s s l y c l a i m (157a 7 ff. ) f o r t h i s t h e o r y t h a t in it
TnxvT<x)tO©€-v
is
P e r h a p s , t h e r e f o r e , th e t h e o r y of p e r ­
c e p t i o n e x p o u n d e d in 1 5 6 -1 5 7 s h o u ld not b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a t t r i b u t i n g
o n ly o ne k in d of c h a n g e to e a c h of th e e l e m e n t s it i n t r o d u c e s in i t s
a n a l y s i s of th e p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n .
P o s s i b l y it i s only l o o s e n e s s of
e x p r e s s i o n w h ic h m a k e s th e t h e o r y a p p e a r to c o n d o n e s o m e u s e s of
d u r a t i o n - Ql ^ a i ,
a n d in i n t e r p r e t i n g it w e s h o u ld m a k e e x p l i c i t a l l
\
t h a t is in v o lv e d in th e b a n i s h m e n t of e-l v a t ,
A c c o r d i n g to s u c h a
» n
t
m o r e e x t r e m e t h e o r y th e a
w h ic h a r e g e n e r a t e d by th e i n t e r ­
f e r e n c e of p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t w i t h s e n s e o r g a n w o u ld no t b ^ w h i t e n e s s o r
r e d n e s s , b u t w o u ld b e c o m e m o m e n t a r i l y o ne o r a n o t h e r of t h e s e th in g s
w ith o u t r e m a i n i n g f o r any p e r i o d of t i m e .
On th is t h e o r y a s t i c k o r a
s t o n e w i l l b e th o u g h t of a s e n d l e s s l y c h a n g in g i t s p l a c e a s w e l l a s a l l
i t s q u a l i t i e s ; a n d it w i ll n e v e r a c t u a l l y g a in a n d h a v e a n y q u a l i t y w h a t ­
ever.
S e n s e - q u a l i t i e s a n d a w a r e n e s s e s of t h e m w i ll c o m e p a i r e d
t o g e t h e r , but n e i t h e r a s e n s e - q u a l i t y n o r a n a w a r e n e s s is f ix e d in a n y
w a y , e i t h e r in p l a c e o r in a n y o t h e r r e s p e c t :
r e d n e s s c o m e s to be in
t h e s p a c e b e tw e e n th e p e r c i p i e n t a n d t h e o b j e c t , b u t i m m e d i a t e l y not
41
only c h a n g e s in p l a c e b ut a l s o b e c o m e s s o m e o t h e r c o l o r .
R e p o r t s of
p e r c e p t i o n a r e th u s of s o m e th in g a b s o l u t e l y m o m e n t a r y .
Now e i t h e r of t h e s e t h e o r i e s of p e r c e p t i o n w ou ld s e r v e s o m e of
th e p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h a t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d a t th is p o in t
in th e a r g u m e n t .
W h e th e r p e r c e p t u a l q u a l i t i e s e x i s t w h e n th e y a r e p e r ­
c e iv e d o r m e r e l y c o m e to be a t th a t t i m e , e a c h
r e l a t e d w ith it a n
a^^T O v'
of th e a p p r o p r i a t e s o r t .
has c o r ­
Q u a lity a n d p e r ­
c e p tio n a r e , a s th e t h e o r y s a y s (156b 1), " t w i n 11 o f f s p r i n g of o r g a n an d
p e r c e i v e d o b je c t.
T he t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n , th e n , w h i c h e v e r of th e tw o
v e r s i o n s j u s t o u tlin e d i s in te n d e d , h a s th e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e th a t
t h e r e is n e v e r a s e n s e - q u a l i t y w h ic h b e lo n g s to no one; to p ic k out a
s e n s e - q u a l i t y one m u s t a lw a y s r e f e r , ev e n if only i m p l i c i t l y , to th e e x ­
p e r i e n c e of s o m e o n e f o r w h o m it e x i s t s (o r b e c o m e s ) .
T h e r e f o r e th e
t h e o r y s u p p o r t s P r o t a g o r a s 1 v ie w s a b o u t th e r e l a t i v i t y of p e r c e p t u a l
q u a l i t i e s (as it c l a i m s to do) by r e q u i r i n g e v e r y p r e d i c a t i o n of a s e n s e q u a lity to c a r r y a r e f e r e n c e to th e s u b j e c t f o r w h o m it e x i s t s o r b e ­
com es.
It a l s o s e e m s s u ite d , in e i t h e r of th e two v e r s i o n s , to m a k e a
s ta r t, a t le a s t, to w ard ju stify in g P r o t a g o r a s 1 c la im th at p e rc e p tio n
a lw a y s y i e ld s t r u t h .
F o r j u s t a s n o th in g e i t h e r is o r b e c o m e s r e d a ll
by i t s e l f , so no one e i t h e r is o r b e c o m e s p e r c i p i e n t - o f - r e d by h i m s e l f :
t h e r e c a n n o t be a n
th a t la c k s an
A nd e a c h
p e r c i p i e n t 1s t i t l e to f r e e d o m of e r r o r in h is p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s is
p r o t e c t e d a t l e a s t f r o m a t t a c k by a n y o n e e l s e on th e b a s i s of h is own
ex p erien ces:
t h e r e is no c o n f lic t b e tw e e n w h a t any two p e r s o n s p e r ­
c e iv e , b e c a u s e th e q u a l i t i e s in q u e s t i o n a r e s e p a r a t e l y , g e n e r a t e d a n d
s e p a ra te ly ex p erien ced .
42
On th e o t h e r h a n d th e tw o t h e o r i e s a r e d i f f e r e n t , a n d if w e a r e
to h a v e a t r u l y H e r a c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t i o n a t th i s s t a g e of th e
a r g u m e n t w e h ad b e t t e r h a v e th e s e c o n d a n d not th e f i r s t of t h e tw o
t h e o r i e s o u tlin e d a b o v e .
Only th e s e c o n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , p r o v i d e s a
r e p l a c e m e n t a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n of th e P r o t a g o r e a n Mis f o r X M l o c u t i o n - a n d a s I h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d th e m o r a l of th e p u z z l e s a b o u t s i z e a n d n u m ­
b e r , w h i c h i n t r o d u c e th e a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t i o n , it is j u s t s u c h a r e ­
p l a c e m e n t t h a t is h e r e to be s p e l l e d out.
It h a s to be a d m i t t e d , h o w ­
e v e r , t h a t in th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f P l a t o m a k e s no s e r i o u s
a t t e m p t to f o r m u l a t e th e t h o r o u g h - g o i n g H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y t h a t th is
w o u ld r e q u i r e .
If n e v e r t h e l e s s w e a r e to p r e f e r th e f u ll H e r a c l e i t e a n
a c c o u n t , w e m u s t a t t e m p t to fin d s o m e e x p la n a t io n f o r P l a t o 1s not
h a v in g s t a t e d s u c h a t h e o r y .
In p a r t , t h i s f a i l u r e c a n be e x p la i n e d by th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t
in o r d e r to r e c t i f y i t he w o u ld h a v e h a d to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n l o c o m o ­
tio n a n d a l t e r a t i o n , a s I h a v e d o n e in f o r m u l a t i n g th e s e c o n d v e r s i o n of
th e t h e o r y a b o v e , a n d a t t r i b u t e b o th s o r t s of c h a n g e to th e " s l o w " m o ­
tio n s a s w e l l a s to th e " f a s t . "
tu re ly :
B u t to do t h i s w o u ld tip h is h a n d p r e m a -
\S - d o c t r i n e of
p r e c i s e l y th e f a c t t h a t a c c o r d i n g to th e
th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s e v e r y t h i n g m u s t h a v e e v e r y s o r t of c h a n g e i s m a d e
th e b a s i s f o r h is own r e f u t a t i o n of t h i s v iew of
(1 8 1 -1 8 3 ).
(
l a t e r on
H e r e , he p u r p o s e l y s l u r s o v e r th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n k in d s
of m o t i o n in o r d e r , a s C a m p b e l l p u ts it,
f r e s h p o in t a t a l a t e r s t a g e . "
17
" t h a t it m a y c o m e in a s a
H e n c e , it m i g h t be s a i d , w e h a v e s u f f i ­
c i e n t g r o u n d f o r d is c o u n tin g th e f a c t t h a t in th e e x p o s i tio n of th e t h e o r y
43
of p e r c e p t i o n ( M t Q ^ T d
a r e only g iv e n
an d w e s h o u ld m e n ­
ta l ly a l t e r it to m a k e t h e m c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g e a ll t h e i r q u a l i t i e s a s w e ll.
I n d e e d , it m i g h t be a d d e d , th a t it d o e s w i s h to get r i d of l a s t i n g q u a l i ­
t i e s is sho w n by th e f a c t t h a t e v e n in th e e x p o s iti o n i t s e l f th e t h e o r y
a d h e r e s s t r i c t l y to f o r m s of 'j ( v /
t
in d e ta il in g w h a t h a p p e n s in
p e r c e p t i o n , a s if th is w e r e r e q u i r e d by th e f a c t th a t
(Xi
and
are
T h is l in e of r e a s o n i n g d o e s not h o w e v e r r e a l l y m a k e th e th e o r y
a s a c t u a l l y ex p o u n d e d any th e m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a s e r i o u s
H e ra c le ite a n th e o ry .
F o r it a t t e m p t s to show how a t h e o r y w h ic h d i s ­
t i n g u i s h e s slow f r o m f a s t m o t i o n s c a n be b r o u g h t in to lin e w ith H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , an d to e x p la in w hy it w a s not e x p lic itly
b r o u g h t in to lin e in th e f i r s t p l a c e .
But it is e a s y to s e e t h a t if even
r u d i m e n t a r y a t t e n t i o n i s p a id to H e r a c l e i t e a n p r i n c i p l e s th e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e tw e e n slow a n d f a s t m o t i o n s c a n n o t be i n t r o d u c e d a t a ll.
T he slow
m o t i o n s , o r p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s , a r e a p p a r e n t l y s u p p o s e d to be i n c e s s a n t
q u alitativ e changes.
A s t i c k o r a s t o n e - - a slow m o t i o n - - b e c o m e s a
s u c c e s s i o n of, f o r e x a m p le , c o l o r s w ith o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n .
As I said
a b o v e , th e t h e o r y o ugh t no t to g iv e t h e s e m o tio n s s t a b i l i t y of p l a c e , a s
it d o e s ;
but ev e n if th is is a l lo w e d to p a s s th e t h e o r y o b v io u s ly s t i l l
co n trav en es H e ra c le ite a n p r in c ip le s .
F o r if th e c o l o r s a n d o t h e r q u a l ­
i t i e s t h a t a s t i c k c o m e s to h a v e a r e to be u n d e r s t o o d in a c c o r d a n c e
w ith a t h e o r y even of c o n s t a n t flux of q u a l i t i e s they o b v io u sly oug ht not
to be g iv e n any d u r a t i o n a t a l l .
T h u s in th e p e r c e p t u a l s itu a tio n , a s th e
t h e o r y s a y s , th e s t i c k o r th e s t o n e b e c o m e s n ot w h i t e n e s s but w h ite
44
(156e 5): but if so th e n th e w h i t e n e s s it c o m e s to h a v e h ad b e t t e r not
l a s t fo r any tim e .
If th e s t i c k b e c o m e s w h ite a n d s t a y s w h ite f o r an y
p e r i o d o f t i m e th e n d u r i n g t h a t t i m e it w ill be w h it e a n d r e s t w i l l h a v e
b e e n i n t r o d u c e d in to t h e w o r l d .
w h a t k in d of m o t i o n th e
Why th e n d o e s th e q u e s t i o n e v e r a r i s e
have?
o u gh t n o t to h a v e a n y m o t i o n of a n y s o r t .
H a v in g no d u r a t i o n th e y
A s s o o n , t h e r e f o r e , a s th e
t h e o r y d i s t i n g u i s h e s slo w f r o m f a s t m o t i o n s , r e g a r d l e s s of w h a t s o r t s
of m o t i o n th e l a t t e r h a v e a n d w h e t h e r th e f o r m e r h a v e e v e r y ty p e of
m o t i o n o r only s o m e , it h a s c e a s e d to be a s e r i o u s H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y .
A p a t e n t l y
m u s t be m o m e n t a r y b e c o m i n g s , a n d a s so o n a s th e
t h e o r y t r e a t s t h e m a s m o t i o n s , w h i c h m u s t h a v e d u r a t i o n , it no t only
1° a s t a n d s t i l l , but a l s o g iv e s s t i c k s a n d s t o n e s l a s t ­
brin g s
ing p r o p e r t i e s .
R e s c u e o p e r a t i o n s m a y o r m a y no t s u c c e e d in i n t r o ­
d u c in g m o t i o n s of a l l s o r t s in to e v e r y e l e m e n t of th e t h e o r y , a s H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s r e q u i r e , b ut th e y c a n n o t e x p la in aw a y th e f a c t
th a t in e v e n e m b a r k i n g on a t h e o r y of th e ty p e found a t 1 56 -1 5 7 P l a t o
c a n n o t h a v e p a id a n y s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n to th e H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m he c l a i m s
to b e fo llo w in g .
If th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n is only s u p e r f i c i a l l y a H e r a c l e i t e a n
t h e o r y , how a r e w e to e x p l a i n i t s a p p e a r a n c e h e r e in t h e T h e a e t e t u s ?
I th in k th e a n s w e r m u s t be t h a t P l a t o i s a l r e a d y p r e p a r i n g f o r th e r e f u ­
t a t i o n of t h e flux t h e o r y w h i c h h e w ill p r o d u c e belo w (1 8 1 -1 8 3 ): s i n c e
th e a r g u m e n t he w i l l p r e s s a g a i n s t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y
d e p l o y a b l e a g a i n s t a t h e o r y w h i c h h a s n a i v e ly an d h a l f - c o n s c i o u s l y b e e n
th in k in g of
a s h a v in g d u r a t i o n (though i t is v a lid a g a i n s t a n y
45
t h e o r y w h ic h d e n i e s d u r a t i o n to e v e r y th in g ) , he h e r e s e t s th e H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n s up w i t h a t h e o r y th a t is r i p e f o r r e f u t a t i o n .
P l a t o w a n ts to
a r g u e in h is r e f u t a t i o n t h a t th e d o c t r i n e of g e n e r a l flux is not only f a l s e
but ev e n u n a b le to s u p p o r t th e t h e s i s t h a t w h a t an y one ju d g e s in p e r c e p ­
tio n is t r u e .
T h e l a t t e r p o in t g o e s h o m e m o r e i m p r e s s i v e l y a g a i n s t a
t h e o r y w h ic h h a s b e e n th in k in g of t h e q u a l i t i e s r e p o r t e d in p e r c e p t i o n
a s h a v in g a d u r a t i o n .
F o r it c a n th e n be p o in t e d out th a t if w h a t one
p e r c e i v e s h a s a d u r a t i o n it m u s t h a v e a s u c c e s s i o n of q u a l i t i e s , so th a t
one c a n n o t s a y t h a t w h a t one p e r c e i v e s i s (e. g. ) r e d r a t h e r th a n any
o th er c o lo r:
d u r i n g th e t i m e w h e n one p e r c e i v e s it i t m u s t b e c o m e in
s u c c e s s i o n a l l th e o t h e r c o l o r s , so t h a t it a d m i t s no c o l o r - n a m e in
p r e f e r e n c e to a n y o t h e r .
T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t no r e p o r t of p e r c e p t i o n one
m i g h t m a k e a t an y t i m e is any t r u e r th a n a ny o t h e r one m ig h t h a v e
m a d e th e n , a nd p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s l o s e a l l c l a i m to t r u t h .
It s e e m s
th a t h is d e s i r e to show not m e r e l y th a t no j u d g m e n t h a s any c l a i m to
t r u t h in a w o r l d of flux but, e s p e c i a l l y , t h a t no p e r c e p t u a l ju d g m e n t c a n
be t r u e , h a s le d P l a t o to g iv e h is H e r a c l e i t e a n s a t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n
w h ic h r e a l l y d o e s no t fi t t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s a t a ll.
Now if th is w a y of lo o k in g a t th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n i s c o r r e c t ,
th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y a n d th e re d u c tio n of P r o t a g o r e a n i s m to H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m ha d b e t t e r n o t be to o f i r m l y w e d d e d to t h e d e t a i l s of th e
a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t i o n g iv e n in 1 5 6 -1 5 7 .
A n d in f a c t th e d e f e n s e of p e r ­
c e p tio n a s k n o w le d g e w h ic h i s m a d e in 1 5 7 e - l 6 0 c , th o u g h a t v a r i o u s
p l a c e s in it d e t a i l s of th e p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y a r e r e c a l l e d (e. g. , 159d, e),
d o e s n o t r e l y h e a v ily on th e f a c t t h a t
h a v e d u r a ti o n .
The
46
e s s e n t i a l p o in t is t h a t p e r c e i v e d q u a l i t i e s a r e th in g s w h ic h o b j e c t s c o m e
to h a v e a t a c e r t a i n m o m e n t in c o n n e c t i o n w ith c e r t a i n o t h e r o b j e c t s a s
th e y a r e a t t h a t m o m e n t ; a n d one n e e d not th in k of t h e m a s h a v in g a n y
d u r a t i o n in o r d e r to follo w th e s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t a t i o n .
C.
H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m a n d th e T r u t h of P e r c e p t i o n ( 1 5 7 e - l 6 0 d )
O ne c a n th i n k of th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , a s
a p p l i e d to p e r c e p t i o n in 1 5 3 d - 1 5 7 d , a s e f f e c tiv e ly r e m o v i n g on e p o t e n ­
t i a l s o u r c e of o b je c ti o n to th e v ie w t h a t a l l p e r c e p t i o n s a r e t r u e .
B e­
c a u s e a p e r c e p t u a l q u a l i t y a l w a y s a r i s e s w i th in a c e r t a i n c o n f i g u r a t i o n
of o b j e c t a n d p e r c i p i e n t , no c o l o r o r t a s t e o r s m e l l c a n be a t t r i b u t e d to
a n o b j e c t w it h o u t r e f e r e n c e to th e p e r c i p i e n t in c o n n e c tio n w it h w h o m it
a rise s.
No o b j e c t h a s , a s i t is p u t be low (160b 1 -3 , 1 0 - c 2 ) , a n y q u a l i t y
f o r a n d by i t s e l f .
H e n c e th e t r u t h of o n e 's p e r c e p t i o n s c a n n o t be i m ­
p u g n e d by th e c l a i m t h a t th e y f a i l to c o r r e s p o n d to th e q u a lit y th e o b j e c t
its e lf actu ally has:
it, by i t s e l f , h a s no q u a l i t i e s a t a ll.
B ut t h e r e a r e o t h e r t h r e a t s to t h e t r u t h of e a c h m a n ’ s p e r c e p ­
t io n s .
T h e f a i l u r e of o n e ’s p e r c e p t i o n s to c o r r e s p o n d w ith t h o s e w h ic h
o t h e r p e o p le e x p e r i e n c e , o r w h i c h a p e r s o n in n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s
o r h e a lth y c o n d i tio n w o u ld e x p e r i e n c e , m i g h t a l s o be a p p e a l e d to a s
grounds fo r re je c tin g th e m a s fa ls e .
T h u s if a c e r t a i n w in e t a s t e s b i t ­
t e r to m e in i l l - h e a l t h b u t s w e e t to m e a n d o t h e r s u n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i ­
t io n s , on e m i g h t w e l l a r g u e t h a t t h o u g h I a m c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t in s a y in g
t h a t b i t t e r n e s s i s w h a t I now e x p e r i e n c e m y p e r c e p t i o n i s n e v e r t h e l e s s
f a l s e b e c a u s e t h e w in e is n o t b i t t e r b u t s w e e t to th e n o r m a l p a l a t e .
47
T h is o b j e c tio n d o e s n ot d e p e n d upon s a y in g th a t th e w in e h a s th e q u a li ty
of s w e e t n e s s a l t o g e t h e r in in d e p e n d e n c e of p e r c e i v e r s - - t h i s h a s a l r e a d y
b e e n r u l e d o u t - - b u t only t h a t w e sh o u ld r e f u s e to s a y th a t w h a t s e e m s to
a n y o n e is so u n l e s s he is in n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h e a lth y c o n d itio n ,
e tc .
T h e n o r m a l p e r s o n ’s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e th e c r i t e r i o n of w h a t is th e
c a s e , a nd not t h o s e of any i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p e r s o n in j u s t any c i r c u m ­
stan ces.
S o m e t i m e s a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e s i m i l a r to t h o s e w h ic h
o t h e r p e o p le do, o r w o u ld , e x p e r i e n c e in c o n n e c t io n w ith a c e r t a i n o b ­
j e c t , a n d s o m e t i m e s th e y v a r y f r o m th i s n o r m .
A nd w h e n th e y v a r y
th e y m u s t be p r o n o u n c e d f a l s e , h o w e v e r m u c h th e y m a y be w h a t r e a l l y
a p p e a r s to be t h e c a s e to th e p e r s o n in q u e s t i o n .
T h is o b je c t io n is r a i s e d by P l a t o a t 1 5 7 e - 1 5 8 a an d in o r d e r to
a n s w e r it on b e h a lf of his P r o t a g o r e a n H e r a c l e i t e a n s he d e v e lo p s f r o m
th e e l e m e n t s of H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s a m o r e s t r i n g e n t r e l a t i v i s m
th a n h a s y e t a p p e a r e d .
T h e e f f e c t of his r e p l y is to a r g u e t h a t on H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n a s s u m p t i o n s t h e r e c a n be no p l a c e f o r th e c o n c e p t of a n o r m a l
observer.
S u c h a c o n c e p ti o n r e q u i r e s , a t a m i n i m u m , th a t w e s h o u ld
be a b le to s a y t h a t on e p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e is s i m i l a r to a n o t h e r * s , so
th a t th e e x p e r i e n c e s of c e r t a i n p e r s o n s c a n be g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r a n d p r o ­
n o u n c ed " n o r m a l " by c o n t r a s t to th e d e v ia n t e x p e r i e n c e s of th e a b n o r ­
m al.
B u t g iv e n a H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of r e a l i t y , P l a t o w ill a r g u e , th is
c o n d itio n f a i l s of f u l f i l l m e n t .
T h e u p s h o t is t h a t e a c h m a n i s e n t i r e l y
c u t off f r o m e v e r y o t h e r m a n a n d f r o m h i m s e l f a t e v e r y o th e r m o m e n t ,
a n d h is e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e no p o s s i b l e c o n n e c ti o n w it h w h a t a n y o n e e l s e
e x p e r i e n c e s o r w h a t he h i m s e l f e x p e r i e n c e s a t an y o t h e r m o m e n t .
Each
48
m a n f s p e r c e p t i o n s w ill t u r n out to b e f r e e f r o m c r i t i c i s m of a n y a n d
e v e r y s o r t b e c a u s e th e y h a v e b e e n m a d e in th e s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b l e s e n s e
p r i v a t e to h i m s e l f a t th e t i m e he h a s t h e m .
T h e nub of t h i s f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t c o n s i s t s in th e tw o a s s e r ­
tio n s (1 ) t h a t no
or
i s e v e r lik e an y o t h e r a n d
(2 ) t h a t e a c h p e r s o n (and, of c o u r s e , th o u g h th i s is not e m p h a s i z e d in
t h e te x t [but cf. 160c 4 - 5 ] , e a c h o b j e c t) is r e a l l y a n in f in ity
c e s s i v e p e r s o n s , no on e of w h i c h i s e v e r l i k e a n o t h e r .
18
of s u c ­
T h e s e tw o
t h e s e s a r e e n u n c ia te d a t th e v e r y o u t s e t of th e a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t i o n on
H e r a c l e i t e a n a s s u m p t i o n s (154a 6 - 8 ), bu t th e m a t t e r is no t p r e s s e d
th e re .
It i s only a f t e r t h e e x p o s i t i o n of th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n , a n d
in a n s w e r to th e i m a g i n e d o b j e c t i o n e x p la in e d j u s t a b o v e , t h a t th i s
s t r o n g e r s o r t of r e l a t i v i t y a n d s u b j e c t i v i s m c o m e s f o r c i b l y to t h e f o r e ­
fro n t.
P l a t o c o n s i d e r s tw o t y p e s of c a s e , th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n
w a k in g a n d d r e a m i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h o s e b e tw e e n a h e a lth y a n d a
d is e a s e d p e r s o n fs p e rc e p tu a l ju d g m e n ts.
A s f o r w a k in g a n d d r e a m i n g
e x p e r i e n c e (158b 5 - d 7), he c o n t e n t s h i m s e l f w ith th e r e m a r k th a t w h e n
o n e is in e i t h e r of th e two s t a t e s h e p l a c e s th e v e r y s t r o n g e s t c r e d e n c e
in th e th in g s th a t th e n s e e m to h im to be t r u e , s o th a t , s i n c e t h e s a m e
a m o u n t of t i m e i s s p e n t d r e a m i n g a s w a k in g , t h e r e is no g r o u n d on
w h i c h to a p p e a l to w h a t s e e m s t r u e to y ou in th e one c o n d itio n a s r e f u t ­
in g w h a t s e e m s t r u e to yo u in t h e o t h e r .
In c o n s i d e r i n g th e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n h e a l th a n d s i c k n e s s (158e 5160c 1 0), h o w e v e r , P l a t o a t t e m p t s to c a r r y th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of H e r a ­
c le ite a n ism fu rth er.
th ree a sse rtio n s:
T h e a r g u m e n t p r o c e e d s by m e a n s of th e fo llo w in g
49
( 1 ) A ’’p e r s o n " i s r e a l l y a s u c c e s s i o n of d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s ,
i n a s m u c h a s he i s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g .
(159c 8 -9 )
(2) But w h a t a p p e a r s a n d i s to one p e r s o n a p p e a r s a n d is d i f ­
f e r e n t to a d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n .
(159c 8 -9 )
(3) T h e r e f o r e no t only i s it th e c a s e (as w a s a r g u e d in th e
p r e v i o u s a n a l y s i s of p e r c e p t i o n ) th a t w h a t I a t any t i m e p e r c e i v e r e a l l y
is ( b e c o m e s ) s o f o r m e th e n , b ut a l s o n o th in g t h a t a p p e a r s to m e a t any
t i m e is lik e w h a t a p p e a r s to any one e l s e o r to m e a t a n o t h e r t i m e .
(159e 7 - 1 60a 2)
The im p lied conclusion is:
(4) T h e r e c a n be no g r o u n d w h a t s o e v e r f o r c a l lin g s o m e e x p e ­
r i e n c e s t r u e and o t h e r s f a l s e .
T he i l l u s i o n s of d r e a m i n g and m a d n e s s
a nd th e " a b n o r m a l " i m p r e s s i o n s due to i l l n e s s a r e " r e a l to us a t th e
t i m e w h e n w e e x p e r i e n c e th e m ; w h ic h is a l l th e r e a l i t y a n y th in g is p e r m i t t e d to c l a i m . "
19
E a c h p e r c e p t u a l e x p e r i e n c e is t o t a l ly u n lik e a n d
u n c o n n e c t e d w ith a n y o t h e r p e r c e p t u a l e x p e r i e n c e .
T h e r e is no g ro u n d
f o r a p p e a l to a n y th in g b e y o n d th e m o m e n t a r y e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f a s a
c r i t e r i o n of t r u t h , s i n c e a ll one fin d s e l s e w h e r e is a n in f in ite v a r i a t i o n
of d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s 1 q u ite d i f f e r e n t a n d m u t u a l l y d i s s i m i l a r a n d u n c o n ­
n e c te d p e r c e p t i o n s .
E a c h p e r s o n is to t a l l y c o n fin e d w ith in a m o m e n t a r y
p r i v a t e w o r l d and c a n do n o th in g bu t r e p o r t h is m o m e n t a r y e x p e r i e n c e .
In f a c t (160b 5-c 10), p e r s o n , e x t e r n a l o b je c t, p e r c e i v e d q u a lity a n d a c t
of p e r c e i v i n g a r e bound t o g e t h e r in s u c h a w ay t h a t th e y a l l c o m e to be
f o r one a n o t h e r a n d f o r n o th in g e l s e .
W hat r e a s o n s a r e t h e r e f o r a c c e p t i n g ( 1 ) a n d (2) ?
N e i t h e r of
50
t h e m s e e m s , a t f i r s t s ig h t , t r u e a t a l l :
e v e n if a p e r s o n i s c o n s t a n t l y
c h a n g in g it d o e s not fo llow t h a t he is c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g h is i d e n t i t y .
O ne m i g h t , h o w e v e r , a llo w t h i s to p a s s in view of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n
d e n i a l of d u r a t i o n in e v e r y r e g a r d .
T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith (2) a r e m o r e
i n t r a c t a b l e ; e v e n if d i f f e r e n t p e o p le m a y h a v e d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s in
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h th e s a m e o b je c t, t h a t is no r e a s o n to t h in k t h a t no tw o
p e o p le c a n e v e r h a v e th e s a m e p e r c e p t i o n s .
( G r a n te d , one m i g h t th in k
t h a t tw o p e o p le c o u ld n o t h a v e th e s a m e e x p e r i e n c e s , a s Lit m i g h t be
s a id ] on e c a n n o t h a v e a n y o n e e ls e * s s m i l e o r i d e n t i c a l l y t h e s a m e
[a b s tra c t p a rtic u la r] sallo w n e ss.
B ut P l a t o is c l e a r l y s a y i n g t h a t d i f ­
f e r e n c e of p e r s o n m a k e s e x p e r i e n c e q u a l i t a t i v e l y , an d n o t m e r e l y [if
t h e r e c o u ld b e s u c h a thing ] n u m e r i c a l l y , d if f e r e n t :
>.
^
e 8 O.XA oi ov/(
160a 2
cf. 159e 7
^
\
i Oi DOjoV').
T h e r e a s o n s S o c r a t e s a c t u a l l y p r o p o s e s to T h e a e t e t u s f o r a c ­
c e p tin g t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s s e e m in a d e q u a t e on one of tw o g r o u n d s .
E i t h e r t h e lo g ic by w h ic h th e y a r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n v o lv e s a f a l l a c i o u s
p r i n c i p l e of r e a s o n i n g
21
o r t h e r e i s a n e q u iv o c a tio n on a k e y t e r m a p ­
p e a r i n g in p r e m i s s a n d c o n c l u s i o n .
t(
t h a t s o m e t h i n g a l t o g e t h e r ( 0 X u jS j
S o c r a t e s b e g in s by l a y in g it dow n
158e 1 0 ) d i f f e r e n t f r o m s o m e t h i n g
e l s e c a n n o t h a v e an y c a p a c i t y in c o m m o n w ith t h a t o t h e r th in g ; a n d , he
> /
a d d « #, a n y t h in g t h a t is e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t m u s t be u n lik e (<XvO^a0 iOv,
159a 3) th e th in g i t is d i f f e r e n t f r o m .
B u t t h e n he e n u n c i a t e s th e d u b i ­
ous p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t Mif a n y th in g h a p p e n s to be li k e o r u n lik e s o m e t h i n g
( i t s e l f o r a n o t h e r ) , w e s h a l l s a y t h a t in b e in g m a d e lik e , i t b e c o m e s
th e s a m e , a n d in b e in g m a d e u n lik e , d i f f e r e n t . "
(159a 6 - 8).
Now th is
51
m i g h t be c o n s t r u e d a s an i n s t a n c e of th e f a l l a c y of a f f i r m i n g th e c o n s e ­
qu e n t:
if a n y th in g is d i f f e r e n t , it is u n lik e , h e r e is s o m e t h i n g u n lik e ,
e r g o it is d if f e r e n t .
A nd t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t th is is j u s t how
S o c r a t e s in te n d s to be r e a s o n i n g .
F o r in w h a t fo llo w s he e s t a b l i s h e s
th a t S o c r a t e s - i l l is u n lik e S o c r a t e s - w e l l , d r a w s th e i n f e r e n c e t h a t
t h e r e f o r e th e two S o c r a t e s e s a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m one a n o t h e r (159b 1 0 ),
a n d c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f t h e r e b y l i c e n s e d to a p p ly th e in i t i a l p r e m i s s
(th a t tw o d i f f e r e n t t h in g s do n ot s h a r e any c a p a c it y ) in o r d e r to c o n ­
c lu d e t h a t th e r e s p e c t i v e S o c r a t e s e s do no t h a v e th e c a p a c ity to be s i m ­
i l a r l y a f f e c te d .
If th is is h is a r g u m e n t , th e n w e h a v e q u ite c e r t a i n l y
b e e n g iv e n no r e a s o n (not even one w h ic h a s s u m e s th e t r u t h of H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m ) f o r th in k in g e i t h e r th a t S o c r a t e s - w e l l a n d S o c r a t e s - i l l a r e
two d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s , o r f o r a c c e p t i n g th a t n e i t h e r th ey n o r any o t h e r
p a i r of d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s c a n h a v e th e s a m e e x p e r i e n c e s .
T h e a l t e r n a t i v e to so c o n s t r u i n g th e a r g u m e n t is to ta k e 159a 6-8
not a s c o m m i t t i n g th e f a l l a c y of a f f i r m i n g th e c o n s e q u e n t but r a t h e r a s
e n u n c ia tin g an i n d e p e n d e n t a x i o m a b o u t th in g s t h a t a r e lik e o r u n lik e
one a n o t h e r .
T h is a x io m , e x p r e s s e d in th e P a r m e n i d e s ( 1 3 9 e - 1 4 0 a ) ,
ho ld s th a t to s a y t h a t s o m e t h i n g is l ik e s o m e t h i n g e l s e i s to s a y th a t
th e y a r e th e s a m e in s o m e r e s p e c t ( 7TOc>; P a r m . 139e 8) (and s i m i ­
la r ly fo r u n lik en ess).
But e v en if th is is w h a t S o c r a t e s m e a n s to be
sa y in g a t 159a 6- 8 w e a r e s t i l l n ot b r o u g h t any c l o s e r to a v a lid r e a s o n ,
e v e n a s s u m i n g th e t r u t h of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , f o r a c c e p t i n g (1) an d (2)
above.
F o r w h e n S o c r a t e s g o e s on to a r g u e t h a t b e c a u s e S o c r a t e s - i l l
a n d S o c r a t e s - w e l l a r e u n lik e th e y m u s t be d i f f e r e n t , he is e n ti tle d only
52
to c o n c lu d e th a t th e y a r e d i f f e r e n t m s o m e r e s p e c t .
B ut, a s he h a s
</
m a d e q u ite e x p l i c i t j u s t b e f o r e , i t is only w h e n two th in g s a r e
oAujS
d i f f e r e n t t h a t w e h a v e th e r i g h t to c o n c l u d e th a t th e y do n o t s h a r e an y
c a p a c i t y (and s o do not h a v e th e c a p a c i t y to be s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t e d in
s e n s e p e rcep tio n ).
N o th in g h a s b e e n s a i d to show t h a t two t h i n g s in
s o m e r e s p e c t d i f f e r e n t c a n n o t h a v e an y c a p a c i t y in c o m m o n .
O nly by
a n e q u i v o c a t io n on th e w o r d " d i f f e r e n t 11 c o u ld S o c r a t e s p r e t e n d t h a t th is
h a s b e e n sho w n .
In th e c o n c l u s i o n , " d i f f e r e n c e " m e a n s " d i f f e r e n c e in
s o m e r e s p e c t , " w h ile in th e p r e m i s s it m e a n s " d i f f e r e n c e in e v e r y
re sp e c t. "
T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s in th e te x t th a t th is i s how S o c r a t e s
r e a c h e s th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t e a c h t e m p o r a l s t a g e of a " p e r s o n " i s a d i f ­
f e r e n t p e r s o n a n d h a s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s f r o m t h o s e of any
o th er p e rso n .
F o r in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t S o c r a t e s - i l l is u n lik e S o c r a t e s -
w e l l P l a t o h a s T h e a e t e t u s , to S o c r a t e s 1 e v id e n t d e lig h t (159b 8 ), s l i p in
r e f e r e n c e s to
Tov
acr&GVOOVTa
oA o v
ToOvO
(159b 6 ), s u g g e s t i n g t h a t b e c a u s e S o c r a t e s a t a ny g iv e n m o m e n t is
oAov
( " a s a w h o l e , " " t a k e n a l l t o g e t h e r " ) u n lik e h i m s e l f a t any o t h e r m o m e n t
ta k e n a s a w h o le , he is
(XVcfjaOiOS
Ox
0 AvjJS
fcTfc^OS
(cf. 158e 10) a n d
( e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t a n d u n lik e ) .
c/ v
OAu>£
B ut he i s n l t, a n d th is
a t t e m p t to c o v e r up th e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m d i f f e r e n c e in s o m e r e s p e c t to
d i f f e r e n c e in e v e r y r e s p e c t i s n o t v e r y c o n v in c in g .
I t t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s t h a t th e r e a s o n s S o c r a t e s g iv e s in s u p p o r t
of h is tw o t h e s e s (1 ) a n d (2 ) a b o v e a r e , h o w e v e r one i n t e r p r e t s th e t r a i n
of r e a s o n i n g , i n a d e q u a t e to p e r m i t t h e m to s e r v e a s p r e m i s s e s to h is
d e s i r e d c o n c l u s i o n s (3) a n d (4).
T h o u g h i t m a y be t r u e th a t e a c h m a n
53
is c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g , it h a s not b e e n sh ow n t h a t he is a t any tw o
m o m e n t s e n t i r e l y u n lik e ; a n d th is is w h a t is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to a llo w
the i n f e r e n c e s in (3) a n d (4).
It h as not b e e n s how n th a t d i f f e r e n t t e m ­
p o ra l p e r s o n - s ta g e s m u s t have q u alitativ ely d iffe re n t p e rc e p tio n s.
F a c e d w ith th is s i t u a t i o n it is not e a s y to d e c id e w h a t to s a y
It
s e e m s c e r t a i n on c a r e f u l e x a m in a t io n of 1 5 8 e - 1 5 9 c t h a t one o r th e o t h e r
of th e tw o f a l l a c i o u s a r g u m e n t s o u tlin e d a b o v e is in d e e d th e s o le s u p ­
p o r t g iv e n a n y w h e r e in th e t e x t f o r th e v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h e s i s th a t no
o n e 's e x p e r i e n c e s a r e e v e r l ik e a n y o n e e l s e ' s .
Is t h e r e any r e a s o n to
th in k , i n d e p e n d e n tly of th e a r g u m e n t in t h e te x t, th a t on H e r a c l e i t e a n
p r i n c i p l e s t h e t h e s i s m u s t be t r u e ?
It has been arg u ed
22
th a t H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m i m p l i e s no s u c h th in g , th a t it only h o ld s th a t no q u a lity
s u r v i v e s f o r any p e r i o d of t i m e , a n d d o e s not d eny t h a t th e s a m e q u a l ­
ity m ig h t r e c u r a f t e r a n i n t e r v a l o r c o m e in to b e in g in two p l a c e s a t
o n ce .
A nd i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t th i s is a v e r y p l a u s i b l e a c c o u n t of
th e t r u e i m p l i c a t i o n s of th e t h e o r y .
The p o ssib ility th e re fo re su g g ests
i t s e l f t h a t P l a t o h a s , in h is d e s i r e to m a k e H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m im p ly P r o ­
t a g o r e a n i s m a n d s u p p o r t th e t h e s i s t h a t s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n is a lw a y s t r u e ,
s im p l y f o r c e d th e c o n s e q u e n c e on th e t h e o r y .
W is h in g to show t h a t if
H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is t r u e w h a t a n y o n e p e r c e i v e s to be th e c a s e is so , a nd
s e e in g t h a t to t h is end he m u s t d is a ll o w a p p e a l s to th e n o r m a l o b s e r v e r
a s th e s t a n d a r d of w h a t is so , he h a s j u s t m a d e th e flux t h e o r y im p ly
th e t o t a l d i f f e r e n c e of e a c h p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e f r o m e v e r y o t h e r 's .
A nd i t m i g h t be s a i d t h a t th e c o n fu s io n o v e r w h ic h of two f a lla c i o u s a r ­
g u m e n ts he u s e s to p l a s t e r o v e r th e g ap in his r e a s o n i n g is d e l i b e r a t e ,
o r h a l f - d e l i b e r a t e , a u x i l i a r y o b f u s c a tio n .
54
Now o r d i n a r i l y s u c h a n h y p o th e s is w o u ld be a c c e p t a b l e on ly in
th e l a s t r e s o r t .
B e f o r e e m b r a c i n g it on e sh o u ld e x e r c i s e a ll h is i n g e n ­
u ity in o r d e r to fin d m o r e th a n a p a l p a b l e f a l l a c y in s u c h a c r u c i a l a r ­
g u m e n t, o r , f a i lin g th a t , one w o u ld a t l e a s t a t t e m p t to d e v i s e s o m e
r e a s o n s f o r a c c e p t i n g th e c o n c l u s i o n a r g u e d f o r .
But in th e p r e s e n t
i n s t a n c e I n ot only d o u b t t h a t e x e r c i s e s of in g e n u ity w o u ld be of an y
a v a i l , b ut e v e n th in k th e h y p o t h e s i s c a n be m a d e p l a u s i b l e on i t s own
account.
W h a t r e a s o n s a r e t h e r e f o r th in k in g t h a t th e a r g u m e n t s d e d u c in g
f r o m H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m th e t r u t h of p e r c e p t i o n m u s t be a b l e to b e r e p r e ­
sented as p la u sib le o r c o r r e c t ?
ing:
P r e s u m a b l y s o m e th in g li k e th e f o l l o w ­
P l a t o h a s u n d e r t a k e n to e x a m i n e th e c l a i m of p e r c e p t i o n to be
k n o w le d g e a n d h a s i n t r o d u c e d P r o t a g o r e a n a n d H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e s
b e c a u s e th e y s u p p o r t th is c l a i m .
If a H e r a c l e i t e a n c o u ld n ot p l a u s i b l y
a p p e a l to h is b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s in s u p p o r t of th e t r u t h of e v e r y p e r c e p ­
tio n , th e n a n e s s e n t i a l lin k in P l a t o 1s a r g u m e n t f a i l s .
A t th e c o n c l u ­
s io n of th e p a s s a g e w e h a v e j u s t b e e n c o n s i d e r i n g S o c r a t e s s a y s t h a t
th e t h r e e v i e w s , t h o s e of T h e a e t e t u s , P r o t a g o r a s , a n d H e r a c l e i t u s , a l l
c o m e to th e s a m e ; a l l a m o u n t to t h e c l a i m t h a t p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e
( I6 0 d 5 - e 2).
But if th e v ie w e x p r e s s e d a b o v e is c o r r e c t , th e n th e y do
n ot c o m e to th e s a m e th in g , n o r d id P l a t o r e a l l y th in k th e y d id :
he j u s t
f r a u d u l e n t l y p a s t e d t h e m t o g e t h e r a s b e s t he c o u ld w ith o u t c a r i n g w h e t h e r
th e y r e a l l y did h a r m o n i z e .
A n d s u r e l y t h i s w r e c k s th e w h o le l i n e of
a r g u m e n t w h i c h P l a t o ha!s e v id e n tly b e e n m o u n tin g f r o m 152 o n w a r d s .
B u t w h a t e x a c tly i s t h i s l i n e of a r g u m e n t ?
If one r e a d no f u r t h e r
55
th a n l 6 0 d - e it w o u ld be e a s y to h a v e th e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t w h a t P l a t o
w i s h e d to do w a s to show how a l l t h e s e d o c t r i n e s a m o u n te d to th e s a m e
th in g , so a s to r e f u t e a l l t h r e e a t o n c e - - f o r e x a m p l e , by sh o w in g t h a t
p e r c e p t i o n is not k n o w le d g e he w o u ld r e f u t e P r o t a g o r e a n i s m a n d H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m , w h ic h im p ly t h a t it i s .
of th e s o r t .
In f a c t , h o w e v e r , he d o e s n o th in g
I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r h a v in g r e d u c e d T h e a e t? tu s * a n d P r o t a g ­
o r a s 1 d o c t r i n e s to H e r a c l e i t u s 1 he s e t s a b o u t p u llin g t h e m a p a r t a g a in .
He f i r s t c o n s i d e r s P r o t a g o r a s 1 d o c t r i n e t h a t m a n is th e m e a s u r e of a l l
th in g s ( l 6 l c - 1 7 9 a ) , no l o n g e r ta k in g it a s m e r e l y a t h e o r y a b o u t th e
t r u t h of p e r c e p t i o n , but t r e a t i n g it in i t s f u ll e x te n s io n a s c o v e r i n g a l l
ju d g m en ts.
A nd th o u g h in th e c o u r s e of th e r e f u t a t i o n P r o t a g o r a s is
r e p r e s e n t e d a s th e a u t h o r of T h e a e t e t u s 1 c l a i m th a t p e r c e p t i o n a n d
k n o w le d g e a r e s i m p l y i d e n t i c a l , a n d is e v e n m a d e to d e f e n d it (163a ff. ,
1 6 6 a -c ) , a n d th o u g h he is p e r m i t t e d to m a k e a p p e a l to H e r a c l e i t e a n
p r i n c i p l e s w h e n th e y h e lp in tu r n i n g a n o b j e c tio n (166b, cf. a l s o
168b 4 - 5 ) , th e m a i n l i n e s of th e d i s c u s s i o n a n d th e e v e n tu a l r e f u t a t i o n
a r e c l e a r l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t P r o t a g o r a s * v ie w s w ith o u t any r e a l c o n ­
c e r n a b o u t t h e i r c o n n e c tio n w ith t h o s e of T h e a e t e t u s a n d H e r a c l e i t u s .
L i k e w i s e in th e r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m w h ic h fo llo w s (1 8 1 c 183fc), even th o u g h th e p r e t e n s e is k e p t up t h a t P r o t a g o r a s 1 v ie w s a r e
b e in g t e s t e d (cf. 183c 7), it is o b v io u s th a t th e flux d o c t r i n e i s b e in g
d i r e c t l y a s s a u l t e d on i t s own a c c o u n t.
It is t r u e t h a t th e flux d o c t r i n e
is f o r m a l l y r e j e c t e d only b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t h e lp T h e a e t e t u s in his
c l a i m t h a t p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e (183e 6 - 1 1 , 183c 1 -4 ), but th is f a i l ­
u r e i s , an d is p r e s e n t e d a s , only th e s p e c i a l c a s e of a p e r f e c t l y g e n e r a l
56
in a d e q u a c y in th e flux t h e o r y i t s e l f .
A nd, f in a lly , th e r e f u t a t i o n of
T h e a e t e t u s 1 o r i g i n a l d e f i n iti o n ( 1 8 4 b - 1 8 6 e ) , w h e n it is a t lo ng l a s t
a t t e m p t e d , t r e a t s th e c l a i m of p e r c e p t i o n to be k n o w le d g e a l t o g e t h e r
in d e p e n d e n tly of an y s u p p o r t i n g h y p o t h e s i s .
I t t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s th a t ,
w h a t e v e r th e l i n e of a r g u m e n t a p p a r e n t l y b e in g p r e p a r e d in 1 5 2 - 1 6 0 ,
P la to * s s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t n o w h e r e d e p e n d s upon th e p l a u s i b i l i t y o r
c o r r e c t n e s s of h is a m a l g a m a t i o n of th e t h r e e d o c t r i n e s he c o n s i d e r s .
I t s u g g e s t s i t s e l f t h a t t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n is n o t m u c h m o r e t h a n a m e a n s
of g e ttin g in to a s i n g l e d ia lo g u e t h r e e d o c t r i n e s w h ic h he w i s h e d to c o n ­
s id e r and refu te.
If s o , th e n t h e q u a lity of th e a r g u m e n t s p r o d u c e d in
th e a m a l g a m a t i o n d o e s n o t m a t t e r to h is r e a l a i m s , and one i s f r e e to
th in k t h a t h e 'd i d no t c a r e w h e t h e r o r no t th e y w e r e e i t h e r q u ite p l a u s i b le o r f in a lly c o n v in c in g .
23
In an y c a s e t h e r e s e e m to b e only two a l t e r . a t i v e s :
eith er P la to
d id m e a n th e a r g u m e n t of 1 5 7 -1 6 0 s e r i o u s l y (and th e n on e c a n o nly
p le a d , w i t h C a m p b e l l ,
24
“ t h e i m p e r f e c t s t a t e of l o g i c 11 in P la to * s t i m e ) ,
o r e l s e he only p r e t e n d s to th in k t h a t i t s c o n c l u s i o n f o llo w s f r o m H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h a t th e a r g u m e n t g iv e n is v a li d .
f o r c e d to c h o o s e b e tw e e n t h e s e tw o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
We s e e m
It s h o u ld b e e m ­
p h a s i z e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h i c h e v e r of t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s i s o p te d f o r ,
t h e i n a d e q u a c y of t h e a r g u m e n t d o e s n o t a f f e c t a n y th in g s a i d l a t e r cn ,
s i n c e f r o m l 6 0 e o n w a r d s th e t h r e e t h e o r i e s a r e k e p t w e l l a p a r t f r o m
one a n o t h e r a n d e x a m i n e d on t h e i r own a c c o u n t s .
My own i n c l i n a t i o n i s to t a k e th e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e , an d n o t be
c o n c e r n e d a t t h e i n a d e q u a c y of th e a r g u m e n t a t i o n in 1 5 8 -1 5 9 .
It s e e m s
57
d e s i r a b l e n ot to a t t r i b u t e to P l a t o a b a d a r g u m e n t , e x c e p t w h e n he is
s p e a k in g h a lf in j e s t , a n d th e f a c t t h a t one n e e d not do s o h e r e in o r d e r
to p r e s e r v e i n t a c t th e c o g e n c y of th e r e f u t a t i o n s w h i c h fo llo w , w h e r e
th e r e a l l y s e r i o u s a r g u m e n t o c c u r s , w e ig h s h e a v ily w ith m e .
The
o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e i s to g iv e h im a b a d a r g u m e n t , s e r i o u s l y m e a n t , on
w h ic h n o th in g of i m p o r t a n c e h a n g s .
I t s e e m s to m e p r e f e r a b l e to a v o id
doing t h i s , bu t I do n o t s e e how to show t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to be w r o n g .
T h e c o n c l u s i o n P l a t o a i m s a t in th e p a s s a g e is in an y c a s e
w o rth em p h asizin g .
It is a l l e g e d t h a t in a w o r l d of t o t a l flux, in w h i c h
n o th in g h a s a ny d u r a t i o n , no m o m e n t a r y p e r s o n in a n y w a y r e s e m b l e s
a ny o t h e r , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r no p e r s o n h a s a c a p a c i t y f o r s e n s o r y a f f e c ­
tio n s i m i l a r to a n y o n e e l s e fs.
H e n c e no p e r c e i v e d q u a lity p r o d u c e d in
c o n n e c ti o n w i th one p e r s o n - s t a g e h a s an y r e s e m b l a n c e to t h a t p r o d u c e d
in c o n n e c tio n w i th a n y o t h e r p e r s o n - s t a g e ; a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r o b je c ts
a n d t h e i r c a p a c ity to s e n s i b l y a f f e c t a p e r c i p i e n t .
E a c h p e r s o n is th u s
c o n f in e d w ith in th e m o m e n t w h e n he e x i s t s a n d r e s t r i c t e d to th e r e g i s ­
t e r i n g of t h e s e n s e - q u a l i t y t h a t c o m e s to be th e n .
B e c a u s e of th e t o ta l
d i f f e r e n c e of e a c h p e r s o n a n d q u a l ity f r o m e v e r y o t h e r , t h e r e is no
g ro u n d f o r a l l e g i n g t h a t w h a t c o m e s to be in p e r c e p t i o n f o r an y one is
in a n y w a y f a l s e o r m i s r e p r e s e n t s a n y th in g .
No p e r c e p t i o n c a n be
i m p u g n e d e i t h e r by r e f e r e n c e to w h a t an y o b je c t i s r e a l l y in i t s e l f lik e ,
o r by a p p e a l to w h a t n o r m a l p e r s o n s e x p e r i e n c e in c o n n e c t io n w ith it.
In f o r m u l a t i n g t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s (159e 7 - l 6 0 c 10) P l a t o a b r u p t l y
r e i n t r o d u c e s th e u s e s of f l Vfli
w h i c h i t h a s b e e n th e p u r p o s e of th e
r e d u c t i o n of P r o t a g o r e a n i s m to H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m to r e m o v e .
Thus
58
1 6 0b 8 - 1 0 : " s o t h a t w h e t h e r o n e s a y s a th in g is o r t h a t i t b e c o m e s , it
m u s t b e s a i d to b e o r b e c o m e f o r s o m e o n e o r s o m e o n e 's o r w i th r e f e r ­
e n c e t o s o m e t h i n g . 11 T he f a c t t h a t h e r e a t th e end of th e a m a l g a m a t i o n
of t h e tw o t h e o r i e s P l a t o is s t i l l a llo w in g P r o t a g o r a s to s a y t h a t w h a t
one p e r c e i v e s n o t m e r e l y b e c o m e s bu t ev e n i £ f o r s o m e o n e , i s f u r t h e r
e v i d e n c e t h a t he h a s no t s e r i o u s l y w i s h e d to r e p l a c e th e P r o t a g o r e a n
do ctrin e about
1 v'a l
w ith th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of c o n s t a n t flux.
W e end, w h e r e w e s t a r t e d (cf. 152c 5 - 6 ) , w i t h P r o t a g o r a s a s s e r t i n g
t h a t ‘' T h e r e f o r e f o r m e m y p e r c e p t i o n is t r u e - - f o r it i s a l w a y s of w h a t
e x i s t s f o r m e (>]
( I 6 0 c 7 - 8 ) . n On t h i s g r o u n d , h e r e
(d 1 - 3 ) a s e a r l i e r , r e s t s t h e c l a i m t h a t p e r c e i v i n g is k no w ing .
C H A P T E R II
T H E R E F U T A T IO N O F PRO T A G O R A S
A.
In tro d u ctio n
In th e e x p o s i tio n of th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n a n d the d i s c u s s i o n s
a s s o c i a t e d w ith it P r o t a g o r a s * d o c t r i n e a b o u t t r u t h h a s b e e n g r o u n d e d
in th e flux t h e o r y s o f a r a s i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r T h e a e te tu s* v ie w s on
k n o w le d g e a r e c o n c e r n e d .
(to
^ a tv o ^ v tv )
H is t h e o r y t h a t w h a t s e e m s to be th e c a s e
to e a c h p e r s o n is th e c a s e f o r h im ha s b e e n
ta k ^.i (152c 1 - 3 ) to im p ly th a t w h a t a p p e a r s to e a c h p e r s o n in p e r c e p t i o n
is t r u e f o r h im w ho p e r c e i v e s it, on th e g ro u n d th a t in th e c a s e of p e r ­
c e p t u a l p r o p e r t i e s s e e m i n g to be, e. g. , r e d a m o u n ts to bein g p e r c e i v e d
a s r e d (152b 11).
T h e flux t h e o r y w a s th en b r o u g h t in an d d e v e lo p e d a s
a m e a n s of d e f e n d in g h is v iew in i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to p e r c e p t i o n an d p e r ­
c e p tu a l ju d g m e n t s .
B u t of c o u r s e P r o t a g o r a s m e a n t to be u p h olding a
u n i v e r s a l t h e s i s a b o u t t r u t h a n d w i s h e d to a s s e r t th a t w h a t e v e r a p e r s o n
m i g h t m a k e ( s i n c e r e l y ) a n a s s e r t i o n a b o u t he n e c e s s a r i l y s a i d s o m e th in g
t r u e a b o u t i t - - a s .r u e , t h a t i s , a s a n y th in g a n y o n e co u ld e v e r a s s e r t .
W hen, t h e r e f o r e , S o c r a t e s b e g i n s h is c r i t i c i s m of th e t h e o r i e s he ha s
j u s t m a n a g e d to a m a l g a m a t e in h is a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t i o n , he u n d e r t a k e s
to t e s t a nd r e f u t e P r o t a g o r a s * t h e s i s u n d e r s t o o d in i ts l a r g e s t s e n s e .
T he e ff e c t of r e f u tin g i t a s a g e n e r a l d o c t r i n e a b o u t t r u t h , and not
m e r e l y one c o n c e r n i n g th e t r u t h of r e p o r t s of p e r c e p t i o n , w ill be to
ta k e one p r o p out f r o m u n d e r T h e a e t e t u s 1 s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of
60
k n o w le d g e .
F o r if P r o t a g o r a s 1 d o c t r i n e a b o u t t r u t h is f a l s e , in g e n e r a l ,
t h e n th e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it is t r u e w ith in th e l i m i t e d f ie ld of p e r c e p t i o n
w ill h a v e tp be e x a m i n e d on its own m e r i t s ;
one m u s t no t d e r i v e a n y
a s s u r a n c e th a t p e r c e p t i o n w i l l t u r n out to be t r u e f r o m a p r e c o n c e i v e d
f a i t h in P r o t a g o r e a n i s m . ^ T h e c r i t i c i s m of P r o t a g o r a s , th e n , a i m s to
e l i m i n a t e h is v ie w s a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e of s u p p o r t f o r T h e a e t e t u s 1
d e f in itio n of k n o w le d g e .
P r o t a g o r a s 1 t h e o r y c o n s i s t s of two p a r t s .
T h e f i r s t , w i t h w h ic h
th e e x p l i c i t r e f u t a t i o n s of th e T h e a e t e t u s a r e c o n c e r n e d , is a d o c t r i n e
a b o u t th e t r u t h of th e o p in io n s of i n d iv id u a l m e n - - o p i n i o n s a b o u t th e
q u a l i t i e s th e y p e r c e i v e th i n g s to h a v e o r o t h e r w i s e j u d g e to be p r e s e n t
in t h e m .
T h e s e c o n d p a r t of th e t h e o r y c o n c e r n s th e j u d g m e n t s in m a t ­
t e r s of m o r a l i t y and s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n a n d p o lic y w h ic h w h o le c i t i e s
m ake:
t h e s e too , it t u r n s o u t (cf. 167c 4 - 5 , 172a), a r e a l l t r u e , b e ­
c a u s e t r u e f o r an y c ity so lo n g a s it c o n ti n u e s to a c c e p t th e m .
T h is
p a r t of th e t h e o r y d o e s n o t f i g u r e p r o m i n e n t l y in th e d i s c u s s i o n s of th e
T h e a e t e t u s , w h ic h is c o n c e r n e d th r o u g h o u t w ith in d iv id u a l m e n a n d
t h e i r k n o w le d g e o r l a c k of it:
b ut e v e n p o l i t i c a l P r o t a g o r e a n i s m is
r e j e c t e d (th ou gh not f o r m a l l y r e f u t e d ) , a s I s h a l l sho w , in a n a d m i t t e d
d i g r e s s i o n ( 1 7 2 c - 1 7 7 c ) i n t e r r u p t i n g th e r e f u t a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s 1 v ie w s
a b o u t i n d i v id u a l m e n ' s j u d g m e n t s .
T h e r e is a c e r t a i n d if f ic u lt y , th o u g h P l a t o d o e s not m e n t i o n it,
in u n d e r s t a n d i n g how P r o t a g o r a s c o n c e i v e d t h e s e tw o p a r t s of h i s p h i ­
l o s o p h y to be r e l a t e d .
He a p p e a r s to h a v e th o u g h t of th e p o l i t i c a l c o m ­
p o n e n t a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t t h e o r y a s s e r t i n g th e v ie w , c o m m o n a m o n g th e
61
s o p h i s t s , th a t t h e r e is no t r u t h in m o r a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d s o c i a l m a t t e r s
b ey o n d w h a t is a c c e p t e d a n d a c t e d upon in d i f f e r e n t n a tio n s ( c i t i e s ) : so
t h a t f o r any g i v e n m a n th e t r u t h in t h e s e m a t t e r s is w h a t e v e r th e p e o p le
a r o u n d h im u n q u e s tio n in g ly a c c e p t and a c t upon.
But it is h a r d to s e e
how th is c a n be p r e v e n t e d f r o m c o m in g in to c o n f li c t w ith th e f u n d a m e n t a l
d o c t r i n e a b o u t th e t r u t h of e a c h m a n ' s o p in io n s .
F o r it c e r t a i n l y h a p ­
p e n s t h a t s o m e t i m e s s o m e one in a s o c i a l g r o u p r e j e c t s one o r a n o t h e r
of th e o p in io n s o r p r a c t i c e s w h ic h m e m b e r s of th e g ro u p o r d i n a r i l y a c ­
c e p t n a t u r a l l y and u n q u e s tio n in g ly .
A nd th e n in o r d e r not to o v e r r u l e
h is " m a n th e m e a s u r e " s l o g a n , P r o t a g o r a s w il l h a v e to a f f i r m th e t r u t h
of th e d i s s i d e n t s op in io n.
In d o ing so , h o w e v e r , he m a k e s th e g e n e r a l
o r c a n o n ic a l opinion on th e m a t t e r of m o r a l i t y o r s o c i a l p o lic y in q u e s ­
tio n not t r u e f o r th e c ity w h e r e it is c a n o n i c a l , if th a t m e a n s t r u e f o r a ll
its c i t i z e n s , but r a t h e r t r u e f o r j u s t t h o s e c i t i z e n s w ho a c c e p t a n d f o l ­
low th e g e n e r a l o p inion.
And in th a t c a s e th e a l l e g e d in d e p e n d e n c e of
p o l i t i c a l P r o t a g o r e a n i s m is a n i l l u s i o n :
it r e a l l y s a y s no m o r e th a n
th a t e a c h m a n ' s in d iv id u a l v ie w on m o r a l an d s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s is c o r r e c t .
T h e f a c t th a t t h e r e is n o r m a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t in any g r o u p on
s o m e s u c h q u e s t i o n s m a y p e r m i t u s e of th e e x p r e s s i o n " t r u e f o r th is
g r o u p , " but th is u s a g e c a n a lw a y s be c a s h e d by s a y in g f o r p r e c i s e l y
w h o m th e th in g in q u e s t i o n is t r u e .
W h a t P r o t a g o r a s w o u ld r e p l y to t h i s is m a t t e r f o r c o n j e c t u r e .
T h e g e n e r a l in te n tio n of h is d o c t r i n e s , h o w e v e r , b o th in t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
a n d t h e i r s p e c i f i c a l l y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e a r i n g , is c l e a r .
The t h r u s t of
his a r g u m e n t is to deny t h a t t h e r e is any t r u t h o r e x i s t e n c e o r r e a l i t y
62
e x c e p t w h a t a p p e a r s to a p e r s o n to be t r u e o r e x i s t e n t o r r e a l :
he
a t t e m p t s , a s w e h a v e s e e n ( 1 5 2 a - c ) , to m a k e e v e r y a s s e r t i o n t r u e by
d e n y in g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t m i g h t b e t a k e n a s a c r i t e r i o n by w h ic h one
p e r s o n m i g h t t e s t a n d p a s s j u d g m e n t u po n a n y o n e e l s e !s s t a t e m e n t s .
U l t i m a t e l y th e only c r i t e r i o n f o r th e t r u t h of a n a s s e r t i o n i s t h a t it is
m ade. ^
Now, a s I r e m a r k e d a b o v e (pp. 1 4 - 1 5 of C h a p t e r I), t h e r e a r e
two p o s s i b l e w a y s in w h ic h P r o t a g o r a s m i g h t i n te n d t h e s e t h e s e s .
He
m i g h t m e a n to ba n t r u t h a n d e x i s t e n c e a s i m p ly in g a n o b je c t i v i t y w h i c h
he r e f u s e s to t o l e r a t e , i n t r o d u c i n g in t h e i r s t e a d new c o n c e p t s " t r u t h f o r - x Mand " e x i s t e n c e - f o r - x ."
In t h a t c a s e a s s e r t i o n s of th e f o r m " I t
is t r u e t h a t p " a n d " S u c h - a n d - s u c h e x i s t s " w o u ld be i l l - f o r m e d , r e q u i r ­
ing c o m p l e t i o n by th e a d d i t i o n of a r e f e r e n c e to s o m e p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s
by w h o m (as w e n o n - P r o t a g o r e a n s s h o u ld s a y ) t h e s e th in g s a r e th o u g h t
to be t r u e o r to w h o m th e y a p p e a r to e x i s t .
in w h ic h h is d o c t r i n e i s u s u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d :
T h i s i s , in f a c t , th e w a y
I have m en tio n ed above
s o m e d if f i c u l t i e s w h ic h a r i s e if t h i s i s P r o t a g o r a s 1 t e a c h i n g , b u t it
m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t P l a t o n o w h e r e q u i t e f i r m l y e x p la in s w h a t h e h e ld ,
a n d t h a t h is h a b i t of a l w a y s a d d in g " t o m e " o r i ts e q u i v a l e n t s to o c c u r ­
r e n c e s of t h e k e y t e r m s " e x i s t s " a n d " t r u e " ^ s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t a s
P l a t o u n d e r s t o o d it th e P r o t a g o r e a n d o c t r i n e r e q u i r e d th e a d d itio n .
C e r t a i n l y by th e t i m e w h e n S o c r a t e s b e g in s h is e x a m i n a t i o n of P r o t a g ­
o r a s 1 v ie w s in l 6 l c th e p r e s u m p t i o n i s on th e s i d e of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
One sh o u ld , h o w e v e r , in r e a d i n g th e a r g u m e n t s w h ic h fo llo w r e t a i n in
m in d th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t th e t i t l e of P r o t a g o r a s * book, T r u t h , m e a n s
63
t h a t in it he ex p o u n d e d a t h e o r y of t r u t h , a n d did no t m e r e l y a b a n d o n
tru th fo r so m eth in g e lse .
T h is t h e o r y w ou ld hold th a t th e only c r i t e r i o n
of s o m e t h i n g ^ b e in g t r u e is i ts b e in g ( s i n c e r e l y ) b e lie v e d by s o m e o n e
to be t r u e , o r , in th e c a s e of p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s , w h a t e v e r a p p e a r s
in p e r c e p t i o n to be th e c a s e to an y one ijs th e c a s e .
T h e d o c t r i n e t h e n i s t h a t w h a t e v e r a ny one th in k s to be th e c a s e
is th e c a s e , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , is th e c a s e f o r h im .
It is a g a i n s t th is
g e n e r a l d o c t r i n e t h a t S o c r a t e s a r g u e s b e g in n in g a t 161b.
U ltim ately
h is r e f u t a t i o n c o n s i s t s of tw o a t t e m p t s ( l 6 9 d - 1 7 1 d , 1 7 7 c -1 7 9 b ) to d r a w
out th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of P r o t a g o r a s 1 p r o g r a m s u f f ic ie n tly to r e d u c e it
to a b s u r d i t y ; but b e f o r e d o in g t h i s he m a k e s s e v e r a l b r i e f e r c r i t i c i s m s
( I 6 l c - l 6 5 e ) , one of w h ic h c o n t a i n s th e g e r m of h is l a t e r r e f u t a t i o n
w h i le th e o t h e r s a r e r a t h e r c a r p i n g an d i n c o n c l u s i v e .
One m a i n p u r ­
p o s e of t h e s e a r g u m e n t s s e e m s to be to p e r m i t P r o t a g o r a s to e x p a n d
h is t h e o r i e s in v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s so a s to g iv e S o c r a t e s e n t r e e f o r his
red uctio
a rg u m en ts.
In h is own d e f e n s e P r o t a g o r a s i s m a d e (1 6 6 a -
168c) to s k e t c h a r e p l y to t h e o b je c tio n s j u s t b r o u g h t a g a i n s t h im , a n d
a t th e s a m e t i m e to s u p p l e m e n t his t h e o r y a s i t h a s a p p e a r e d up u n til
th e n by e x p lic i tly a d o p tin g w h a t I h a v e c a l l e d p o l i t i c a l P r o t a g o r e a n i s m
an d a d d in g an a c c o u n t of w i s d o m w h ic h d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a b a n d o n m e n t
of h is p r i n c i p l e t h a t no o n e f s o p in io n s a r e f a l s e .
In o r d e r to g iv e a c o m p l e t e s u m m a r y of th e c o n t e n ts of 1 6 1 -1 7 9 ,
m e n t i o n m u s t be m a d e a l s o of th e d i g r e s s i o n , 1 7 2 -1 7 7 , in w h ic h p o l i t i ­
c a l P r o t a g o r e a n i s m is r a i l e d a g a i n s t , th o u g h not r e f u t e d .
64
B.
T h e P r e l i m i n a r y A r g u m e n t s (16 1 c - 16 5 e )
S o c r a t e s b e g in s by t a k i n g th e b u ll d i r e c t l y by th e h o r n s .
P ro­
t a g o r a s h a s w i s h e d to r i d u s of e v e r y p o s s i b l e m e a n s of c r i t i c i z i n g o r
r e f u t i n g one a n o th e r * s j u d g m e n t s .
T h e only s o r t of t r u t h he t r u s t s is
th e k in d w h i c h e v e r y o p in io n m u s t p o s s e s s :
f o r h i m , a l l one n e e d s to
do, a n d a l l one c a n do, in o r d e r to f in d o u t w h e t h e r an o p in io n is t r u e
i s to d i s c o v e r w h a t th e o p in io n i s .
i s f in d in g out s o m e t h i n g t r u e .
F i n d i n g o ut th e c o n t e n t of a th o u g h t
T o know w h a t one th i n k s a b o u t th e w o r l d
i s to know w h a t th e w o r l d i s li k e , i n s o f a r a s th e w o r l d h a s an y c h a r a c ­
t e r a t a l l.
S o c r a t e s p o u n c e s d i r e c t l y u p o n t h i s a n d p o in ts ou t t h a t i t h a s
th e c o n s e q u e n c e ( I 6 l d 3 - e 3) t h a t no m a n is b e t t e r i n f o r m e d th a n a n y
o t h e r , n o r i s t h e r e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y of d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n m e n w i t h
r e s p e c t to w i s d o m a n d s t u p id it y .
T h i s d e n i a l t h a t an y m a n is w i s e r
th a n a ny o t h e r , in th e s e n s e of k n ow in g m o r e , i s th e k e r n e l f r o m w h ic h
P l a t o w i l l l a t e r d e v e lo p h is r e f u t a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s .
H e r e in i t s f i r s t
a p p e a r a n c e it i s v e r y c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i th tw o d i f f e r e n t but r e l a t e d
p o i n t s , w h o s e i n c l u s i o n p e r m i t s P r o t a g o r a s to p o s tp o n e h is d e m i s e by
a n s w e r i n g th e o b j e c t i o n s c o n t a i n e d in t h e m , a s if th e y w e r e th e w h o le
s u b s t a n c e of th e c r i t i c i s m S o c r a t e s h a s r a i s e d .
S o crates acq u iesces
in t h i s m o v e , c o n t e n t to h a v e s t a r t e d a h a r e w h ic h h e c a n h u n t down
l a t e r , a f t e r P r o t a g o r a s in h is D e f e n s e ( I 66d 1 - I 6 7 d 4) h a s p r o m u l g a t e d
a n o f f ic ia l te a c h i n g a b o u t w i s d o m .
T h e tw o p o in ts j u s t m e n t i o n e d a s r e l a t e d to th e d e n ia l t h a t m e n
d i f f e r in w i s d o m a r e t h e s e :
(a) If w h a t s e e m s o r a p p e a r s to be th e c a s e
65
to e a c h m a n is th e c a s e f o r h im , p r e s u m a b l y a l s o e v e r y a n i m a l w h ic h
h a s th e p o w e r of p e r c e p t i o n m u s t be g r a n t e d a t l e a s t th i s m u c h s h a r e
in t r u t h , t h a t w h a t it p e r c e i v e s to be s o i £ s o f o r it.
And in t h a t c a s e ,
one w o n d e r s a t P r o t a g o r a s 1 p r e f e r r i n g to b e g in h is book by s a y in g
" M a n i s th e m e a s u r e of a l l t h i n g s . "
Why n ot " p ig " o r " b a b o o n " ?
No
d o u b t m o r e th in g s s e e m o r a p p e a r to m e n t h a n do to p i g s , s i n c e m e n
c a n t h in k w h e r e a s p ig s c a n n o t; b ut a t a n y r a t e t h e r e is no th in g t h a t
a p p e a r s to a pig t h a t i s f a l s e , a n d to t h i s e x te n t a pig h a s a s m u c h r i g h t
to b e p r o n o u n c e d th e m e a s u r e of a l l t h in g s a s any m a n d o e s .
No m a n
is th e m e a s u r e of a n y th in g e x c e p t f o r h i m s e l f , and any pig i s to p r e ­
c i s e l y t h e s a m e e x te n t a n d in p r e c i s e l y th e s a m e w a y a m e a s u r e - n am ely , a m e a s u r e for itse lf.
So th e d i f f e r e n c e in n u m b e r of th in g s
t h a t c a n s e e m to m e n a n d p ig s i s no g r o u n d f o r th in k in g m e n m e a s u r e s
in p r e f e r e n c e to p i g s . ^
So P r o t a g o r a s 1 v ie w s h a v e th e b i z a r r e r e s u l t
th a t P r o t a g o r a s h i m s e l i a n d a n y o t h e r l u m i n a r y , is no w i s e r th a n a pig!
(b) On th e o t h e r h a n d , of c o u r s e , a ny m a n is a s w i s e a s an y
god; b e in g th e only m e a s u r e t h e r e c a n b e f o r h i m , he know s e v e r y t h i n g
t h e r e i s to know f o r h im , a n d n o th in g a god c o u ld know w o u ld g iv e h im
th e a d v a n ta g e .
H e r e to o t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e p a r i t y .
T h e r e is o b v io u s ly j u s t i c e a s w e l l a s h u m o r in t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s .
B u t P r o t a g o r a s is p e r m i t t e d to f e n d t h e m off ( I 6 2 d 5 - 1 63a 1 ).
He
o b s e r v e s t h a t in K s w r i t i n g s he h a s e x p li c itly r e f r a i n e d f r o m e x p r e s s ­
ing e i t h e r b e li e f o r d i s b e l i e f in g o d s, s o t h a t w h e t h e r th e y a r e m e a ­
s u r e s of a n y th in g i s f o r h im a n o p e n q u e s t i o n .
H e n c e , he i m p l i e s , no
c o m p a r i s o n b e tw e e n m e n a n d gods i s w a r r a n t e d on h is v ie w s .
As for
66
p i g s , S o c r a t e s h a s u n f a i r l y a n d f r i v o l o u s l y p la y e d to th e c r o w d by p r e ­
te n d in g to d e d u c e th e s p e c t a c u l a r c o n s e q u e n c e th a t p ig s a r e a s w i s e a s
m en:
b u t he h a s g iv e n no v a l id p r o o f e i t h e r t h a t th is d o e s follow o r
t h a t it i m p l i e s a f a u lt in th e t h e o r y if i t d o e s .
(P resu m ab ly P ro ta g o ra s
h a s p a r t l y in m in d t h a t S o c r a t e s h a s a s s u m e d t h a t th e o nly, o r th e c o r ­
r e c t , a c c o u n t of w i s d o m w ill m a k e a c r e a t u r e w i s e r th a n a n o t h e r j u s t
in c a s e i t b e l i e v e s f e w e r f a l s e h o o d s :
bu t, a s P r o t a g o r a s w ill t r y to
a r g u e b e lo w , t h e c o r r e c t a c c o u n t of w i s d o m m a k e s s o m e m e n w i s e r
th a n o t h e r s w i th o u t m a k i n g a n y e x c e l in th e t r u t h of t h e i r b e l i e f s . )
S o c r a t e s , c h a s t e n e d by P r o t a g o r a s * a p p e a l to f a i r n e s s a n d s e r i ­
o u s n e s s , t a k e s a new t a c k , s h if ti n g h is a t t e n t i o n f r o m P r o t a g o r a s * g e n ­
e r a l d o c t r i n e to th e t h e o r y t h a t p e r c e p t i o n i s k n o w le d g e , w h i c h t h e g e n ­
e r a l d o c t r i n e i s in te n d e d to s u p p o r t (163a).
A g a i n s t th i s t h e o r y he
r a i s e s two o b j e c t i o n s , o ne of w h i c h T h e a e t e t u s h i m s e l f i m m e d i a t e l y
p a r r i e s , w h ile th e o t h e r i s d e c l a r e d m e r e l y c o n t e n t i o u s , a s i n v o lv in g
th e t h e o r y in a m e r e l y v e r b a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d le f t to P r o t a g o r a s to
r e b u t in h is D e f e n s e .
A t h i r d o b j e c tio n , t o g e t h e r w i t h a g r o u p of
s m a l l e r c a v i l s , is a d d e d in i l l u s t r a t i o n of w h a t a r e a l l y c o n te n t io u s
p e r s o n c o u ld do in a t t a c k i n g th e s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of k n o w le d g e
( I 6 5 b - e ) ; th is one s e e m s n o t to be ta k e n s e r i o u s l y a n d d o e s , in d e e d ,
r e s t on a n o b v io u s m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e t h e s i s b e in g e x a m in e d .
W h a t i s th e p u r p o s e of th is s e t of s m a l l c r i t i c i s m s ?
As p r e v i­
o u s ly n o te d , th e y a r e a l l d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t th e e q u a tio n of s e n s e - p e r c e p tio n w it h k n o w le d g e , a n d th o u g h P r o t a g o r a s i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s h o ld in g
th is t h e o r y (by i m p l i c a t i o n ) , i t i s a n d r e m a i n s T h e a e te tu s * p e c u l i a r
67
c o n t r ib u t io n .
C o r n f o r d t h e r e f o r e th o u g h t th a t t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s a r e
d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a s i m p l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n an d k n o w le d g e ,
a n d a r e d e s i g n e d to f o r c e T h e a e t e t u s to a m e n d and e x te n d h is t h e o r y in
a c o u p le of w a y s in o r d e r to m a k e it m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y w ith o u t a t th e
s a m e t i m e giving up th e s p i r i t of th e o r i g i n a l d e f in itio n :^
a r e t h e r e f o r e in h is view i n s t r u c t i o n a l in in te n t.
th e o b je c tio n s
On th e o t h e r h an d
C o r n f o r d a l s o th o u g h t th e t h i r d o b je c tio n a r e d u c t i o a d a b s u r d u m v a lid
a g a i n s t T h e a e t e t u s 1 p o s i tio n , th o u g h not a g a i n s t P r o t a g o r a s , p r e s u m a b ly s i n c e P r o t a g o r a s did n ot r e s t r i c t k n o w le d g e to s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n .
7
And it is not c l e a r w h a t C o r n f o r d th in k s T h e a e t e t u s s h o u ld do to e v a d e
w h a t he r e g a r d s a s th is a r g u m e n t s c o n s e q u e n c e ; th oug h he a p p e a r s to
think th a t a l l t h r e e o b j e c tio n s a r e only v a lid a g a i n s t T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f i n i ­
tio n c o n s t r u e d m o r e n a r r o w l y t h a n he in te n d e d it.
I a m t h e r e f o r e not c o n v in c e d th a t t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e p o s e d
h e r e in o r d e r to show T h e a e t e t u s w h a t a p a in fu lly l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of h is t h e s i s w ill c o m m i t h im to a n d t h e r e b y p o in t th e w ay to a m o r e
a d e q u a te v e r s i o n of his b a s i c d o c t r i n e .
It is c e r t a i n l y n o t t r u e th a t a l l
t h r e e h a v e th is e ffe c t, a n d it m a y be d o u b te d th a t th e p a s s a g e a s a
w h o le w a s in te n d e d to h a v e it.
F o r one th in g n e i t h e r in th e r e f u t a t i o n
of T h e a e te tu s* t h e o r y (1 8 4 -1 8 6 ) n o r b e f o r e t h a t ( e x c e p t h e r e ) is any
a t t e n t i o n p a id to th e f a c t t h a t a c c o r d i n g to h im not only is a l l p e r c e p t i o n
k n o w le d g e but a l s o a ll k n o w le d g e i s p e r c e p t i o n :
th e r e f u t a t i o n is a b le to
show th a t no p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e , so it d o e s not n e e d to p r e s s T h e ­
a e t e t u s on th e o t h e r h a lf of th e t h e s i s .
E m p h a s i z i n g th is s i d e of th e
d e f in itio n w o u ld t h e r e f o r e te n d to c o n f u s e th e i s s u e , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e
68
l a t e r no d if f ic u lty is p r e s s e d u po n it on t h i s g r o u n d a n d no d i f f ic u lty
r a i s e d in t h e s e a r g u m e n t s i s p e r m a n e n t l y r e m e d i e d in w h a t f o llo w s .
F o r a n o t h e r th in g , a s I s h a l l sh o w , only th e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n c a n b e
i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o r c i n g a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e d e f i n itio n to i n c l u d e a k in d of
k n o w le d g e t h a t is u s u a l l y , a t l e a s t , n o t th o u g h t of a s p e r c e p t i o n .
T h i r d l y , t h e r e s e e m s to be no e x p la n a tio n w hy P l a t o s h o u ld h a v e b e g u n
th e e x a m i n a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s 1 d i c t u m a n d th e n d r o p p e d P r o t a g o r a s a l ­
t o g e t h e r f o r a fe w p a g e s m e r e l y in o r d e r to a p p r i s e T h e a e t e t u s of s o m e
d a n g e r s ly in g in w a i t f o r h is t h e s i s if u n a m e n d e d o r t a k e n q u i t e s t r i c t l y .
I t s e e m s to m e t h a t t h e c h ie f p u r p o s e s of t h e s e t h r e e a r g u m e n t s
a r e tw o:
to p r o v i d e a m u s e m e n t a n d to p r e p a r e in a s m o o t h a n d n a t u r a l
w a y f o r th e D e f e n s e w h ic h f o llo w s , w h e r e , a s I h a v e s a i d , th e g r o u n d s
a r e f in a lly l a i d f o r P r o t a g o r a s 1 u l t i m a t e d e f e a t.
The second a rg u m e n t
d o e s i n d e e d f o r c e a n e x t e n s i o n of th e s i m p l e t h e o r y a d o p te d by T h e a e t e ­
t u s , a n d t h e r e is no r e a s o n n o t to r e c o g n i z e t h i s a s one a i m of t h a t a r ­
g u m e n t; but, a t th e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e is no r e a s o n f o r f o r c i n g a l l t h r e e
a r g u m e n t s in to th e s a m e m o l d .
T h e p a s s a g e a s a w h o le c a n h a v e th e
p u r p o s e s I h a v e s u g g e s t e d , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d h a s th e a d d i t i o n a l a i m of
s h o w in g T h e a e t e t u s o ne of th e e r r o r s of h is w a y s .
T h a t t h e t h i r d a r g u m e n t i s a jo k e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e m a r k e d by
R u n c im a n ;
8
a n d th o u g h t h e k in d of d i a l e c t i c a l d i s p l a y S o c r a t e s e n g a g e s
in in t h i s a n d th e o t h e r a r g u m e n t s m a y n o t s e e m funny to u s t h e r e i s
9
a m p l e p r o o f t h a t th e a n c i e n t s d e l i g h t e d in it.
T h e s e few p a g e s of w o r d ­
p la y p r o v i d e j u s t t h e r i g h t a m o u n t of n e e d lin g to p r o v o k e P r o t a g o r a s
in to a f u l l - s c a l e d e f e n s e of h is d o c t r i n e s , a n d it is in t h i s t h a t 1 b e l i e v e
69
th e y find t h e i r d r a m a t i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n an d th e key to t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
T h e a r g u m e n t s r u n , in o u tlin e , a s fo llo w s :
(1 )’ (163b 1 - c 3) O ne m a y s e e l e t t e r s of th e a l p h a b e t (o r h e a r
w o r d s of a n o t h e r la n g u a g e sp o k e n ), y e t f o r a ll t h a t no t know th e l e t t e r s
o r w o r d s in q u e s tio n :
h e n c e w e c a n s e e s o m e t h i n g a n d y e t not know it.
T o th is T h e a e t e t u s h i m s e l f g iv e s e s s e n t i a l l y th e c o r r e c t r e p l y :
th a t
w h i c h th e m a n s e e s he k n o w s, but you m u s t j u s t be c a r e f u l how you d e ­
s c r ib e th is,
W ha t y ou m i g h t s e e a s th e l e t t e r ^
he s e e s a s c o l o r s and
s h a p e s of c e r t a i n s o r t s in a c e r t a i n a r r a n g e m e n t , an d th e t h e o r y only
i m p l i e s t h a t he*s r i g h t a b o u t t h e s e th i n g s . ^
In e f f e c t, T h e a e t e t u s is
p o in tin g out th e in t e n t i o n a l i t y of p e r c e p t i o n , a n d he is r i g h t to s a y th a t
a p p e a l to it e n a b le s h im to p r e s e r v e h is d e f in itio n a g a i n s t S o c r a te s *
th ru st.
(2 ) (163c 4 - l 6 4 b 12) A n y o n e w ho h a s l e a r n e d ( o r s e e n ) s o m e ­
th in g a n d r e t a i n s h is m e m o r y of it know s th a t th in g , w h e n a n d so long
a s he d o e s r e m e m b e r it.
B ut a p e r s o n w ho h a s lo o k e d a t a th in g a n d
th e n c l o s e d h is e y e s m u s t , by T h e a e te tu s * d e f in itio n , n o t know th e th in g
a t th e t i m e w h e n , h is e y e s b e in g c l o s e d , he i s not p e r c e i v i n g it.
Y et
s u r e l y he m a y r e t a i n a m e m o r y of th e o b je c t , an d f r o m o u r i n i t i a l a d ­
m i s s i o n it fo llo w s t h a t in th a t c a s e he kno w s it.
We h a v e th u s th e f o r ­
m a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h a t th e s a m e m a n know s a n d d o e s n o t know th e s a m e
th in g a t th e s a m e t i m e .
T h e r e f o r e , if o u r i n i t i a l a g r e e m e n t a b o u t
r e m e m b e r i n g is to be r e t a i n e d - - a n d it s e e m s e n t i r e l y u n o b j e c t i o n a b l e - w e s h a l l h a v e to a b a n d o n T h e a e te tu s * d e f in itio n .
S o c r a t e s a t f i r s t (164c 1 - 2 ) f e ig n s to th in k t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t
70
h a s by i t s e l f r e f u t e d th e d e f i n i tio n a nd s t a r t s a s if to find a new one to
t r y out.
B u t a t th is p o in t he s to p s s h o r t , a c c u s i n g h i m s e l f of p a y in g
m o r e a t t e n t i o n to w o r d s th a n to th e t r u t h ; a n d a s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of how
f a r one c a n go in p r o d u c in g f r i g h t e n i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s by s e e k i n g a
m e r e l y v e r b a l s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t i o n h e o f f e r s th e t h i r d a r g u m e n t .
(3} (165b 2 - d 1 ) T h e s a m e c o n t r a d i c t i o n - - t h a t th e s a m e m a n
kno w s a n d d o e s n o t know th e s a m e t h in g a t th e s a m e t i m e - - c a n be e v e n
m o r e n e a tly p r o d u c e d f r o m T h e a e t e t u s ' d e f in i tio n th a n th e p r e c e d i n g
a r g u m e n t h a s m a n a g e d to do.
F o r i t i s p o s s i b l e to lo o k a t a th in g w i t h
one e y e o pe n a n d t h e o t h e r c l o s e d , a n d th e n th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n f o llo w s
d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e d e f in iti o n w ith o u t a u x i l i a r y p r e m i s s :
f o r if p e r c e i v i n g
is k no w ing , a n d a m a n in th e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b o th s e e s (w ith h is
op e n eye) a n d d o e s n ot s e e (w ith h is c l o s e d eye) th e s a m e th in g , t h e n
he b o th know s a n d d o e s n o t know it.
T h e e r r o r in t h i s a r g u m e n t is e a s y to s e e .
In d e f in in g k n o w l ­
e d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n one m e a n s ( s i n c e t h e r e a r e m o r e th a n one s e n s e ,
a n d m o r e t h a n one s e n s e o r g a n ) to h o ld t h a t to know s o m e t h i n g is to
p e r c e i v e it by s o m e s e n s e o r o t h e r , s o m e o r g a n o r o t h e r , e tc .
To
show t h a t s o m e o n e b o th p e r c e i v e s a n d d o e s n o t p e r c e i v e (know s a n d
d o e s not know) s o m e t h i n g , a n d f o r c e a t r u e c o n t r a d i c t i o n , o n e m u s t
sho w t h a t s o m e o n e b o th h a s p e r c e p t i o n , in t h i s s e n s e , a n d i t s c o n t r a ­
d icto ry .
Now th e c o n t r a d i c t o r y of " p e r c e i v e s by s o m e s e n s e , s o m e
o r g a n s , e t c . " is " p e r c e i v e s by no s e n s e , no o r g a n , e t c . "
S o crates
d o e s no t h o w e v e r a d d u c e a c a s e w h e r e a m a n b o th h a s a n d h a s no t p e r ­
c e p tio n u n d e r s t o o d in th i s w a y .
T h e n e g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e he a p p l i e s to
71
th e m a n in th e d e s c r i b e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s is " d o e s not p e r c e i v e w ith his
r i g h t e y e " a n d th is is n o t th e s a m e a s " d o e s n ot p e r c e i v e by a n y s e n s e ,
by any o r g a n , e tc . "
H e n c e t h e r e is no c o n t r a d i c t i o n in s a y in g th a t
s o m e o n e b o th s e e s (= p e r c e i v e s by s o m e o r g a n of s ig h t o r o t h e r ) a nd
d o e s n ot s e e (= d o e s n o t p e r c e i v e w ith s o m e p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n of s ig h t)
th e s a m e th in g ; an d t h e r e f o r e T h e a e t e t u s h a s no n e e d to a c c e p t th e
c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t s o m e one know s a nd do esn *t know th e s a m e th in g . ^
(Of c o u r s e he c a n e v e n g r a n t S o c r a t e s th e i n f e r e n c e f r o m " s e e s a n d
d o e s n o t s e e " to "k n o w s a n d d o e s no t kno w "; th e n it w ill be n e c e s s a r y
to a c c e p t th e l e g i t i m a c y of s u c h odd lo c u tio n s a s "k n o w s by s o m e m e a n s
of a c q u a i n t a n c e " a n d " d o e s no t know by m e a n s of h is r i g h t e y e . "
a c c e p t i n g th is he w ill b e a b l e to d i s p e l th e a i r of c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
B ut by
A nd
t h e r e is no r e a s o n w hy a d e t e r m i n e d t h e o r i s t s h o u ld r e f u s e to sw a llo w
th is , a lo n g w ith "kn ow s h a r p l y , " "kn ow d i m l y , " " f r o m a d i s t a n c e , "
e tc . , w h ic h S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f m e n t i o n s [ l 6 5 d 2- 6l *
O dd th e y m a y be,
but if th e t h e o r y r e q u i r e s th e m d if f id e n c e on t h e i r a c c o u n t c a n h a r d l y
be p e r m i t t e d to w r e c k a n o t h e r w i s e a t t r a c t i v e d e f in itio n . )
T h e a r g u m e n t in v o lv in g m e m o r y a d m i t s of e s s e n t i a l l y th e s a m e
rep ly .
F o r if P r o t a g o r a s is w illi n g , a s it a p p e a r s he i s ,
12
to t r e a t
r e m e m b e r i n g a s a k in d of p e r c e i v i n g - - a kind of q u a s i - s e n s o r y a w a r e ­
n e s s of s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y o b j e c t - - t h e n w h a t th e a r g u m e n t sh o w s i s
th a t one c a n a t th e s a m e t i m e be p e r c e i v i n g s o m e t h i n g by one s e n s e o r
m o d e of p e r c e p t i o n a n d n o t by a n o t h e r .
A nd th is is no m o r e o b j e c t i o n ­
a b le th a n s e e i n g a n d n o t s e e i n g t u r n e d out to be; r e m a r k s c a n be m a d e
a b o u t p e r c e i v i n g (by m e m o r y ) a n d not p e r c e i v i n g (by s ig h t) p a r a l l e l to
72
t h o s e m a d e a b o u t s e e i n g (w ith on e eye) a n d not s e e i n g (w ith th e o t h e r ) .
C.
P r o t a g o r a s 1 D e f e n s e ( 166a - 1 68c )
T h e s e fin a l two a r g u m e n t s a r e b r i e f l y r e p l i e d to by P r o t a g o r a s
h i m s e l f a t th e b e g in n in g of th e D e f e n s e of h is v ie w s w h ic h S o c r a t e s h i m ­
s e l f is f o r c e d , on a c c o u n t of P r o t a g o r a s 1 a b s e n c e , to p r o v i d e .
The
r e p l y i s v e r y b r i e f l y s t a t e d , a l t o g e t h e r w ith o u t e l a b o r a t i o n (166a 2 - c 2 ).
B ut S o c r a t e s s e e m s to c o n t e m p l a t e t h r e e a n s w e r s on P r o t a g o r a s 1
b e h a lf , e a c h in v o lv in g a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d of d i s p e l l i n g th e m e n a c e in
g r a n t i n g t h a t th e s a m e m a n b o th k n ow s a n d d o e s n o t know th e s a m e
th in g .
T h e s e m e t h o d s a r e (1) to d eny t h a t t h e th in g know n is r e a l l y on e
a nd th e s a m e th in g a s th e th in g n o t know n; (2 ) to q u e s t i o n d i r e c t l y th e
i d e a t h a t know ing a n d n ot k no w ing a r e s o m e h o w i n c o m p a t i b l e ; (3 ) to
d en y t h a t i t is th e s a m e p e r s o n w ho k now s a n d d o e s n o t know th e th in g .
T h e f i r s t r e p l y in v o lv e s a d m i t t i n g , a s I h a v e a d m i t t e d a b o v e , m e m o r y
a s a k in d of p e r c e p t i o n .
But i t t u r n s upon t r e a t i n g th e o b j e c t p e r c e i v e d
in m e m o r y a s th e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s m e m o r y - i m a g e , a n d n o t th e o b je c t
o n c e p e r c e i v e d by s i g h t (sa y ).
W h e n a p e r s o n k’no w s a n d d o e s n ft know
a th in g b e c a u s e h e r e m e m b e r s b u t d o e s n o t s e e it, t h e th in g w h ic h he
d o e s n o t s e e (the h o u s e he sa w a m o m e n t a g o , s a y ) i s a d i f f e r e n t th in g
f r o m th e th in g w h ic h h e r e m e m b e r s (th e m e m o r y - h o u s e ) ^
The second
r e p l y m a y be m a k i n g t h e p o in t m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h a t j u s t to th e e x te n t
t h a t t h e r e i s no c o n t r a d i c t i o n in s e e i n g (w ith o ne e y e ) a n d not s e e i n g
(with th e o t h e r ) t h e r e i s no c o n t r a d i c t i o n in k n o w in g (w ith one o r g a n o r
by one m o d e of a w a r e n e s s ) a n d n o t kn o w in g (by a n o t h e r ) :
if one u n d e r -
73
s ta n d s w h a t is be in g s a id a n d w h y , t h e r e is no in c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e tw e e n
the two s t a t e s .
13
T h e t h i r d r e p l y is d if f ic u l t to c o n s t r u e :
i ts a p p e a l to th e c o n ­
s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n of " p e r s o n s '* in an y s i n g l e m a n e v id e n tly only sh o w s
th a t th e " s a m e " p e r s o n c a n know a n d no t know a th in g w h e n th e t i m e s
of k now ing a r e d i f f e r e n t ; but b o th of th e a r g u m e n t s b e in g r e p l i e d to
a l l e g e t h a t a p e r s o n a t th e s a m e t i m e know s a n d d oesn *t know a th in g.
T h e in f in ite s u c c e s s i o n of p e r s o n - s t a g e s s e e m s a t f i r s t s i g h t n ot c a p a ­
b le of r e d u c i n g th e p a r a d o x c o n t a i n e d in th e s u g g e s t i o n th a t a m a n a t
the s a m e t i m e r e m e m b e r s (and so k n o w s) a n d d o e s n o t s e e (and s o d o e s
not know) a c e r t a i n h o u s e .
B ut p e r h a p s th e i n te n tio n is to s u g g e s t t h a t
b e c a u s e th e m a n w ho s e e s t h e h o u s e an d th e m a n w ho l a t e r r e m e m b e r s
it a r e d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s it is w r o n g to t r e a t m e m o r y a s a s o u r c e of
kn o w le d g e of th e s a m e th in g a s one c a n know by s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n .
T he
m a n w ho p e r c e i v e s a th in g a n d th e m a n who r e m e m b e r s it a r e not th e
s a m e m a n , a n d one c a n n o t h o ld t h a t th e v e r y th in g w h ic h one m a n s a w
th e o t h e r r e m e m b e r s s e e i n g .
S in c e e a c h p e r s o n is e n t i r e l y m o m e n t a r y
t h e r e is no a l t e r n a t i v e to ta k in g th e o b je c t of h is m e m o r y a s s o m e th in g
co n tem p o ran eo u s and not p a st.
If th is is w h a t P r o t a g o r a s h a s in m in d ,
th e n th e t h i r d r e p l y r e i n f o r c e s th e f i r s t .
In a n y e v e n t P r o t a g o r a s c o n s i d e r s th e a r g u m e n t s so f a r
a d v a n c e d a g a i n s t T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in i tio n to be i n s i n c e r e a n d u r g e s S o c ­
r a t e s to d i r e c t h is a t t e n t i o n to th e a c t u a l t h e o r i e s th a t h a v e b e e n
in vo ked a n d n o t to th e w o r d s in w h ic h th e y a r e e x p r e s s e d :
o n c e he
e x a m i n e s fu lly a n d f a i r l y th e t h e s e s th a t e v e r y t h i n g i s in m o ti o n a n d
74
th a t w h a t a p p e a r s to e a c h m a n i s so f o r him, he c a n p r o c e e d to i n v e s t i ­
g a te w h e t h e r th e id e n tit y of k n o w le d g e an d p e r c e p t i o n c a n be m a i n t a i n e d
on g r o u n d s d r a w n f r o m t h e s e t h e o r i e s (168b 2 - c 2).
V erbal p arad o x es
o r a n o m o lo u s m o d e s of e x p r e s s i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m th e d e f i n i tio n c a n n o t
be a ll o w e d to s t a n d in th e w ay of th e c o n c l u s i o n , if it is in f a c t d e f e n s i ­
b le in th e w a y s u g g e s t e d .
A s f o r h is own p e c u l i a r c o n t r i b u t i o n , P r o t a g o r a s s e i z e s th e
o p p o r t u n i t y to e x p a n d h is t h e o r i e s by a d d in g an a c c o u n t of w i s d o m (in
a n s w e r to th e s t i m u l u s of S o c r a t e s 1 o r i g i n a l o b je c tio n ) a n d e x p l i c i t l y
in c lu d in g s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s a s a m o n g t h o s e w ho a r e m e a s u r e s of t h e i r
own t r u t h .
A s f o r w i s d o m , P r o t a g o r a s 1 i n s i s t e n c e t h a t no o n e 's b e l i e f s
a r e f a l s e d o e s n o t p r e v e n t h im , a s S o c r a t e s i m p l i e d it did, f r o m m a k ­
in g a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n w i s e m e n a n d o t h e r s .
T h e w i s e m a n is s i m p l y
( l 66d 6 - 8 ) th e m a n w ho c a n c h a n g e a n o t h e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a n d o p in io n s ,
w h e n th e y b o th s e e m an d a r e b a d o r h a r m f u l to h im w ho h a s t h e m :
n e i t h e r b e f o r e n o r a f t e r th e c h a n g e d o e s th e m a n h o ld f a l s e b e l i e f s ;
n e i t h e r t h e m a n who is ill n o r th e m a n w ho is w e l l h a s a n y b e l i e f s o r
e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e f a l s e , th o u g h th e o n e 's a r e b e t t e r th a n th e o t h e r ' s
(167a 1 - 3 , d 1 -3 ).
W is e m e n e x c e l o nly in t h e i r a b i l i t y to r e p l a c e a
b ad s e t of p e r c e p t i o n s o r b e l i e f s , o r a b a d c o n d itio n of body o r s o u l,
w i th a b e t t e r .
T h u s d o c t o r s a p p ly h e r b s to b r i n g a b o u t h e a l t h , a n d in
doing so th e y c a u s e th e p a t i e n t 's p e r c e p t i o n s to c h a n g e , so t h a t w in e
w h i c h a p p e a r e d a n d w a s b i t t e r to h i m b e c o m e s s w e e t f o r h im :
do not r e m o v e f a l s e b e lie f s f o r t r u e o n e s .
b u t th e y
L i k e w i s e w i s d o m in p u b lic
a f f a i r s d o e s n o t c o n s i s t in th e a b i l i t y to s u b s t i t u t e t r u e la w s a n d
75
r e g u l a t i o n s f o r f a l s e o n e s - - w h a t e v e r la w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a r e a c c e p t e d
a s r i g h t by a c ity a r e r i g h t so lo n g a s they a r e a c c e p t e d .
T he w i s e m a n
of p u b lic a f f a i r s ha s r a t h e r th e a b ilit y to c h a n g e f o r th e b e t t e r th e o p i n ­
io ns w h ic h a s t a t e h o ld s in m a t t e r s of r i g h t a n d w r o n g .
Now it is o b v io u s t h a t by a d m i t t i n g t h a t one m a n c a n be w i s e r
th a n a n o t h e r , ev e n in th e a t t e n u a t e d s e n s e w h ic h he is w illin g to g r a n t ,
P r o t a g o r a s h a s p r a c t i c a l l y r e s i g n e d f r o m th e a r g u m e n t .
F o r th o u g h
he d o e s c l a i m (167d 1 -4 ) to be c o n s i s t e n t l y d e fe n d in g h is t h e s i s th a t no
one h o ld s any f a l s e b e l i e f s , e v e n w h ile g r a n t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in w i s d o m ,
he r e a l l y c a n n o t do b o th th in g s a t o n c e .
F o r if a d o c t o r is a w i s e m a n
w ho c a n c h a n g e p e o p l e s 1 p e r c e p t i o n s f o r th e b e t t e r , he m u s t h old c e r ­
ta in o p in io n s a b o u t w h a t p e r c e p t i o n s w i l l r e s u l t f r o m th e a p p l i c a t i o n of
c e r t a i n h e r b s , e tc . , a n d h e m u s t be r i g h t in th in k in g th a t c e r t a i n p r o ­
c e d u r e s w ill p r o d u c e a b e t t e r s t a t e of t h e p a t i e n t 1s body.
W hat th e n
m u s t one s a y a b o u t a n o n - d o c t o r , a n u n w is e m a n w ho ho ld s o p in io n s
on j u s t th e s a m e m a t t e r s a s t h o s e w it h w h ic h th e d o c to r* s w i s d o m is
concerned?
S u r e l y P r o t a g o r a s m u s t s a y t h a t th e u n w is e m a n holds
f a l s e o p in io n s , a n d in t h a t e v e n t, a s I s a y , P r o t a g o r a s h a s in e f fe c t
r e s i g n e d h is c a s e .
It a p p e a r s on e x a m i n a t i o n of th e te x t t h a t he h a s
b e e n a b le to o v e r lo o k th e f a c t t h a t h is d o c t r i n e a b o u t w i s d o m d o e s c o n ­
t r a d i c t h is t h e s i s a b o u t t r u t h only b e c a u s e he n o w h e r e
clearly faces
th e q u e s tio n w h e t h e r h is w i s e m e n hold a n y b e l i e f s th a t a r e t r u e r th a n
th o s e h e ld by o t h e r p e o p le :
w h e n he r e a s s e r t s h is view t h a t e v e r y
o n e 's b e lie f s a r e t r u e ( I6 7 d 1 - 4 , cf. I 66e 4 - l 6 7 a 4, b 1 -4 ), he c h ie fly
h a s in m in d th e h e a lth y a s o p p o s e d to th e s i c k m a n o r th e c ity w ith
76
good, a s a g a i n s t th e c i ty w i th b a d , r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g r i g h t c o n d u c t.
By r e a f f i r m i n g th a t b o th w e l l a n d ill m e n a r e r i g h t a b o u t w h a t th e y e x ­
p e r i e n c e , h e th in k s he r e t a i n s h is v ie w th a t no one b e l i e v e s a n y th in g
f a l s e ; b u t, o b v io u s ly , a l l he n e e d s to do is c o m p a r e h is w i s e w i t h a n
u n w i s e m a n in o r d e r to s e e t h a t he h a s in f a c t g iv e n it up.
S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f w i l l p r e s s j u s t th is o b je c tio n up on P r o t a g o r a s ,
a n d on t h e b a s i s of it w i l l p r o n o u n c e (179a 1 0 - b 5, c 1 -2 ) h is d o c t r i n e
t h a t e v e r y m a n is i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a m e a s u r e of a l l th in g s a c e r t a i n l y
m istak en th esis.
Why th e n d o e s P r o t a g o r a s h e r e s o r a s h l y c o m m i t
h i m s e l f to a d o c t r i n e of w i s d o m f u n d a m e n t a l l y a t v a r i a n c e w i t h h is
b a s ic co n ten tio n s?
O n e r e a s o n is th e t h r e a t of a n i n c o n s i s t e n c y in h is
p e r s o n a l beh av io r:
a s S o c r a t e s p o in te d out in h is i n i t i a l o b j e c t i o n
( 1 6 l d 7 - e 3), if P r o t a g o r a s r e a l l y b e l i e v e s t h a t no o n e 1s o p in io n s on
a n y m a t t e r a r e f a l s e , th e n how d o e s h e e x p la in h is s e t t i n g up a s a
t e a c h e r a n d a w i s e m a n w h o s e i n s t r u c t i o n is w o r t h l a r g e s u m s of
m oney?
14
E a r l i e r P r o t a g o r a s le ft the q u e ry u n a n sw e re d , but c le a r ly
e n o u g h n o t only h is d e v o tio n to p e r s o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n but a l s o h is h a v in g
w r i t t e n a boo k im p ly t h a t he h a s s o m e t h i n g of w h ic h to a p p r i s e o t h e r
peo p le.
T h e r e i s , th e n , it w o u ld s e e m , s o m e th in g he k n ow s t h a t th e y
do n o t know , a n d a n y of t h e m w ho th in k s he d o e s know i t i s w r o n g .
A n d in a n s w e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , he c l u t c h e s a t th e s t r a w of s a y i n g
t h a t h e a n d a n y o t h e r w i s e p e r s o n d i f f e r f r o m o r d i n a r y p e o p le only in
th e a b i l i t y to b r i n g a b o u t in o t h e r s b e t t e r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o p in io n s
th a n th e y e a r l i e r p o s s e s s e d .
77
D.
T h e R e fu ta tio n a n d D i g r e s s i o n (16 9 d - 17 9 c )
It m a y s e e m , in view of th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s j u s t a d v a n c e d , th a t
S o c r a t e s in th e D e f e n s e h a s m e r e l y s e t up a s t r a w m a n in o r d e r to h a v e
th e p l e a s u r e of k n o c k in g h im down.
P e r h a p s the l i n e ta k e n by P r o t a g ­
o r a s in th e D e f e n s e a s a m e a n s of r e t a i n i n g s o m e s o r t of d i f f e r e n c e in
w is d o m a m o n g m e n is n ot h is m o s t e f f e c t iv e r e p l y , o r th e o n e w h ic h
he w o u ld h i m s e l f h a v e m a d e .
15
A s if in a n t i c i p a t i o n of th i s o b j e c tio n ,
S o c r a t e s o p e n s h is r e f u t a t i o n of th e P r o t a g o r e a n d i c t u m by p r o p o s i n g
to p r o v e (I6 9 d 1 0 -1 7 0 a 1), by c o n s i d e r i n g j u s t th e d i c t u m i t s e l f a n d i ts
c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h a t (171 d 5 -7 ) e v e n P r o t a g o r a s m u s t a d m i t t h a t s o m e
m e n a r e w i s e r th a n o t h e r s a n d t h a t (171b 1 1 - c 3) th is d i f f e r e n c e i n ­
v o lv e s a d i f f e r e n c e in k n o w le d g e a n d t r u t h a s w e ll.
S o c ra te s1 first
a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t P r o t a g o r a s t h e r e f o r e s e e k s to e s t a b l i s h th a t t h e r e
m u s t b e s o m e f a l s e b e l i e f s , e v e n g r a n t e d P r o t a g o r a s * d ic tu m ; in his
s e c o n d a r g u m e n t (177c 6 - 179b 9) h e w i l l s p e c if y th e c l a s s of j u d g m e n t s
w h e r e i n f a l s i t y r e s i d e s , an d t h e s e w i ll t u r n out to in c l u d e o p in io n s in
th e m a t t e r s to w h ic h P r o t a g o r a s * D e f e n s e a p p e a l e d in its a c c o u n t of
w is d o m .
T h e to t a l e ff e c t of th e tw o a r g u m e n t s w ill t h e r e f o r e be to v i n d i ­
c a t e S o c r a te s * a t t r i b u t i o n to P r o t a g o r a s of th e d o c t r i n e of w is d o m
e x p la in e d a b o v e - - w i t h th e i m p o r t a n t a d d itio n th a t t h is d o c t r i n e c o m m i t s
P r o t a g o r a s to th e view t h a t s o m e m e n e x c e l o t h e r s w it h r e s p e c t to
a t t a i n m e n t of t r u t h .
It c a n n o t b e m a i n t a i n e d th a t e v e r y ju d g m e n t is t r u e .
S o c r a te s * f i r s t a r g u m e n t h a s , a t l e a s t s i n c e G ro te * s s p i r i t e d
78
a t t a c k ^ upon P l a t o 1s a c c o u n t a n d r e f u t a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s * d i c t u m ,
b e e n g e n e r a l l y th o u g h t to be f a l l a c i o u s .
W h at S o c r a t e s w i s h e s to show
is t h a t if P r o t a g o r a s a c c e p t s h is d i c t u m a n d a p p l i e s it c o n s i s t e n t l y he
w ill h a v e to a d m i t th e t r u t h of t h o s e b e l i e f s of o t h e r s w h ic h c o n t r a d i c t
h is own.
I n a s m u c h a s e v e r y o r d i n a r y p e r s o n th in k s t h a t not e v e r y m a n
is th e m e a s u r e of th e t r u t h , P r o t a g o r a s m u s t ho ld t h a t his d i c t u m is
f a l s e , if he is to ho ld i t to be t r u e .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n th e d i c t u m is
a l l e g e d to be *s e l f - r e f u t i n g , a nd P r o t a g o r a s , a s m u c h a s an y one e l s e ,
is m a d e to g r a n t th e f a l s i t y of s o m e p e o p le * s b e l i e f s .
Now G ro te * s
o p in io n t h a t th is a r g u m e n t is f a l l a c i o u s i s fo u n d e d upon th e p r e s u m p t i o n
th a t P r o t a g o r a s m e a n t h is m a n - t h e - m e a s u r e d i c t u m to r e q u i r e th e a d d i ­
tio n a f t e r e v e r y u s e of th e w o r d s " t r u e , " " e x i s t s , " e tc . , of a n in d e x
e x p r e s s i o n s p e c if y in g s o m e p e r s o n f o r w h o m w h a t e v e r it is is t r u e o r
e x i s t s , e tc .
A nd it is t r u e t h a t if P r o t a g o r a s h a s w i s h e d , a s I p u t it
a b o v e ( C h a p t e r I, pp. 1 4 -1 5 ), to r e p l a c e t h e c o n c e p t of t r u t h by a c o n ­
c e p t t r u t h - f o r - x , S o c r a te s * a r g u m e n t d o e s f a il.
F o r S o c r a te s * a r g u ­
m e n t r e q u i r e s to h a v e th e fo llo w in g f o r m :
S u p p o s e (1):
M an is th e m e a s u r e of a l l th in g s , i. e. , e v e r y
o p in io n any m a n h o ld s is t r u e .
B u t (2) s o m e m e n th in k it i s n o t t r u e t h a t m a n is t h e m e a s u r e of
a ll th in g s .
E r g o (3) it is not t r u e t h a t m a n is th e m e a s u r e of a l l t h i n g s ,
i. e. , n o t e v e r y o p in io n is t r u e .
B ut if one f o llo w s P r o t a g o r a s * s t i p u l a t i o n a b o u t in d e x e x p r e s ­
s i o n s , t h i s a r g u m e n t m u s t be r e c a s t in t h e fo llo w in g n o n - o b n o x io u s
form .
79
S u p p o se ( l a ) :
M a n is th e m e a s u r e of a l l t h in g s , i. e. , e v e r y
o p in io n any m a n h o ld s is t r u e - f o r - h i m .
But (2a) s o m e m e n th in k it is not t r u e - f o r - t h e m t h a t m a n is th e
m e a s u r e of a ll t h in g s .
E r g o (3a) it is no t t r u e - f o r - t h e m th a t m a n is th e m e a s u r e of a l l
t h in g s , i. e. , s o m e o p in io n s a r e f a l s e - f o r - t h e m .
A nd t h e r e is e v id e n tly no i n c o n s i s t e n c y in P r o t a g o r a s 1 a c c e p t i n g
his d i c t u m w h ile m a i n t a i n i n g its f a l s e h o o d - f o r - o t h e r s .
So lo n g a s he
d o e s n ot hold it to b e bo th t r u e a n d f a l s e f o r h i m s e l f he is in no l o g i c a l
bin d w h a t s o e v e r .
Of c o u r s e ev e n if th is r e p l y w e r e e n t i r e l y a d e q u a te one i m p o r ­
t a n t r e s u l t w o u ld s t i l l h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d :
it w o u ld h a v e b e e n sh ow n
th a t if t h e r e is no t r u t h b u t only t r u t h - f o r - m e , a s P r o t a g o r a s t h in k s ,
th e n his own d o c t r i n e h a s no s p e c i a l c l a i m to v a lid i ty .
I t is j u s t a b e ­
lie f li k e an y o t h e r a n d c a n n o t c l a i m an y t r u t h b eyon d t h a t w h ic h a c c r u e s
to it f r o m b ein g b e l ie v e d .
oras.
It i s no t t r u e , but m e r e l y t r u e - f o r - P r o t a g -
C o n s e q u e n tly th e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t he h a s r e v e a l e d to us th e
n a t u r e of t r u t h a n d r e a l i t y is n e c e s s a r i l y i l l u s o r y .
A s a p h ilo s o p h i c a l
i n s ig h t, t h e r e f o r e , th e d o c t r i n e t h a t e a c h m a n is th e m e a s u r e of a l l
th in g s f o r h i m s e l f f a i l s to be th e c o m p e l l i n g a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e s i s it
s e e m e d to be: w h a t e v e r a t t i t u d e a n y one t a k e s t o w a r d s it w il l be th e
c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e f o r h im to t a k e a n d a l l d i s c u s s i o n of it t u r n s out to be
o tio s e .
T h is is no m e a n c o n s e q u e n c e to h a v e d e r i v e d .
But th e f a c t w ill
s t i l l r e m a i n t h a t S o c r a t e s 1 a r g u m e n t is f a l l a c i o u s , s i n c e it m i s r e p r e s e n t s
80
th e t h e s i s he p r e t e n d s to be a t t a c k i n g .
The p o ssib ility r e m a in s , how ­
e v e r , t h a t it i s not S o c r a t e s but m o d e r n c o m m e n t a t o r s w ho m i s r e p r e ­
s e n t t h e thfesis.
F o r if P r o t a g o r a s m e a n t no t to r e p l a c e t r u t h w i th
t r u t h - f o r - x , b u t to o f f e r a t h e s i s a b o u t w h a t c r i t e r i a a r e p r o p e r l y
in v o k e d in o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h t h a t s o m e t h i n g is t r u e , th e l i n e ta k e n
above ag a in st S o c r a te s 1 arg u m e n t fa ils.
F o r th e n P r o t a g o r a s w i l l
m e r e l y b e s a y in g th a t a l l one h a s to do in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
s o m e t h i n g i s t r u e is to find out w h e t h e r an y one b e l i e v e s it.
A n d if
s o m e o n e , f o r e x a m p l e , p e r c e i v e s a th in g a s r e d it w ill be r e d a n d n ot
m e re ly b e -to -h im red.
T h is b e in g s o , P r o t a g o r a s in a c c e p t i n g h is
m a n - t h e - m e a s u r e d i c t u m a c c e p t s t h a t w h a t e v e r a n y one b e l i e v e s is
t r u e ; a n d if s o m e o n e th in k s th e d i c t u m f a l s e t h e n P r o t a g o r a s m u s t
a c c e p t t h a t i t i £ f a l s e , s i n c e s o m e o n e so t h i n k s .
T h e c o n s e q u e n c e (3)
d o e s u n a v o id a b ly fo llo w , a n d it c a n n o t be c o n v e r t e d in to (3a).
W h ic h of th e tw o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of P r o t a g o r a s 1 d o c t r i n e is c o r ­
rect?
I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d ((a b o v e , p. 62 a n d n. 3) t h a t in s t a t i n g
h is t h e s i s P l a t o r e g u l a r l y d o e s i n t r o d u c e t h e e x p r e s s i o n " f o r h im " in
t h e w a y in w h i c h th e f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u ld r e q u i r e .
On t h e o t h e r
h a n d P r o t a g o r a s c e r t a i n l y w a n t s to s a y (cf. I 6 l d 6 - 7 , l6 7 d 2) t h a t
e v e r y o n e 's b e l i e f s a r e t r u e a n d n o ne f a l s e , in s u c h a w a y t h a t h e c a n
d e fe n d th e c l a i m t h a t p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e , a n d i t s e e m s t h a t in o r ­
d e r to do t h i s he sh o u ld be t e l l i n g u s th a t w h a t a ny one p e r c e i v e s is
t r u e (and n o t m e r e l y t r u e - f o r - h i m ) .
P e r h a p s it i s n o t p o s s i b l e to be
e n t i r e l y s u r e w h a t he m e a n t ; a n d p e r h a p s h is
w as not
m o r e d e c i s i v e one w a y o r th e o t h e r th a n P l a t o ' s t e s t i m o n y i s .
In any
81
e v e n t, if S o c r a t e s 1 a r g u m e n t a t 169-171 is to be a n y th in g but a m e r e
p e titio p r i n c i p i th e n w e m u s t p r e s e r v e a t l e a s t th e a m b ig u ity in P r o t a g ­
o r a s 1 v ie w s .
He m u s t be no t u n f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t e d a s r e c o m m e n d i n g
not th e a b a n d o n m e n t of th e c o n c e p t of t r u t h but a n a d j u s t m e n t in the
c r i t e r i a fo r its ap p licatio n .
By h is f i r s t a r g u m e n t , th e n , S o c r a t e s h a s d r a w n f r o m P r o t a g ­
oras* own w o r d s th e a d m i s s i o n th a t s o m e m e n ho ld f a l s e o p in io n s ; a n d
th e D e f e n s e h a s not b e e n u n f a i r in g r a n t i n g f o r P r o t a g o r a s th a t t h e r e
a r e d i f f e r e n c e s of w i s d o m a m o n g m e n .
S o c r a te s * a r g u m e n t h a s , i n ­
d e e d , s h o w n t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e in w i s d o m b r i n g s w i th it d i f f e r e n c e s in
a t t a i n m e n t to t r u t h w h i c h th e D e f e n s e a t t e m p t e d to deny o r c o n c e a l.
But w i th th e i m p o r t a n t e x c e p ti o n of t h i s one c l a r i f i c a t i o n S o c r a te s * a i m
h a s b e e n to v i n d i c a t e h is a t t r i b u t i o n of a d o c t r i n e of w i s d o m to P r o t a g ­
o r a s , a n d I th in k he h a s a c h i e v e d h is p u r p o s e .
W h a t t h e n a r e t h e m a t t e r s upon w h i c h m e n m a y d i f f e r w ith
r e s p e c t to w i s d o m a n d a t t a i n m e n t of t r u t h ?
S o c r a t e s w il l a r g u e in his
s e c o n d r e f u t a t i o n (178a 5 - 1 7 9 b 5) th a t w h e r e v e r p r e d i c t i o n s o r f u t u r e t e n s e j u d g m e n t s of any k in d a r e in v o lv e d n o t e v e r y p e r s o n is e q u a lly a
m e a s u r e of th e t r u t h .
F r o m t h i s h e w i ll i n f e r t h a t d o c t o r s , f a r m e r s ,
a n d o t h e r s w h o h a v e a s p e c i a l c o m p e t e n c e - - t h o s e w h o m th e D e f e n s e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s w i s e - - a r e m o r e l i k e l y to be r i g h t in t h e i r o p in io n s on
m a t t e r s w i th in t h e i r own a r e a s of c o m p e t e n c e th a n an y c h a n c e p e r s o n .
H e w il l sh ow , t h e r e f o r e , by a n in d e p e n d e n t a r g u m e n t th a t th e lin e
d r a w n in t h e D e f e n s e b e t w e e n th e a r e a w h e r e e a c h m an *s o p in io n s a r e
t r u e a n d t h a t in w h ic h f a l s e h o o d o c c u r s , i s c o r r e c t l y d r a w n .
But
81a
b e f o r e b e g in n in g t h i s li n e of r e a s o n i n g he s t a t e s , by w a y of a n t i c i p a t i o n ,
th e c o n c l u s i o n to w h ic h he w i l l be te n d in g .
T h e a r g u m e n t j u s t c o n c lu d e d
ha s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e is a n a r e a w h e r e f a l s e h o o d c a n o c c u r , a n d it i s
n a t u r a l to s u g g e s t (171d 9 ff. ) th a t P r o t a g o r a s 1 d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n
ju d g m e n t s a b o u t how to c h a n g e s o m e o n e 1s e x p e r i e n c e f o r th e b e t t e r
p o i n ts th e w a y to t h e a r e a of f a l s e h o o d .
A cco rd in g to this d istin c tio n ,
a s S o c r a t e s now s u m m a r i z e s i t , in m o s t m a t t e r s w h a t s e e m s s o to e a c h
m a n i s s o , b u t n o t in s u c h m a t t e r s a s w h a t is h e a lth f u l o r n o x io u s ; a n d
l i k e w i s e f o r n a t i o n s , e r r o r n e v e r o c c u r s in s u c h m a t t e r s a s w h a t is
r i g h t o r d i s g r a c e f u l , o r p r o p e r in r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e s , but on ly w h e n
it is a q u e s t i o n of w h a t is b e n e f i c i a l to t h e s t a t e .
H e r e , th e n , h e s a y s ,
w e m a y h o p e to r e s t o u r w h o le d i s c u s s i o n , a n d r e j e c t P r o t a g o r a s 1 d i c ­
tu m a s a g e n e r a l a c c o u n t of t r u t h .
A t t h i s p o in t S o c r a t e s i n t e r r u p t s h i m s e l f a n d b e g i n s a lo n g
d i g r e s s i o n ( 1 7 2 c - 1 7 7 c ) c o n t r a s t i n g th e p h i l o s o p h e r a n d th e m a n of p u b ­
lic a f f a i r s .
T h is p a s s a g e h a s b e e n th e s u b j e c t of th e m o s t e x t r a v a g a n t
f lig h ts of m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
C o r n f o r d d i s c e r n e d in it a l l u s i o n s to th e
R e p u b lic w h i c h h e ro u n d ly p r o n o u n c e d (P T K , p. 89) to b e " i n t e n d e d to
r e c a l l th e w h o le a r g u m e n t of" t h a t d ia lo g u e , w i t h i t s " i n t e l l i g i b l e
r e g i o n of F o r m s , th e t r u e o b j e c t s of k n o w l e d g e . "
P l a t o 1s p u r p o s e
a c c o r d i n g to C o r n f o r d in i n s e r t i n g th e p a s s a g e w a s to r e m i n d u s of t h e
c o r r e c t a n s w e r to t h e T h e a e t e t u s 1 q u e s t i o n , W h a t is k n o w le d g e ? , w i t h ­
out a c t u a l l y c o m i n g r i g h t out a n d a r g u i n g f o r it:
ance w ith F o r m s .
17
k n o w le d g e i s a c q u a i n t -
C o r n f o r d h o ld s th a t in th e d i g r e s s i o n P l a t o is
a t t a c k i n g a v ie w w h i c h s o m e h o w g o e s b e y o n d P r o t a g o r a s a n d w h ic h h e
82
v a g u e ly a n d p u z z lin g l y a s s o c i a t e s w it h T h r a s y m a c h u s ; in f a c t , h o w ­
e v e r , t h i s p a r t of his v ie w is d e m o n s t r a b l y a t i s s u e of m i s r e a d i n g s of
th e p a s s a g e w h ic h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s th e d i g r e s s i o n p r o p e r .
18
But
e v e n if s o m e u l t r a - P r o t a g o r e a n i s m w e r e th e t a r g e t of th e d i s c u s s i o n it
w o u ld be t o ta lly i m p e r m i s s i b l e to i n t e r p r e t w h a t e v e r a l l u s i o n s to th e
c a v e a l l e g o r y t h e r e m a y be in th e p a s s a g e a s i m p l y i n g Mth e w h o le a r g u ­
m e n t of th e R e p u b lic 11 o r th e d o c t r i n e t h a t k n o w le d g e in e a c h a n d e v e r y
c a s e is a c q u a i n t a n c e w ith F o r m s .
T h e t r u e i m p a c t of th e d i g r e s s i o n is r e a l l y e a s y to s e e .
S ocra­
t e s h a s j u s t s u m m a r i z e d P r o t a g o r a s * v i e w s , a s now e m e n d e d to a llo w
s o m e ju d g m e n t s of in d i v i d u a l s a n d s t a t e s to be p o s s i b l y f a l s e .
T his
e m e n d a t i o n h e w i l l a r g u e f o r b e lo w ; w h a t he w ill no t e x a m i n e th e n is
th e o t h e r c o n te n tio n s t h a t no on e c a n be in e r r o r a b o u t his i m m e d i a t e
e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h a t no s t a t e c a n be in e r r o r so f a r a s th e r i g h t n e s s of
its e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m s a n d p r a c t i c e s i s c o n c e r n e d .
Im m ed iate e x p e ri­
e n c e w i l l h o w e v e r b e e x a m i n e d in c o n n e c tio n w i t h t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n
t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n (1 8 1 -1 8 3 ); t h i s l e a v e s o nly t h e P r o t a g o r e a n d o c ­
t r i n e a b o u t r i g h t n e s s a n d r e l i g i o u s p r o p r i e t y u n to u c h e d , a n d , a s c a n
e a s i l y b e s e e n f r o m c a r e f u l r e a d i n g of t h e te x t , it i s to t h i s a n d th is
a lo n e t h a t th e d i g r e s s i o n a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f .
T h o s e w ho h a v e k n o c k e d a b o u t th e l a w - c o u r t s f r o m c h ild h o o d up
a n d h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e i r t r a i n i n g t h e r e , s a y s S o c r a t e s , a r e to b e r e ­
g a r d e d a s h o u s e - s l a v e s by c o m p a r i s o n w ith t h e t r u e f r e e - m e n e d u c a te d
in p h ilo s o p h y .
T h o s e w h o h a v e l e a r n e d a b o u t r i g h t a n d w r o n g in th e
l a w - c o u r t s h a v e n e c e s s a r i l y d i r e c t e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to th e m e a n s of
83
s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o id in g p u n i s h m e n t ; f o r th e m it m a t t e r s not w h e t h e r th e y
m u s t c h e a t o r o t h e r w i s e w r o n g t h e i r f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s so lo ng a s w h a t
th e y do is no t ju d g e d w r o n g by th e c o u r t a n d p u n is h e d .
T h e w h o le body
of l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d r u l e s is r e g a r d e d by th e m a s s o m e t h i n g to be
fe n d ed off, m a n i p u l a t e d , o r a r g u e d o v e r in th e p u r s u i t of t h e i r own
gain.
T h e p h i l o s o p h e r , by c o n t r a s t , know s no th in g of th e p a r t i c u l a r
c u s t o m s a n d p r a c t i c e s of a ny c ity , a n d d o e s n o t c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w ith
r i g h t a n d w r o n g a s t h e s e a r e c o n c e iv e d in any p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e .
In f a c t,
S o c r a t e s s a y s , th e p h i l o s o p h e r 1s body a lo n e r e s i d e s in h is c ity w h il e
h is m in d is in th e u n i v e r s e a t l a r g e , s p y in g in to th e t h in g s b e n e a t h th e
e a r t h a n d doing g e o m e t r y on th e e a r t h 1s e x p a n s e s .
Such a m an a sk s
not p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h e t h e r th is o r th a t p e r s o n h a s w r o n g e d
th e o t h e r - - t h e s o r t of q u e s t i o n th e l a w - c o u r t s a r e a lw a y s c o n c e r n e d
w i t h - - b u t is r a t h e r i n t e r e s t e d in w h a t r i g h t an d w r o n g t h e m s e l v e s a r e ,
o r w h a t in g e n e r a l h u m a n h a p p i n e s s c o n s i s t s in.
19
T h e f u n d a m e n ta l m i s t a k e w h ic h th e m a n of a f f a i r s m a k e s is in
be in g c o n c e r n e d only w it h w h a t is r e g a r d e d a s r i g h t and w r o n g in h is
s t a t e and n o t c a r i n g how m u c h w r o n g he d o e s s o lo ng a s it i s not so
p r o n o u n c e d by h is s t a t e 1s i n s t i t u t i o n s :
in th is he s h o w s h i m s e l f u n a ­
w a r e of the r e a l p e n a l t i e s in s t o r e f o r r e a l , a n d n o t m e r e l y l e g a l ,
w rong.
H a p p in e s s c o n s i s t s in b e in g a s lik e god a s p o s s i b l e , b ut god is
in no w ay u n r i g h t e o u s , s o th a t to b e c o m e l ik e god is to b e c o m e a s
r ig h te o u s a s p o s s i b l e .
H o w e v e r a d e p t, t h e r e f o r e , th e m a n of p r a c t i c a l
a f f a i r s m a y be a t o b ta in in g h is e nd s by a tte n d i n g to a n d m a n i p u la ti n g
th e a c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d s of r i g h t in h is s t a t e , he d i s p l a y s th e g r e a t e r
84
f olly of lo s i n g s ig h t of th e m o r e i m p o r t a n t end of his own u l t i m a t e h a p ­
p in ess.
F o r th e p e n a l ty f o r g o ing r e a l l y w r o n g , a n d n o t m e r e l y w r o n g
in th e e y e s of th e la w , i s n o t th e p h y s i c a l p a in i n f l i c t e d by th e la w but
th e i n e l u c t a b l e c o n d e m n a ti o n to a n a f t e r - l i f e of a s s o c i a t i o n w i th e v il.
F reed o m from
c o m e s only to t h o s e w ho h a v e le d l i v e s a s m u c h
a s p o s s i b l e l i k e g o d 's , a n d h e n c e on ly to t h o s e w ho a r e r e a l l y j u s t a n d
rig h teo u s.
P r o t a g o r a s , th e n , i s w r o n g to s a y t h a t th e only c r i t e r i o n of
s o m e t h i n g 's r i g h t n e s s o r r e l i g i o u s p r o p r i e t y is s o m e s t a t e ' s o p in io n s
a nd e n a c t m e n t s .
T h e r e is a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a n d a r d a n d t h o s e w h o i g ­
n o r e i t do so a t t h e i r own p e r i l .
T h e d i g r e s s i o n m a k e s th is p o in t,
n a t u r a l l y eno ug h, by in v o k in g s o m e of t h e s a m e i m a g e s a s t h o s e e m ­
p lo y e d by th e R e p u b lic f o r i t s s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s :
th e n o tio n
of th e p h i l o s o p h e r a s o c c u p ie d w i t h g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s , th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
of w h i c h t a k e s h im up out of th e l i m i t s of e v e r y d a y l i f e , a n d th e id e a of
a n a f t e r - l i f e w h o s e d e lig h ts a r e s t r i c t l y a p p o r t i o n e d a c c o r d i n g to m e r i t .
But th e p o in t b e in g m a d e is c l e a r l y only one a b o u t th e o b j e c t i v i t y of
m o r a l j u d g m e n t s , a n d e v e n th e n i t i s not s a i d o r i m p l i e d t h a t t h i s o b ­
j e c t i v i t y i s g r o u n d e d in t r a n s c e n d e n t F o r m s o r t h a t to know r i g h t f r o m
w r o n g i s to be a c q u a in t e d w i t h a F o r m of r i g h t n e s s .
T h u s t h e r e i s n e i t h e r a n y g e n e r a l a p p e a l to F o r m s a s th e only
o b je c ts of k n o w le d g e on w h a t e v e r s u b j e c t , n o r e v e n a n a p p e a l to F o r m s
as w hat m a k e s p o ssib le o b jectiv ely v alid m o r a l ju d g m e n ts.
The p a s ­
s a g e m e r e l y , in a q u ite g e n e r a l w a y , a f f i r m s a g a i n s t P r o t a g o r a s a n d
o t h e r s w h o s h a r e h is p o l i t i c a l v i e w s t h a t t h e r e a r e s t a n d a r d s of r i g h t
85
and w r o n g o t h e r th a n t h o s e w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e s h a p p e n to e n s h r i n e
in t h e i r l e g a l a n d o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s .
N o th in g m o r e th a n th is c a n be
found in th e p a s s a g e ; i t c e r t a i n l y r e q u i r e s w r e n c h i n g it b a d ly out of
c o n te x t to find in i t any h in ts a b o u t w h a t o b je c ts k n o w le d g e in g e n e r a l
m u s t be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d .
A f t e r th e d i g r e s s i o n S o c r a t e s r e t u r n s to th e d i s c u s s i o n j u s t
b r o a c h e d b e f o r e th e d i g r e s s i o n i t s e l f b e g a n .
te s w a s
It s e e m e d li k e ly , S o c r a ­
s a y in g , t h a t P r o t a g o r a s , h a v in g b e e n d r i v e n to g r a n t th a t
s o m e b e lie f s of s o m e p e o p le a r e f a l s e , w o u ld be w illin g to a c c e p t th e
d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n w i s d o m a n d i g n o r a n c e w h i c h S o c r a t e s had s k e t c h e d
in the D e f e n s e , a n d w o uld g r a n t t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t to w h a t is b e t t e r o r
w o r s e b o th m e n an d s t a t e s d i f f e r in d e g r e e of a t t a i n m e n t to tr u t h .
Now
(178a 5 - 1 7 9 b 5) S o c r a t e s u n d e r t a k e s to show th a t in f a c t t h e r e a r e d i f ­
f e r e n c e s in t r u t h a m o n g j u d g m e n t s of t h i s l a t t e r s o r t , w h i c h a n y o n e
m u st reco g n ize.
F o r t h e s e ju d g m e n t s a l l h a v e r e f e r e n c e to w h a t w i ll
t u r n out to be th e c a s e in th e f u t u r e , a n d no t a l l j u d g m e n t s a b o u t th e
f u t u r e c a n be t r u e .
S o c r a t e s a t t e m p t s to p r o v e t h i s by sh o w in g t h a t w h e n a l a y m a n
and a d o c to r d i s a g r e e o v e r w h e t h e r a c e r t a i n c o u r s e of a c t i o n w ill
r e s u l t in th e l a y m a n 's g e ttin g a f e v e r one of t h e m ( u s u a lly th e d o c to r )
is r i g h t a n d th e o t h e r w r o n g .
E i t h e r he d o e s a c q u i r e th e p r e d i c t e d
b o d y - t e m p e r a t u r e o r he d o e s n o t, a n d th e o u tc o m e sh o w s one j u d g m e n t
to h a v e b e e n t r u e a n d th e o t h e r f a l s e .
P r o t a g o r a s m i g h t r e p l y th a t
.t h e r e is no s u c h th in g a s th e p r e d i c t e d b o d y - t e m p e r a t u r e j u s t o c c u r r i n g
o r not, but one m u s t s a y f o r w h o m it e x i s t s .
Why sh o u ld not both
l a y m a n a n d d o c t o r b e r i g h t - - t h e f e v e r c o m in g to e x i s t f o r th e o n e a n d
fa i lin g to o c c u r f o r th e o t h e r ?
a d m i t t e d to be t r u e .
In t h a t c a s e b oth p r e d i c t i o n s c o u ld b e
T h e a n s w e r to t h i s is t h a t it d oesn *t m a t t e r w ho
is th e c r i t e r i o n of th e e x i s t e n c e o r n o t of th e f e v e r w h e n th e t i m e c o m e s
so long a s w h a t i s ju d g e d t h e n i s ju d g e d by r e f e r e n c e to s o m e s t a n d a r d
th e r e s u l t w i l l d e p e n d up on th e a p p l i c a t i o n of th e s t a n d a r d th e n , a n d n o t
upo n w h a t s o m e o n e p r e d i c t s th e t e s t w i l l sho w .
O n c e t h e p r e d i c t i o n is
m a d e t h e r e is n o th in g to do bu t w a i t a n d s e e how th e f a c t s t u r n out;
h e n c e w h e n a p e r s o n ju d g e s how he h i m s e l f w ill f e e l , a n d e v e n th o u g h
he i s th e s o l e j u d g e of how he f e e l s w h e n h e fs f e e l in g t h a t w a y , he
m a k e s a j u d g m e n t t h a t c a n n o t be s a i d to be t r u e j u s t b e c a u s e he m a k e s
it.
If i t is t r u e i t w i l l b e s o b e c a u s e of th e w a y he l a t e r d o e s in f a c t
f e e l, a n d t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h i s w ill a c c o r d w ith h is p r e d i c t i o n .
H e n c e th e l o g ic of th e s i t u a t i o n is n o t c h a n g e d by a s s u m i n g , a s S o c r a t e s
d o e s , t h a t in th e d i s p u t e b e t w e e n t h e d o c t o r a n d th e l a y m a n th e f e v e r
e i t h e r c o m e s o r d o e s n ft, w ith o u t s a y in g f o r w h o m it e x i s t s o r d o e s n o t
e x is t.
T h is p o in t i s m a d e e x p l i c i t i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s (178d 4 - 6 ) ,
w h e r e S o c r a t e s c l i n c h e s h i s a r g u m e n t by r e m a r k i n g t h a t w h e n it is a
q u e s tio n of s o m e t h i n g 1s t u r n i n g out to be in tu n e a g y m n a s t i c t r a i n e r
w i ll n o t b e b e t t e r th a n a m u s i c i a n a t ju d g in g w h a t w il l t u r n o u t e v e n to
th e t r a i n e r h i m s e l f to be in tu n e .
F u t u r e - t e n s e ju d g m e n t s c a n n o t be
d e c l a r e d t r u e on p r i n c i p l e , h o w e v e r t r u e on p r i n c i p l e a l l p r e s e n t - t e n s e
j u d g m e n t s a r e , b e c a u s e th e y n e c e s s a r i l y find t h e i r v a l i d a t i o n in s o m e
p r e s e n t - t e n s e j u d g m e n t a t a l a t e r t i m e a n d not in a n y th in g c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s - w ith t h e m s e l v e s o r p r i v a t e to th e m a n w ho m a k e s th e m a t th e
t i m e w h e n he m a k e s th e m .
87
We h a v e , th e n , found a c l a s s of ju d g m e n t s w h e r e e r r o r m a y
o c c u r , a n d s i n c e i n c lu d e d a m o n g t h e m a r e th e ju d g m e n t s by r e f e r e n c e
to w h ic h P r o t a g o r a s w a s r e p r e s e n t e d a s i n t r o d u c i n g d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g
m e n w ith r e s p e c t to w i s d o m , i t h a s t u r n e d out t h a t in r e c o g n i z i n g th e
e x i s t e n c e of w i s d o m P r o t a g o r a s h a s in f a c t r e f u t e d h is own th e o r y ;
b ut w e h ave a l s o s e e n t h a t he h a s no a l t e r n a t i v e but to a c c e p t s o m e
m e n a s w i s e r th a n o t h e r s in th e s e n s e of h a v in g th e t r u t h in a h i g h e r
d e g r e e , a n d th a t w i s d o m p r i m a r i l y fin d s its e x p r e s s i o n in th e a b i l i t y to
m ake tru e pred ictio n s.
I t h a s t h e r e f o r e e m e r g e d th a t no m a n of s e n s e
c a n g ive c r e d e n c e to P r o t a g o r a s * t h e o r y of t r u t h , a s a g e n e r a l p r o p o s i ­
tion; if a n y p a r t of i t - - e . g. , th e t r u t h of a l l ju d g m e n t s of p e r c e p t i o n - is to b e r e t a i n e d i t w i l l h a v e to be a r g u e d in d e p e n d e n tly of th e t h e s i s
th a t e a c h m a n i s th e m e a s u r e of a l l t h in g s .
S o crates th e re fo re con­
c lu d e s th e r e f u t a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s (179c) by r e m a r k i n g th a t w h a t
r e m a i n s is to s e e w h e t h e r e a c h m a n is a lw a y s r i g h t a b o u t
Q -a o T ^
TTaSox
T o TTa^ov
s i n c e it is h e r e t h a t p e r c e p t i o n 's c l a i m to be k n o w l­
edge m u s t e i t h e r s u c c e e d o r f a il.
H e t h e r e f o r e t u r n s in th e n e x t s e c ­
tion to t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d a b o v e , an d
t e s t s w h e t h e r it s f o u n d a t i o n - - t o
TTa.v
''W -----is sou nd ,
and w h e t h e r i t c a n s u p p o r t T h e a e t e t u s ' d e f in itio n of kn ow le d g e .
C H A P T E R III
T H E R E F U T A T I O N O F H E R A C L E IT U S
A.
T h e A r g u m e n t A g a i n s t F l u x in th e T h e a e t e t u s ( 181 - 1 8 3 )
P l a t o h a s now s h o w n t h a t i n s o f a r a s T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f i n i t i o n of
k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n c o i n c i d e s w ith a n d d r a w s s u p p o r t f r o m th e P r o ­
t a g o r e a n d o c t r i n e of m a n th e m e a s u r e , i t i s n ot a c c e p t a b l e .
As soon as
P r o t a g o r e a n i s m i s e x te n d e d b e y o n d th e j u d g m e n t s w h i c h e a c h m a n
m a k e s a b o u t th e s e n s e - c o n t e n t s a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t to h is c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a t th e t i m e of s p e a k in g (179c 1 - 4 ) , a n d m a d e to a p p ly to ju d g m e n t s
a b o u t f u t u r e e v e n t s , w h a t is a d v a n t a g e o u s , e tc . , it i s q u ite c e r t a i n l y a
false d o ctrin e.
ed.
P r o t a g o r e a n i s m , as a d is tin c tiv e th e o ry , m u s t be r e j e c t ­
If a n y p a r t of i t i s to b e r e t a i n e d i t w i l l be i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to j u d g ­
m e n t s of i m m e d i a t e s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n (cf. 171e 1 -3 ).
But, now t h a t a s
a g e n e ra l d o c trin e P r o ta g o r e a n is m has been refu ted , im m e d ia te s e n s e
p e r c e p t i o n m u s t be e x a m in e d on i t s own g r o u n d to s e e w h e t h e r i t i s
a lw a y s t r u e a n d w h e t h e r i t s j u d g m e n t s a r e a lw a y s know n to b e t r u e .
If
it t u r n s o ut t h a t th e y a r e kn ow n, th e n to t h i s e x te n t P r o t a g o r e a n i s m w i l l
h a v e b e e n v in d i c a t e d ; but o n e c a n n o t a n y l o n g e r r e a s o n in th e o t h e r
d i r e c t i o n a n d u s e P r o t a g o r e a n i s m to v i n d i c a t e s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n 1s c l a i m
to be k n o w le d g e .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n S o c r a t e s a n n o u n c e s (179d 1 -5 ) t h a t it i s now
t i m e to a p p r o a c h c l o s e r to
T"/v\v
/
T a . ^ T /v\v/
>
7
o o ^ io iv
a n d e x a m i n e w h e t h e r th e H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s of th e k
is so u n d o r u n s o u n d .
/
OTS (Jo I
T h e H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e of r e a l i t y w a s o s t e n s i b l y
89
i n t r o d u c e d , a s w e h av e s e e n , a s a m e a n s of s u p p o r tin g T h e a e t e t u s 1
c o n te n tio n t h a t a b o u t w h a t a p p e a r s to h im a m a n h a s k n o w le d g e :
f o r if
e v e r y t h i n g is in c o n s t a n t flux t h e r e a r e a t m o s t m o m e n t a r y a p p e a r ­
a n c e s , a b o u t w h ic h no one but th e p e r s o n to w h o m th e a p p e a r a n c e a p ­
p e a r s c a n lo g i c a l l y be in a p o s i t i o n to ju d g e .
S in c e , a c c o r d i n g to th is
d o c t r i n e (152d 8 , 157b l ) , i t i s n e v e r c o r r e c t to u s e th e w o r d " i s " o r
" e x i s t s " of a n y th in g , i t is not p o s s i b l e to g e t to know how a n y th in g is in
i t s e l f (152d 2 - 3 ) - - a b o u t w h ic h e a c h m a n w o u ld not be th e only j u d g e - a n d a p p e a r a n c e s m u s t be the m o s t any one c a n g e t to know.
It t h e r e ­
f o r e s e e m s to follow f r o m th e H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e th a t k n o w le d g e
m u s t be r e s t r i c t e d to i m m e d i a t e p e r c e p t i o n (cf. 151e 1 - 2 ).
W h a t P l a t o d o e s , t h e r e f o r e , b e g in n in g a t 181b 8 , is to i n q u i r e
w h e t h e r k n o w le d g e c a n be sh ow n to be i d e n t i c a l w ith p e r c e p t i o n by
a p p e a l to th e d o c t r i n e t h a t e v e r y th in g is in c o n s t a n t flux.
two w a y s in w h ic h he m i g h t a r g u e t h a t it c a n n o t:
T here a re
he m ig h t show t h a t th e
c o n s e q u e n c e s d e d u c e d f r o m th e d o c t r i n e of flux in s u p p o r t of th e e q u a tio n
of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a n d k n o w le d g e a r e i n c o r r e c t l y d e d u c e d ; o r he m i g h t
a r g u e t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is a f a l s e d o c t r i n e , so th a t , w h a t e v e r it s
c o n s e q u e n c e s , th e e q u a tio n c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d by a p p e a l to t h e m .
f a c t I b e l i e v e t h a t P l a t o sh o w s bo th of t h e s e t h in g s :
In
H eracleitean ism
is not only f a l s e but, ev e n if t r u e , it w o u ld not im p l y th a t a m a n knows
w h a t a p p e a r s to h im in i m m e d i a t e s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e r e s u l t of
show ing th is w i ll be to d i s e n g a g e T h e a e t e t u s 1 e q u a t io n of p e r c e p t i o n
w ith k n o w le d g e f r o m th e H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s w h ic h w a s b r o u g h t
to its s u p p o r t; a t t h a t point, w h e n n e i t h e r P r o t a g o r e a n i s m n o r
90
H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m h a s b e e n fo un d to " r i n g t r u e " (179d 3 - 4 ) , T h e a e t e t u s
h a s no a l t e r n a t i v e but to p e r m i t a f r o n t a l a s s a u l t on h is t h e s i s .
T h is
a s s a u l t is m a d e a t 1 8 4 b - 1 8 6 e , w h e r e it is f in a ll y p r o v e d t h a t in i t s e l f
p e r c e p t i o n d o e s no t a m o u n t to k n o w le d g e .
B u t f o r th e m o m e n t w e a r e s t i l l c o n c e r n e d w ith th e H e r a c l e i t e ­
a n s a n d w ith s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a s c o n c e i v e d by t h e m .
P l a t o b e g i n s h is
e x a m i n a t i o n by p o in tin g o ut t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m lo g i c a l l y i n v o l v e s n o t
only t h a t e v e r y t h i n g is in m o t i o n bu t e v en t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s in m o t i o n
in e v e r y r e s p e c t :
if a l l s t a b i l i t y of e v e r y s o r t is to b e d e n i e d to r e a l i t y
th e n of c o u r s e e v e r y t h i n g m u s t be m o v in g w i t h e v e r y s o r t of m o t i o n
(181e 9 f. ).
T h a t c o n s i s t e n t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m in v o lv e s th e a b s o l u t e
b a n i s h m e n t of " i s , " " e x i s t s , " " t h i s , " " t h a t , " a n d a n y o t h e r w o r d t h a t
w o u ld i n t r o d u c e s t a b i l i t y in to th e w o r l d , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s h o w n
(1 5 7 a -b ):
only v e r b s of b e c o m i n g a n d c h a n g e , a n d w h a t e v e r i s c o n s i s ­
te n t w ith t h e s e , a r e p e r m i s s i b l e f o r ta lk in g a b o u t w h a t is in c o n s t a n t
flux.
P l a t o now g oe s o n e s t e p f u r t h e r a n d s h o w s t h a t in o r d e r to a v o id
i n t r o d u c i n g s t a b i l i t y it is n e c e s s a r y to i n s i s t upon e a c h t h i n g 's b e c o m ­
ing a n d c h a n g in g c o n s t a n t l y w i t h e v e r y k in d of c h a n g e a n d b e c o m in g .
In a c c o r d a n c e w i th th e e x t r e m e e c o n o m y w ith w h ic h th e a r g u m e n t of th e
w h o le d ia lo g u e i s c o n s t r u c t e d , he a c t u a l l y only m e n t i o n s tw o s o r t s of
c h a n g e , lo c a l m o tio n a n d c h a n g e of q u a l i t y (181d 5 -6 ).
Though P la to
e l s e w h e r e ^ d i v id e s c h a n g e in to t h e s e tw o k in d s , h i s a r g u m e n t d o e s n ot
d e p e n d on th e e x h a u s t i v e n e s s of t h e d iv i s i o n .
In o r d e r to e x p la in h is
c o n te n tio n t h a t in a H e r a c l e i t e a n w o r l d c h a n g e of e v e r y t h i n g in e v e r y
r e s p e c t m u s t be th e u n i v e r s a l r u l e th e d i v i s i o n of m o t i o n in to tw o k in d s
91
is s u f f ic ie n t.
F o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e j u s t two k in d s of m o t io n , a
th in g m u s t be in m o ti o n of bo th s o r t s in o r d e r f o r it to be t r u e t h a t it is
in m o tio n a n d n o t a l s o a t r e s t (181e 5 -7 ).
In a n y c a s e , it is c l e a r t h a t
P l a t o h a s a f i r m g r a s p of th e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e th a t m o tio n of e v e r y
s o r t ( h o w e v e r m a n y s o r t s t h e r e m a y be) is i m p l i e d by th e H e r a c l e i t e a n
do ctrin e:
f o r h e e x p lic it ly t a k e s h i s d i s t i n c t i o n of m o tio n in to two k in d s
to show t h a t in a H e r a c l e i t e a n w o r l d e v e r y t h i n g m u s t be m o v in g w ith
182a 1 ), a n d not m e r e l y
e v e r y s o r t of m o t i o n (TrqCTcxv
w ith t h e s e tw o (if t h e r e a r e o t h e r s ) .
R e ly in g on t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s , P l a t o th e n h a s no d if fic u lty in
sho w in g th a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , s o i n t e r p r e t e d , c a n n o t be u s e d to s u p p o r t
th e d o c t r i n e t h a t k n o w le d g e a n d s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a r e i d e n t i c a l .
He f i r s t
(182a 2 - b 7) r e c a l l s th e t h e o r y of s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n of th e k O |A ty o T ^ o i
(156c 6 - c 7), an d d i s t i n g u i s h e s th e t h r e e p r o c e s s e s of b e c o m in g t h a t
o c c u r in the p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n :
th e s e n s e - q u a l i t y (e. g. , w h i t e n e s s
o r w a r m t h ) c o m e s to be b e t w e e n s e n s i n g s u b j e c t a n d p e r c e i v e d o b je c t;
th e s u b j e c t b e c o m e s a p e r c e i v e r ( aA<r
v IK O v \,
h a v e , an d not to _be, a s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n ;
th e o b j e c t b e c o m e s of a c e r ­
i . e . , c o m e s to
ta in q u a lity (e. g. , w h ite o r hot) b u t d o e s n o t c o m e to b£ t h a t q u a lity .
B oth s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s a n d s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n s c o m e to be b e tw e e n s u b j e c t
a n d o b je c t, a n d a r e th e o f f s p r i n g of t h e i r i n t e r c o m m u n i o n (182b 4 - 7 ) .
W hat P l a t o now sh o w s is th a t if, a s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s s a y , e v e r y th in g
is in c o n s t a n t flux in e v e r y r e s p e c t , th e n a f o r t i o r i no s e n s e - q u a l i t y
and no s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n " r e m a i n s in i t s e l f " (182e 1).
The w hiten ess
th a t c o m e s b e tw e e n s u b j e c t a n d o b j e c t m u s t i t s e l f be c o n s t a n tly c h a n g in g
92
a nd is t h e r e f o r e no m o r e w h i t e n e s s th a n an y o t h e r c o l o r (182d 2 - 5 ) .
S i m i l a r l y , th e c o r r e l a t e d s e e i n g t h a t c o m e s to be is no m o r e s e e i n g
th a n a n y o t h e r p e r c e p t i o n , a n d th e s a m e i s t r u e of th e o t h e r s o r t s of
2
s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a s w e l l (e 3 - 5 ) .
T h e r e s u l t is t h a t n o th in g r e t a i n s
\
^
\
its f o r m ; s o t h a t in d e fin in g k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n k (XT* T'vyv too
VrdvTCK
|a*Go£~Ov
w e h a v e u n w ittin g ly n o t s a i d a n y 3
th in g m o r e r e l e v a n t to k n o w le d g e t h a n to i t s a b s e n c e (e 1 0 - 1 1 ).
We
h a v e , in f a c t , n o t s a i d a n y th in g d e f i n i t e a n d so h a v e m a d e no p r o g r e s s
t o w a r d d e f i n in g k n o w le d g e .
In o r d e r to d e f i n e k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n ,
t h e r e f o r e , w e h a v e no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t to a b a n d o n H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m .
Now s o f a r , I th in k , t h e r e is no g r o u n d on w h ic h a n y o n e c o u ld
d is a g re e w ith m y a n a ly s is .
I t i s a c c e p t e d on a l l h a n d s t h a t P l a t o s h o w s
in th is p a s s a g e t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s is a f a u l ty b a s i s on w h i c h
to e r e c t a s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of k n o w le d g e ; it is in f a c t i n c o m p a t ­
ib le w i t h t h a t t h e o r y .
T h e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e g in s w h e n it is a s k e d w h a t ,
if a n y th in g , m o r e th a n t h i s P l a t o s h o w s .
A s I s a i d a b o v e , i t is m y
view t h a t in th e c o u r s e of h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n
t h e o r y c a n n o t be u s e d to s u p p o r t T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in i tio n , P l a t o s h o w s
th a t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y is i t s e l f a n i n t e r n a l l y f a u lty m e t a p h y s i c s :
it is no t only a f a u lty b a s i s on w h i c h to a r g u e th e i d e n t ity of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a n d k n o w le d g e , b u t a l s o no good f o r d o in g a n y t h i n g .
Now e v e n h e r e t h e r e w o u ld b e p r e t t y g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t ; b u t
t h e r e is a s h a r p d i v i s i o n o v e r t h e s e n s e of th is f u r t h e r c l a i m .
No on e
d ou bts t h a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e s t a t e d a b o v e i s a s e r i o u s a t t a c k on th e
t h e o r y i t s e l f in w h a t e v e r c o n n e c t i o n on e i n t e n d s to u s e i t.
Indeed,
93
P l a t o no t only p r o v e s t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i m p l i e s th e a b r o g a t i o n of
the law of n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n ( s in c e if e v e r y th in g is in c o n s t a n t flux in
e v e r y r e s p e c t no d e s c r i p t i o n a p p l i e s to a th in g in p r e f e r e n c e to any
o th e r ) :
he go e s f u r t h e r a n d s a y s (183a 9 - b 5) th a t no u s e of la n g u a g e
w h a t s o e v e r is p e r m i t t e d if e v e r y t h i n g is in to t a l flux.
He d o e s , th e n ,
qu ite c l e a r l y r e j e c t a t o n c e th e flux m e t a p h y s i c s a n d a n y a p p e a l to it a s
a m e a n s of s u p p o r t i n g T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f in itio n .
S o m e , h o w e v e r , th in k th a t th e a t t a c k on th e flux d o c t r i n e is
a i m e d a t , a n d v a li d a g a i n s t , only a n u n r e s t r i c t e d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , one
w h ic h e m p h a s i z e s t h e 11e v e r y t h i n g " in " e v e r y t h i n g is in m o t i o n . "
P la to
is r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s a s a r g u i n g th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of a
m e t a p h y s i c s w h ic h r e c o g n i z e s only th in g s w h ic h a r e in p e r p e t u a l flux
an d d o e s not a l s o a d m i t th a t t h e r e a r e th in g s of w h ic h th e flux d o c t r i n e
is a n i n c o r r e c t a c c o u n t.
P r o v i d e d t h a t one g o e s a lo n g w ith th e H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n s only so f a r a s p h e n o m e n a a r e c o n c e r n e d , h o ld in g t h a t th e y
a r e s u b j e c t to e t e r n a l flux in e v e r y r e s p e c t but m a k i n g e x p lic it e x e m p ­
tio n in f a v o r of P l a t o n i c F o r m s , P l a t o 1s a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t th e flux d o c ­
t r i n e w i l l p o s e no o b s t a c l e a n d is n o t i n te n d e d to do s o .
P la to h im self,
in th is v ie w , r e f u t e s u n r e s t r i c t e d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m a s a m e a n s of r e c o m ­
m e n d in g r e s t r i c t e d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m of j u s t th i s s o r t .
N ot e v e r y o n e , h o w e v e r , a c c e p t s th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P l a t o rs
a rg u m en t.
R e c e n tly R i c h a r d R o b in s o n a n d G. E. L . O w en h a v e a r g u e d
th a t P l a t o s h o w s , a n d in t e n d s to sh o w , th a t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e
a b ou t a n y t h i n g , w h e t h e r p h e n o m e n o n o r F o r m , i s f a l s e .
He d o e s not
m e r e l y r e f u t e th e flux d o c t r i n e in th e w e a k s e n s e s u p p o s e d by th e
4
94
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n j u s t m e n t i o n e d - - b y p r o v in g th e t r u t h of i t s l o g i c a l c o n ­
t r a d i c t o r y , i. e. , by sh o w in g t h a t not e v e r y th in g is in c o n s t a n t f l u x - but p r o v e s t h e s t r o n g e r c o n t e n t io n th a t n o th in g is s u b j e c t to flux of th e
s o r t th e t h e o r y m u s t h a v e in m in d .
H e n c e , on t h i s s e c o n d i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n, P l a t o s h o w s t h a t n e i t h e r of F o r m s n o r of p h e n o m e n a i s a H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t c o r r e c t ; a n d f r o m t h i s i t m u s t follow th a t, f o r P l a t o
a t th is t i m e , w h a t e v e r i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s t h e r e m a y be b e t w e e n
F o r m s a n d s e n s i b l e t h i n g s , n e i t h e r c l a s s of e n t i t i e s i s c h a n g in g c o n ­
s ta n tly in e v e r y r e s p e c t .
In i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m in 1 8 1 - 1 8 3 , a s
t h e s e b r i e f r e m a r k s i n d i c a t e , m a t t e r s of th e v e r y f i r s t i m p o r t a n c e f o r
the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of P l a t o 1s p h ilo s o p h y a r e a t s t a k e .
A s I s h a l l t r y to
show , t h e r e i s r e a l l y no r e a s o n a b l e g r o u n d f o r do ubt th a t s o m e v e r s i o n
of th e s t r o n g e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c o r r e c t .
The w e a k e r has re a lly , w hen
b r o u g h t in to c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n w ith th e a c t u a l t e x t of th e p a s s a g e , n o th in g
to r e c o m m e n d it.
T h e only r e a s o n f o r a c c e p t i n g it i s t h a t i t h a s b e e n
a c c e p t e d in th e p a s t , ^ a n d s e e m s th e only a l t e r n a t i v e to f a r - r e a c h i n g
r e v i s i o n s in th e c a n o n i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of P l a t o 1s p h i l o s o p h i c a l o p i n ­
io n s .
I t i s t i m e , h o w e v e r , to r e a l i z e t h a t it is th e a r g u m e n t w h ic h
m u s t b e i n t e r p r e t e d , a n d if th e a r g u m e n t c a n n o t be so i n t e r p r e t e d a s to
fit w ith c a n o n i z e d v i e w s , th i s f a c t h a d b e t t e r be c a n d id ly a d m i t t e d .
It
is no good to b e s u r e t h a t P l a t o c a n n o t h a v e a r g u e d in a c e r t a i n w a y u n ­
l e s s you c a n sh o w t h a t s o m e a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n fits h is a c t u a l
te x t.
A s I s h a l l sh o w , t h e v e r s i o n s of th e w e a k i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a r
p r o d u c e d c e r t a i n l y do n o t f it w h a t P l a t o a c t u a l l y s a y s ; n o r do I th in k
any a d e q u a t e v e r s i o n e v e r w ill be p r o d u c e d .
95
B e f o r e tu r n i n g to th e a n a l y s i s of th e r e f u t a t i o n i t s e l f , h o w e v e r ,
it is w o r t h p o in tin g out one o b s t a c l e c o n f r o n tin g th e w e a k e r i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n w h ic h is p o s e d by th e a r g u m e n t of th e p a g e s fo llo w in g th e r e f u t a ­
tion.
In th is l a t e r p a s s a g e P l a t o is a r g u i n g d i r e c t l y th a t p e r c e p t i o n
d o e s no t a m o u n t to k n o w le d g e .
Now if th e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i s c o r r e c t , P l a t o n o w h e r e b e f o r e the
be g in n in g of th e fin a l a r g u m e n t r e j e c t s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t of p h e ­
n o m e n a in g e n e r a l o r th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n of th e
p a rtic u la r.
in
In fa c t, in th e r e f u t a t i o n of th e flux d o c t r i n e P l a t o c o m m i t s
h i m s e l f to th e t r u t h of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t of p h e n o m e n a , a n d a l ­
th ough th i s d o e s not show t h a t he a c c e p t e d the t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n a s
w e ll, C o r n f o r d , who a c c e p t s the t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w , th in k s ^ t h a t he did
a c c e p t it an d e v e n t h a t it is a s s u m e d in th e fin a l a r g u m e n t d i s p r o v in g
th e i d e n tity of p e r c e p t i o n a n d k n o w le d g e .
T h u s t h o s e w ho a c c e p t th e
w e a k e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e r e f u t a t i o n m u s t i n t e r p r e t w h a t follo w s in
s u c h a w a y t h a t, e v e n if th e fu ll t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n of th e «<0|a\|)ot€^oi
is n o t be in g a c c e p t e d , a t any r a t e no a s s u m p t i o n s a r e m a d e a b o u t p e r ­
c e p tio n a n d i ts o b j e c ts w h ic h a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a H e r a c l e i t e a n
a c c o u n t of th e p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d .
In f a c t, h o w e v e r , th e r e j e c t i o n of
the s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of k n o w le d g e r e l i e s upon a n a r g u m e n t
w h ic h f l a g r a n t l y c o n t r a d i c t s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y .
An e s s e n t i a l s te p in th e a r g u m e n t t h e r e is th e a t t r i b u t i o n of
OvxriV to s e n s e q u a l i t i e s (185a 8 - 9 : w e a r e a b l e to th in k a b o u t c o l o r
and sou n d t h a t th e y bo th e x i s t ).
Now th o u g h it is t r u e th a t P l a t o a r g u e s
h e r e t h a t it is not by s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h a t w e c o m e to know th a t t h e s e
96
th in g s e x i s t , th is f a c t d o e s n o t in th e l e a s t d e t r a c t f r o m th e s i g n i f i u
7
c a n c e of h is a llo w in g t h a t of a s e n s e - q u a l i t y one c a n u s e ^ < r r i .
F o r th e e s s e n c e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , a s P l a t o h as ex p o u n d e d a n d d e v e l ­
oped it in th is d ia lo g u e , is th e r e f u s a l to u s e any s t a b i l i z i n g w o r d (cf.
157b 5,
0\; i t
W \
»
»
✓—\
cnAAo doA cW
»/
Ov/o^a(X
u
OT i
v
c
^
\
of a n y ­
thing; a n d th e p r i m a r y c u l p r i t in t h i s r e g a r d (1 52d 8 , 157b 1) i s
T h e r e f o r e if P l a t o only r e j e c t s H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m if it i m p l i e s t h a t n o th in g
(in c lu d in g t h e F o r m s ) is e x e m p t f r o m flux , b u t no t if it a s s e r t s m e r e l y
th a t no p h e n o m e n o n h a s a n y s t a b i l i t y , he m u s t ban
f r o m an y a p p l i c a t i o n to p h e n o m e n a .
to a
v'm
alto g eth er
B ut in 185a he d o e s a p p ly
a n d d o e s so n ot a s a n y m e r e l y c a r e l e s s " t a l k i n g w ith
the v u l g a r , " but w ith f u ll t h e o r e t i c a l a w a r e n e s s of th e c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
s i n c e on th is a t t r i b u t i o n he b a s e s h is m o s t c o m p l e t e r e f u t a t i o n of th e
id e n t i f i c a t i o n of k n o w le d g e a n d p e r c e p t i o n .
The in e sc a p a b le co n c lu sio n
is t h a t in th e f in a l a r g u m e n t he r e t a i n s n o th in g of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e ­
sis:
no t i t s t h e o r y of p h e n o m e n a , a n d n o t i ts t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n .
If
th is is so one w il l e x p e c t to fin d ly in g b e h in d th e p r o o f th a t H e r a c l e i t e ­
a n i s m is a fa u lty b a s i s on w h ic h to a r g u e th e i d e n tity of k n o w le d g e a n d
p e r c e p t i o n th e f u r t h e r a w a r e n e s s t h a t in i t s e l f , a n d r e g a r d l e s s of how
f a r one a llo w s it to e x te n d , H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is a f a l s e d o c t r i n e .
W hat
can n o t li e b e h in d t h a t p r o o f i s t h e a c c e p t a n c e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m a s a
s a t i s f a c t o r y b a s i s f o r a t h e o r y of p h e n o m e n a a n d p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e a r g u m e n t of 1 8 2 -1 8 3 is e x t r e m e l y c o n d e n s e d , but I th in k
th a t c l o s e a t t e n t i o n to th e d e t a i l of w h a t is s a i d w ill sho w p r e t t y c o n c l u ­
s iv e ly t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is b e in g r e j e c t e d a l t o g e t h e r , a n d no t
97
r e t a i n e d a s th e c o r r e c t a c c o u n t of s e n s i b l e p h e n o m e n a .
T h e f i r s t p o in t
to i n s i s t upon is t h a t th e a r g u m e n t n o w h e r e s a y s o r i m p l i e s t h a t p h e ­
n o m e n a , if s u b j e c t to c o n s t a n t flux in e v e r y r e s p e c t , a r e u n s u ita b le
o b j e c ts of k n o w le d g e , on th e g r o u n d th a t o b je c t s of k n o w le d g e m u s t be
s t a b le .
W h at it s a y s , is th a t if e v e r y th in g is in flux n o th in g c a n even
be t r u e , o r p e r c e i v e d , o r (one m a y a d d , th o u g h P l a t o d o e s not) b e lie v e d
(183a 4 - 6 ) .
What*s w r o n g , th a t is to s a y , w ith th e flux t h e o r y is th a t it
m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n y th in g to b e , o r e v e n to b e c o m e (183a 6 - 7 ) ,
X r a t h e r th a n n o t - X , a n d th u s by d e n y in g th e law of n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n
the flux d o c t r i n e r e n d e r s d i s c o u r s e , a n d n ot m e r e l y k n o w le d g e ,
im p o ssib le.
Plat<5 e v id e n tly m e a n s th is to be a r e d u c t i o a d a b s u r d u m of H e r ­
a cleitean m e ta p h y sic s.
Now, th e a b s u r d c o n s e q u e n c e P l a t o d e d u c e s
f r o m th e d o c t r i n e of flux is th a t n o th in g c a n be 0£ b e c o m e X r a t h e r th a n
n o t-X (183a 4 - 7 ) (and, a s a r e s u l t , t h a t no u s e of l a n g u a g e i s p e r m i t t e d ,
s in c e w o r d s h a v e s i g n i f i c a n c e only w h e r e th e law of n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n
ho ld s).
W h a t e v e r a l t e r a t i o n P l a t o h i m s e l f w o u ld m a k e in th e H e r a c l e i ­
te a n d o c t r i n e m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e th e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t p h e n o m e n a c a n
be s a id a t l e a s t to b e c o m e so r a t h e r th a n n o t so; th e la w of c o n t r a d i c ­
tion m u s t a p p ly to p h e n o m e n a l b e c o m in g a s e l s e w h e r e , e v e n if it r e ­
m a in s i l l e g i t i m a t e to s a y a n y th in g m o r e s t a b i l i z i n g th a n " b e c o m e s so
and so" of p h e n o m e n a .
P h e n o m e n a m u s t , in s h o r t , be s u b j e c t s of
discourse. 8
Now e v e n th is m u c h is en o u g h to r e f u t e w h a t a p p e a r s to be
C o r n f o r d r s v e r s i o n of th e w e a k i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e a r g u m e n t .
98
C o r n f o r d th in k s t h a t P l a t o 1s p u r p o s e is " t o p o in t o ut t h a t , if th e o b j e c t s
of p e r c e p t i o n (to w h i c h Lthe H e r a c l e i t e a n d o c t r i n e ] d o e s , in h is o p in io n ,
ap ply) a r e t a k e n to be ‘a l l t h i n g s , * t h e r e c a n b e no s u c h th in g a s k n o w l ­
edge a t a l l , s i n c e no s t a t e m e n t w e m a k e a b o u t t h e s e p e r p e t u a l l y c h a n g ­
ing th in g s c a n r e m a i n t r u e f o r tw o m o m e n t s t o g e t h e r " (p. 97).
A nd he
a d d s (p. 99) t h a t " t h e c o n c l u s i o n P l a t o m e a n s u s to d r a w is t h i s : [we
m u s t] . . . r e c o g n i z e s o m e c l a s s of k n o w a b le e n t i t i e s e x e m p t f r o m th e
flux a n d s o c a p a b l e of s t a n d i n g a s th e f ix e d m e a n i n g s of w o r d s . "
Now
if, a s C o r n f o r d 1s f u r t h e r s i l e n c e s e e m s to a llo w u s to i n f e r , t h i s m e a n s
th a t p h e n o m e n a , s i n c e t h e y a r e " p e r p e t u a l l y c h a n g in g t h i n g s " c a n n o t
ha v e w o r d s a p p l i e d to t h e m , b u t t h i s i s p o s s i b l e o nly f o r th e o b j e c t s of
k n o w led g e , th e F o r m s , th e n C o r n f o r d * s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a i l s .
F o r, as
we have se e n , P la to im p lie s th a t the c o r r e c t m e ta p h y s ic s m u s t m a k e
p ro v isio n for tru th s about p henom ena.
R e f e r e n c e to th e t h e o r y of
F o r m s h e r e c a n only be j u s t i f i e d to th e e x t e n t t h a t i t p e r m i t s P l a t o to
m a i n t a i n , w h a t he s h o w s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s c a n n o t, t h a t th e la w of c o n ­
t r a d i c t i o n h o ld s f o r p h e n o m e n a (at l e a s t in th e a t t e n u a t e d f o r m t h a t only
one of " b e c o m e s X" a n d " b e c o m e s n o t - X " c a n b e t r u e of a th in g a t a
given t i m e ) .
C h e r n is s * i n t e r p r e t a t i o n * ^ m a k e s good t h i s d e f i c i e n c y in C o r n ford*s r e a d i n g of th e p a s s a g e .
He a r g u e s th a t the "o n to lo g ic a l p ro o f"
of th e e x i s t e n c e of F o r m s , of w h i c h o u r p a s s a g e is th e m a i n r e p r e s e n t ­
a tiv e , s h o w s t h a t th e c o n s t a n t c h a n g e of p h e n o m e n a , w h ic h P l a t o to o k
fo r a n e v id e n t d a t u m , c a n only b e e x p la in e d if t h e r e a r e e n t i t i e s e x e m p t
fro m th is change.
He th e r e f o r e a g r e e s w ith C o rn fo rd and A r is to tle th a t
99
P l a t o a lw a y s h e ld a H e r a c l e i t e a n v iew of s e n s i b l e p h e n o m e n a a n d
e x e m p te d only th e F o r m s (and h u m a n s o u l s ? ) f r o m c o n s t a n t flux; but
u n lik e C o r n f o r d he d e f in ite ly t a k e s P l a t o to be a r g u i n g th a t F o r m s a r e
n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to m a k e p h e n o m e n a l flux in t e l l i g i b l e .
The a r g u ­
m e n t, a s C h e r n i s s r e a d s it, " e x a m i n e s the h y p o t h e s is th a t r e a l i t y c o n ­
s i s t s in n o th in g b u t . . . p r o c e s s , th a t a ll th in g s a r e c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g ­
ing, a nd s h o w s t h a t . . . Lit] w o u ld no t only l e a v e no r o o m f o r fix e d
s t a t e s a n d d e t e r m i n a t e p r o c e s s e s b ut m u s t a l s o in v o lv e th e d e n i a l of
the law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
In s h o r t th e v e r y p r o c e s s e s in to w h i c h a l l
p h e n o m e n a l e x i s t e n c e i s r e s o l v e d by t h is h y p o th e s is im p ly th e e x i s t e n c e
of i m m u t a b l e , d e t e r m i n a t e e n t i t i e s . " * *
T h e r e s u l t i s , a c c o r d i n g to
C h e r n i s s , t h a t P l a t o r e c o g n i z e d h e r e t h a t a c o n d itio n of s a y in g t h a t a l l
p h e n o m e n a a r e in flux in e v e r y r e s p e c t a t e v e r y m o m e n t is t h a t one be
/
/
a b le to s a y of a n y p a r t i c u l a r
w h a t \j
i t i s : th u s
s in c e " t h e s e n s i b l e p h e n o m e n o n is not a d e f in ite o b je c t (£■*.£■ i V o ) b u t
a lw a y s a d e g r e e of a p p r o x i m a t i o n ( T'O V OvjtOv
oi 6v
£ K£ 1 v o )
th e
t r a n s i e n t p h e n o m e n a t h e m s e l v e s i m p ly a b s o l u t e a n d i m m u t a b l e e n t i t i e s
w h ic h a r e th e s t a n d a r d s a n d c a u s e s of t h e s e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . " 12
Now C h e r n i s s 1 v e r s i o n of th e a r g u m e n t is by no m e a n s so e a s i l y
u n d e r s t o o d a s h is f o r t h r i g h t a n d v i g o r o u s e x p o s it io n of it m i g h t m a k e
an i n a t t e n t i v e r e a d e r th in k .
B ut a p p a r e n t l y th e id e a is t h is .
F lu x of
e v e r y th in g in e v e r y r e s p e c t i s a s e l f - r e f u t i n g n o tio n , s i n c e it m a k e s it
i m p o s s i b l e f o r an y s t a t e m e n t - - e v e n a s t a t e m e n t no m o r e d e f in ite th a n
one e m p lo y in g
a n d a v o id in g
---- to be t r u e .
T here
m u s t, t h e r e f o r e , be s o m e i m m u t a b l e th in g s , n a m e ly u n c h a n g in g F o r m s
100
o r s t a n d a r d s by r e f e r e n c e to w h ic h w e a r e a b le to d i s t i n g u i s h one
/
f r o m a n o t h e r ; th e F o r m s m a k e th i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o s s i b l e
/
by, a s i t w e r e , fix in g f o r e a c h \{Q-vt<ri£ th e d i r e c t i o n of i ts p r o g r e s s
(thus o n e p h e n o m e n o n is a n “ a p p r o x i m a t i o n " to o ne F o r m , a n o t h e r to
an o th er).
A nd th is f u n c tio n of t h e F o r m s i s s u p p o s e d to b e c a r r i e d o ut
on a p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d w h ic h , a s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s m a i n t a i n e d , is c o n ­
s ta n t ly c h a n g in g i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t e v e r y m o m e n t in e v e r y p l a c e .
T he e f f e c t of th e a d d i tio n of F o r m s is to e n a b le us to s a y “ y t y
X" r a t h e r th a n n o t- X :
it r e i n s t a t e s th e law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n f o r p h e -
n o m e n a w ith o u t a l s o f o r c i n g th e r e i m p o r t a t i o n of T ivoli
in to s t a t e ­
m e n ts ab o u t th em .
T h e r e a r e two d i f f i c u l t i e s in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a s s e s s i n g th is
view .
(1) How in g e n e r a l is th e f a c t t h a t F o r m s a r e “ f ix e d s t a n d a r d s "
to w h ic h p h e n o m e n a a r e “ a p p r o x i m a t i o n s " to b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n a n ­
s w e r to th e p r o b l e m of c h a n g e d i s c u s s e d in th e T h e a e t e t u s ?
How, in
o th e r w o r d s , d o e s C h e r n i s s th in k t h i s t h e o r y m e e t s th e o b j e c t i o n P l a t o
r a i s e s in th e T h e a e t e t u s a g a i n s t th e i d e a of c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n a l t o ­
g e t h e r w i th o u t d u r a t i o n of a n y t h in g ?
A nd (2), m o r e n a r r o w l y , w h e r e
e x a c tly in th e t e x t of P l a t o 1s a r g u m e n t i s t h i s t h e o r y b e in g a r g u e d f o r
a s th e s o lu t i o n to th e p r o b l e m p o s e d by P l a t o ?
T h e t h e o r y of flux e x a m i n e d in th e T h e a e t e t u s a s s e r t s t h e c o n ­
s ta n t s u c c e s s i o n of q u a l i t i e s , a n d P l a t o 1s r e f u t a t i o n q u i t e e v id e n t ly
(cf. a £ (
«■ /
(>
X c^ovTos
(vj
i
CKT t
S+)
182d 7) t u r n s on th e f a c t t h a t on s u c h a n h y p o t h e s i s n o th in g
r e ta in s any c h a r a c t e r fo r any tim e .
H e a p p e a r s to be s a y in g th a t
101
no th in g c a n r e a l l y b e c o m e g r e e n if it h a s no s o o n e r done so th a n it
p a s s e s on to a n o t h e r c o l o r , a t th e s a m e t i m e p a s s i n g on to d i f f e r e n t
p l a c e s an d p r o p e r t i e s of e v e r y o t h e r s o r t a s w e ll.
Under th ese c ir c u m ­
s t a n c e s , s i n c e it n e v e r r e m a i n s g r e e n f o r any d u r a t i o n h o w e v e r s h o r t ,
it c a n n o t any m o r e r i g h t l y be s a i d a t any m o m e n t to b e c o m e g r e e n th a n
red.
Now C h e r n is s * i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in o r d e r to m e e t th is c r i t i c i s m ,
m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d in th e fo llo w in g w a y:
by in tr o d u c in g th e F o r m s a s
fix e d s t a n d a r d s P l a t o is e n a b le d , a s he h a s a r g u e d th e flux t h e o r i s t s
a r e no t, to s a y w h a t a th in g b e c o m e s a t a g iv e n m o m e n t .
B e c a u s e he
h a s th e F o r m s to r e l y on he c a n s a y t h a t a th in g b e c o m e s g r e e n (and
not r e d ) a t s o m e m o m e n t .
B ut a c c o r d i n g to C h e r n i s s P l a t o a c c e p t s th e
" f l u x e r s * " v iew th a t n o th in g r e m a i n s g r e e n o r any o t h e r c o l o r f o r any
p erio d .
And it s e e m s q u ite c e r t a i n t h a t P l a t o w a s sa y in g a g a i n s t th e m
t h a t th is f a c t d e p r i v e d t h e m of th e c a p a c i t y to s a y t h a t a n y th in g b e c o m e s
g r e e n a t a g iv e n m o m e n t .
How th e n d o e s he m a n a g e to a c c e p t the view
w h ic h a c c o r d i n g to h im m a d e t h e i r t h e o r y i n c o h e r e n t , w h ile c l a i m i n g
t h a t u n d e r h is a e g i s t h a t view is e n t i r e l y h a r m l e s s ?
E v id e n tly C h e r n i s s
m u s t h old t h a t s i n c e P l a t o h a s th e F o r m s to a p p e a l to a s e n t i t i e s e x e m p t
f r o m flu x , th e a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n is eva d e d .
I do
not m y s e l f s e e how th is r e s u l t is to be e f f e c te d , an d C h e r n i s s h a s
c e r t a i n l y not e x p la in e d h is v iew s u f f ic ie n tly to s u g g e s t how he w ou ld
a t t e m p t to a r g u e th e p o in t.
In f a c t, I th in k he m a y not h a v e s e e n c l e a r l y t h a t w h a t P l a t o is
d i s c u s s i n g u n d e r th e n a m e of th e flux t h e o r y is a d o c t r i n e of c o n s t a n t
s u c c e s s i o n , a n d th a t P la to * s a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s t u r n s
102
on t h e i r a t t e m p t i n g to s a y w h a t s o m e t h i n g b e c o m e s w ith o u t a llo w in g
t h a t a n y th in g p o s s e s s e s a n y c h a r a c t e r f o r any t i m e .
C h e r n i s s 1 t a l k of
p h e n o m e n a a s " a p p r o x i m a t i o n s '* to F o r m s s u g g e s t s a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t
vie w of th e flux t h e o r y a n d P l a t o 1s o b je c t io n to it.
13
T o s a y t h a t on
P la to * s v ie w p h e n o m e n a a r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to F o r m s s e e m s to a m o u n t
to s a y in g t h a t th e y a r e a l w a y s only in p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g F w ith o u t
e v e r y b e in g F .
F o r m s fix , a s I p u t it a b o v e , th e d i r e c t i o n of a n y p h e ­
n o m e n o n s p r o g r e s s at any m o m en t:
now to r e d , e tc . , w ith o u t c e a s e .
now it is on i ts w a y to b e in g g r e e n ,
W h a t th e flux t h e o r i s t s l a c k , on t h i s
v ie w , i s a n y m e a n s of s a y in g a t an y g iv e n m o m e n t t h a t a th in g is on i t s
w a y to g r e e n ( r a t h e r t h a n r e d o r a n y o t h e r c o lo r ) ; s i n c e th e y d e n y t h a t
t h e r e a r e a n y fix e d s t a n d a r d s th e y c a n n o t d e n o m i n a t e a ny o n e s u c h
m o m e n t a r y p r o g r e s s a p r o g r e s s of th is s o r t r a t h e r th a n of t h a t .
P lato
c a n s a y w h a t a th in g i s in p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a t any m o m e n t , b e c a u s e
h e h a s h is F o r m s to a p p e a l to a s s t a n d a r d s of a p p r o x i m a t i o n ; but w i t h ­
out t h e m n e i t h e r he n o r th e flux t h e o r i s t s c o u ld d e s c r i b e a n y th in g .
T h e t r o u b l e w ith t h i s v ie w (w h ich, a s I s a y , s e e m s to be t h e one
C h e r n i s s r e a l l y h o ld s ) is t h a t it s e e m s n o t to c o n c e i v e a t a l l r i g h t l y t h e
c r i t i c i s m P l a t o m a k e s of t h e flux t h e o r y .
F o r t h e r e i s , on th is i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n , n o th in g s a i d a b o u t c o n s t a n t s u c c e s s i o n a t a ll; a t t e n t i o n i s
/
d i r e c t e d i n s t e a d to a k in d of
t ve<Ti s w h ic h a f f e c t s a th in g w h o lly a t
on e m o m e n t .
T h e H e r a c l e i t e a n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s w i s h i n g to h o ld ,
w i t h P l a t o , t h a t a c h a i r o r a ta b l e a t a g iv e n m o m e n t is in p r o c e s s of
b e c o m i n g g r e e n (o r th a t a t t h a t m o m e n t i t i s s t r i v i n g to b e s u c h a s th e
F o r m of G r e e n i s , o r t h a t it i s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n to G r e e n ) , b u t b e c a u s e
103
th e y d e n y t h a t a n y th in g is a t r e s t , and t h e r e f o r e r e j e c t th e t h e o r y of
F o r m s a s s t a n d a r d s , th e y a r e d e b a r r e d f r o m s a y in g e v e r t h a t a th in g
is b e c o m in g F , r a t h e r th a n n o t - F .
But a s I h a v e a l r e a d y s a id a b o v e , I
do n o t find a n y th in g in th e e x p o s itio n a n d c r i t i c i s m of th e t h e o r y of flux
to s u g g e s t th a t it is a t h e o r y ho ld in g th a t p h e n o m e n a a r e on t h e i r w ay
t o w a r d g r e e n o r r e d o r w h a t e v e r , w ith o u t e v e r b e in g it; it i s , a s
P l a t o 1s r e f u t a t i o n o b v io u s ly t a k e s it, a t h e o r y a b o u t th e s u c c e s s i o n of
g r e e n , r e d , a n d th e r e s t .
W h a t th e t h e o r y w i s h e s to s a y is t h a t th in g s
b e c o m e g r e e n , th e n r e d , a n d so on; n o t th a t they a r e in p r o c e s s of b e ­
c o m in g g r e e n , th e n in p r o c e s s of b e c o m in g r e d , a n d so f o r t h .
Hence
C h e r n i s s 1 p o in t a b o u t F o r m s a s p r o v i d i n g fix e d d i r e c t i o n s of c h a n g e
s e e m s to be r e l e v a n t to a d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y a b o u t c h a n g e f r o m th e one
P la to is d isc u ssin g .
I t s e e m s to m e , th e n , th a t th e d o c t r i n e of F o r m s a s " f ix e d
s t a n d a r d s " f i ts v e r y ill a s a n a n s w e r to th e o b j e c tio n P l a t o r a i s e s
a g a i n s t th e t h e o r y of flux in th e T h e a e t e t u s .
B u t e v e n if it w e r e a s a t ­
i s f a c t o r y g e n e r a l p o in t f o r P l a t o to h a v e m a d e a t th is j u n c t u r e in th e
a r g u m e n t , it w o uld s t i l l be in c u m b e n t on C h e r n i s s to show how P l a t o 1s
a c t u a l w o r d s c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r g u i n g f o r th is v ie w .
I t is in th e
o t h e r e x p o s iti o n of h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in h is a r t i c l e , " T h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l E c o n o m y of th e T h e o r y of I d e a s , "
h e th i n k s th e t e x t r u n s .
14
t h a t h e s h o w s m o s t c l e a r l y how
He r i g h t l y fin d s th e nub of th e a r g u m e n t in th e
d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n l o c a l an d q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e a nd th e c o n s e q u e n c e
P l a t o f o r c e s on t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n s f o r a s s e r t i n g c o n s t a n t c h a n g e of
e v e r y t h i n g in b o th r e s p e c t s .
T he a r g u m e n t , a s he r e a d s it , " a t t e m p t s
104
to show t h a t th e c o n s t a n t flux of p h e n o m e n ; i n v o lv e s a l t e r a t i o n a s w e l l
a s l o c a l m o tio n but t h a t a l t e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s th e p e r m a n e n t s u b s i s t e n c e
of i m m u t a b l e a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s .
A l i t t l e f u r t h e r on t h e s e " a b s t r a c t
q u a litie s" becom e " im m u tab le and im m a te ria l id ea s,
s o th a t it is
c l e a r th a t C h e r n i s s t a k e s th e a r g u m e n t of 182d 1-7 a s s h o w in g , not t h a t
s o m e t h i n g in t h e w o r l d of b e c o m i n g m u s t be a t r e s t in s o m e r e s p e c t ,
but th a t s o m e t h i n g " i m m a t e r i a l " a n d a t r e s t i s r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to
d e fe n d t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t n o th in g in th e w o r l d of p h e n o m e n a l b e c o m i n g
is a t r e s t in a n y r e s p e c t .
C h ern iss th e re fo re re p re s e n ts P lato as a r ­
gu in g in 182d 1 -7 t h a t th e a b s t r a c t q u a lity w h i t e n e s s m u s t n ot be in flux
s i n c e if i t w e r e in flux one c o u ld n o t s a y of a n y c h a n g e t h a t it w a s a
w h i te n in g o r of a n y " th in g " t h a t i t w a s on th e w ay to w h ite , r a t h e r th a n
to an y o t h e r c o l o r .
B ut i£ t h i s w h a t 182d 1 -7 s a y s ?
in th is c o n te x t
T h e f i r s t th in g to n o t i c e is t h a t
A t o KO'T'vjJ (d 3) is not th e n a m e of a n a b s t r a c t q u a l i t y .
T h e w h i t e n e s s , w a r m t h , e tc . , w h i c h P l a t o h e r e s a y s to be c o n s t a n t l y
c h a n g in g , a c c o r d i n g to th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s 1 h y p o t h e s i s , a r e , a s 182a 3 - 8
r e m i n d s u s , th e o f f s p r i n g of a g e n t a n d p a t i e n t in th e p e r c e p t u a l s i tu a ti o i
T h e y a r e (cf. 156a 3 - c 3) f l e e t i n g i n s t a n c e s of w h i t e n e s s , w a r m t h , e tc .
w h ic h c o m e - t o - b e in b e tw e e n a g e n t a n d p a t i e n t ; th e y a r e p h e n o m e n a l
a n d s e n s i b l e q u a l i t i e s , an d n o t a b s t r a c t a t a l l .
a n d n o t w h a t w h a t one s e e s is a n i n s t a n c e of.
T h e y a r e w h a t one s e e s
T h e y c o r r e s p o n d to
m o m e n t a r y s e n s e - d a t a a n d n o t to th e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h th e s e n s e - d a t a
e x h ib it.
It is th e c o n s t a n t flux of t h e s e c o l o r - i n s t a n c e s w h ic h , a s P l a t o
a r g u e s in 182d 1 - 7 , th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s m u s t in c o n s i s t e n c y m a i n t a i n .
105
A nd h is p o in t is not t h a t th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s r e f u t e t h e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e
th e y m a i n t a i n th a t a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s lik e w h i t e n e s s k e e p c h a n g in g to
o t h e r q u a l i t i e s , but b e c a u s e on t h e i r view no i n s t a n c e of w h i t e n e s s r e ­
m a i n s a n i n s t a n c e of w h i t e n e s s f o r a n y t i m e .
P l a t o n o w h e r e in his a r ­
g u m e n t m e n t i o n s a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s a n d th e n e c e s s i t y th a t th e y sh o u ld be
fix e d ; w h a t he d o e s m e n t i o n a r e c o n c r e t e
a
a n d th e n e c e s s i t y
t h a t th e y s h o u ld r e t a i n t h e i r f o r m f o r s o m e p e r i o d of t i m e .
H e n c e h is
c o n c l u s i o n c a n n o t be t h a t f o r a c h a n g e to be d e f i n i t e l y a c h a n g e to w h i t e
t h e r e m u s t be a fix e d a b s t r a c t F o r m W h ite , b ut m u s t r a t h e r be t h a t no
c h a n g e c a n b e a c h a n g e to w h it e if t h e r e s u c c e e d s a c h a n g e to y e llo w o r
g r e e n w ith o u t th e w h i t e n e s s ha v in g l a s t e d f o r a n y p e r i o d of t i m e h o w ­
ev e r b rief.
T h e r e is n ot, th e n , th e s l i g h t e s t r e a s o n f o r a c c e p t i n g C h e r n i s s 1
v iew t h a t P l a t o r e j e c t s H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m b e c a u s e i t m a k e s no p r o v i s i o n
f o r F o r m s a s f ix e d s t a n d a r d s .
It is p a t e n t l y f ix ity in th e w o r l d of p h e ­
n o m e n a t h a t he a r g u e s f o r , a n d th e a r g u m e n t c a n n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d a s
a r g u i n g f o r fix ity e l s e w h e r e .
T h e m e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a F o r m of w h i t e ­
n e s s , in f a c t, w ou ld be no s o r t of r e p l y to th e o b je c t io n P l a t o m a k e s to
th e flux t h e o r y :
if p h e n o m e n a a r e in flu x, no m a t t e r how i m m u t a b l e th e
s t a n d a r d you a r e p r o v i d e d w ith , th e c o l o r you s e e w i ll not s t a n d s t i l l
lo n g eno u g h to be c l a s s i f i e d a s a n i n s t a n c e f a llin g u n d e r one s t a n d a r d
r a t h e r th a n a n o t h e r .
It is e x a c tl y a s P l a t o h i m s e l f s a y s (182d 3-5 ):
" S i n c e t h e r e is a flux of th is i t s e l f , th e w h i t e n e s s Lthe oii
cf. 156b 7 - c 3, th a t c o m e s b e tw e e n a g e n t a nd p a tie n t] , a n d a c h a n g e to
a n o t h e r c o l o r , in o r d e r th a t it not be c a u g h t r e s t i n g in th is r e s p e c t , c a n
106
one e v e r c a l l it a n y c o l o r a n d be s p e a k i n g c o r r e c t l y ? "
T h e r e m u s t be
r e s t in t h e w o r l d of b e c o m i n g in o r d e r f o r it to be t a l k e d a b o u t a t a ll .
T h e u p s h o t i s t h a t r e f e r e n c e to th e F o r m s , e v e n in C h e r n i s s 1
m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d v e r s i o n of th e t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w , i s out of p l a c e .
T h e e s s e n t i a l th in g b e in g a r g u e d f o r , to r e p e a t , i s t h a t t h e r e m u s t be
s t a b i l i t y in th e w o r l d of b e c o m i n g in o r d e r f o r it, o r a n y p a r t of it, to
be a s u b j e c t of d i s c o u r s e .
H o w e v e r c h a n g in g a n d s h if tin g it m a y be it
c a n n o t be a t e v e r y p o in t c h a n g in g a n d s h if ti n g in e v e r y r e s p e c t .
T here­
f o r e , e v e n if P l a t o th o u g h t t h a t t h e r e had to be F o r m s a n d t h a t th e y
w e r e n e c e s s a r i l y e x e m p t f r o m flu x , he is c e r t a i n l y n o t a r g u i n g t h a t
point h e r e .
I t i s c o n s t a n t flux of a n y t h in g in e v e r y r e s p e c t t h a t he sh o w s
to be a s e l f - r e f u t i n g n o tio n .
18
W h e n , t h e r e f o r e , P l a t o s u m s up h is o b j e c t i o n a g a i n s t H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m in 183a 2 - 7 w e a r e j u s t i f i e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i m to m e a n
no t only t h a t n o t e v e r y t h i n g i s in c o n s t a n t flu x but t h a t n o th in g i s .
He
s a y s , " B u t , a s i t s e e m s , if e v e r y t h i n g i s in m o t i o n e v e r y r e p l y , w h a t ­
e v e r a n y o n e m i g h t a n s w e r a q u e s t i o n a b o u t, t u r n s out to be e q u a lly
c o r r e c t - - b o t h t h a t i t is so a n d t h a t it is n o t so , o r r a t h e r , in o r d e r n ot
to b r i n g t h e s e p e o p l e to a s t a n d s t i l l by o u r m o d e of s p e a k i n g , t h a t it
becom es so ."
T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n , a s it w o u ld m e a n if C h e r n i s s 1
r e a d i n g of t h e a r g u m e n t w e r e c o r r e c t , t h a t o n c e s o m e th in g s w e r e
a llo w e d to be a t r e s t th e law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n w o u ld be r e i n s t a t e d f o r
e v e r y t h i n g , b u t r a t h e r t h a t th e law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n c a n n o t a p p ly to a
th in g so lo n g a s it i s in m o t i o n in e v e r y r e s p e c t .
T h a t t h i s is s o i s i n d i c a t e d n o t only by th e p r e v i o u s a r g u m e n t
107
but a l s o by a p a s s a g e of A r i s t o t l e (M e t , f". 5. 1010a l- 1 0 1 0 b 1) w h ic h
d i s c u s s e s H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m in t e r m s p a r a l l e l a t m a n y p o in ts to th i s d i s c u s s i o n in th e T h e a e t e t u s . 19 A r i s t o t l e , lik e P l a t o , c o n n e c t s H e r a c l e i ­
t e a n i s m fo llo w e d to its l o g i c a l e x t r e m e w ith th e d e n ia l of th e law of
c o n trad ictio n .
20
In h is s t a t e m e n t of th e u l t i m a t e c o n s e q u e n c e of H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n i s m t h e r e is no e m p h a s i s on th e f a c t th a t one ca n n o t s a y a n y ­
th in g d e f i n i t e only if e v e r y t h i n g i s in flux:
a s he p u ts it, n of t h a t w h ic h
i s c h a n g in g n o th in g is t r u l y a s s e r t e d , o r a t a ny r a t e it is not p o s s i b l e
to m a k e a t r u e a s s e r t i o n a b o u t w h a t is e v e r y w h e r e in e v e r y r e s p e c t
ch a n g in g ."
(1010a 8 -9 ) .
T h e c o n s e q u e n c e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , th e n ,
a s A r i s t o t l e s e e s i t , is e s s e n t i a l l y th e s a m e a s w h a t in m y vie w P l a t o
a l s o d e d u c e d f r o m it:
t r u e c a n be s a id .
t h a t of a n y th i n g th a t is in c o n s t a n t flux n o th in g
It i s t r u e a s C h e r n i s s s a y s ,
21
t h a t one of th e r e f u t a ­
tio n s A r i s t o t l e g o e s on (1010a 3 2 -3 5 ) to p r o p o s e f o r th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s
in v o lv e s p r o v i n g t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g
(x K iV ^ T o S .
But this cannot
be p a r a l l e l to w h a t C h e r n i s s th in k s P l a t o p r o v e s in th e T h e a e t e t u s p a s ­
s a g e , s i n c e to p r o v e t h a t t h e r e a r e u n m o v e d m o v e r s of th e s p h e r e s
(w hic h is w h a t A r i s t o t l e s
iv ^ ro 1
m u s t r e f e r to) d o e s
n o t r e i n s t a t e th e law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n f o r p h e n o m e n a a s P la to * s i n v o c a ­
tio n of th e F o r m s in C h e r n is s * v ie w i s s u p p o s e d to do.
a p p e a l to th e
ax
A r is to tle 's
i s on a l e v e l w it h h i s r e m a r k ( 1 01 0a
2 5 - 3 2 ) th a t s i n c e only th e tin y p a r t of th e s e n s i b l e c o s m o s n e a r e s t to u s
i s c o n s t a n t l y c o m i n g in to b e in g a n d p a s s i n g a w a y it w o u ld be f a i r e r to
a c q u i t o u r p a r t b e c a u s e of t h e o t h e r th a n to c o n d e m n th e w h o le on a c ­
c o u n t of o u r p a r t :
t h e s e a r e b e s t s e e n a s ty p i c a l l y A r i s t o t e l i a n o v e r k i l l
108
arg u m e n ts.
In a n y c a s e he a l s o s e e s q u i te c l e a r l y t h a t to g e t a t th e nub
of th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s 1 d if f ic u lty m o r e is n e e d e d th a n t h e s e a r g u m e n t s :
f o r he p o in ts out t h a t t h e r e a r e good g r o u n d s f o r d e n y in g of a n y th i n g in
m o t i o n t h a t it i s in m o t i o n in e v e r y r e s p e c t (1010a 1 5 -2 5 ).
Thus A r i ­
s t o t l e s e e s t h a t a c o n s i s t e n t H e r a c l e i t e a n m u s t den y th a t th e la w of
c o n t r a d i c t i o n h o ld s of a n y th in g t h a t is in m o t i o n in e v e r y r e s p e c t , a n d
h e s a y s n o th in g to s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s w a s s o m e h o w n o t a c o r r e c t i n f e r ­
e n c e f r o m H e r a c l e i t e a n p r e m i s s e s . So th a t if th is w a s s o m e t h i n g he
l e a r n e d f r o m P l a t o , P l a t o a l s o sa w t h a t to r e s o l v e th e d if f ic u lt y th e
H e r a c l e i t e a n s e m b r o i l t h e m s e l v e s in it w a s n e c e s s a r y to i n t r o d u c e s t a ­
b i lity in to th e w o r l d of c h a n g e i t s e l f , a n d n o t e n ou gh m e r e l y to p o s i t
t h e e x i s t e n c e of s o m e t h in g s o u t s i d e of t h e w o r l d of b e c o m i n g a n d e x ­
e m p t f r o m flu x.
C lo s e a n a l y s i s of th e a r g u m e n t of 18 2 -1 8 3 r e v e a l s , th e n , t h a t
P l a t o 1s r e j e c t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m a s a b a s i s on w h i c h to c o n s t r u c t a
d e f e n s e of th e t h e s i s t h a t k n o w le d g e is p e r c e p t i o n a l s o i n v o l v e s t h e r e f ­
u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i t s e l f .
T h e i n f e r e n c e to t h i s e f f e c t d r a w n
f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n of th e f in a l a r g u m e n t of t h i s s e c t i o n (1 8 4 -1 8 6 ) h a s
t h e r e f o r e been v in d icated :
P l a t o i m p l i e s in 1 8 2 -1 8 3 t h a t b o th th e H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n a n d th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of p h e n o m e n a
a r e false.
B.
T h e F l u x A r g u m e n t in th e C r a t y l u s
I n o r d e r to c o n s o l i d a t e th is c o n c l u s i o n it w il l be u s e f u l to c o n ­
s i d e r a p a s s a g e f r o m t h e end of th e C r a t y l u s .
T h e a r g u m e n t of t h a t
109
p a s s a g e h a s long b e e n r e c o g n i z e d
22
to be c l o s e l y s i m i l a r to th e p r e s e n t
a r g u m e n t f r o m th e T h e a e t e t u s , a n d it is n e c e s s a r y to show t h a t it c a n
be i n t e r p r e t e d in c o n f o r m i t y w ith th e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s I w i s h to e l i c i t
f r o m th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 d i s c u s s i o n .
T h e C r a t y l u s 1 a r g u m e n t (439c 7 - 4 4 0 d 6 ) ,
w h ic h is a l s o an d e x p lic it ly d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , t u r n s upon
th e d e n i a l t h a t any m o d e of d e s c r i p t i o n ( *rT(J0
£ <• r r e i v/,
439d 8 ) c a n be
c o r r e c t l y a p p lie d to a th in g t h a t is s u b j e c t to c o n s t a n t flux.
23
V ario u s
f e a t u r e s of th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r g u m e n t , h o w e v e r , a r e m i s s i n g in th e
C r a t y l u s 1- - n o ta b ly th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n l o c a l a n d q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e
a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t s h a r p e n i n g of th e p a r a d o x i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of th e
flux t h e o r y .
I t is by m a k i n g t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , a s I h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t i n g
th e a r g u m e n t , t h a t P l a t o is a b le to show th e a b s u r d i t y of th e H e r a c l e i ­
t e a n a t t e m p t to b a n i s h f r o m d i s c o u r s e a b o u t p h e n o m e n a bo th " i s 11 an d
e v e r y a t t r i b u t i v e e x p r e s s i o n e x c e p t w h e n e x p lic it ly p r e c e d e d by a v e r b
of b e c o m i n g .
d etail,
24
T he a r g u m e n t in th e C r a t y l u s d o e s n o t h a v e a n y of th is
and does not d ire c tly confront H e ra c le ite a n is m as a d o c trin e
of p h e n o m e n a , w h ic h i s w h a t in th e T h e a e t e t u s it is t a k e n to be.
R ath er,
w ith o u t p r o v id in g an e l a b o r a t e a n d p r e c i s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e d o c ­
t r i n e , s u c h a s th e t h e o r y of th e k
o
o
in th e T h e a e t e t u s , th e
C r a t y l u s p r o d u c e s a b r i e f a r g u m e n t to show th a t flux a n d c o n s t a n t
m o t i o n a r e no t e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of
/
/
°* >
440d 1, a nd
a r g u m e n t s ta n d out:
and in tro d u c e s
a
T ujv
o v t u )v
'
\
OvTA.
( 4 4 0 c 6 , e tc. , =
d 2).
v
Two f e a t u r e s of th e
(1) P l a t o l e a v e s on one s i d e s e n s i b l e p h e n o m e n a
x
V N
^
v
v
c V
< /
aO To k ^ X o v
o v t<a<- t v £ k ^ s t t o v '
(/
Ou T ^
(439c 8 - 9 , cf. 440b 5 - 6 ), t h e n a r g u i n g t h a t t h e s e
110
th in g s a r e n o t l i k e flo w in g s t r e a m s ; (2 ) e s s e n t i a l to th e a r g u m e n t by
w h ic h he sh o w s t h i s i s th e p o in t f a m i l i a r to us f r o m th e T h e a e t e t u s ,
t h a t a th in g t h a t c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g e d c o u ld not b e d e s c r i b e d o r n a m e d
b e c a u s e it w o u ld b e c o m e d i f f e r e n t a n d s l i p aw a y e v e n w h il e w e w e r e
s p e a k i n g (439d 8 - 1 2 ) .
T h e f a c t t h a t t h i s p o in t i s th e s a m e a s t h a t of
th e T h e a e t e t u s (1 8 2 d -1 8 3 a ) b u t is u s e d to show o nly t h a t
To
e t a l a r e e x e m p t f r o m flu x , a n d no t t h a t p h e n o m e n a l i k e b e a u t i f u l f a c e s
a r e ex em p t as w ell, has b een tak en as p r a c tic a lly co n c lu siv e p ro o f th a t
t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e T h e a e t e t u s i s m e r e l y to show t h a t F o r m s a r e n o t in
flu x , a n d n o t t h a t p h e n o m e n a a r e not.
25
C l o s e a t t e n t i o n to t h e c o n t e x t of th e a r g u m e n t a n d to th e d e t a i l
of i ts d e v e l o p m e n t , h o w e v e r , show t h i s v ie w to b e m i s t a k e n .
F irst
o ne m u s t t a k e n o te of th e r e l a x e d a n d c o n s c i o u s l y u n d o g m a tic c h a r a c t e r
of t h e C r a t y l u s .
S o c r a t e s t h r o u g h o u t th e d ia lo g u e is t h e s a m e s e l f - c o n ­
s c i o u s l y a g n o s t i c i n q u i r e r w h i c h he i s , f o r e x a m p le , in t h e M e n o : e v e n
w h e n g iv in g (as a t 4 3 4 c - 4 3 5 c ) e x c e l l e n t a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t s o m e p h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n he d r a w s b a c k f r o m a n n o u n c in g a p o s i t i v e r e s u l t
(cf. 43 5c 6- d 1 ).
So in t h e f i n a l a r g u m e n t of th e d ia lo g u e w e a r e p r e ­
s e n t e d w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s (439c 6 - d 7) f r o m w h ic h it f o llo w s (e 3 - 5 ) t h a t
s o m e th in g s n e v e r c h a n g e a t a l l ; a n d o f f ic i a lly S o c r a t e s g o e s no f u r t h e r
th a n to p o in t o u t (440c 1 ff. , d 2 - 6 ) t h a t if t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s c o r r e c t
th e n i t i s n o t t r u e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s l i k e a le a k in g p o t o r a m a n w i t h a
r u n n y n o s e , a s th e flu x t h e o r y i m p l i e s .
He d e l i b e r a t e l y a v o id s c o m ­
m i t t i n g h i m s e l f on th e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r e c t o r
w h e t h e r , p e r h a p s , th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y m a y b e t r u e .
B y th u s
Ill
l i m i t i n g th e q u e s t i o n to w h e t h e r th e F o r m s , if th e y e x i s t , a r e e n t i t i e s
t h a t c h a n g e , S o c r a t e s is e n a b le d to k e e p up h is p r e t e n s e of not h a v in g
o r r e a c h i n g any p o s i t i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s of h is own.
He
c o u ld n ot h a v e don e so had he u n d e r t a k e n th e d i r e c t c o n f r o n ta ti o n of a
c a r e f u l l y e l a b o r a t e d H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y , a s he d o e s in th e T h e a e t e t u s ,
w h e r e , h o w e v e r th e a r g u m e n t is i n t e r p r e t e d in d e t a i l , H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m
is s how n to be s e l f - r e f u t i n g a n d ( 1 8 3 a - c ) a p o s i t i v e r e s u l t is a t t a i n e d
and announced.
T he a r g u m e n t of th e C r a t y l u s b e g in s by a s s u m i n g (439c 7 - d 1 )
t h a t t h e r e a r e F o r m s - - o lO to
rest.
to
k^Aov
kya& oV
a n d th e
A b ou t e a c h of t h e s e it is f u r t h e r a s s u m e d (d 5 -7 ) t h a t it is
a lw a y s s u c h a s i t is a t a n y t i m e , th a t i s , t h a t w h a t e v e r c h a r a c t e r it
h a s a t any t i m e b e lo n g s to it a t e v e r y t i m e .
The subsequent argum ent
th e n c o n s i s t s in sh o w in g t h a t g iv e n th is l a t t e r a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t th e
F o r m s it c a n n o t be r i g h t to s a y th a t any F o r m c h a n g e s a t a ll.
T h ou gh
th i s m i g h t be th o u g h t so o b v io u s a s no t to n e e d a r g u m e n t , S o c r a t e s
a c t u a l l y d o e s a r g u e th e p o in t; a n d th e a r g u m e n t he g iv e s a c t u a l l y
p r o v e s m u c h m o r e th a n he n e e d s .
In f a c t, he r e a l l y p r o v e s not only
th a t F o r m s do n o t c h a n g e a t a l l but t h a t n o th in g t h a t c a n be a s u b j e c t of
s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c o u r s e c a n c h a n g e in e v e r y r e s p e c t a t e v e r y m o m e n t.
T h e f i r s t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o in t e s t a b l i s h e d is t h a t if a th in g
i s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g in e v e r y r e s p e c t it is i m p o s s i b l e to a p ply to it
a ny s u b s t a n t i v a l o r any a d j e c t i v a l e x p r e s s i o n (d 8 - 9 ): if it i s c h a n g in g
in th is w a y a t th e t i m e w h e n w e a s s e r t t h a t it h a s s u c h - a n d - s u c h a
c h a r a c t e r it h a s a l r e a d y p a s s e d on a n d i s no l o n g e r c o r r e c t l y so
112
c h a ra c teriz e d .
A nd n e v e r h a v in g any d e f i n i t e c h a r a c t e r (e 1 -2 ) it
c o u ld n ot b e a n y d e f i n i t e th in g ( h a v e a n y s u b s t a n t i v a l e x p r e s s i o n c o r ­
r e c t l y g iv e n to it) e i t h e r .
If, in f a c t , a th in g is e v e r in an y d e f i n i t e
s t a t e , a n d c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s " s u c h a n d s u c h , " d u r in g th e t i m e w h e n
it is in t h a t s t a t e it c l e a r l y d o e s no t c h a n g e (in t h a t r e s p e c t a t l e a s t )
(e 2 - 3 ) .
W e h a v e , h o w e v e r , a s s u m e d t h a t F o r m s c a n . no t only be d e ­
s c r i b e d a s " s u c h a n d s u c h , " b u t e v e n t h a t e v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c th e y
h a v e a t any t i m e th e y h a v e a t e v e r y t i m e :
s o t h a t , by th e f o r e g o i n g
a r g u m e n t , F o r m s m u s t n o t c h a n g e a t a l l (e 3 -5 ) .
A lw a y s b e in g in th e
s a m e s t a t e s a n d h a v in g th e s a m e s u b s t a n t i v a l e x p r e s s i o n s t r u l y a p p l i ­
c a b l e to t h e m , th e y n e v e r c h a n g e in a n y r e s p e c t .
T h is a r g u m e n t
26
o b v io u s ly h a s th e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t a n y t h in g in
t o t a l flu x c o u ld n ot be ta l k e d a b o u t a t a l l , a nd t h e r e f o r e t h a t a n y th in g
th a t is s a i d to b e in m o t i o n m u s t a l s o be a t r e s t in s o m e r e s p e c t .
T h is
f a c t is no t th e l e s s o b v io u s b e c a u s e th e c o n s e q u e n c e is not e x p l i c i t l y
d r a w n a n d u s e d a s th e b a s i s f o r a d i r e c t a s s a u l t on H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a ­
p h y sic s.
F o r P l a t o c l e a r l y d o e s n o t th in k t h a t it p r o v e s only t h a t F o r m s
m u s t be e x e m p t f r o m flu x :
t h e F o r m s a r e in th e c l e a r e s t p o s s i b l e w ay
i n t r o d u c e d a s th e e x t r e m e s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e n ot on ly th e p o s s i b i l i t y of
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n m u s t b e r e t a i n e d , w h a t e v e r th e c o n s e ­
q u e n c e s , b u t e v e n th e s a m e n a m e s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s m u s t a p p ly f o r a l l
tim e.
If, in th e s p e c i a l c a s e of th e F o r m s , a l l m o t i o n w h a t s o e v e r m u s t
be d e n ie d , t h i s is o nly b e c a u s e in t h e g e n e r a l c a s e m o t i o n in s o m e r e ­
s p e c t s a n d a t s o m e t i m e s m u s t b e d e n i e d if d i s c o u r s e i s to be p o s s i b l e .
T h e f a c t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p l ie d on ly to
113
th e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r F o r m s c a n be in flux is a b s o l u t e l y no i n d i c a t i o n
t h a t P l a t o th o u g h t th a t it only had c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r th e F o r m s ; a n y one
w ho s u p p o s e s t h a t a th in g in m o ti o n c a n be t a lk e d a b o u t c o u ld be sh o w n
on t h e b a s i s of w h a t P l a t o s a y s h e r e th a t it c a n n o t be in m o ti o n in e v e r y
re sp e c t.
In th e s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t of th e C r a t y l u s P l a t o g o e s on to
a s s o c i a t e k n o w le d g e a n d t h e F o r m s , and it h a s b e e n th o u g h t t h a t h is
r e m a r k s h e r e show t h a t h is f u n d a m e n t a l a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t H e r a c l e i t e ­
a n i s m is t h a t it d e s t r o y s th e p o s s i b i l i t y of k n o w le d g e , b e c a u s e k n o w l ­
e d g e r e q u i r e s a b s o l u t e l y u n c h a n g in g o b j e c t s .
We h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n
t h a t in th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , w h e r e C o r n f o r d
a t t e m p t s to i n t r o d u c e t h i s v ie w in to th e a r g u m e n t , no s u c h th o u g h t is
e x p r e s s e d by P l a t o :
i t is th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of s i g n i f i c a n t s p e e c h , d e f i ­
n i te p e r c e p t i o n , a n d t r u e b e lie f , r a t h e r th a n th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of k n o w l ­
e d g e , t h a t he h a s in v ie w t h e r e .
In th e C r a t y l u s , h o w e v e r , h a v in g
a r g u e d th a t F o r m s m u s t b e e x e m p t f r o m c h a n g e b e c a u s e th e y c a n be
ta l k e d a b o u t, he g o e s on to a d d a s u p p l e m e n t a r y a r g u m e n t to th e s a m e
c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t k n o w le d g e .
T h e C r a t y l u s m a k e s tw o s o m e w h a t s e p a r a t e a r g u m e n t s a b o u t
k n o w le d g e .
T h e f i r s t (439e 7 - a 5) fo llo w s d i r e c t l y on t h e a r g u m e n t I
h a v e j u s t a n a l y z e d a n d , l i k e th a t one, fo llo w s out th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of
th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
* K ToV
cW To
v /
e t c ., ex ist.
Th ou gh it w a s
not m e n t i o n e d w h e n t h e F o r m s w e r e in t r o d u c e d a t 4 3 9 c - d , P l a t o is
a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e s e e n t i t i e s c a n be known; a n d th is f i r s t a r g u m e n t
sh o w s t h a t if t h i s is s o th e y c a n n o t be in p e r p e t u a l flu x.
F o r , a s th e
114
p r e v i o u s a r g u m e n t h a s sho w n , a n y th in g in p e r p e t u a l flux is in no d e t e r ­
m i n a t e s t a t e a t a l l , bu t a th in g t h a t h a s no d e f i n i t e c h a r a c t e r c a n c e r ­
t a i n l y h ot be know n, s i n c e it f a l l s a w a y a n d c h a n g e s e v e n w h ile o ne
t r i e s to g e t to know it.
K n o w le d g e r e q u i r e s th a t th in g s " b e s o m e h o w . "
N o th in g so f a r s u g g e s t s t h a t a th in g , in o r d e r to b e know n, m u s t be
a l w a y s a s i t i s , a n d n e v e r c h a n g e in a n y r e s p e c t :
27
h e r e , a s in th e
p r e v i o u s a r g u m e n t , t h e F o r m s o v e r f u l f i l l th e r e q u i r e m e n t .
A F orm
h a s a l w a y s th e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h e r e f o r e , a f o r t i o r i , i t is a t a n y
g iv e n t i m e in a d e f i n i t e s t a t e ; b u t it i s th e l a t t e r f a c t , a n d n ot th e f o r ­
m e r t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h i s a r g u m e n t , m a k e s a F o r m a p o s s i b l e o b j e c t
of k n o w le d g e .
T h e o t h e r a r g u m e n t (440 a 6 - c 1) i s t h a t if k n o w le d g e e x i s t s it
c a n n o t be c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g , s i n c e it w o u ld t h e n n e v e r b e k n o w le d g e
b u t w o u ld c o n s t a n t l y be f a ll in g a w a y in to s o m e o t h e r s o r t of th in g .
A n d s i m i l a r l y f o r k n ow ing s u b j e c t a n d th e o b j e c t of k n o w le d g e .
Now
t h i s a r g u m e n t , l ik e th e p r e v i o u s o n e , a p p e a r s to be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a
v ie w w h i c h m a k e s k n o w le d g e a t t a i n a b l e of a n y th i n g p r o v i d e d only t h a t it
is a t r e s t in s o m e r e s p e c t ; it s e e m s n o t to r e q u i r e th e a b s o l u t e p e r m a ­
n e n c e of w h a t e v e r is know n.
On th e o t h e r h a n d P l a t o d o e s i m p l y ( cl€*^
b 5) t h a t k n o w e r s , a n d p r e s u m a b l y t h e r e f o r e a l s o kn ow n o b j e c t s , e x i s t
f o r e v e r , a n d t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t in f a c t th e v ie w he is ta k in g of k n o w le d g e
i s th e c a n o n i c a l P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e th a t k n o w le d g e is a m a t t e r of e t e r n a l
s o u l s c o m in g in to c o n t a c t w i t h e t e r n a l a n d u n c h a n g in g o b j e c t s .
A n d if
t h i s i s so , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to a d j u s t o n e l s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e tw o a r ­
g u m e n t s a b o u t k n o w le d g e .
B ut it i s i m p o r t a n t to o b s e r v e t h a t e v e n if
115
P l a t o h e r e is a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e c a n n o t be k n o w le d g e e x c e p t of e n t i t i e s
t h a t do n o t c h a n g e a t a l l , t h i s i s p e r f e c t l y c o m p a t i b l e w ith th e v iew th a t
he a t th e s a m e t i m e a llo w s p h e n o m e n a not to be in flux.
T h e r e is no
r e a s o n why he c a n n o t r e t a i n th e v ie w t h a t k n o w le d g e r e q u i r e s a b s o l u t e l y
u n c h a n g in g o b j e c t s w h i le r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t a p h e n o m e n o n is a t r e s t in
som e r e s p e c ts at each m om ent.
T h e u p s h o t i s t h a t th e flux a r g u m e n t in th e C r a t y l u s in no w a y
c o n t r a d i c t s th e a r g u m e n t of th e T h e a e t e t u s a s I h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d it.
T h e f a c t t h a t th e C r a t y l u s m e n t i o n s only th e F o r m s a s th in g s e x e m p t
f r o m flux d o e s n o t in a n y w a y sho w t h a t in th e C r a t y l u s and in th e
T h e a e t e t u s P l a t o m e a n s to r e f u t e H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m by e m p h a s i z i n g th e
" a l l " in " A ll th in g s a r e in flu x " a n d th e n p r o v in g t h a t t h e r e e x i s t n o n s e n s i b l e , a b s o l u t e l y u n c h a n g in g e n t i t i e s .
In th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e f u t a t i o n
th e F o r m s a r e n ot e v e n a l l u d e d to , an d w e h a v e now s e e n th a t th e
C r a t y l u s 1 u s e of th e F o r m s d o e s n o t s u p p o r t th e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n .
S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s th e F o r m s in th e C r a t y l u s a s a h y p o t h e s i s ,
a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t n e i t h e r p r o v e s , n o r a t t e m p t s to p r o v e ,
t h a t th e F o r m s m u s t e x i s t , by w a y of r e f u t i n g H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m .
R a t h e r it p r o v i d e s r e a s o n s f o r s a y i n g t h a t if th e F o r m s e x i s t , a r e a l ­
w a y s s u c h a s th e y a r e a t an y t i m e , a n d c a n be know n, th e n th e y do not
c h a n g e a t a l l a n d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m is not t r u e .
S o crates re fra in s from
p r o v i n g t h a t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i £ f a l s e - - w h i c h he m i g h t h a v e d o ne by
p r o v i n g th e t r u t h of th e a n t e c e d e n t of th e h y p o th e tic a l p r o p o s i t i o n j u s t
c i t e d , o r by p r o v in g d i r e c t l y t h e i n c o h e r e n c e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i t s e l f .
T h is he a v o id s b e c a u s e he w i s h e s to m a i n t a i n a d i s c r e e t l y n e u t r a l p o s i ­
tio n .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e a r g u m e n t by w h ic h he p r o v e s th e h y p o th e tic a l
116
p r o p o s i t i o n d o e s c l e a r l y sh ow t h a t he h a s g r a s p e d th e e s s e n t i a l p o in t
w h i c h P l a t o u s e s in th e T h e a e t e t u s to p r o v e th e i n c o h e r e n c e of a H e r a ­
c l e i t e a n a c c o u n t of a n y th in g .
H e n c e th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e s t r u c ­
t u r e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of th e a r g u m e n t of th e C r a t y l u s a n d th a t of t h e
T h e a e t e t u s c a n n o t b e u s e d to a r g u e t h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s i n te n d s to be
s h o w in g n o t t h a t a n y c h a n g in g p h e n o m e n o n m u s t be a t r e s t in s o m e
r e s p e c t b u t th a t , th o u g h a l l p h e n o m e n a i n c e s s a n t l y c h a n g e in e v e r y
r e s p e c t , s o m e n o n - p h e n o m e n a l o b j e c t s e x i s t th a t do n o t c h a n g e .
C.
R esu lts
W ith t h i s r e s u l t now f i r m l y a c h i e v e d w e c a n r e t u r n to t h e T h e a e ­
t e t u s a n d a s s e s s th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of th e r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m
pro v id ed th e re .
A c c o r d i n g to m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n P l a t o sh o w s t h a t if
T h e a e t e t u s a c c e p t s th e H e r a c l e i t e a n b a n i s h m e n t of
f r o m the
w o r l d of p h e n o m e n a th e n h e c a n n o t s u p p o r t h is d e f in it io n of k n o w le d g e
a s p e r c e p t i o n , s i n c e H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i m p l i e s t h a t a n y th in g yo u c a l l
p e r c e p t i o n h a s a s m u c h r i g h t to be c a l l e d n o t - p e r c e p t i o n a s p e r c e p t i o n ,
so t h a t by id e n tif y in g k no w ing a s p e r c e i v i n g T h e a e t e t u s h a s n o t a d ­
v a n c e d h is c a s e e v e n one s te p .
M o re im p o rta n t th an th is e m b a r r a s s ­
m e n t to T h e a e t e t u s i s th e c o n s e q u e n c e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m to t h e H e r a ­
cle ite a n s th e m s e lv e s :
t h e y end up by d e n y in g th e law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n
a n d c a n n o t e v e n p e r m i t t h e m s e l v e s t h e " b o t h so a n d n o t - s o " w h i c h t h a t
d e n i a l w o u ld s e e m to a llo w t h e m .
th em a t all.
28
In f a c t , no u s e of l a n g u a g e is l e f t to
A s I h a v e a r g u e d , P l a t o , in sh o w in g h e r e th a t u n i v e r s a l
flu x i s s e l f - r e f u t i n g , m e a n s to be p r o v i n g t h a t of a n y th in g , p h e n o m e n a
117
a s w e ll a s w h a t e v e r e l s e t h e r e m i g h t be, one m u s t be p r e p a r e d to u s e
som e M V a i
d e scrip tio n :
one c a n n o t r e s t r i c t h i m s e l f e x c l u s i v e l y to
e x p r e s s i o n s in d e s c r i b i n g a n y th in g .
m u s t be o
and T T aV is
2R
w or^
In s h o r t , t h e r e
p h e n o m e n a and not
m e r e l y o u ts i d e it.
Now in r e a c h i n g t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s P l a t o d e f in iti v e ly r e j e c t s th e
H e r a c l e i t e a n s * a t t e m p t to a v o id e v e r y u s e of
s e l v e s to y * y v ' C : i .
a nd to l i m i t t h e m ­
But, a s I sh o w e d in d i s c u s s i n g th e in t r o d u c t i o n
of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m in th e T h e a e t e t u s (15 2 d - e \ th is a t t e m p t w a s s o m e th in g
P la to h im se lf c o n tem p lated m aking:
r e s t s e x p l ic itl y on th e b a n i s h m e n t of
th e m e t a p h y s i c s of th e T i m a e u s
f r o m th e r e a l m of
it t h e r e f o r e f o llo w s f r o m m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e r e f u t a ­
tio n of th e flux d o c t r i n e t h a t in P la to * s v iew th is m e t a p h y s i c s is i n c o ­
h eren t.
A s I h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , th e f a c t th a t P l a t o g o e s on, in th e
s u b s e q u e n t r e f u t a t i o n of T h e a e te tu s * s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y of k n o w l*
t
ed g e , to s p e a k of s e n s e q u a l i t i e s a s h a v in g Oo^Tio. sho w s th a t he
e v id e n tly d r e w th is m o r a l f r o m h is e a r l i e r a r g u m e n t .
I s h a l l n ot d i s ­
c u s s th e p o s s i b l e w a y s in w h ic h th is c o n f l ic t b e tw e e n th e T h e a e t e t u s a n d
th e T i m a e u s m i g h t be t a k e n a c c o u n t of, n o r s h a l l I a t t e m p t to t r a c e e v i ­
d e n c e s in l a t e r d i a l o g u e s , s u c h a s S o p h is t a n d P h i l e b u s , of th e s a m e
c o n f lic t.
It is enough to h a v e s h o w n , a s I th in k I h a v e show n, t h a t t h e
c o n f lic t is r e a l l y t h e r e a n d c a n n o t be w is h e d aw a y a s c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n ­
a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s th in k it c a n .
C H A P T E R IV
T H E R E FU T A T IO N O F T H E S E N S E -P E R C E P T IO N
T H E O R Y O F K N O W L E D G E (1 8 4 b -1 8 6 e )
H a v in g sh o w n t h a t th e e q u a t io n of k n o w le d g e w i t h p e r c e p t i o n c a n ­
not b e d e f e n d e d
^cxTcx
to o
'c r a v T a
kiv<>?<r6 m
^eG o^Tov'
(183c 2 - 3 ) , P l a t o t u r n s a t l a s t t o c o n s i d e r th e m e r i t s of th e e q u a tio n in
i t s p u r e s t a t e , w ith o u t a d m i x t u r e of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m .
The co n clu sio n
of h is a r g u m e n t (186e 9 - 1 0 ) l e a v e s no d o u b t t h a t in h is v ie w p e r c e p t i o n ,
w i th o r w ith o u t th e a i d of H e r a c l e i t e a n m e t a p h y s i c s , c a n n o t b e e q u a t e d
w it h k n o w le d g e .# B u t in th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e a r g u m e n t by w h ic h he
r e a c h e s th is c o n c l u s i o n , a s w e h a v e s e e n is a l s o th e c a s e in t h e i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n of h is r e f u t a t i o n of H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i t s e l f , t h e r e a r e e n o r ­
m o u s l y w id e d i v e r g e n c e s of o p in io n . *
S o m e th in k t h a t P l a t o in e f f e c t a p p e a l s to th e e x i s t e n c e of c e r ­
ta i n th in g s w h ic h a r e not o b j e c t s of p e r c e p t i o n b ut w h ic h w e a r e n e v e r ­
t h e l e s s a c q u a i n t e d w ith .
T h e s e he c a l l s
or "com m on te r m s ,"
in s t a n c i n g e x i s t e n c e , n o n - e x i s t e n c e , s i m i l a r i t y , d i s s i m i l a r i t y , s a m e ­
n e s s , d i f f e r e n c e , n u m b e r (185c 9 ff. ), h o n o r a b l e , d i s g r a c e f u l , good,
a n d b a d (186a 8 ).
A c c o r d i n g to t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s he t h e n a r g u e s th a t
2 >
^
the sou l in and by i t s e l f c o n t e m p la t e s ((5- Tr
O TT^ i
185e 2) t h e s e
o b j e c t s , s i n c e , b e in g c o m m o n to a l l t h i n g s , th e y a r e n o t th e o b j e c t s of
any of th e s p e c i a l s e n s e s of s i g h t , h e a r i n g , a n d th e l i k e .
E a c h of th e
s e n s e s a c q u a i n t s us w ith i t s p r o p e r o b j e c t s (th e s o - c a l l e d " i n t e r n a l
119
o b j e c t s " ) , but w ith n o th in g e l s e , and a n y th in g w h ic h w e a r e not a c q u a i n t e d
w ith t h r o u g h s o m e one of th e s p e c i a l s e n s e s d o e s n o t c o m e to us th r o u g h
th e s e n s e s a t a l l .
Now, a s one of th e c o m m o n o b j e c t s w h ic h th e so u l
c o n t e m p l a t e s a l l by i t s e l f a n d no t t h r o u g h an y of th e s e n s e s is Oo<rw\
( e x i s t e n c e ) , i t f o llo w s not only t h a t s o m e th in g s w e a r e a c q u a i n t e d w ith
a r e not know n by s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n but e v e n t h a t n on e of w h a t is c o n ­
v e y e d to u s t h r o u g h th e s e n s e s is in i t s e l f k n o w le d g e .
F o r (cf. 152c 5,
186c 7 ff. ) t h e r e c a n n o t be k n o w le d g e o r e v e n t r u t h w h e r e o 0 Cl '<k
is
n ot a t t a i n e d t o - - 0 6 x~((K b e in g now u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n " p e r m a n e n t ,
p u r e , r e a l l y r e a l e x i s t e n c e , " a n d no t j u s t e x i s t e n c e . B ut a s P l a t o h a s
> /
sho w n O o <r ia i s n ot c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h any of th e s e n s e s but is r a t h e r
g r a s p e d by th e so u l in i ts a c t i v i t y in d e p e n d e n t of th e body.
T h erefore
no s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a m o u n t s to k n o w le d g e .
M u c h in t h i s t r a i n of r e a s o n i n g is o b s c u r e and c o u ld be q u e s ­
tio n e d ; b u t a t a n y r a t e t h e o u tlin e of th e a r g u m e n t is t o l e r a b l y c l e a r .
A c c o r d i n g to t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s P la to * s a r g u m e n t m o v e s in two s t a g e s .
f
(1 ) W e a r e a c q u a i n t e d w it h th e R oiv/fi.
by s o m e fa c u lt y o t h e r th a n
s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n ; bu t (2 ) s i n c e one of th e K o i s
o\)<r((k a n d t h e r e
> /
is no k n o w le d g e w h e r e o u ^ k k is no t a t t a i n e d to, it is in th e e x e r c i s e
of t h e f a c u l t y w h ic h a p p r e h e n d s a n d c o n t e m p l a t e s th e KOi'JcC
th a t
k n o w le d g e c o n s i s t s .
T h o s e w h o r e a d th e a r g u m e n t in t h i s w ay s o m e t i m e s go on to
p o in t o u t t h a t in c o n c lu d in g th u s t h a t no s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n c o n v e y s k n o w l ­
edge P l a t o is a s s i g n i n g to th e s e n s e s j u s t th e s a m e r o l e a s t h a t w h ic h in
th e R e p u b lic (522e 5 -5 2 4 d 6) th e y p la y in th e p r o c e s s of a c q u i r i n g
120
k n o w le d g e . ^ In th e R e p u b l i c , it w ill be r e c a l l e d , P l a t o d i s t i n g u i s h e s
b e tw e e n t h o s e s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t do n ot c a l l upo n th e f a c u lt y of
i n t u i t i o n ( 'J o ^ T i S )
to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m , s i n c e th e y a r e j u d g e d a d e ­
q u a t e l y by th e s e n s e s , a n d t h o s e w h ic h do c a l l upon V o y\<r\S
for
i n s p e c t i o n a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s i n c e th e s e n s e s t h e m s e l v e s in t h e s e
c a s e s p r o d u c e n o th in g t r u s t w o r t h y .
T h e u n s o u n d p e r c e p t i o n s h e r e in
q u e s t i o n a r e t h o s e w h i c h e v e n w h i l e r e p o r t i n g one s e n s e q u a l ity to th e
s o u l a t t h e s a m e t i m e r e p o r t th e c o n t r a d i c t o r y s e n s a t i o n (523b 9 - c 4).
O ne e x a m p l e P l a t o g iv e s (524a 1 - 4 ) is th e p e r c e p t i o n of h a r d n e s s ; in
th i s c a s e , he s a y s , t h e s e n s e of to u c h r e p o r t s to t h e s o u l t h a t " t h e
s a m e th in g i s b o th h a r d a n d s o f t w h e n it p e r c e i v e s i t . "
P l a t o ' s p o in t i s
t h a t t h e s e n s e s p l a y th e r o l e of s t i m u l a t i n g , by t h e i r c o n f u s io n a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s , th e f a c u l ty of v o ' v ^ i s
in to o p e r a t i o n ; a n d w h a t
d o e s i s to t u r n th e s o u l ' s g a z e a w a y f r o m s e n s e - p a r t i c u l a r s , w h ic h a r e
i n a d e q u a t e a n d c o n f u s e d i n s t a n c e s of l a r g e n e s s o r s m a l l n e s s o r s o f t ­
n e s s o r o n e n e s s , a n d t o w a r d ( i n t e l l i g i b l e ) o b je c ts w h ic h a r e c l e a r a n d
a d e q u a t e i n s t a n c e s of t h e s e c o n c e p t s .
In t u r n i n g t o w a r d th e i n t e l l i g i b l e
w o r l d th e s o u l i s th e n e n a b le d to g iv e a n a n s w e r to th e q u e s t i o n w h a t i s
t h e l a r g e , th e h a r d , t h e s o f t, e tc . , w h ic h r e f l e c t i o n on o u r s e n s e p e r ­
c e p t i o n s n a t u r a l l y m a k e s us a s k , b u t w h ic h w e a r e u n a b le to a n s w e r s o
lon g a s w e r e l y on t h e r e p o r t s of s e n s e a lo n e (524c 1 0 -1 1 ).
A nd in t h u s
b e c o m i n g a c q u a i n t e d w i th i n t e l l i g i b l e o b j e c t s th e s o u l i s e x e r c i s i n g i n t e l ­
l i g e n c e a n d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a c q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e .
In th e T h e a e t e t u s , i t
is a l l e g e d , th e s e n s e s p e r f o r m t h i s s a m e p r e l i m i n a r y a n d s t i m u l a t i v e
f u n c tio n , w h i le k n o w le d g e is l o c a t e d e n t i r e l y in t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n of
1Z1
i n t e l l i g i b l e o b j e c t s - - oO<3M
s a m e n e s s , a n d th e r e s t - - j u s t a s in th e
R e p u b lic k n o w le d g e c o n s i s t s in th e c o n t e m p l a t i o n of th e i n t e l l i g i b l e i n ­
s t a n c e s of l a r g e n e s s , s m a l l n e s s , o n e n e s s , a n d o t h e r s u c h o b j e c t s .
T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , f a v o r e d by C h e r n i s s a n d C o r n f o r d , an d
in d e e d m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s , h a s , a n d is in te n d e d to h a v e , th e v i r t u e of
m a k in g P l a t o 1s o b j e c t i o n s to p e r c e p t i o n a s a s o u r c e of k n o w le d g e i s s u e ,
a t a l l s t a g e s of h is m a t u r i t y , f r o m a s in g le h a r m o n i o u s t h e o r y of k n o w l ­
ed g e .
B u t w h a t e v e r t h e u l t i m a t e t r u t h a b o u t P l a t o 1s p h ilo s o p h i c a l d e ­
v e l o p m e n t o r l a c k of it, I th in k it c a n be sho w n t h a t in t h e i r z e a l to
p r o v e th e c o n s i s t e n c y of th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t s e n s e p e r ­
c e p tio n w it h th e R e p u b l i c 1s t w o - w o r l d onto lo g y a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y , th e
i n t e r p r e t e r s w h o s e v ie w s I h a v e j u s t b e e n e x p ou nd in g h a v e f a i le d to
u n d e r s t a n d th e d i r e c t i o n a n d f o r c e of th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e f u t a tio n .
The
a r g u m e n t of th e T h e a e t e t u s i s n o t a r e - r u n of R e p u b lic VII: it d o e s not
a s s i g n to p e r c e p t i o n t h e s a m e r o l e a s t h e R e p u b lic d o e s , a n d it d o e s
not r e s t r i c t k n o w le d g e to a n i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r l d a s th e R e p ublic (in th e
p a ssa g e co n sid ered ) does.
T h e a s s e r t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s th a t s e n s e
p e r c e p t i o n c a n n o t b e k n o w le d g e b e c a u s e it d o e s not a t t a i n to 0
a n d t r u t h is not t a n t a m o u n t to s a y i n g t h a t th e o b j e c t s of s e n s e p e r c e p ­
tio n do no t h a v e o o < riV
a n d a r e n ot " u n c h a n g in g l y r e a l " but a lw a y s
b e c o m i n g a n d a l w a y s c h a n g in g .
4
t
E v e n if th e K o i va.
a r e F o r m s , th is
a r g u m e n t in th e T h e a e t e t u s d o e s not r e s t r i c t k n o w le d g e to th e c o n t e m ­
p l a ti o n of t h e m a n d th in g s li k e t h e m .
B e f o r e b e g in n in g th e e x a m i n a t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r g u m e n t ,
h o w e v e r , i t w i ll be u s e f u l to r e c a l l th e s t a t e of t h e a r g u m e n t of t h e
122
d i a lo g u e a s a w h o le a t th e p o in t w h e r e th e fi n a l r e f u t a t i o n i s g iv e n .
As
I have a rg u e d above, P la to has a lre a d y refu ted H e ra c le ite a n is m ,
w h e t h e r it i s ta k e n in a n u n r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e , a s d e n y in g s t a b i l i t y to
a n y t h in g , o r in t h e r e s t r i c t e d v e r s i o n w h ic h h o ld s m e r e l y t h a t n o th in g
in th e w o r l d of s e n s e h a s any s t a b i l i t y .
H e n c e th e a r g u m e n t of 1 8 4 - 1 8 6
is t o t a l l y d i s e n g a g e d f r o m th e flux t h e o r y , a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r , f r o m th e
t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n a l l e g e d l y c o n s t r u c t e d on H e r a c l e i t e a n p r i n c i p l e s .
W e m a y n o t a s s u m e a n y p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n a t a ll; o nly
w h a t e v e r i s n e e d e d in o r d e r to m a k e T h e a e t e t u s 1 o r i g i n a l e q u a tio n of
s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n w ith k n o w le d g e (151 e ) a p l a u s i b l e d e f i n i t i o n c a n c o r ­
r e c tly be even p ro v isio n ally a ss u m e d .
It is f a i r , th e n , to a s s u m e tw o
things about p e rc e p tio n and p e rc e p tu a l ju d g m en ts:
(1 ) j u d g m e n t s of p e r ­
c e p t i o n a r e b e in g ta k e n to b e i r r e f u t a b l e by a p p e a l to a n y o t h e r p e r s o n ' s
e x p e r i e n c e s o r j u d g m e n t s , a n d (2 ) a p e r c e p t i o n is s o m e t h i n g p r i v a t e to
a sin g le p e rc ip ie n t.
T h e s e c l a i m s h a v e u n d e r l a i n t h e w h o le p r e c e d i n g
d i s c u s s i o n , a n d to m a i n t a i n t h e m it i s n ot n e c e s s a r y to a c c e p t e i t h e r
P ro ta g o re a n ism or H e racleitean ism .
E v id e n t ly in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t
p e r c e p t i o n i s k n o w le d g e T h e a e t e t u s w o u ld w i s h to d e fe n d t h e s e tw o
p ro p o sitio n s.
P l a t o ' s r e f u t a t i o n , a s I c o n s t r u e i t , g r a n t s h im t h e s e
tw o c l a i m s b u t s t i l l r e f u s e s to a llo w t h a t w h a t one a p p r e h e n d s by m e a n s
of p e r c e p t i o n a lo n e is e v e r a c a s e of k n o w le d g e , and e v e n g o e s so f a r
a s to d e n y t h a t p e r c e p t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e e v e r t r u e .
He b e g in s h is a r g u m e n t by in t r o d u c i n g th e n o tio n of e l e m e n t a r y
se n se percep tio n .
If th e c l a i m of p e r c e p t i o n to be k n o w le d g e i s to be
t e s t e d it i s e s s e n t i a l to h a v e a s t e s t c a s e s i n s t a n c e s of p u r e p e r c e p t i o n
123
a n d not h y b r id s w h e r e not only p e r c e p t i o n but a l s o o t h e r f a c u l t i e s of
s o u l a r e c o m b in e d .
T o show th a t s u c h a h y b r id w a s o r w a s not a c a s e
of k n o w le d g e w o u ld l e a v e in do ubt th e f u n d a m e n ta l q u e s t i o n a b o u t th e
s t a t u s of p e r c e p t i o n , ta k e n in i t s e l f .
T h e f i r s t th in g P l a t o d o e s , t h e r e ­
f o r e , is to i n d i c a t e w h a t, s p e a k in g q u it e s t r i c t l y , a r e p u r e r e p o r t s of
p e r c e p t i o n (184b 4 - 185a 3).
He th e n c o n t r a s t s c e r t a i n ty p e s of j u d g ­
m e n t w h ic h , e v e n th o u g h th e y a r e j u d g m e n t s a b o u t th e o b je c t s of p e r ­
c e p tio n , a r e n o t m a d e m e r e l y on th e b a s i s of p e r c e p t i o n of t h e m
(185a 3 - e 2) a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t p e r c e p t u a l r e p o r t s .
A fter a b rie f
r e c a p i t u l a t i o n (185e 3 - 186c 6) of th e d i s t i n c t i o n a n d c o n t r a s t w h ic h h a s
j u s t b e e n d r a w n , he g o e s on to a r g u e (186c 7 - e 10) th a t, s i n c e j u d g ­
m e n t s w ie ld in g th e c o n c e p t of e x i s t e n c e (ju d g m e n ts a s s e r t i n g th e e x i s t ­
e n c e o r n o n - e x i s t e n c e of s o m e t h in g ) b e lo n g to th e s e c o n d , an d n e v e r to
th e f i r s t , g ro u p , a n d s i n c e t h e r e c a n n o t be k n o w le d g e o r even t r u t h
w h e r e t h e r e is not e x i s t e n c e , ju d g m e n t s of th e s e c o n d g r o u p c o n ta in a l l
o u r k n o w le d g e , and p u r e l y p e r c e p t u a l r e p o r t s n e v e r e x p r e s s k n o w le d g e
a t a ll.
T h e f i r s t s t a g e of th e a r g u m e n t is i n t r o d u c e d by th e p r e l i m i n a r y
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n th e s o u l a n d i t s s e n s e - f a c u l t i e s .
The d istin ctio n
b e tw e e n th e o r g a n s a n d f a c u l t i e s of s e n s e a n d th e m a n o r th e s o u l w h ic h
h a s t h e m w a s n o t ta k e n n o ti c e of e a r l i e r in th e t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n
p r o p o u n d e d by th e H e r a c l e i t e a n s (1 5 6 -1 5 7 ), a n d its in t r o d u c t i o n h e r e
m a k e s p o s s i b l e th e i s o l a t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n f r o m o t h e r f u n c tio n s of th e
so u l w h ic h P l a t o i s a n x io u s to e f fe c t.
T h e e y e s a n d e a r s a r e in f a c t th e
o r g a n s t h r o u g h w h ic h p e r c e p t i b l e th in g s r e a c h th e so u l; it is by m e a n s
124
of th e s o u l t h a t m e n a r e a b l e to p e r c e i v e , an d n o t, a s it w e r e , d i r e c t l y
by m e a n s of th e o r g a n s a n d th e in d iv id u a l s e n s e f a c u l t i e s .
Our p e rc e p ­
tio n s a r e a l l r e p o r t e d , so to s p e a k , to a s in g l e a g e n c y w h ic h t a k e s c o g ­
n i z a n c e not only of c o l o r s , b ut a l s o of s o u n d s , t a s t e s , s m e l l s , a n d
tactile sen satio n s.
E a c h s e n s e f a c u lty , h o w e v e r , is in v o lv e d in r e p o r t s
of only on e c l a s s of p e r c e p t i b l e s :
by h e a r i n g , a n d so on.
c o l o r s a r e r e p o r t e d by s i g h t, s o u n d s
But a b o u t i ts p e c u l i a r o b j e c t s e a c h s e n s e is
u n iq u e ly q u a li f i e d to ju d g e ; w h a t is p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h s ig h t c a n n o t a l s o
be p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h h e a r i n g , f o r e x a m p l e .
W henever, th e re fo re , a
s in g le e l e m e n t a r y s e n s e q u a l i t y is b e in g r e p o r t e d to th e s o u l t h e only
f a c u lty of s o u l w h ic h is e m p l o y e d is t h e one s e n s e f a c u lty to w h i c h th e
q u a lity p e c u l i a r l y b e lo n g s .
It i s only i n s u c h c a s e s t h a t p e r c e p t i o n c a n
be s e e n in i s o l a t i o n f r o m o t h e r f a c u l t i e s of s o u l, a n d a c c o r d i n g l y th e
q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r p e r c e p t i o n is k n o w le d g e r e d u c e s to t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r
th e s e n s i n g of p e c u l i a r s e n s i b l e s is a c a s e of k n o w le d g e .
Now i t fo llo w s f r o m th e f a c t t h a t e a c h s e n s e fa c u l ty is r e s t r i c t e d
to r e p o r t i n g to th e s o u l s e n s e q u a l i t i e s p e c u l i a r to i t t h a t if th e s o u l in
a s i n g l e a c t e v e r a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f to o b j e c t s p e c u l i a r to tw o s e n s e s t h e n
it i s e n g a g e d n o t m e r e l y in p e r c e i v i n g th e m but in s o m e f u r t h e r m e n t a l
op eratio n .
F o r if it w e r e m e r e l y p e r c e i v i n g it w o u ld h a v e to b e e m p l o y ­
ing s o m e o ne s e n s e f a c u lty ; but a s w e h a v e s e e n no s e n s e f a c u l t y h a s
an y c a p a c i t y to r e p o r t o b j e c t s of any o t h e r s e n s e .
H ence o p eratio n s
in v o lv in g a t o n c e two d i s p a r a t e s e n s e o b j e c t s n e c e s s a r i l y go b e y o n d
p u re p e rc e p tio n .
P l a t o g iv e s th e e x a m p l e of th e s o u l th in k in g s o m e ­
th in g a b o u t two d i f f e r e n t s e n s e q u a l i t i e s (185a): i t c a n n o t th e n b e m e r e l y
125
p e r c e i v i n g s o m e th in g a b o u t t h e m .
And t h e r e r e a l l y a r e , T h e a e t e t u s
a g r e e s (185a 1 0 ), a c t i o n s of th e so u l in w h ic h it d o e s c o n s i d e r t o g e t h e r
tw o d i s p a r a t e s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s , a s w h e n i t t h in k s a n d ju d g e s a b o u t so u n d
a n d c o l o r t h a t th e y b o th e x i s t ( O H
€-Q*ToV^.
L ik ew ise
on e c a n th in k t h a t s o u n d a n d c o l o r a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m one a n o t h e r , t h a t
e a c h of th e m is i d e n t i c a l w it h i t s e l f , t h a t th e y a r e li k e o r u n lik e one
a n o t h e r , th a t t o g e t h e r th e y a r e two a n d s e p a r a t e l y e a c h is one:
in a l l
t h e s e c a s e s th e s o u l c o n c e r n s i t s e l f a t o n c e a b o u t o b j e c t s of two s e n s e s ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e no ne of t h e m i s a p e r c e p t u a l ju d g m e n t.
T h e y a r e a l l in f a c t , a s P l a t o g o e s on to a r g u e (185b 7 -1 8 6 c 5),
ju d g m e n t s r e n d e r e d by th e s o u l by h e r own a g e n c y a n d w ith o u t th e m e d i ­
u m of any s e n s e f a c u lty o r a n y s p e c i a l o r g a n .
In ju d g in g t h a t s o m e th in g
e x i s t s o r is i d e n t i c a l w ith i t s e l f , th e s o u l i s no t p e r c e i v i n g a n y th in g but
r a t h e r c o m p a r i n g , r e a s o n i n g , ju d g in g , a n d c o n c lu d in g s o m e th i n g a b o u t
w h a t th e s e n s e s h a v e r e p o r t e d .
Now it is i m p o r t a n t to s e e th a t th is is_
w h a t P l a t o is s a y in g in th is p a s s a g e a b o u t th e soul*s r e l a t i o n to th e
11 c o m m o n t e r m s " e x i s t e n c e , s a m e n e s s , d i f f e r e n c e , e tc .
F o r th o u g h
h i s p o in t h e r e c o n c e r n s w h a t t h e s o u l is doing w h e n it a p p l i e s t h e s e
c o n c e p t s to th e o b je c ts of p e r c e p t i o n , c o m m e n t a t o r s u s u a l l y ta k e th e
a r g u m e n t to t u r n , r a t h e r , on how th e s o u l b e c o m e s a c q u a i n t e d w ith th e
c o m m o n n o tio n s .
A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of th e p a s s a g e 185b 7 - e 2 w ill
show b e yon d q u e s t i o n t h a t t h i s p o p u l a r c o n c e p t io n is in e r r o r .
But b e f o r e t u r n i n g to th is a n a l y s i s , it w ill be u s e f u l to c o n s i d e r
m o r e c l o s e l y w h a t th e n a t u r e of th e d i s t i n c t i o n is w h ic h P l a t o h a s b e e n
d r a w in g b e tw e e n p e r c e p t i o n a n d th e a c t i v i t y of th e so u l in w h ic h it
126
r e a s o n s , by i t s e l f a n d not t h r o u g h th e m e d i u m of a s e n s e , a b o u t th e
q u a l i t i e s r e p o r t e d to i t by th e s e n s e s .
T h e d i s t i n c t i o n is s o m e t i m e s
ta k e n to b e s i m p l y t h a t b e t w e e n s e n s a t i o n a n d ju d g m e n t; P l a t o is th o u g h t
h e r e to h a v e r e s t r i c t e d p e r c e p t i o n , s t r i c t l y c o n c e iv e d , to s e n s a t i o n w i t h ­
out ju d g m e n t . ^ J u d g m e n t is t h e p r o v i n c e of th e s o u l, th e c e n t r a l f a c u l t y
to w h ic h s e n s o r y r e p o r t s a r e m a d e , a n d th o u g h in f o r m u l a t i n g j u d g ­
m e n t s th e s o u l o p e r a t e s u po n th e d a t a of s e n s e no j u d g m e n t is e v e r
s i m p l y a m a t t e r of s e n s a t i o n (and t h e r e f o r e of p e r c e p t i o n ) .
Now t h o u g h
t h e r e a r e g r o u n d s f o r th in k in g t h a t t h i s i s P l a t o 1s m e a n i n g , ^ I th in k i t i s
do u b tfu l w h e t h e r t h i s is th e m a i n p o in t he h a s in m i n d .
The d istin ctio n
b e tw e e n s e n s a t i o n a n d j u d g m e n t i s p r e s u m a b l y j u s t t h a t th e f o r m e r i s
no t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e f o r m u l a t i o n of s t a t e m e n t s , bu t m e r e l y , a s it
w e r e , p r o v i d e s ( s o m e of) th e r a w m a t e r i a l f o r s t a t e m e n t s , w h ic h i t is
th e n th e t a s k of th e s o u l to c o n s t r u c t by o p e r a t i n g w ith o u t th e a i d of a n y
organ.
If so , th e n , a lth o u g h P l a t o d o e s a p p a r e n t l y d is q u a li f y p e r c e p t i o n
f r o m m a k i n g j u d g m e n t s , th is i s n o t h is m a i n c o n c e r n .
P l a t o s e e m s w illin g to g r a n t t h a t e l e m e n t a r y p e r c e p t u a l r e p o r t s - r e p o r t s of s e n s a t i o n s of h e a t , p a r t i c u l a r c o l o r s , s o u n d s , a n d t h e l i k e - a r e c a r r i e d o ut w ith o u t c a l l i n g in t o p la y any h i g h e r f a c u l ty of th e s o u l
th a n s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f :
a n d th o u g h th e r e p o r t of t h e p r e s e n c e of a
c e r t a i n c o l o r , s a y r e d , in o n e f s v i s u a l f i e l d n e e d n o t t a k e th e f o r m of a
s t a t e m e n t , I th i n k th e c o n t r a s t P l a t o m e a n s to b e i n d i c a t i n g b e t w e e n p e r ­
c e p t io n an d th o u g h t i s no t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f f e c t e d if one th in k s of p e r c e p ­
tual r e p o r ts a s m in im a l ju d g m e n ts.
He e v id e n tly d o e s n o t th in k t h a t in
o r d e r to a p p ly a p e r c e p t u a l p r e d i c a t e l ik e " r e d " to s o m e e x p e r i e n c e
*7
127
one r e q u i r e s to e n g a g e th e f a c u lty of th o u g h t w h ic h is c a l l e d in to p la y
w h e n one m a k e s j u d g m e n t s of e x i s t e n c e , d i f f e r e n c e , s i m i l a r i t y , a n d
th e li k e .
In n a m in g a s e n s e - c o n t e n t " r e d , " o r a s s e r t i n g " I s e e m to be
s e e i n g s o m e t h i n g r e d , " th o u g h th e one is a s t a t e m e n t a n d th e o t h e r is
not, P l a t o s e e m s c o n te n t to r e f e r m e r e l y to s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n .
The
c o n t r a s t i n g c a s e , w h e r e r e a s o n i n g an d c o m p a r i s o n of th in g s w ith one
a n o t h e r (186a 1 0 - b 1, b 8 , c 2 - 3 ) a r e in v o k e d , c l e a r l y d o e s no t e n v is a g e
th e f a c u l ty of th o u g h t b e in g b r o u g h t in to p la y in o r d e r to l a b e l s e n s e c o n t e n t s r e d o r h a r d o r lou d.
T h u s th o u g h i t s e e m s e v id e n t t h a t in
a p p ly in g an y c o n c e p t - - r e d no l e s s th a n e x i s t e n c e - - s u c h f a c u l t i e s a s
m e m o r y , c o m p a r i s o n , a s s o c i a t i o n , e tc. , a r e in v o lv e d , th e m o s t i m ­
p o r t a n t th in g to n o t i c e a b o u t P l a t o ' s a r g u m e n t is t h a t he g r a n t s to s e n s e
p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f th e a b i l i t y to r e g i s t e r a nd l a b e l e l e m e n t a r y s e n s e c o n ­
t e n t s (i. e , s in g le c o l o r s , s m e l l s , s o u n d s , t a s t e s a n d s e n s a t i o n s of
w a r m th and re s is ta n c e ) .
P l a t o fs c o n t r a s t s e e m s t h e r e f o r e to be a
c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n m i n i m a l l y an d p u r e l y p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s , on th e
one h a n d , a n d j u d g m e n t s of a n o t h e r s o r t , on th e o t h e r , r a t h e r th a n
b e tw e e n s e n s a t i o n a n d j u d g m e n t s in g e n e r a l .
W h a t th e n d o e s th e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n p e r c e p t u a l r e p o r t s a n d
ju d g m e n t s of e x i s t e n c e , d i f f e r e n c e , an d th e r e s t c o m e to ?
F u rth er
e x p la n a tio n i s b e s t p u t off u n til w e h a v e e x a m i n e d th e p a s s a g e w h e r e
P l a t o a r g u e s t h a t t h e s e o t h e r j u d g m e n t s a r e n ot a n d c a n n o t be m e r e
percep tu al re p o rts .
H e h a s a l r e a d y o b ta in e d T h e a e t e t u s 1 a d m i s s i o n
t h a t w e n ot only n o t i c e c o l o r s a n d t a s t e s an d th e l i k e b ut a l s o m a k e
ju d g m e n t s a b o u t th e e x i s t e n c e of so u n d s a n d c o l o r s .
H e n e x t (185b 7-
128
186c 5) a s k s how t h e s e ju d g m e n t s a r e m a d e .
S in c e th e y do no t l i e
w it h in th e p r o v i n c e of an y of th e s p e c i a l s e n s e s , t h r o u g h w h a t f a c u l ty ,
if an y , a r e th e y m a d e ?
H is a n s w e r , b r i e f l y put, is t h a t t h e r e is no
s e n s e f a c u l ty a n d no s p e c i a l o r g a n t h r o u g h w h ic h w e p e r c e i v e t h a t a
th in g is i d e n t i c a l w ith i t s e l f , o r t h a t it e x i s t s , e tc . , but t h e s e j u d g m e n t s
a r e m a d e by th e s o u l i t s e l f w ith o u t th e m e d i a t i o n of any s e n s e .
It is
v e r y i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , to s e e c l e a r l y t h a t t h i s a n d only th is is w h a t
P l a t o is s a y in g in th is p a s s a g e .
C o m m e n ta to rs, as I have a lre a d y
r e m a r k e d , m a k e i t a p p e a r t h a t he is d i s c u s s i n g th e m o d e of o u r a c q u i ­
s i t i o n of t h e c o n c e p t s of e x i s t e n c e , id e n t i t y , e tc . , a n d of o u r k n o w le d g e
of th e e n t i t i e s E x i s t e n c e a n d I d e n t ity , but th e y a r e a b l e to do so only by
t r a n s l a t i n g t h e s e c o n c e r n s in to P la to * s te x t , w h e r e th e y d e m o n s t r a b l y
do not b e lo n g .
T h e p a s s a g e o p e n s a t 185b 7 w ith th e q u e s t i o n , " T h r o u g h w h a t
do you th in k a l l t h e s e Li- e. , th e s o - c a l l e d c o m m o n a t t r i b u t e s ] a b o u t
t h e m Lviz. , a b o u t s o u n d a n d c o l o r ] ? "
A s he g o e s on to e x p la in , he h a s
in m i n d t h a t if you p e r c e i v e t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s r e d , o r s w e e t - f l a v o r e d ,
you p e r c e i v e t h e s e th in g s t h r o u g h th e m e d i u m of a s e n s e a n d a s e n s e o r g a n ; a n d he w a n ts to know w h e t h e r one p e r c e i v e s so m e th in g * s e x i s t ­
e n c e o r s e l f - i d e n t i t y o r u n ity t h r o u g h a n y a n a lo g o u s o r g a n .
At c 7-8,
h a v in g p r o f f e r e d th i s e x p l a n a t i o n of h is q u e s t i o n he r e p e a t s it:
.
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o r g a n s do y ou a s s i g n f o r a l l of t h e s e , t h r o u g h w h ic h o u r s e n s e - p e r c e p tory p a rt p e rc e iv e s th e m ? " )
Now it i s h e r e t h a t c o m m e n t a t o r s b e g in
129
to t r a n s l a t e an d c o m m e n t a s if w h a t w e r e in q u e s tio n w a s , n How do w e
b e c o m e a c q u a in te d w i th th e e n t i t i e s E x i s t e n c e , I d e n tity , U nity, e t c . ? "
But it is e v id e n t th a t th e q u e s t i o n in P l a t o fs te x t m e r e l y r e s t a t e s th e
q u e s t i o n a t b 7 a n d th a t t h e r e f o r e n o th in g is s a id a b o u t o u r b e c o m in g
a c q u a i n t e d w ith E x i s t e n c e , but r a t h e r a b o u t o u r p e r c e i v i n g o r ju d g in g
a b o u t th e e x i s t e n c e of a th in g o r q u a lity .
T h is is o v e r lo o k e d only b e \
c a u s e th e r e s t a t e m e n t o m i t s th e p h r a s e
,
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w h ic h w o u ld
m a k e i t c l e a r t h a t it is n o t a q u e s t i o n of b e c o m in g a c q u a in te d w ith th e
g
m e a n i n g s of t h e s e c o m m o n t e r m s , but r a t h e r one of p e r c e i v i n g o r
ju d g in g t h a t th e y do o r do not a p p ly to s o m e th in g .
* c l a u s e is to be u n d e r s t o o d w ith th e r e s t a t e m e n t
T h a t th e
a t c 7 -8 is m a d e c e r t a i n by T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e p ly :
th e "TT^i
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he a d d s in his a n s w e r
(d 1) w h ic h w a s only i m p l i c i t in th e q u e s tio n .
But
he th e n go es on to o m i t th e p h r a s e , in th e s a m e i d i o m a t i c w ay, l a t e r in
h is r e p l y w h e n he in t u r n r e f o r m u l a t e s th e q u e s tio n :
TTorcr
(d 3 - 4 ) .
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p h ra se and m i s ­
u n d e r s t a n d T h e a e t e t u s to be a s k i n g h i m s e l f w h e t h e r w e b e c o m e a c ­
q u a i n t e d w it h E x i s t e n c e a n d th e r e s t , in t h e m s e l v e s , th r o u g h a ny a g e n c y
of t h e body.
C o r n f o r d c o m p o u n d s th is e r r o r by m i s c o n s t r u i n g in
T h e a e t e t u s 1 s u b s e q u e n t a n s w e r (d 7 - e 2 ) th e f o r c e of th e p h r a s e
TT(XVT^v w h ic h T h e a e t e t u s a g a i n r e i m p o r t s .
TTfc^ 1
T h eaetetu s sa y s, "T h e
s o u l i t s e l f t h r o u g h i t s e l f , a s it a p p e a r s to m e , e x a m i n e s f o r e v e r y o b ­
j e c t Lwhether it p o s s e s s e s ] t h e s e c o m m o n a t t r i b u t e s "
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th in g , p r e s u m a b l y th in k in g th e p h r a s e a v a r i a t i o n of -po
TTa<ri
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fcoi \^Ov a b o v e (c 4 - 5 ) ; b ut e v e n if t h i s is p o s s i b l e G r e e k , w h ic h
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s e e m s d o ub tfu l, it is o b v io u s th a t
7 1
g r a m m a t i c a l l y p a r a l l e l to TT£(>i
ft^TOiv/
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TTavToJx/ 6 »» ‘<r k 0 ttg vv
O iaV o ^
is
in th e o r i g i n a l
s t a t e m e n t of th e q u e s t i o n (b 7). ^ O t h e r t r a n s l a t o r s (e. g. , D i e s ) t a k e
th e
TTav r w v w ith th e v e r b , a s by p o s i t i o n it w o u ld m o s t n a t u ­
r a l l y be c o n s t r u e d , but th e y h a v e no t, I th in k , s e e n th e c o n s e q u e n c e of
s o d oing .
T h e c o n s e q u e n c e , to r e p e a t , is t h a t T h e a e t e t u s s a y s n o th in g
a b o u t how w e b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h E x i s t e n c e a n d S a m e n e s s , b u t r a t h e r
t e l l s us th a t ju d g m e n t s of th e e x i s t e n c e a n d i d e n t ity of a s e n s e - q u a l i t y
a r e n o t m a d e by th e a g e n c y of an y s e n s e but by t h e s o u l w ith o u t th e a i d
of a n y o r g a n .
H av in g r e a c h e d t h i s c o n c l u s i o n P l a t o p a u s e s to c o n s o l i d a t e h is
p o s i t i o n by r u n n in g t h r o u g h t h e l i s t of < 0 w/d a n d o b ta in in g T h e a e t e t u s 1
a g r e e m e n t t h a t th e s o u l by i t s e l f m a k e s j u d g m e n t s a p p ly in g e a c h of
t h e s e to t h e o b je c t s of th e s e n s e s .
H e r e a g a i n t r a n s l a t o r s c o n f u s e th e
i s s u e by ta k in g P l a t o to be d i s c u s s i n g how w e a r r i v e a t o u r a c q u a i n t a n c e
w ith th e s e com m on en tities; and ag ain th e r e a r e v e ry c le a r sig n s th a t
n o th in g of th e s o r t is i n q u e s t i o n . ^
w h eth er
ov
a m o n g th e K o i v d
kcu
avT^ov
Thus w hen S o c ra te s in q u ire s
kcu
k^kov'
are
a b o u t w h ic h t h e s o u l ju d g e s a l l by i t s e l f , T h e a e t e t u s
r e p l i e s in th e a f f i r m a t i v e (186a 9 - b 1).
B u t he g o e s on to a d d t h a t w h e n
th e s o u l ju d g e s a b o u t t h e s e th in g s i t c a l c u l a t e s w i th in i t s e l f p a s t a n d
131
p r e s e n t e v e n ts a n d th in g s a g a i n s t f u t u r e o n e s .
Now th is is a p r e t t y
good b r i e f a c c o u n t of how one ju d g e s w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n o r
a c t i o n o r s i t u a t i o n is good o r b a d o r h o n o r a b l e o r d i s g r a c e f u l :
one
do e s h a v e to w e ig h p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a n d p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s in o r d e r
to g e t a r e a s o n a b l e j u d g m e n t a s to a p e r s o n ' s f u t u r e b e h a v i o r o r t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s of a n a c t i o n a n d so on.
B ut i t is s u r e l y p r e c i s e l y th e
w r o n g s o r t of th in g to do in o r d e r to b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w ith th e e x i s t ­
e n c e a n d n a t u r e of a P l a t o n i c F o r m .
C o n s i d e r a t i o n of p h e n o m e n a a n d
p h e n o m e n a l e v e n ts is n o t o r i o u s l y th e m a i n o b s t a c l e to b e c o m i n g a c ­
q u a i n t e d w ith t h e s e .
I t s e e m s c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , th a t S o c r a t e s a n d T h e ­
a e t e t u s a r e not d i s c u s s i n g th e q u e s t i o n how w e a r r i v e a t o u r k n o w le d g e
of th e F o r m s H o n o r a b l e n e s s , D i s g r a c e f u l n e s s , a n d th e lik e ; th e y a r e ,
r a t h e r , i n q u i r i n g how one g o e s a b o u t m a k i n g p a r t i c u l a r ju d g m e n t s a b o u t
th e g o o d n e s s o r b a d n e s s , e tc . , of p a r t i c u l a r th in g s .
T h a t th is is so i s p r o v e d by S o c r a t e s 1 f in a l r e m a r k in th e d i s c u s ­
s io n of th e k o i v a \ t h e r e (186b 1 1 - c 5) he c o n t r a s t s s i m p l e p e r c e p t u a l
j u d g m e n t s , w h ic h a c c o r d i n g to h im a n y on e c a n m a k e f r o m b i r t h on,
w i th r e a s o n i n g s a b o u t th e o o n V
ities.
and
£ i*
of t h e s e s e n s e - q u a l -
T h e a b i l i t y to e n g a g e in th e l a t t e r a c t i v i t y is only a c q u i r e d l a t e r
a n d w ith d if f ic u lty .
A g a in it is on ly too c l e a r th a t a c q u a i n t a n c e w i th
t h o u g h t - e n t i t i e s is no t th e p o in t a t i s s u e .
T h e c o n t r a s t is b e tw e e n tw o
s o r t s of ju d g m e n t s a b o u t s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s (and o t h e r s e n s e o b j e c t s ) , a n d
not one s o r t of ju d g m e n t a b o u t s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s a n d a n o t h e r s o r t a b o u t
som eth in g else. ^
W h a t e x a c tly a r e th e tw o s o r t s of j u d g m e n t r e f e r r e d to ?
The
132
p e r c e p t u a l s id e is p e r h a p s c l e a r enough, bu t w h a t d o e s P l a t o m e a n by
j u d g m e n t s w h e r e o iv a A o ^
Tft
a r e in v o lv e d ?
I th in k th e c o n t r a s t
he h a s in m i n d is t h a t b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v e r e p o r t s of p u r e l y p r i v a t e
e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o b j e c t i v e l y g r o u n d e d a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t th e e x i s t e n c e ,
p r o b a b l e e f f e c t s , m o r a l a n d e s t h e t i c p r o p e r t i e s , a n d th e l ik e , of t h e
q ualities p e rc e iv e d .
A ll of t h e s e a r e q u e s t i o n s w h e r e not m e r e l y th e
s u b j e c t ' s p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e is in q u e s t i o n :
th e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o p i n ­
io n s of o t h e r s a r e a l s o r e l e v a n t to th e t r u t h of w h a t is a s s e r t e d .
That
th i s i s th e c o n t r a s t is sh o w n , I th in k , by th e e v id e n t r e f e r e n c e ^ in
T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e p l y a t 186a 9 - b 1 to th e r e f u t a t i o n of P r o t a g o r a s , a n d in
t h e u s e to w h i c h S o c r a t e s p u ts T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e m a r k .
We h a v e a l r e a d y
s e e n how P r o t a g b r a s 1 c l a i m t h a t w h a t e v e r a n y one th in k s is t r u e w a s
refu ted :
w h e n e v e r w h a t a m a n th in k s i n v o lv e s p r e d i c t i o n o b j e c t i v e
s t a n d a r d s a r e i n t r o d u c e d w h ic h a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w ith th e c l a i m of u n i ­
v e r s a l t r u t h (1 7 8 a - 1 7 9 b ) .
H e re T h eaetetu s a n s w e rs S o c r a te s 1 q u e stio n
a b o u t how on e j u d g e s a b o u t th e h o n o r a b l e n e s s o r g o o d n e s s of s o m e t h i n g
by a g a i n a p p e a l i n g to t h e f a c t t h a t p r e d i c t i o n , w h ic h is in v o lv e d h e r e ,
r e q u i r e s r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t w h a t w i l l in f a c t t u r n out to be t h e c a s e ; th e
soul*s a c t i v i t y of r e f l e c t i o n by i t s e l f a n d w ith o u t t h e a id of s e n s e f a c u l ­
t i e s i s t h e r e f o r e c o n n e c t e d in th is c a s e w it h o b j e c t i v e s t a n d a r d s by
r e f e r e n c e to w h ic h th e j u d g m e n t s i t d e l i v e r s a r e to b e a s s e s s e d .
Soc­
r a t e s t a k e s up t h i s p o in t a n d l in k s t o g e t h e r ju d g m e n t s of e x i s t e n c e a n d
u s e f u l n e s s , in b o th of w h ic h th e s o u l d e l i v e r s j u d g m e n t s in d e p e n d e n t l y
of s e n s e f a c u l t i e s a n d m a k e s a s s e r t i o n s in v o lv in g a r e f e r e n c e to o b j e c ­
t iv e c o n d i t i o n s .
T o p e r c e i v e th e h a r d n e s s of s o m e t h i n g h a r d , he s a y s ,
133
in v o lv e s no m o r e th a n p e r c e p t i o n , a n d is t h e r e f o r e m e r e l y a s u b j e c t i v e
rep o rt.
But to ju d g e t h a t th e h a r d n e s s e x i s t s , t h a t t h e r e r e a l l y is
s o m e th in g h a r d to be p e r c e i v e d , r e q u i r e s th o u g h t b e c a u s e it r e q u i r e s
p r e d i c t i o n an d r e f e r e n c e to th e b e h a v i o r of s o m e t h i n g in a n o b j e c tiv e
w orld.
L i k e w i s e it is a n o b j e c tiv e f a c t, a n d not a m a t t e r of any o n e ’ s
i m p r e s s i o n s , t h a t h a r d a n d s o ft a r e c o n t r a r i e s , o r th a t the h a r d n e s s
you p e r c e i v e is t h e c o n t r a r y of th e s o f t n e s s y o u p e r c e i v e .
g e n e r a l , r e a s o n i n g s of th e so u l w ith r e s p e c t to o o C i a
And s o , in
an d
(186c 2 - 5 ) go b ey o n d s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a n d in v o lv e a r e f e r e n c e to o b j e c ­
t iv e c o n d it io n s , a n d t h i s is w hy e x p e r i e n c e a n d e d u c a tio n a r e r e q u i r e d
b e f o r e th e a b i l i t y to e n g a g e in t h e m is a c q u i r e d .
In s u m , t h e n , P l a t o i s a r g u i n g th a t i t is only in r e p o r t s of the
p r e s e n c e of th e e l e m e n t a r y s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s in o n e 's p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e
th a t th e s o u l f u n c tio n s w ith th e a id of th e s e n s e s w ith o u t a n y h i g h e r
f a c u lty ; a nd only h e r e is t r u e s u b j e c t i v i t y to be found.
A s so o n a s one
g o e s b e y o n d t h i s , a n d i n t r o d u c e s c o n c e p ts l ik e g o o d n e s s , id e n tity , d i f ­
f e r e n c e , and n u m b e r , o t h e r p o w e r s of th e s o u l a r e b r o u g h t in, a n d
w it h t h e m c o m e s r e a s o n i n g in v o lv in g a r e f e r e n c e to o b je c ti v e f a c t s ,
s t a n d a r d s , a nd c o n d i t i o n s .
F o r e m o s t a m o n g th e c o n c e p ts w h ic h th e
so u l a p p l i e s by th in k in g , a n d n o t m e r e l y by p e r c e i v i n g , is e x i s t e n c e ,
a n d in th e f in a l s t a g e of th e a r g u m e n t r e f u t i n g th e c l a i m of s e n s e p e r ­
c e p tio n to be k n o w le d g e th is f a c t is c r u c i a l .
As I r e m a r k e d above,
P l a t o a r g u e s t h a t n o t o nly is s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n not th e w h o le of k n o w l­
ed g e , it is n ot in a n y c a s e k n o w le d g e a t a l l.
H e a r g u e s t h i s (186c 7 - e 12) by r e a f f i r m i n g th a t k n o w le d g e m u s t
134
> /
h a v e oO<ri^
a n d t r u t h a s i t s c o n te n t, a n d sh ow in g, on th e b a s i s of h is
f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s of j u d g m e n t s in v o lv in g
tio n d o e s no t h a v e t h e s e f o r i t s c o n te n t.
th at s e n s e p e r c e p ­
To u n d e r s t a n d h is m e a n i n g a l l
w e n e e d do is a t t e n d c a r e f u l l y to th e a n a l y s i s j u s t p r o d u c e d of j u d g m e n t s
of e x i s t e n c e .
a rriv e at
W hen he s a y s t h a t s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n p e r s e i s u n a b le to
h e j u s t m e a n s t h a t s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n , b e in g th e p u r e l y
p r i v a t e r e c o r d i n g of p r i v a t e a n d f l e e t i n g s e n s e - c o n t e n t s , d o e s not ju d g e
o r a s s u m e a n y th in g a b o u t th e e x i s t e n c e in a n o b je c ti v e w o r l d of a n y of
th e th in g s it p e r c e i v e s .
By r e s t r i c t i n g i t s e l f to j u d g m e n t s of th e a p ­
p e a r a n c e s a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t to c o n s c i o u s n e s s it d e c l a r e s i t s e l f i n c o m p e ­
t e n t to d e c i d e a n y q u e s t i o n to w h i c h a n y one e l s e l s e x p e r i e n c e s o r o p i n ­
io n s h a v e an y r e l e v a n c e .
B u t by s o do ing it n e c e s s a r i l y f a i l s to m a k e
a ny o b j e c t i v e l y v a l i d j u d g m e n t s .
K n o w le d g e , h o w e v e r , is a lw a y s of
w h a t i£ th e c a s e , r e g a r d l e s s of w h o d i s c o v e r s o r th in k s t h a t it i s th e
case.
T h e re fo re p u rely p riv a te sen se re p o rts , how ever irre fu ta b le ,
do n ot c o n s t i t u t e k n o w le d g e a t a ll .
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t i c e t h a t P l a t o s a y s no t only t h a t s e n s e
r e p o r t s f a il to a t t a i n to oo<r / a
tru th .
b ut e v e n t h a t th e y f a il to a t t a i n to
He d o e s no t e x p la in t h i s r e m a r k , b ut it is p e r h a p s not i m p o s s i ­
b le , in li g h t of th e a r g u m e n t a s I h a v e c o n s t r u e d i t s o f a r , to v e n t u r e an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of h is m e a n i n g . I n a s m u c h a s he a s s o c i a t e s t r u t h a n d
j
/
0 0 <TI^( s a y i n g (186c 7) t h a t t h e r e c a n only b e t r u t h w h e r e t h e r e i s
o u f iV y
it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to c o n c lu d e t h a t he is r e s t r i c t i n g th e
c o n c e p t of t r u t h to a s s e r t i o n s of o b j e c t i v e f a c t.
He d o e s n ot m e a n t h a t
a l l p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s a r e f a l s e , but r a t h e r t h a t th e y a r e h a r d l y
135
e i t h e r t r u e o r f a l s e , s i n c e th e y do not m a k e an y o b je c tiv e a s s e r t i o n s .
S in c e e l e m e n t a r y s e n s e r e p o r t s c a n n o t be w r o n g , it is n ot c o r r e c t to
sa y th a t th e y a r e a lw a y s r ig h t , e i t h e r .
N o thing c a n be t r u e w h ic h
m i g h t no t a l s o h a v e b e e n f a l s e .
I said above
13
t h a t th e f a c t th a t P l a t o d e n i e s h e r e th a t in p e r ­
c e p t io n one c a n “ g r a s p t r u t h " is s o m e g ro u n d f o r ta k in g h is d i s t i n c t i o n
b e tw e e n p e r c e i v i n g , on th e one h and , a n d r e a s o n i n g , c o m p a r i n g , a n d
th in k in g , on th e o t h e r h an d, a s a c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n s e n s i n g a n d ju d g in g .
T o b e s e n s i b l y a f f e c t e d is not to a s s e r t a n y th in g , h e n c e not to a t t a i n
th e l e v e l of t r u t h a n d f a l s e h o o d a t a ll; t r u t h a n d f a ls e h o o d r e s i d e in th e
r e a s o n i n g s w e do on th e b a s i s of o u r s e n s a t i o n s .
T h is w o u ld im p ly th a t
th e ju d g m e n t t h a t s o m e t h i n g a p p e a r s to m e now g r e e n i n v o lv e s r e a s o n ­
ing ( c o m p a r i n g th is s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n w ith o t h e r s , f o r e x a m p le ) , a nd
I h a v e a l r e a d y in d i c a t e d t h a t th e s o r t of r e a s o n i n g to w h ic h P l a t o a p p e a l s
a s c o n t r a s t to s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n s e e m s to in v o lv e m o r e th a n th e m i n i m u m
r e q u i r e d f o r ju d g in g .
F o r th is r e a s o n I h a v e not i n t e r p r e t e d h is a r g u ­
m e n t a s a i m e d p r i m a r i l y a t u s in g th e s e n s i n g - j u d g i n g d i s t i n c t i o n to
r e f u t e th e c l a i m of p e r c e p t i o n to be k n o w led g e .
Now th a t I h a v e gone
t h r o u g h P la to * s a r g u m e n t a s a w h o le th is d e c i s i o n c a n be d e f e n d e d by
a p p e a l to a f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
If P la to * s r e j e c t i o n of th e c l a i m of p e r c e p t i o n to be k n o w le d g e
w e r e b a s e d on th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n s e n s i n g a n d ju d g in g his a r g u m e n t
w ou ld r u n a s f o llo w s :
P e r c e p t i o n c a n n o t be k n o w le d g e b e c a u s e , p r o p ­
e r l y c o n s t r u e d an d i s o l a t e d f r o m f a c t o r s of th e s o u l w h ic h a r e not p a r t
of p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f , p e r c e i v i n g is j u s t th e h a v in g of s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s ,
136
a nd h a v in g s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s is not e v e n th in k in g a n y th in g , m u c h l e s s
k now ing a n y th in g .
But h e r e w e m u s t a s k o u r s e l v e s w h a t h is o p p o n e n t,
h is k n u c k le s th u s r a p p e d , w o u ld be a b l e to r e p l y .
E v id e n tly a n y one
w ho c l a i m e d t h a t p e r c e i v i n g w a s k now ing w ou ld ha ve in m i n d , a s T h e ­
a e t e t u s c l e a r l y did ( 1 5 2 b - c ), t h a t w h a t a p p e a r s to s o m e one in p e r c e p ­
tio n is t r u e a n d is know n by h im to be t r u e :
in s h o r t , s u c h a t h e o r y
h o ld s t h a t s u c h u t t e r a n c e s a s " I t a p p e a r s to m e now th a t s o m e t h i n g
g r e e n is b e f o r e m e " a r e t r u e if s i n c e r e , a n d e x p r e s s k n o w le d g e .
But
P l a t o ' s r e f u t a t i o n , c o n s t r u e d a s i m p o r t i n g th e s e n s i n g - j u d g i n g d i s t i n c ­
tio n , n ot only d o e s n o t show th is to be f a l s e , but if a n y th in g i m p l i e s
t h a t he w o u ld a c c e p t it:
th e e x a m p l e j u s t c i t e d is a c a s e of j u d g m e n t ,
a n d it is in ju d g m e n t by c o n t r a s t to s e n s a t i o n t h a t k n o w le d g e is to be
found.
A ll h is a r g u m e n t s h o w s , t h e r e f o r e , is th a t a n y one who w i s h e s
to m a i n t a i n th e s u b s t a n c e of th e t r a d i t i o n a l c l a i m t h a t p e r c e p t i o n is
k n o w le d g e w ill h a v e to a l t e r h is w a y of s p e a k in g a n d hold t h a t p e r c e p ­
tu a l ju d g m e n t s e x p r e s s k n o w le d g e .
And th is s e e m s not a v e r y h a p p y
c o n c l u s i o n to l e a v e P l a t o w ith .
By c o n t r a s t , th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I h a v e a d o p te d , in a d d i t i o n to
g r a n t i n g to p e r c e p t i o n th e u s e of th e p e r c e p t u a l c o n c e p t s w h ic h P l a t o
e v id e n tly a llo w s it, p r o v i d e s a s t r o n g e r r e f u t a t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n ' s
c l a i m to b e k n o w le d g e .
F o r on m y v ie w it is p r e c i s e l y t h e m i n i m a l
p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s r e c o r d i n g c o l o r s , t a s t e s , s o u n d s , e tc . , a s o b ­
j e c t s of i m m e d i a t e p e r c e p t i o n w h ic h a r e d e n ie d to be e x p r e s s i n g k n o w l ­
e dg e.
A r e p o r t of i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t e x p r e s s k n o w le d g e
b e c a u s e it s a y s n o thing a b o u t a n y o b j e c t i v e f a c t s a n d h a s no i m p l i c a t i o n s
137
c o n c e r n i n g w h a t is h a p p e n in g , o r w ill h a p p e n , o r is th e c a s e in th e
w o rld at la rg e .
As P l a t o p u ts i t (186d 2 - 5 ) in s u m m i n g up th e r e s u l t s
of h is a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n :
" T h e r e f o r e k n o w le d g e is n o t
to be found in s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s , but in r e a s o n i n g a b o u t th e m ; f o r ,
a s it s e e m s , in th e l a t t e r it is p o s s i b l e to g r a s p e x i s t e n c e an d t r u t h ,
but in th e f o r m e r th i s is i m p o s s i b l e . "
14
W e h a v e now s e e n t h a t th e
r e f e r e n c e to e x i s t e n c e a n d t r u t h is not, a s C o r n f o r d th o u g h t it w a s , a n
o b liq u e i n d ic a tio n t h a t k n o w le d g e r e q u i r e s to b e a b o u t u n c h a n g in g ly r e a l
o b j e c t s , th e F o r m s ; if m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o r r e c t , th e r e f e r e n c e is
r a t h e r to o b je c t iv ity , w ith o u t p r e j u d i c e to the k in d of th in g w h ic h h a s it.
15
But if th is is s o , w h a t a r e w e to m a k e of th e p a s s a g e f r o m th e
R e p u b lic (522e l- 5 2 4 d ) so o f te n c i t e d a s p a r a l l e l to th is a r g u m e n t of th e
T h eaetetu s?
S u r e l y th e r e s e m b l a n c e s b e tw e e n th e tw o show t h a t I h a v e
b e e n m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g th e T h e a e t e t u s p a s s a g e ?
T o th is I s h a l l n ot h a v e
m u c h to sa y ; d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n of th e two p a s s a g e s , now th a t I h a v e
e x p la in e d w h a t I ta k e to be th e t r u e m e a n i n g of th e a r g u m e n t f r o m th e
T h e a e t e t u s , c a n be l e f t to an y one i n t e r e s t e d in p u r s u i n g th e q u e s tio n .
A few r e m a r k s m a y , h o w e v e r , s e r v e to in d ic a t e w h a t any one who u n d e r ­
t a k e s the t a s k w ill fin d .
T h e f i r s t th in g to n o t i c e a b o u t the R e p u b lic p a s s a g e is t h a t it
know s n o th in g of th e s t r i c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a c c o r d i n g
to w h ic h , a s w e sa w th e T h e a e t e t u s h o ld s , only s i m p l e s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s
a r e o b je c ts of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e R e p u b lic s p e a k s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y
of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n of a f i n g e r (523c 11 ff. ); of p e r c e p t i o n t h a t the
s a m e th in g is b oth h a r d a n d s o ft (524a 3), w h ic h s e e m s to in v o lv e a
138
j u d g m e n t of id e n tity a n d s o is n o t a p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t a t a l l in th e
T h e a e t e t u s 1 u s e of th is t e r m ; of p e r c e p t i o n of s o m e t h i n g a s a u n it
(524d 9 - e 6), w h ic h a p p e a r s to b r e a k th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 c a n o n t h a t j u d g ­
m e n t s of n u m b e r a r e a l t o g e t h e r b e y o n d th e s c o p e of s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n
e v e n to a t t e m p t .
In f a c t , th e R e p u b lic e n v i s a g e s (523a 1 0 -b 4) s e n s e
p e r c e p t i o n a s m a k in g a p r a c t i c a l l y u n l i m i t e d r a n g e of j u d g m e n t s ; th e
d i s t i n c t i o n it d r a w s (523b 9 - c 4) is b e tw e e n t h o s e ju d g m e n t s b a s e d on
p e r c e p t i o n w h ic h a r e c l e a r a n d s a t i s f a c t o r y a n d t h o s e w h i c h a r e not
c le a r but r a t h e r confused and even c o n tra d ic to ry .
B ut th e T h e a e t e t u s
s a y s n o th in g a b o u t th e s e n s e s a t t e m p t i n g to m a k e ju d g m e n t s of e x i s t ­
e n c e o r i d e n t ity o r n u m b e r o r u s e f u l n e s s , b ut n e c e s s a r i l y fa ili n g ; i t s
p o in t i s n o t t h a t s u c h j u d g m e n t s , w h e n th e s e n s e s m a k e t h e m , a r e not
t r u s t w o r t h y , w h e r e a s w h e n m a d e by
v o ^cri5
a n d a p p l i e d to th e r i g h t
k in d of o b j e c t s n u m e r i c a l j u d g m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , a r e c l e a r a n d e v e n
n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e (cf. 524e 6 - 5 2 5 a 2).
F u r t h e r m o r e , th e T h e a e t e t u s p o s i t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e s to th e s o u l in
s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n th e a b i l i t y to ju d g e w ith o u t r e c o u r s e so lo n g a s i t l i m ­
its i t s e l f to r e p o r t s of i ts p r o p e r o b j e c t s ; b u t in th e R e p u b l i c 1s d i f f e r ­
ent s c h e m e th e c o n t r a s t b e in g p u r s u e d d o e s n o t a llo w to p e r c e p t i o n
even th is .
F o r a m o n g th e p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t s w h i c h in th e R e p u b li c
P la to sa y s call
a n d t h a t of
t o
/
\
in to p l a y a r e th e p e r c e p t i o n of To
(524a 8 ).
i
ov
T h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s , he m a i n t a i n s ,
a l w a y s a r e r e p o r t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e i r o p p o s i t e s ;
s e n s e - r e p o r t s e a c h of a p a i r of o p p o s i t e s c o m e s
<r\j^
in
voV
(524c 3 - 4 ) w i t h th e o t h e r , a n d t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e s e n s e s a r e i n c a p a b l e
139
of ju d g in g a d e q u a t e l y of l i g h t n e s s a n d h e a v i n e s s a n d h a r d n e s s a n d s o f t ­
ness.
T h e y s t r i c t l y do n ot know w h a t th e y a r e sa y in g (524a 6 - 8 ) w h e n
th e y sa y " H a r d n e s s a p p e a r s h e r e n o w . "
If one w a n ts to know w h a t
h a r d n e s s is one w ill h a v e to a b a n d o n s e n s e - r e p o r t s a l t o g e t h e r a n d a t ­
t e m p t to s e p a r a t e h a r d n e s s f r o m i ts o p p o s ite , and d i s c o v e r s o m e i n t e l ­
l ig i b l e o b je c t w h ic h c a n s e r v e a s a n i n s t a n c e of h a r d n e s s w h ic h is no t
in any r e s p e c t e v e r a l s o s o f t.
B ut, a s a g a i n s t t h i s , th e T h e a e t e t u s
(184e 4 - 6) h a p p ily a llo w s th e s e n s e s to r e p o r t h a r d th in g s an d lig h t
th in g s , w ith o u t an y h in t t h a t th e y c o n v e y n o th in g t r u s t w o r t h y in th is
regard.
T h e T h e a e t e t u s ' c o n t r a s t is not d r a w n b e tw e e n t r u s t w o r t h y a n d
u n t r u s t w o r t h y s e n s e r e p o r t s , but b e tw e e n s e n s e r e p o r t s , s t r i c t l y c o n ­
c e iv e d , on th e one h a n d , a n d ju d g m e n t s p a s s e d by a l t o g e t h e r a d i f f e r e n t
f a c u lty , on th e o t h e r h an d .
T h e s e few r e m a r k s s h o u ld be s u f f ic ie n t to d i s s o c i a t e th e a r g u ­
m e n t 6f th e R e p u b lic f r o m t h a t of th e T h e a e t e t u s .
T he T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r ­
g u m e n t is c e r t a i n l y no p a l e r e h a s h of a r g u m e n t s to be found in th e
R epu b lic.
It m a r k s , i n f a c t , if m y c o n s t r u c t i o n is c o r r e c t , th e e a r l i e s t
e x p r e s s i o n of th e f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t an d f a r m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g p o in t th a t
k n o w le d g e is e s s e n t i a l l y bound up w ith o b je c ti v i ty .
P ercep tu al re p o rts
m a y be in f a l l i b l e b u t th e y do n o t c o n s t i t u t e k n o w le d g e b e c a u s e th ey sa y
n o th in g t h a t a p p e a l to th e f a c t s a b o u t a n y th in g in th e c o m m o n w o r l d
c o u ld h a v e any te n d e n c y to show to be f a l s e .
T h is c o n c lu s i o n , th o u g h
not of c o u r s e th e a r g u m e n t s a d d u c e d to p r o v e it, b e a r s a c e r t a i n o b v i­
ous s i m i l a r i t y to K a n t 's a n d W i t t g e n s t e i n 's v ie w s a b o u t s u b j e c t i v i t y a nd
k n o w le d g e , a n d t h i s a f f in i ty s e e m s to m e a f a r m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g o u tc o m e
140
of th e f i n a l a r g u m e n t of th e f i r s t p a r t of th e T h e a e t e t u s th a n th e o r t h o ­
dox a t t e m p t to m a k e th e T h e a e t e t u s m e r e l y r e p e a t th in g s s a i d a l r e a d y
in th e R e p u b l i c .
CHAPTER V
FA L SE B E L IE F
A.
In tro d u ctio n
In th e c o u r s e of h is r e f u t a t i o n of T h e a e t e t u s 1 f i r s t a t t e m p t a t a
d e f in i tio n of k n o w le d g e , S o c r a t e s r e a c h e s th e c o n c l u s i o n th a t k n o w le d g e
m u s t r e s i d e not in m e r e p e r c e p t u a l a w a r e n e s s - - m e r e
TTCX
^
but in th e r e a s o n i n g w e do on t h e b a s i s of o u r e x p e r i e n c e (186d 2 - 5 ) .
A s I a r g u e d a b o v e th is in f a c t s u g g e s t s a n a c c o u n t of e m p i r i c a l k n o w l­
ed ge w h ic h t a k e s P l a t o f a r b e y o n d th e old o v e r - s i m p l e d ic h o t o m y ,
found in th e R e p u b l i c , b e tw e e n k n o w le d g e c o n c e r n e d w ith th e F o r m s a n d
( m e r e ) b e li e f a b o u t e m p i r i c a l m a t t e r s .
In th e s e q u e l , h o w e v e r , w e find
P l a t o d is a p p o in ti n g ly not p u r s u i n g th is s u g g e s tio n ; i n s t e a d T h e a e t e t u s
t a k e s up a h in t p r e p a r e d f o r h im by S o c r a t e s an d p r o p o s e s a s a new
d e f in iti o n t h a t k n o w le d g e i s i d e n t i c a l w i th t r u e r e a s o n i n g o r t r u e b e l i e f
(<k X*\ &
T h is d e fin it io n i s h a r d l y m o r e p r o m i s i n g th a n th e
one j u s t d is p o s e d of, a n d in f a c t w h e n S o c r a t e s a t l e n g th ( 2 0 1 a - c ) u n d e r ­
ta k e s to t e s t i ts a d e q u a c y , he is a b le to r e f u t e it w ith a s m u c h e a s e a s
one w o u ld e x p e c t:
o b v io u s ly s o m e t r u e j u d g m e n t s a r e m a d e by lu c k o r
by g u e s s i n g o r in s o m e o t h e r w a y f a il to d i s p l a y k n o w le d g e of th e m a t ­
t e r s a t hand .
It is o b v io u s , h o w e v e r - - a s o u r e x p e r i e n c e in th e f i r s t p a r t of
th e d ia lo g u e h a s a l r e a d y f o r e w a r n e d u s - - t h a t P l a t o 1s i n t e r e s t s in th e
T h e a e t e t u s a r e h a r d l y r e s t r i c t e d to th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d r e j e c t i o n of
142
v a r i o u s d e f in itio n s of k n o w le d g e .
In th e f i r s t p a r t , in f a c t , th e d e f i n i ­
tio n of k n o w le d g e a s p e r c e p t i o n w a s only f a c e d a t 1 8 4 -1 8 6 , w h e r e it
w a s o v e r t u r n e d w ith r e l a t i v e e a s e :
th e o t h e r t h i r t y S te p h a n u s p a g e s
w e r e t a k e n up w ith th e f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t t a s k s of e x p o u n d in g a n d r e ­
fu tin g th e P r o t a g o r e a n t h e o r y of t r u t h a n d th e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y of
reality .
So h e r e T h e a e t e t u s h a s h a r d l y o f f e r e d h is new d e f in iti o n of
k n o w le d g e b e f o r e S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s (187c 7) a d i f f e r e n t , th o u g h no
doubt re la te d , q u e stio n fo r d is c u s s io n :
how i s f a l s e b e l i e f p o s s i b l e ?
W ith th e e x c e p tio n of th e v e r y b r i e f a r g u m e n t a l r e a d y a llu d e d to
(2 0 1 a - c ) , th e s e c o n d p a r t of th e d i a lo g u e is w h o lly c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i s
q u e s t i o n a b o u t f a l s e b e li e f .
T h e q u e s t i o n how f a l s e b e l i e f is p o s s i b l e is one w h i c h p l a y s a
p r o m i n e n t p a r t in t h r e e o t h e r d i a l o g u e s of P l a t o : E u t h y d e m u s , C r a t y ­
lu s , a n d S o p h i s t .
A s I s h a l l t r y to sho w , th e a r g u m e n t s of th e T h e a e ­
t e t u s a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f a r e to b e u n d e r s t o o d in th e c l o s e s t p o s s i b l e
c o n n e c tio n w ith th e r e m a r k s a n d t h e o r i e s a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f in t h o s e
o th e r d ialo g u es.
In e f f e c t, t h e T h e a e t e t u s sh o w s t h a t on th e t h e o r y of
m e a n i n g w h ic h d o m i n a t e s th e d i s c u s s i o n s of th e E u th y d e m u s a n d C r a t y ­
l u s , a n d w h ic h is o t h e r w i s e c e r t a i n l y not a w h o lly u n n a t u r a l t h e o r y ,
t h e r e r e a l l y c a n n o t b e a n y b e l i e f s t h a t a r e n ot t r u e .
In th e t h i r d p a r t
of th e T h e a e t e t u s , in th e g u i s e of a d r e a m , S o c r a t e s p r o d u c e s (201 e 202 b) a t h e o r y of lo g o s ( a c c o u n t, e x p la n a tio n ) w h ic h s e e m s to c o n t a i n
a l s o a p r e t t y e x p l i c i t v e r s i o n of th e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g u n d e r l y i n g t h e s e
d i s c u s s i o n s , a n d in t h e s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m of it he p u ts h is f i n g e r
m o r e o r l e s s e x p l i c i t l y on t h e f e a t u r e of th e t h e o r y w h ic h b o th m a k e s it
143
a bad a c c o u n t of w h a t a s e n t e n c e o r c o m p l e t e th o u g h t is a nd c a u s e s th e
d iff ic u lty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g how f a l s e b e lie f o r j u d g m e n t is p o s s i b l e .
It
is th e n up to the S o p h i s t to f o r m u l a t e a new an d b e t t e r p o s i t i v e a c c o u n t
of w h a t a c o m p l e t e th o u g h t is a n d how f a l s e th in k in g is p o s s i b l e .
The
d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f in th e T h e a e t e t u s an d th e c r i t i c i s m of th e
d r e a m t h e o r y , th e n , t o g e t h e r b r i n g out q u i te c l e a r l y c e r t a i n b a s i c i n ­
a d e q u a c i e s of the t h e o r y of m e a n i n g in q u e s t i o n an d p r e p a r e th e w a y f o r
th e S o p h is m s d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y .
To show in d e t a i l how a l l t h is is so , w e w ill h a v e f i r s t of a l l to
c o n s i d e r b r i e f l y th e s t a t e m e n t of th e d iff ic u lty a b o u t f a l s e b e l ie f in th e
E u th y d e m u s a n d th e u l t i m a t e s o lu t io n p r o v id e d by th e S o p h ist:
to s e e
th e o r i g i n a n d s o l u t i o n of th e p r o b l e m w ill f a c i l i t a t e a ( r e l a t i v e l y )
s m o o t h a n a l y s i s of th e T h e a e t e t u s * d if f ic u lt a r g u m e n t s .
But b e f o r e b e ­
ginning th e a n a l y s i s a n d e x p o s itio n of th is p a r t of th e d ia lo g u e s o m e ­
thing sh o u ld be s a i d to f o r e s t a l l tw o l ik e ly o b je c ti o n s a g a i n s t the a t ­
t e m p t to c o n s t r u e th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 d i s c u s s i o n a s th u s c o n c e r n e d w ith
th e s a m e p r o b l e m w h ic h th e S o p h is t f in a lly s o l v e s (to P la to * s s a t i s f a c ­
tio n , a t an y r a t e ) .
T h e p r o b l e m a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f w h ic h S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s in th e
T h e a e t e t u s i n v o lv e s a d iff ic u lty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t c a n be going on
in s o m e o n e , s m i n d w h e n he a c c e p t s a f a l s e b e lie f.
In e n t e r t a i n i n g a
b e lie f he m u s t h a v e s o m e o b j e c ts b e f o r e h is m in d .
But a s t h e r e a r e
only tw o c l a s s e s of o b j e c t s , t h o s e he know s a n d t h o s e he d o e s n ot know,
it is i m p o s s i b l e to s e e how he c a n be b e lie v in g s o m e t h i n g w h ic h y e t is
f a l s e : f o r th in g s he d o e sn * t know he c a n n o t e n t e r t a i n an y th o u g h t a b o u t
144
(i. e. , he c a n n o t h a v e t h e m b e f o r e his m in d ) , but s i n c e he know s a l l th e
th in g s w h ic h he e v e r h a s b e f o r e h is m i n d t h e r e s e e m s no r o o m f o r
erro r.
H e c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t, if he r e a l l y know s a th in g , c o n f u s e it w ith
o r m i s t a k e it f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e w h ic h he a l s o r e a l l y k n o w s; a n d in
t h a t c a s e t h e r e s e e m s no r o o m f o r h im to be d o in g a n y th in g t h a t c o u ld
r e s u l t in f a l s e b e lie f .
Now, o b s c u r e th o u g h th is p u z z l e i s , it e v id e n tl y
t u r n s upon m a k in g f a l s e b e l i e f s in v o lv e th e a p p a r e n t i m p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
one b oth know a n d not know s o m e o b j e c t s .
A nd in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s ­
c u s s i o n S o c r a t e s a n d T h e a e t e t u s a c c e p t th e t e r m s of th e a r g u m e n t a s
la i d down h e r e , an d d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s t o w a r d d i s c o v e r i n g s o m e a c ­
c e p t a b l e s e n s e in w h ic h a p e r s o n c a n in f a c t b o th know a n d n o t know th e
o b je c ts b e f o r e h is m in d in b e l i e f , so a s to m a k e b e li e v in g f a l s e l y a
re a l possib ility .
Now t h e s e f a c t s m i g h t be t a k e n a s sh ow ing t h a t th e p r o b l e m p u r ­
s u e d in th e T h e a e t e t u s is a p r o b l e m a b o u t th e p s y c h o lo g y of b e l ie f , a n d
th a t t h e r e f o r e it is not th e s a m e p r o b l e m a s th e one r a i s e d a n d s o l v e d
in th e S o p h i s t .
T h e S o phist* s p r o b l e m , in f a c t, is a ll u d e d to in th e T h e ­
a e t e t u s , but only to be p u t a s i d e in f a v o r of th e d if f ic u lty j u s t r e f e r r e d
to.
T h e tw o p r o b l e m s p r o c e e d r e s p e c t i v e l y
N \ 1 v*/ V V ^
ICOU
€-l«f*va( a n d K a r a
not f la tly i d e n t i c a l .
To
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e iv a i
T h e d if f i c u l ty
K.<*Ta
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v
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a n d a r e o b v io u s ly
'
K<\(
/
w h ic h th e S o p h is t t r e a t s , is j u s t a d e e p e r v e r s i o n of th e f a m i l i a r
s o p h i s t s 1 c o n u n d r u m t h a t a n y o n e w ho r e a l l y h a s a b e l i e f h a s to b e b e ­
lie v in g s o m e t h i n g , w h ic h t h e r e f o r e e x i s t s ; but if w h a t s o m e o n e b e ­
l i e v e s e x i s t s , h is b e l i e f is t r u e .
F a l s e b e l ie f is i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e a
145
b e l ie f th a t w a s not t r u e w o u ld be one th a t h a d no c o n te n t:
a b e lie f ,
th o u g h t, o r s t a t e m e n t is t r u e if s ig n if ic a n t, and th e f a l s e is s w a llo w e d
up in th e m e a n i n g l e s s .
In d e a lin g w ith th e d if f ic u lt ie s in v o lv in g th e
o b j e c ts of f a l s e b e lie f s th e S o p h is t a p p a r e n t l y i g n o r e s th e o t h e r s i d e of
th e q u e s tio n , th e s u b j e c t i v e o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t :
i. e. , th e p r o b l e m
how a n y o n e c o m e s to m a k e a m i s t a k e in h is th in k in g .
T h ese o th er d if­
f i c u l t i e s , th e n , a r e i n d e p e n d e n t an d r e q u i r e a n in d e p e n d e n t t r e a t m e n t ;
th e d i s c u s s i o n s of th e T h e a e t e t u s , w h ic h t r e a t th is to p ic , sh o u ld t h e r e ­
f o r e be u n d e r s t o o d in d e p e n d e n tly of th e S o p h i s t and its s o lu tio n to its
d iffe re n t p ro b lem .
T h is a tt i t u d e is on e w h ic h v a r i o u s w r i t e r s have, m o r e o r l e s s
i m p l i c i t l y an d v a g u e ly , b e e n in c l i n e d to ta k e . * But w h ile i t is no d oub t
c o r r e c t to s a y t h a t two p r o b l e m s a r e in v o lv e d , a nd e v e n t h a t one of
th e m is in s o m e s e n s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , th e o t h e r o n to l o g ic a l and s e m a n ­
t i c a l , it is a m i s t a k e to th in k of th e m a s in d e p e n d e n t q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r ­
ing s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t a n d s o lu tio n .
F o r , a s the o b v io u s e x a m p le of
W i t t g e n s t e i n s h o w s , p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s of m e a n i n g and p h i l o s o p h i c a l
t h e o r i e s of m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e o fte n m u t u a l l y i m p l i c a t e d , so t h a t a
t h e o r y of m e a n i n g a n d a t h e o r y of th in k in g f o r m in r e a l i t y a s in g le p h i l ­
o s o p h i c a l d o c t r i n e s p r i n g i n g f r o m one a n d th e s a m e o r i g i n a l i n s i g h t o r
b a s i c id e a .
W h e n e v e r t h i s i s so w e m a y e x p e c t w e a k n e s s e s o r d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s in th e two p a r t s of th e t h e o r y to be i n t e r c o n n e c t e d in s u c h a w a y
th a t show in g th e i n a d e q u a c y of th e one a t th e s a m e t i m e c a s t s do ubt on
the o t h e r ; a n d to r e j e c t , s a y , th e t h e o r y of m e a n in g in f a v o r of a d i f ­
f e r e n t a c c o u n t w ill a t th e s a m e t i m e a m o u n t to th e r e j e c t i o n of th e
146
a s s o c i a t e d t h e o r y of th in k in g .
T h a t th is is th e s i t u a t i o n w ith th e d i s ­
c u s s i o n s of t h e T h e a e t e t u s a n d th e S o p h is t w ill be sh o w n in d e t a i l l a t e r
on; b u t h e r e one i n d i c a t i o n c a n p r o f i t a b l y be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d .
v
Ka i
In S o c r a t e s 1 e x p o s i t i o n of th e d iff ic u lty k<*T<x T o
Vai
/
d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y a b o v e , it i s s u g g e s t e d o r a s s u m e d t h a t a
f a l s e b e l i e f m u s t in v o lv e th e m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r c o n f u s i o n t o g e t h e r of
c e r t a i n th in g s know n to t h e b e l i e v e r :
th e w h o le s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n
t r e a t s t h i s a s a f ix e d p o in t a n d a t t e m p t s m e r e l y to p r o v i d e a m e a n s of
a v o id in g th e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h a t one s h o u ld know a th in g a n d y e t
f a il to r e c o g n i z e i t f o r i t s e l f .
B u t w hy sh o u ld a n y o n e th in k t h a t f a l s e
b e l i e f s , a s a g e n e r a l th in g , m u s t i n v o lv e s u c h m i s t a k e n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ?
F o r e x a m p l e , i f I s u p p o s e w r o n g l y th a t P l a t o w a s a w ily R o m a n , i n ­
s t e a d of a w ily G r e e k , w h a t p o s s i b l e r e a s o n is t h e r e f o r th in k in g t h a t
w h a t m u s t be going on in m y m i n d is th e c o n f u s io n of one th in g w ith
an o th er?
W h a t c a n S o c r a t e s b e th in k in g t h a t m a k e s h im so s u r e th a t
t h i s i s w h a t s o m e on e h a s to do in o r d e r to hold a f a l s e b e l i e f ?
O b v i­
o u s ly th e r a n g e of th in g s t h a t a p h i l o s o p h e r c a n r e c o g n i z e a s go in g
w r o n g in s u c h a c a s e is d e p e n d e n t a t l e a s t in p a r t upon th e c o n c e p t i o n
of th e m e a n i n g of a s e n t e n c e o r s t a t e m e n t w h ic h he is w o r k i n g w ith .
S u p p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , th a t in a n a l y z i n g th e s t a t e m e n t g iv e n a b o v e you
d i s t i n g u i s h a s u b j e c t - t e r m w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g th in g m e a n t , a p r e d i c a t e e x p r e s s i o n s ta n d in g f o r a n a t t r i b u t e (b eing a w ily R o m a n ) a n d a r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n th in g a n d a t t r i b u t e i n d i c a t e d by th e " w a s . "
T h e n yo u w ill be
l i k e l y to th in k t h a t th e f a l s i t y of th e b e l i e f c o n s i s t s in g e ttin g th e r e l a ­
tio n b e tw e e n P l a t o a n d th e a t t r i b u t e of b e in g a w ily R o m a n w r o n g :
and
147
th is m a y h a v e h a p p e n e d in v a r i o u s w a y s , a n d no t m e r e l y on a c c o u n t of
a m i s t a k e n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s o m e p e r s o n o r a t t r i b u t e .
But s u p p o s e
y o u r t h e o r y of m e a n i n g m e n t i o n s only two th in g s in i t s a n a l y s i s of the
s t a t e m e n t , le a v i n g out th e r e l a t i o n .
T h e n th is a c c o u n t w ill be u n a v a i l ­
a b l e to you, an d y ou w ill h a v e to s e a r c h f o r th e c a u s e of th e f a l s i t y in
th e s u b j e c t - t e r m an d th e p r e d i c a t e - t e r m a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s to t h e i r
d esig n ata.
W ith o u t g oing f u r t h e r , it sh o u ld be o b v io u s t h a t d i f f e r e n t
a n a l y s e s of th e m e a n i n g of a s t a t e m e n t p o s e d i f f e r e n t r e s t r i c t i o n s on
th e r a n g e of th in g s th a t c a n go w r o n g a n d r e s u l t in a f a l s e b e lie f .
A nd
th is is e n o ug h to s u g g e s t t h a t w h e n S o c r a t e s a s s u m e s t h a t f a l s e b e lie f
m u s t in v o lv e m i s t a k e n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g he is w o rk in g w i th a
t h e o r y of m e a n i n g w h ic h r e s t r i c t s , o r s e e m s to r e s t r i c t , th e r a n g e of
p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of e r r o r in j u s t th is w a y .
If so, th e n h o w e v e r p s y c h o ­
lo g i c a l th e t r e a t m e n t of f a l s e b e l i e f in th e T h e a e t e t u s m a y be, it m a y
y e t be p a r t an d p a r c e l of th e p r o b l e m s of m e a n i n g in v o lv e d in th e
so p h ists* c o n u n d r u m a n d P la to * s a n a l y s i s in th e S o p h i s t .
S i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n s w e r th e s e c o n d o b je c tio n I p r o m i s e d
to c o n s i d e r .
N o tic in g th e T h e a e t e t u s * c o n c e r n w ith m i s t a k e s of i d e n t i ­
f i c a tio n , in th e p a s s a g e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d a n d in d e e d t h r o u g h o u t th e
d i s c u s s i o n , one m i g h t ge t th e id e a t h a t w h a t is b o t h e r i n g P l a t o i s not
s o m e th in g a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f s in g e n e r a l , but only s o m e t h i n g a b o u t f a l s e
id e n ti ty j u d g m e n t s .
2
To m a k e s u c h a j u d g m e n t a p p e a r s to in v o lv e
know ing th e d e s i g n a t a of b o th t e r m s of th e i d e n tit y ( e l s e th e s p e a k e r
d o e s n ot know w h a t he*s s a y in g ) , y e t a t th e s a m e t i m e r e q u i r e s not
know ing th e d e s i g n a t a ( s in c e he f a i l s to r e c o g n i z e a n d id e n tify th e m
148
p ro p erly ).
C l e a r l y e n o u g h th e d if fic u lty h e r e c o n c e r n s th e n o tio n of
r e c o g n i t i o n a n d th e c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n know ing s o m e t h i n g a n d th e a b i l ­
ity to r e c o g n i z e it; a n d t h e r e d o e s not s e e m to be s u c h a lin k b e tw e e n
th is a n d th e p r o b l e m d i s c u s s e d a n d s o lv e d in th e S o p h is t th a t th e p o s i ­
tio n a t t a i n e d by P l a t o in th e l a t e r d i a lo g u e d i s s o l v e s th e d i f f i c u l t i e s of
th e T h e a e t e t u s .
T h e S o p h is t p r o p o u n d s a t h e o r y of p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g ­
m e n t s , w h ic h d e f e n d s th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a l s e p r e d i c a t i o n s a g a i n s t th e
d i f f i c u l t i e s r a i s e d by th e s o p h i s t s 1 c o n u n d r u m a b o u t th in k in g w h a t is
not; b u t s u r e l y s o m e o ne w h o sa w how it is p o s s i b l e to s a y f a l s e l y t h a t
T h e a e t e t u s i s fly in g m i g h t b a lk o v e r ’’T h e a e t e t u s is T h e o d o r u s . "
He
m i g h t , in s h o r t , r a i s e o n c e a g a i n th e d if f ic u lty c i t e d a b o v e a n d go on to
w o r r y , in th e s a m e v e i n a s t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s , a b o u t
how k n o w in g a n d n o t k no w ing c a n b e c o m b in e d in th e w a y th e y s e e m to
be in f a l s e id e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s .
A n d if t h a t is so th e n th e T h e a e t e t u s
m u s t s u r e l y be r e a d a s a s e p a r a t e d i s c u s s i o n of a s e p a r a t e p r o b l e m
f r o m th e p r o b l e m of f a l s e b e l i e f r a i s e d e l s e w h e r e in P la to * s w r i t i n g s .
T h e id e a t h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s i s c o n c e r n e d only w ith th e a n a l y s i s
of f a l s e id e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s is a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g w a y of a p p r o a c h i n g th e
a r g u m e n t of t h i s p a r t of t h e d ia lo g u e ; no t th e l e a s t of i ts m e r i t s in
c o m p a r i s o n w it h o t h e r v ie w s o fte n t a k e n is th a t it m a k e s a s e r i o u s
e f f o r t to c o n s t r u e t h e a r g u m e n t a s d i r e c t e d a t s o m e r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d
in te re s tin g p h ilo so p h ical nexus.
B u t two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s sho w , I t h in k ,
q u i t e c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s is n o t r a i s i n g d if f i c u l t i e s only
a b o u t f a l s e id e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s .
F i r s t , t h e r e is th e f a c t th a t n o w h e r e in
t h e d i s c u s s i o n is it i n d i c a t e d in an y w a y t h a t only s o m e but n o t a l l f a l s e
149
j u d g m e n t s in v o lv e th e d i f f i c u l t i e s a ll e g e d .
A s w e ha v e s e e n , S o c r a t e s
b e g in s th e d i s c u s s i o n by, to a ll a p p e a r a n c e s , a s s u m i n g th a t f a l s e b e li e f
in g e n e r a l r e q u i r e s ta k in g one th in g f o r a n o t h e r .
And th is i m p r e s s i o n
is r e i n f o r c e d a t s e v e r a l p o in ts in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t :
th u s a t
189b 12 an d 190e 1-3 " ta k i n g one th in g f o r a n o t h e r " is giv e n a s the
d e f in iti o n of f a l s e b e lie f .
A nd in th e s a m e c o n t e x t it is e v id e n t t h a t not
m e r e l y f a l s e j u d g m e n t s of th e ty p e of " S o c r a t e s is P l a t o " a r e b e in g
an aly zed :
s u c h a s e n t e n c e a s " T h e T a j M a h a l is ugly" is a l s o b eing
th o u g h t of (189c 5 -6 ) a s in v o lv in g th e m i s t a k e of s a y in g "u g ly " w h e n you
sh o u ld h a v e s a i d " b e a u t i f u l , " a n d th i s is in t u r n e v id e n tly (though o b ­
s c u r e l y ) c o n c e i v e d of (190b 2 - 4 ) a s in v o lv in g th e e r r o n e o u s i d e n t i f i c a ­
tio n of th e u gly (i. e. , th e th in g m e a n t by " u g l y " ) w ith th e b e a u tif u l.
It
t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s t h a t a l l f a l s e ju d g m e n t s , p r e d i c a t i v e a s w e l l a s
o v e r t l y id e n tif y in g j u d g m e n t s , a r e b e in g th o u g h t of a s a t b o tto m j u s t
m is ta k e n id en tificatio n s.
If so , th e n th e p r o m i n e n c e of id e n tity j u d g ­
m e n t s s h o u ld not be t a k e n to im p ly th a t P l a t o 1s p r o b l e m in th e T h e a e t e ­
tu s is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of th e S o p h i s t : a s I r e m a r k e d a b o v e , th e id e a
t h a t e v e r y f a l s e b e l i e f m u s t in v o lv e a m i s t a k e n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is lik e l y to
be th e r e s u l t of a n o v e r l y r e s t r i c t i v e t h e o r y of m e a n in g .
And th e S o p h ­
i s t , in s u b s t i t u t i n g a l e s s r e s t r i c t i v e a c c o u n t of m e a n i n g , m a y v e r y
w e l l d e p r i v e th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 p r o b l e m s a b o u t f a l s e i d e n t ity ju d g m e n ts of
th e ir in t e r e s t for P la to .
Of c o u r s e , i t m i g h t be s a i d , e v e n if th is is so th e S o p h is t h a s
not r e b u t t e d th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a l s e
id e n t i f i c a t i o n s :
th o u g h it r e d u c e s th e a r e a in w h ic h t h e s e a r g u m e n t s
150
c a n c a u s e t r o u b l e , i t d o e s n o th in g to a l l e v i a t e th e f u n d a m e n t a l d if f ic u lty
o b s t r u c t i n g th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i d e n t ity j u d g m e n t s .
To th i s e x t e n t,
th e n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s is c o n c e r n e d w it h a d i f f e r e n t p h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m f r o m t h a t of th e S o p h i s t , an d one w h ic h i s n o t a f f e c t e d
by th e S o p h i s t *s a c c o u n t of p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g m e n t s .
tru e .
T h is m a y I th in k b e
It is c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t m u c h of th e a r g u m e n t of th is p a r t of th e
d ia lo g u e t a k e s a s e x a m p l e s s u c h m i s t a k e s a s th in k in g t h a t T h e o d o r u s
is T h e a e t e t u s , a n d if th e d i s c u s s i o n r a i s e s any s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s a b o u t
th i s k in d of m i s t a k e , th e n s u c h p r o b l e m s w o u ld r e m a i n f o r a n y o n e w h o
h a s th e S o p h i s t 1s a c c o u n t of p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g m e n t s .
On th e o t h e r h a n d ,
if I a m r i g h t t h a t P la to * s r e a l i n t e r e s t is in th e kin d of m i s t a k e n i d e n t i t y
ju d g m e n t w h i c h he t a k e s to b e i n v o lv e d in a c c e p t i n g s u c h a f a l s e b e l i e f
a s t h a t th e P r u d e n t i a l C e n t e r i s b e a u tif u l, t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t
t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s on e m i g h t d i s c o v e r in th e m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p e r s o n s
a n d o r d i n a r y o b j e c t s a r e th e o n e s he is r e a l l y c o n c e r n i n g h i m s e l f w ith .
M is t a k i n g T h e a e t e t u s f o r T h e o d o r u s i s a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t kin d of th in g
f r o m m i s t a k i n g th e b e a u tif u l f o r th e u gly, a n d th e d i f f i c u l t i e s P l a t o h a s
in m in d w h e n he t a l k s a b o u t kn ow ing a n d y e t n o t kn ow in g a th in g m u s t
be i n t e r p r e t e d w ith th e l a t t e r m i s t a k e p r i m a r i l y in m in d .
By fo llo w in g
a f t e r t h e m o r e o r d i n a r y k in d of f a l s e i d e n tity ju d g m e n t one m a y w e l l
m is u n d e rs ta n d w h at is r e a lly a t is s u e .
I t m a y t u r n o ut t h a t t h e r e is
r e a l l y no g e n e r a l p r o b l e m a b o u t f a l s e id e n tity ju d g m e n t s r a i s e d a t a l l ,
but only one a b o u t th e s p e c i a l k in d of m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in v o l v e d in
m i s t a k i n g th e b e a u t i f u l f o r th e ug ly , w h a t e v e r t h a t t u r n s out to b e .
In a n y e v e n t, n e i t h e r th e c o n c e r n w i t h a " p s y c h o l o g i c a l "
151
d iffic u lty a b o u t know ing an d not know ing n o r th e i n t e r e s t in f a l s e i d e n ­
tity j u d g m e n t s h a s any te n d e n c y to show t h a t th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 w o r r i e s
a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f a r e not bound up m o s t i n t i m a t e l y w ith t h o s e of th e
S o p h ist.
So f a r I h a v e only g iv e n h in ts a s to how th e a r g u m e n t of th e
T h e a e t e t u s h a s to do w ith p r o b l e m s a b o u t th e t h e o r y of m e a n in g ; now it
is t i m e to c o n s i d e r th is q u e s t i o n m o r e d i r e c t l y .
B.
E u th y d e m u s a nd S o p h is t
T h e E u t h y d e m u s , a s I r e m a r k e d a b o v e , is th e e a r l i e s t of P la to * s
d ia lo g u e s in w h ic h th e p r o b l e m of f a l s e b e lie f a r i s e s .
The a rg u m e n t
E u th y d e m u s in v o k e s (283e 7 - a 8 ) to p r o v e th a t f a ls e h o o d is i m p o s s i b l e
c a n be p u t a s fo llo w s :
4
P r e m i s s (1): A n y o n e w ho s a y s a n y th in g s a y s s o m e one d e f i n i te
cX
th in g , one of th e th in g s t h a t a r e ( S-v T v j v
d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e o t h e r o v T (K .
P r e m i s s (2):
•/ _
ov
He
v /
T o s a y w h a t is ( A t 'f (> )>/
)\
and so m eth in g
T o ov.
\ »/ \
° v '
i s to
sp e a k tru ly .
T he c o n c l u s i o n f o llo w s i m m e d i a t e l y :
to s p e a k a t a l l (and not
m e r e l y r e m a i n s i l e n t o r e m i t i n a r t i c u l a t e n o i s e s ) i s to s p e a k th e t r u t h .
Now a s it s t a n d s t h i s a r g u m e n t is e v id e n tly i n v a l i d b e c a u s e i t
in v o lv e s a f a l l a c y of e q u iv o c a tio n .
In o r d e r f o r th e c o n c l u s i o n to follow
th e " s a y i n g w h a t i s " of th e f i r s t p r e m i s s m u s t h a v e th e s a m e m e a n in g
a s th e " s a y i n g w h a t is " of th e s e c o n d p r e m i s s .
B u t th i s
p a lp a b ly no t m e t : p r e m i s s (2) e m p lo y s a s e n s e of T o o v
c o n d itio n is
o r TA OVid
w h ic h m e a n s " w h a t is th e c a s e , " w h ile p r e m i s s (1 ) e v id e n tly m e a n s by
152
T *0 OV
“ s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s , " “ s o m e t h i n g th a t t h e r e is to s a y . "
T h e e q u iv o c a tio n is e v e n m o r e o b v io u s w h e n th e a r g u m e n t is p u t n e g a ­
tiv e ly , w ith th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s p e a k in g f a l s e l y m u s t r e a l l y be e q u i v a ­
le n t to n o t s p e a k in g a t a ll.
To Tfr
oVTa
F o r w h e n o n e d e f i n e s f a l s e s p e a k in g a s
th e m e a n i n g is “ s a y in g w h a t is not th e c a s e , “
but th is p h r a s e h a s to b e t a k e n to m e a n “ s a y in g w h a t d o esn *t e x i s t " in
o r d e r to m a k e f a l s e s p e a k in g s e e m th e s a m e a s s a y i n g n o th in g .
It w a s p r e s u m a b l y t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h ic h le d S h o r e y to r e f e r
to th e s o p h i s t 1s a r g u m e n t , b o th a s it a p p e a r s h e r e a n d a s P l a t o dev el v
ops a n d r e f u t e s it in l a t e r d i a l o g u e s , in c lu d in g th e S o p h i s t , a s “ th e
>/
O'/
q u ib b le . “
5
But e v e n in th e E u t h y d e m u s t h e r e a r e s ig n s th a t s u c h
a s i m p l e r e p l y a s th e one j u s t g iv e n is not s a t i s f a c t o r y .
en ou gh , th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n tw o s e n s e s of
.
/
F o r , o b v io u s ly
\
>/
ov
w ill
n o t d i s s o l v e th e p a r a d o x f o r a n y o n e w h o s e view of w h a t it is to
sa y
s o m e t h i n g m e a n i n g f u l c o m m i t s h im to h o ld in g t h a t a n y o n e who s a y s
v V
a n y th in g , in s a y i n g 7 0 6V (= “w h a t e x i s t s " ) , a l s o
(= “w h a t is th e c a s e " ) .
m u s tsay
v >/
To GV
T h u s it m a y b e t h a t t h e r e is n o th in g m o r e in
E uth y d em u s* a r g u m e n t th a n th e m e r e e q u iv o c a t io n , ^ w h ile n e v e r t h e l e s s
m u c h m o r e is a t s t a k e .
7
In D i o n y s o d o r u s 1 a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t th e p o s s i ­
b ility of c o n t r a d i c t i o n , w h ic h fo llo w s i m m e d i a t e l y in th e E u th y d e m u s
(285d 7 -2 8 6 b 6), th e l a r g e r t r o u b l e c a n b e s e e n a r i s i n g .
D io n y s o d o r u s a r g u e s a s f o llo w s :
C o n t r a d i c t i o n e v id e n tly
in v o lv e s m a k in g two d i f f e r e n t a n d c o n f li c tin g s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t one a n d
th e s a m e th in g.
B u t th is is i m p o s s i b l e :
e x p r e s s e s th e s a m e
e i t h e r th e
^
V/
TTPC^Y h** a s Yo u r
Y0 * >
I assert
*n w *1*0 *1 c a s e w e a r e
153
r
sa y in g the s a m e thing; o r e l s e th e y e x p r e s s d i f f e r e n t TTQ Ay
;
in
w h ic h c a s e , so f a r f r o m c o n t r a d i c t i n g m e you h a v e m e r e l y c h a n g e d the
s u b j e c t.
How c o u ld I, w ho sa y a c e r t a i n th in g , be c o n t r a d i c t e d by you
g
w h e n you a r e not s a y in g t h a t th in g a t a ll ?
Now it is o b v io u s th a t h e r e , a s e a r l i e r (283e 9) a t th e o u t s e t of
E u t h y d e m u s 1 r e f u t a t i o n of f a l s e h o o d ,
9
th e thing th a t a s t a t e m e n t is
a b o u t is b ein g th o u g h t of a s s p e c i f i e d not by th e s u b j e c t - e x p r e s s i o n
a lo n e but r a t h e r by th e s t a t e m e n t a s a w h o le .
T h u s " S o c r a t e s is s t a n d ­
in g " a n d " S o c r a t e s i s not s ta n d i n g " a r e n ot a b o u t one a n d th e s a m e
th in g , S o c r a t e s , a n d do n o t s a y d i f f e r e n t th in g s a b o u t the s a m e th in g .
In a sm u c h as "sta n d in g " and "not stan d in g " have d iffe re n t m e a n in g s,
s t a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t th i n g s , t h e two A o y t f l
a r e about d ifferen t th in g s.
S o c r a t e s - p l u s - s t a n d in g is a d i f f e r e n t th in g f r o m S o c r a t e s - p l u s - n o t sta n d in g o r S o c r a t e s - p l u s - s i t t i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e any tw o A o y o t
th a t
d if f e r in m e a n in g a r e a b o u t d i f f e r e n t th in g s ; an d s i n c e they a r e a b o u t
d i f f e r e n t th in g s no tw o s t a t e m e n t s e v e r m e e t e a c h o t h e r so a s to be
c o n f lic tin g o r c o n t r a d i c t o r y .
In t h i s w a y D io n y s o d o r u s is c o n f la tin g
th e th in g a s t a t e m e n t s a y s w ith th e th in g it is a b o u t .
Now l e t us go b a c k to E u t h y d e m u s 1 a r g u m e n t a b o u t fa l s e h o o d
a n d c o n s i d e r it a g a i n , b e a r i n g in m i n d th e c o n c e p t io n of A O y o f
e m e r g e s in D i o n y s o d o r u s 1 d e n i a l of c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
w h ic h
D o e s th a t a r g u m e n t
c r u m b l e w h e n th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n b e in g th e c a s e a n d b e in g in e x i s t ­
e n c e is d r a w n ?
O b v io u s ly not.
A ny
A oy o*
w h ic h is s i g n i f ic a n t (and
so s a y s " th in g s th a t e x i s t " ) is c o r r e l a t e d w i th a
th e t o t a l i t y of th e m e a n i n g f u l p a r t s of th e A o y o S
s p e c i f i e d by
in q u e s ti o n ; if,
154
h o w e v e r , th is is so , a ny Aov^of
m u s t be t r u e s i n c e t h e r e i s no t r u t h
a b o u t j u s t th e th in g i t e x p r e s s e s w h ic h it c a n c o n t r a d i c t .
d o e s n !t c o n f l i c t w i t h th e t r u t h , it m u s t be t r u e .
Aov/ 0*
has its
TT^Y
j a nd no A Oyo-J
A nd if it
E v e ry m ean in g fu l
c a n do a n y th in g m o r e
th a n i n d i c a t e i ts own o b je c t; so w h e r e is t h e r e r o o m f o r f a l s e h o o d ,
v /
v yf
even g ra n te d th at
to
ov
is a n a m b i g u o u s e x p r e s s i o n ?
v
E v id e n tl y th e a m b i g u i t y of T c o v is no t th e r e a l r o o t of t h e m o s t
s t r i n g e n t d e n i a l of th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a ls e h o o d .
I t m a y be s a i d t h a t n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e is n o th in g m o r e to th e
a r g u m e n t th a n a s u p e r f i c i a l f a l l a c y .
F o r by a p p e a l i n g to D i o n y s o d o r u s 1
d e n i a l of c o n t r a d i c t i o n I h a v e only r e t r e a t e d f r o m th e e q u iv o c a t io n on
V 'if
T ° CV to th e f u r t h e r p a l p a b l e c o n f u s io n of th in k in g t h a t th e th in g a
s t a t e m e n t s a y s i s w h a t it is a b o u t.
F o r it i s only to o e v id e n t t h a t it is
th e s u b j e c t - e x p r e s s i o n a lo n e w h o s e r o l e in th e s e n t e n c e it is to p i c k out
th e th in g t a l k e d a b o u t; th e p r e d i c a t e - e x p r e s s i o n d o e s t h e ta lk in g , a n d
d o e s n o th in g to fix th e s u b j e c t of d i s c o u r s e .
Two s e n t e n c e s c a n be
c o n t r a d i c t o r y j u s t b e c a u s e th e y c a n h a v e th e s a m e s u b j e c t - e x p r e s s i o n s ,
a n d t h e i r p r e d i c a t e s c a n be s u c h t h a t n o th in g th a t h a s th e one c a n h a v e
th e o t h e r .
I t is only by i g n o r i n g t h e s e o b v io u s p o in t s a n d c o n f la tin g th e
two " t h i n g s " in q u e s t i o n th a t D i o n y s o d o r u s is a b le to " p r o v e " h is p o in t.
It s h o u ld be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s r e p l y h a s r e s o r t e d to a t h u m b n a i l
s k e t c h of a t h e o r y of s e n t e n c e - m e a n i n g a n d t r u t h , r e p l e t e w it h d i s c r i m ­
i n a t i o n s of r o l e a n d t a l k of l o g i c a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s .
Any one w h o a t ­
t e m p t s t h is r e p l y m u s t a d m i t t h a t in o r d e r to g iv e a fu lly s a t i s f a c t o r y
a n s w e r to th e a r g u m e n t , t a k e n t o g e t h e r w ith i t s f a r t h e s t r a m i f i c a t i o n s ,
155
one m u s t e n g a g e in p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e m a n t i c s .
It r e q u i r e s a n e x p l i c i t
t h e o r y of s e n t e n c e - m e a n i n g to ge t fu lly c l e a r of th e p r o b l e m of f a l s e ­
hood w h ic h th e s o p h i s t s h a v e r a i s e d .
T h i s , of c o u r s e , is e x a c tl y w h a t
P l a t o f in a lly r e c o g n i z e d in t h e S o p h i s t , a n d his own t h e o r y of m e a n i n g
t h e r e i s , a s w e s h a l l s e e b elow , v e r y s i m i l a r in in te n t and e f f e c t to th e
s k e t c h g iv e n j u s t a b o v e .
T h a t it w a s no p a lp a b l e c o n f u s io n w h ic h he h ad
to o v e r c o m e is t e s t i f i e d to by th e C r a t y l u s 1 a n d T h e a e t e t u s 1 e a r n e s t a n d
c o n c e n t r a t e d w r e s t l i n g s w i th th e old t h e o r y of m e a n in g ly in g b ehind
D i o n y s o d o r u s 1 d e n i a l of c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
W hat th is t h e o r y is it is now
t i m e to i n q u i r e .
A s w e h a v e s e e n , D io n y s o d o r u s th in k s t h a t a s e n t e n c e a s a
w h o le , a n d not m e r e l y it s s u b j e c t , d e t e r m i n e s w h a t thing o r th in g s i t is
a b o u t.
He is e v id e n tly a s s i g n i n g to e a c h of th e p a r t s of a s e n t e n c e th e
s a m e r o l e a s th a t w h ic h is in f a c t p e r f o r m e d by th e s u b je c t:
d e s ig n a tio n .
It t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t s i t s e l f th a t b e h in d his a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t th e p o s s i b i l ­
ity of c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h e r e l i e s a t h e o r y of th e s e n t e n c e w h o s e m a i n f e a ­
t u r e s a r e th e two a s s e r t i o n s :
(a) A s e n t e n c e c o n t a in s a lo t of n a m e s
a n d (b) N a m e s a r e s i m p l y s t r u n g t o g e t h e r in o r d e r to m a k e a s e n t e n c e .
Now, a s w e s h a l l s e e , th is c o n c e p tio n of w h a t it is to sa y s o m e th in g
l i e s b e h in d a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s in P l a t o l s d ia lo g u e s , but t h e r e is only
one p l a c e w h e r e it i s a n y th in g l i k e e x p lic i tly s t a t e d .
T h is is in S o c r a ­
t e s 1 d r e a m , w h ic h i n t r o d u c e s th e f in a l s e c t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s (201 e 1202b 5).
T h e t h e o r y w h ic h S o c r a t e s e xpo un ds a s s o m e th in g he h a s
d r e a m e d h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n t a k e n to be i t s e l f a t h e o r y of lo g o s
(= s t a t e m e n t ) ^ w h ic h e x h ib its th e tw o f e a t u r e s m e n tio n e d j u s t a b o v e .
156
B ut it s e e m s , in f a c t, t h a t i t is p r i m a r i l y a t h e o r y of lo g o s in th e s e n s e
of a c c o u n t o r e x p la n a t io n a n d no t a t h e o r y of s t a t e m e n t p e r s e .
A ll th e
s a m e , w ith in th e d r e a m t h e r e i s to be found n ot only th e i d e a t h a t n a m ­
in g i s th e f u n d a m e n t a l l i n g u i s t i c o p e r a t i o n but a l s o a n o v e r t s t a t e m e n t
t h a t a s e n t e n c e is in e f f e c t j u s t a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s .
T he d r e a m th e o ry su p p o ses that o rd in a ry p h y sical o b jects a r e
c o l l e c t i o n s of d i s c r e t e p a r t s a n d th a t th e s i m p l e p a r t s in to w h ic h a n y
s u c h c o m p l e x c a n b e a n a l y z e d c a n be n a m e d but c a n n o t be e x p r e s s e d by
a n y m o r e c o m p le x e x p r e s s i o n .
It i s p o s s i b l e to g iv e a lo g o s o r a c c o u n t
of a c o m p l e x th in g by l i s t i n g i t s s i m p l e p a r t s , b u t th e p a r t s t h e m s e l v e s ,
b e in g s i m p l e , h a v e no s u c h l o g o s .
Now a b o u t th e s i m p l e e l e m e n t s P l a t o
s a y s n o t o nly t h a t th e y c a n n o t be a n a l y z e d in to s i m p l e r p a r t s but a l s o
t h a t if th e y c o u ld be a n a l y z e d th e n th e y c o u ld n ot only be n a m e d b u t a l s o
s a i d (202a 6 - b 2).
T h a t i s , th e e x p la n a tio n o r a c c o u n t of a th in g w h ic h
c o n s i s t s in l i s t i n g i ts s m a l l e s t p a r t s by n a m e is b e in g th o u g h t of a s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p la in in g th e th in g a n d s a y in g it:
•
•
•
o
i
k
CLjrJtv -pvaJ v
o
v
(v
oto
O Ao'/ovj r2v
(202a 6 - 7 ) .
It a p p e a r s , th e n , t h a t th e l i s t of
n a m e s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o r a c c o u n t of a th in g a l s o m a k e s up a
s t a t e m e n t in w h ic h th e th in g i s s a i d (and n ot m e r e l y n a m e d ) ; a n d , in
f a c t , P l a t o g o e s on to a v o w t h e p r i n c i p l e ly in g b e h in d t h i s v ie w , n a m e l y
>
/
t h a t to p u t t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l n a m e s is to u t t e r a s t a t e m e n t ( O V O ^ tv*jV
0*0 {Alt Ko K'Xn/
$J\yfOL\
\o v (0 0
0 u<ri(A ^ 202b 4 - 5 ) .
S a y in g
s o m e t h i n g i s h e r e b e in g i d e n t i f i e d w i t h th e s u c c e s s i v e n a m in g of s o m e
t h i n g s , a n d th e m e r e f a c t t h a t m o r e th a n one n a m e is u t t e r e d is
157
a p p a r e n t l y b eing th o u g h t of a s s u f f i c i e n t to m a k e th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
a n a m e and a s t a t e m e n t .
Now it is m o s t i m p o r t a n t to o b s e r v e w h a t is m e a n t by " p u tti n g
t o g e t h e r " in th is c o n te x t.
T h e a c t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n ( ju s t q u oted ) of th e
t h e o r y of s t a t e m e n t h e ld by S o c r a t e s 1 d r e a m e d p e r s o n a g e s is c l o s e l y
s i m i l a r to th e f o r m of w o r d s w h ic h e x p r e s s e s P l a t o !s own l a t e r t h e o r y
in th e S o p h is t (cf. S o p h . 262d 2 - 6 , 263d 2 - 3 ) .
m e n t i o n b oth n a m e s a n d " s a y i n g p a r t s "
T h e S o p h is t d o e s in d e e d
u s u a ll y t r a n s l a t e d
" v e r b s , " bu t e v id e n tly i n te n d e d to c o v e r p r e d i c a t e s in g e n e r a l * * ) ,
w h e r e a s th e T h e a e t e t u s r e f e r s only to n a m e s .
i t s e l f , of no c o n s e q u e n c e :
B u t th is o m i s s i o n i s , of
ev e n if th e T h e a e t e t u s h ad m e n t i o n e d both
p a r t s of th e s e n t e n c e , a s th e C r a t y l u s s e e m s to do in a s i m i l a r c o n te x t,
12
it w o u ld not h a v e e f fe c te d a ny e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in th e t h e o r y .
F o r it is th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of f u n c tio n t h a t is i m p o r t a n t , a s w e s h a l l
s e e in c o n s i d e r i n g th e S o p h i s t , an d th e c r u c i a l f a c t a b o u t th e T h e a e t e ­
t u s 1 t h e o r y is t h a t e a c h m e a n in g f u l p a r t of th e s e n t e n c e is th o u g h t of a s
do ing e x a c tly th e s a m e t h i n g - - d e s i g n a t i n g s o m e t h i n g .
Z ^ j^TT Ao
h e r e m e a n s no m o r e th a n j u x t a p o s i t i o n , a d d in g t o g e t h e r , w h e r e a s in
t h e S o p h is t it m e a n s r e a l l y " i n t e r w e a v i n g " in a v e r y s t r o n g s e n s e i m ­
p li e d by th e e x p lic i t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of fu n c tio n i n t r o d u c e d th e r e .
A c c o r d in g to th is t h e o r y , th e n , a s t a t e m e n t is th e r e s u l t of a d d ­
in g one n a m e to a n o t h e r ; a c o m p l e t e th o u g h t is th e th in k in g t o g e t h e r of
tw o (o r m o r e ) o b j e c t s .
T h u s th e th o u g h t th a t A l b e r t i n e w a s a boy is to
be a n a ly z e d a s th e c o m p o u n d th o u g h t A l b e r t i n e - b o y , th e s u b s t a n t i v e
w o r d s of th e s e n t e n c e e a c h b e in g t a k e n a s th e n a m e of s o m e o b je c t.
To
158
th in k s u c h a n o b je c t i s to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e w o r d in q u e s t i o n m e a n s ,
a n d to th in k t o g e t h e r th e c l a s s of o b je c ts m e a n t by th e w o r d s of a g iv e n
s e n t e n c e is to u n d e r s t a n d th e s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s s e d by t h a t s e n t e n c e .
H e r e , th e n , w e find b o th a t h e o r y of s e n t e n c e m e a n i n g a n d a t h e o r y of
th in k in g a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o i m p l i c a t e d w it h e a c h o t h e r t h a t to h o ld th e
on e i s t a n t a m o u n t to h o ld in g th e o t h e r .
T h is t h e o r y , s i m p l e a s it i s , c a n e a s i l y be m a d e v e r y s e d u c t i v e .
S u p p o s e you b e g in by a s k i n g w h a t a r e th e l ik e ly c a u s e s of s o m e o n e 's
m is u n d e rs ta n d in g so m e th in g you say.
If you s a y " A l b e r t i n e w a s a b o y , "
th e m o s t l ik e ly c a u s e of m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r f a i l u r e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
i s y o u r h e a r e r * s n o t k n o w in g w h a t A l b e r t i n e i s b e in g r e f e r r e d to.
If
th e n you e x p la in th a t you m e a n th e c h a r a c t e r in P r o u s t , a n d g iv e y o u r
i n t e r l o c u t o r th e n e c e s s a r y p a g e r e f e r e n c e s in R e m e m b r a n c e of T h in g s
P a s t so th a t he c a n a c q u a i n t h i m s e l f w ith A l b e r t i n e , a n d he d o e s s o , he
w i ll th e n u n d e r s t a n d th e n a m e " A l b e r t i n e . " H is u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th is
n a m e , o n e m a y s a y , w i l l a m o u n t to h is a b i l i t y to th in k of j u s t t h a t
c h a r a c t e r in P r o u s t w h e n y o u s a y " A l b e r t i n e " :
in t h i s s e n s e , h is u n ­
d e r s t a n d i n g a m o u n t s to h i s h a v in g A l b e r t i n e b e f o r e h is m i n d fs e y e w h e n
yo u s a y " A l b e r t i n e . "
B u t now s u p p o s in g h e h a s u n d e r s t o o d " A l b e r t i n e " but s t i l l d o e s
n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t y ou h a v e s a i d , w h a t c a n h a v e gon e w r o n g ?
The
only r e m a i n i n g s o u r c e of e r r o r w o u ld a p p e a r to b e f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d
"b o y . "
T o t e a c h t h e m e a n i n g of th e w o r d " b o y " y ou th e n show h im a
s u c c e s s i o n of boy s of a l l v a r i e t i e s , p r o n o u n c in g th e w o r d on e a c h o c c a ­
s io n .
He w ill c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d th e w o r d w h e n he g r a s p s th e c o m m o n
159
p r o p e r t y e x h ib ite d in a l l t h e s e i n s t a n c e s ; an d then his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
th e w o r d w ill be h is a b i l i t y to th in k j u s t th a t p r o p e r t y w h e n th e w o r d
‘'b o y 1' is p r o n o u n c e d .
S u p p o s e th e n he u n d e r s t a n d s both s u b s t a n t i v e p a r t s of th e s e n ­
tence.
Can he now m i s u n d e r s t a n d o r f a i l to u n d e r s t a n d ?
It s e e m s not.
To be s u r e , t h e r e a r e s t i l l " w a s " a n d " a " ; but t h e s e a r e v e r y p a le
th in g s c o m p a r e d w i t h " A l b e r t i n e " a n d " b o y , " a n d even if one d o e s n 't
know a b o u t t e n s e s a n d a r t i c l e s he w ill s t i l l g e t alo n g p r e t t y w e ll.
P ar­
t i c u l a r l y w h e n one h a s p r i m a r i l y in m in d th e s i m p l e s t p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g ­
m e n t s - - s t a t e m e n t s of th e f o r m "X is A" o r "X is a n A " - - t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of th e "X " and th e “ A " s o o v e r s h a d o w e v e r y t h i n g e l s e th a t m u c h of th e
t i m e you co u ld a c t u a l l y g e t a lo n g w ith o u t know ing a n y th in g a b o u t th e
l i t t l e w o r d s th a t c o m e b e tw e e n .
P l a t o c a l l s th e m ,
f
nA , 11 " i s , 11 e tc . , a r e m o r e o v e r , a s
TT^< t (J C ' ) ( o v r ^
(T h t . 202a 5) w h ic h a t t a c h to
e v e r y th i n g , and th e f a c t th a t th e y t u r n up in c o n n e c tio n w ith e v e r y t h i n g
m i g h t be ta k e n , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e t h e o r i e s a b o u t
m e a n i n g , to show t h a t th e y c a n n o t be c o n tr ib u tin g a n y th in g to th e m e a n ­
ing of th e s e n t e n c e .
If a w o r d c a n be a t t a c h e d to a n y th in g , it m i g h t be
s a i d , it c a n n o t h a v e a ny d e f i n i t e m e a n i n g , s i n c e to m e a n s o m e th in g
d e f in ite i s to e x c lu d e a p p l i c a t i o n to s o m e th i n g s , a s m u c h a s it i s to
im p ly a p p lic a t io n to o t h e r s :
a n y th in g t h a t a t t a c h e s to e v e r y t h i n g of
e v e r y v a r i e t y m u s t in d e e d be p a l e and c o n t e n t - l e s s . S o m e s u c h i m p l i ­
c i t view a s th is m a y p a r t l y e x p la in th e n e g l e c t of the c o n n e c t o r w o r d s
a n d th e e x c lu s iv e i n t e r e s t in th e s u b s t a n t i v e w o r d s of a s e n t e n c e .
N a iv e a s t h e s e n o tio n s a r e , th e y do h a v e a c e r t a i n p l a u s i b i l i t y ;
160
a n d in any c a s e o n c e a t t e n t i o n is f o c u s s e d too e x c lu s iv e ly on t h e m o r e
s u b s t a n t i v e w o r d s of th e s e n t e n c e , w h e t h e r by th e r e a s o n i n g j u s t giv e n
o r by s o m e o t h e r m e a n s , th e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g found in th e T h e a e t e t u s 1
d r e a m f o llo w s n a t u r a l l y .
If u n d e r s t a n d i n g and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s e n ­
te n c e is a m a t t e r of know in g o r not kno w ing th e o b j e c ts r e f e r r e d to in
it, th e m e a n i n g of a s e n t e n c e (w hat it s a y s ) m u s t j u s t be th e s u m of it s
references.
And it is e a s y to s e e how th is view of the s e n t e n c e c o u ld
c a u s e D i o n y s o d o r u s 1 f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
F o r s i n c e in
th i s t h e o r y no d i s t i n c t i o n is m a r k e d b e tw e e n s u b j e c t an d p r e d i c a t e it is
i n e v i t a b l e t h a t c h a n g in g a n y ( s u b s t a n t i v e ) w o r d in a s e n t e n c e s h o u ld be
r e g a r d e d a s c h a n g in g th e s u b j e c t a l t o g e t h e r , an d f r o m th is th e d e n ia l of
c o n t r a d i c t i o n fo llo w s .
It is w o r t h n o tic in g h e r e how c e r t a i n of P l a t o ’ s own h a b it s w o u ld
m a k e t h i s t h e o r y b o th i n t e r e s t i n g a nd a t t r a c t i v e to him .
T h e tw o m o s t
s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of th e f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s a r e found a l s o in m u c h of
P l a t o ’ s own p h i l o s o p h i z i n g in th e m i d d l e p e r i o d d ia lo g u e s .
T hese a re
(a) an e m p h a s i s on th e s u b s t a n t i v e p a r t s of th e s e n t e n c e to th e e x c l u ­
s i o n of th e o t h e r s , a n d (b) th e t e n d e n c y to th in k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a
w o r d , w h e t h e r v e r b , a d j e c t i v e , p r o p e r noun, o r c o m m o n noun, a s
d i r e c t i n g o n e ’ s th o u g h t t o w a r d s o m e o b j e c t .
T h e t h e o r y of F o r m s in
t h e m i d d l e p e r i o d d i a l o g u e s e x h ib it s both t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s in P l a t o 1s
th in k in g .
It w a s th e p r e o c c u p a t i o n w ith a d j e c t i v e s , v e r b s , a n d n o u n s
w h ic h , a s th e y a p p e a r e d in t h e i r o r d i n a r y c o n te x ts a p p li e d to th e o r d i ­
n a r y f u r n i t u r e of t h e w o r l d , s e e m e d to be p r o b l e m a t i c a l , th a t l e d h im
to f o r m u l a t e th e t h e o r y of F o r m s .
T h u s in th e p a s s a g e f r o m R e p u b lic
161
VII a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to (5 2 3 a -5 2 4 d ) s u c h a w o r d a s " h a r d " is s a i d to
t u r n out to be u s e d in o r d i n a r y c o n te x ts w ith no c l e a r m e a n in g , s i n c e
th e p e r c e p t i o n w h ic h r e p o r t s s o m e t h i n g to be h a r d a l s o r e p o r t s th e s a m e
th in g a t th e s a m e t i m e to be s o ft (524a 6 ff. ).
In o r d e r to find out w h a t
th e s e n s e s c a n p o s s i b l y be s a y in g in s u c h a c a s e one h as to c o n c e n t r a t e
on th is w o r d " h a r d " a n d a s k w h a t it m e a n s - - a n d not look c l o s e r a t w h a t
th e s e n s e s r e p o r t to you a s h a r d
To find out a b ou t h a r d one r e q u i r e s
to g e t a t it a l l by i t s e l f , an d th e t r o u b l e ab o u t th in g s j u d g e d by the
s e n s e s is th a t by t h a t r o u t e on e a l w a y s g e ts a t h a r d an d so ft a t o n c e , to
th e d e t r i m e n t of o n e 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e i t h e r .
In t h is w ay by c o n c e n ­
t r a t i n g on s o m e s u c h s u b s t a n t i v e w o r d s one ends by s e a r c h i n g out s o m e
o b je c t to w h ic h one c a n d i r e c t h is a t t e n t i o n in o r d e r to s a t i s f y th e d e ­
s i r e to i s o l a t e h a r d j u s t by i t s e l f .
W h e t h e r o r not P l a t o in th e m i d d l e
p e r i o d d ia lo g u e s had a n y f i r m t h e o r y w h ic h e r e c t e d F o r m s f o r e v e r y
a d j e c t i v e a nd c o m m o n noun,
13
it is only too obvious th a t d i f f i c u lti e s
a b o u t th e m e a n i n g s of (at l e a s t s o m e ) s u c h w o r d s o c c u p ie d th e f o r e f r o n t
of h is p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c t i v i t y a t th is p e r i o d ; and it is no l e s s o b viou s th a t
h e found th e s o lu tio n to t h e s e p r o b l e m s by th in k in g of t h e s e w o r d s a s
d e n o tin g c e r t a i n o b j e c t s s u c h t h a t to know th e m w a s to u n d e r s t a n d th e
w o r d s in q u e s tio n .
T h e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g , th e n , w h ic h is p r e s e n t in S o c r a te s *
d r e a m in th e T h e a e t e t u s h a s c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s w h ic h w ou ld
n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e s t r u c k a s y m p a t h e t i c c o r d in P l a t o h i m s e l f , w h a t e v e r
its a c t u a l o r i g in .
A nd e v e n to o t h e r p e o p le it c a n p e r h a p s be m a d e to
s e e m n a t u r a l , by s o m e s u c h r e a s o n i n g a s th e one o f f e r e d two p a r a g r a p h s
162
back.
B u t c o n s i d e r w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n it is p r e s s e d in a c o u p le of
p laces.
ta x .
T h e r e a r e , f i r s t , a n u m b e r of ob v io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s a b o u t s y n ­
T h e t h e o r y a p p a r e n t l y s a y s t h a t a s e n t e n c e is m e a n i n g f u l if a n d
only if it c o n s i s t s of tw o o r m o r e m e a n i n g f u l " n a m e s . " A nd th is
c l e a r l y f a i l s to d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n " S o c r a t e s is a p h i l o s o p h e r " a n d
" w a l k s r i d e s , " to s a y n o th in g of th e m o r e s u b tle s e m a n t i c a l l y odd but
not u n g ra m m a tic a l w o rd -s trin g s such as "C o lo rle ss g reen ideas sleep
fu rio u sly . "
14
O ne th in g t h a t P l a t o d o e s in th e S o p h is t is to i n t r o d u c e a
r u d i m e n t a r y s y n t a c t i c a l t h e o r y , in v o lv in g th e e x p lic i t r e c o g n i t i o n th a t
a s e n t e n c e m u s t c o n ta in a t l e a s t one n oun (o r " n a m i n g p a r t " ) a n d on e
v e r b (o r " s a y i n g p a r t " ) :
tw o n o u n s o r two v e r b s do n o t y e t m a k e a
s e n t e n c e n o r d o e s on e in p r o n o u n c i n g t h e m in s u c c e s s i o n s a y a n y th in g .
W e n e e d n ot, h o w e v e r , r e f u s e to g r a n t th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y e x p la in e d
a b o v e s o m e m e a s u r e of r e c o g n i t i o n of s u c h s y n t a c t i c a l e l e m e n t s in th e
m e a n i n g of a s t a t e m e n t .
We c a n i m a g i n e , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t s u c h a n
a t o m i s t i c a c c o u n t a p p l i e s only w i t h i n c e r t a i n p r e v i o u s l y d e m a r c a t e d
lim its:
s y n t a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e m e t b e f o r e any s t r i n g of
w o r d s c a n b e a d ju d g e d to h a v e a m e a n i n g , b u t o n c e t h i s s t i p u l a t i o n is
f u lf i lle d th e m e a n i n g of a s t r i n g of w o r d s is i d e n t i c a l w it h th e c o m b i n e d
m e a n i n g s of th e s u b s t a n t i v e w o r d s it c o n ta in s .
T h u s th e c r u c i a l p o in t
i s t h a t th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y d o e s n ot s e e any p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e
in t h e f a c t of s y n t a c t i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s ; in r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m a t a l l it
m u s t r e g a r d t h e m a s a r b i t r a r y a n d u n i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m t h e p o in t of v ie w
of p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e m a n t i c s .
A s e c o n d d if fic u lty g o e s d e e p e r .
In c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a r g u m e n t of
163
th e E u th y d e m u s d e n y in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t r a d i c t i o n I s a i d th a t , in
e ffe c t, D io n y s o d o r u s w a s c o n f u s in g th e th in g a s t a t e m e n t s a y s w it h th e
thing it is a b o u t.
How, on th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y j u s t ex pou nd ed , c a n t h i s
c o n f u s io n be a v o id e d ?
If th e th in g d e s i g n a t e d by th e s u b j e c t - e x p r e s s i o n
is s in g le d out a s w h a t th e s e n t e n c e is a b o u t, it m u s t e q u a lly be a d m i t t e d
th a t th e p r e d i c a t e h a s b e e n a s s i g n e d th e f u n c tio n of d e s ig n a tio n ; h e n c e
t h e r e w o u ld s e e m to be no g r o u n d f o r s a y in g th a t " A l b e r t i n e w a s a boy"
a n d " A l b e r t i n e w a s a g i r l " a r e a b o u t th e s a m e th in g th a t is not a l s o a
g ro u n d f o r s a y in g th e s a m e a b o u t " G i r l s a r e n i c e " a n d " B o y s a r e n i c e . "
F u r t h e r m o r e , th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y h a s in e ff e c t m a d e th e s e n t e n c e a s a
w h o le a k in d of n a m e , d e s i g n a t i n g th e c o m p o u n d o b j e c t w h ic h h a s a s
p a r t s t h e th in g s d e s i g n a t e d by th e in d iv id u a l w o r d s .
T h is m e a n s t h a t
th e s e n t e n c e a s a w h o le is d oing e x a c tl y th e s a m e th in g a s a n in d iv id u a l
p r o p e r n a m e ; and if th e c r i t e r i o n of two s e n t e n c e s b ein g a b o u t d i f f e r e n t
th in g s is th a t d i f f e r e n t th in g s a r e n a m e d in th e m , th e n an y two n o n i d e n t i c a l s e n t e n c e s a r e a b o u t d i f f e r e n t t h in g s .
By th in k in g of th e m e a n ­
ing of a w o r d a s th e o b j e c t it d e s i g n a t e s , a n d of th e m e a n in g of a s e n ­
t e n c e a s th e c o m b i n e d d e s i g n a t i o n s of its w o r d s , th is t h e o r y s e e m s
f i r m l y c o m m i t t e d to p r e c i s e l y th e c o n f u s io n w h ic h lay a t th e r o o t of
D io n y so d o ru s* a r g u m e n t .
W h a t lo o k s l ik e c o n t r a d i c t i o n is r e a l l y a
c h a n g e of s u b je c t .
T h is s a m e d if f ic u lty c a n o b v io u s ly be c a r r i e d f u r t h e r to show
t h a t a t o m i s m t h r e a t e n s to a b o l i s h f a l s e h o o d .
C l e a r l y if a s t a t e m e n t is
f a l s e t h e r e m u s t be a n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t w h ic h e x p r e s s e s th e t r u t h a b o u t
th e m a t t e r in q u e s t i o n a n d w h i c h th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t c o n t r a d i c t s .
But
164
a s on a t o m i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s t h e r e i s no c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h e r e i s no f a l s e ­
hood e i t h e r .
T h e s a m e p o in t c a n be m a d e m o r e d i r e c t l y .
S in c e th e
a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y m a k e s a l l s e n t e n c e s in to ( c o m p le x ) n a m e s , a n d a
n a m e s u c c e e d s in p e r f o r m i n g i t s t a s k if it m a n a g e s to r e f e r to s o m e ­
th in g , a l l s i g n i f i c a n t s e n t e n c e s m u s t do s u c c e s s f u l l y w h a t th e y a r e
in te n d e d to do:
lie s its defect?
e v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t s e n t e n c e h a s i t s o b je c t , so w h e r e i n
It a p p e a r s t h a t a l l e g e d f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s , no l e s s t h a n
t r u e , do d e s i g n a t e s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s , a n d it is n ot e a s y to s e e w h a t
m o r e th e t r u e o n e s do to m e r i t th a t t i t l e .
H e n c e th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y
a p p e a r s to l e a v e no r o o m f o r f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s .
F a c e d w ith t h i s d if f ic u lt y a c o n v in c e d a t o m i s t w o u ld h a v e only
one p l a c e to lo o k to find r o o m in h is t h e o r y f o r f a l s e h o o d .
F alse h o o d
m u s t s o m e h o w c o n s i s t in e r r o r in s o m e one o r m o r e of th e c o n s t i t u e n t
n a m e s of a s e n t e n c e .
To h a v e a f a l s e s e n t e n c e you m u s t s o m e h o w h a v e
a f a l s e n a m e - - a n a m e w h ic h d e s i g n a t e s an o b j e c t b ut d o e s s o l e s s w e l l
( " f a l s e l y 11) th a n a n o t h e r n a m e , w h ic h , w e r e it u s e d i n s t e a d , w o u ld
m a k e th e s e n t e n c e t r u e .
T h u s " A l b e r t i n e w a s a boy" s o m e h o w s a y s
th e s a m e th in g a s " A l b e r t i n e w a s a g i r l " (the s a m e o b je c t, A l b e r t i n e b o y , is r e f e r r e d to by b oth) but " b o y " is th e t r u e n a m e f o r boy w h i l e
" g i r l " i s f a l s e , so t h a t th e f i r s t s e n t e n c e e x p r e s s e s a t r u t h , w h e r e a s
th e l a t t e r is f a l s e
S o m e a t t e m p t a lo n g th is lin e s e e m s th e only p o s s i ­
b le w a y of a v o id in g th e u n t o w a r d c o n s e q u e n c e s j u s t e l i c i t e d f r o m th e
th e o ry .
If n a m in g i s t h e only o p e r a t i o n r e c o g n i z e d by th e t h e o r y s o m e
a p p e a l to f a l s e n a m e s m u s t be m a d e in o r d e r to a llo w f a l s e s a y in g .
A nd th e d if f ic u lty a b o u t c o n t r a d i c t i o n c a n only be e v a d e d by h a v in g b o th
165
s t a t e m e n t s s o m e h o w s a y th e s a m e th in g (one of th e m w e ll o r t r u l y , th e
o t h e r b a d ly o r f a ls e ly ) :
o t h e r w i s e t h e r e is no a v o id in g th e c o n s e q u e n c e
t h a t s o - c a l l e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n is j u s t c h a n g in g th e s u b j e c t .
We s h a l l s e e in a m o m e n t th a t th e C r a t y l u s 1 c o n c e r n w ith th e
n o tio n of a f a l s e n a m e is d i r e c t e d p r e c i s e l y a t th is p r o b l e m :
th e
C r a t y l u s in te n d s to d e v e lo p a c l e a r c o n c e p ti o n of f a l s e n a m in g in o r d e r
to in v o k e f a l s e n a m e s a s th e g r o u n d w o r k of a t h e o r y of f a l s e a s s e r t i o n s .
A nd th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 id e a th a t f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s m u s t a l l r e d u c e to f a l s e
i d e n t ity ju d g m e n t s is j u s t th e c o n v in c e d a t o m i s t !s a t t e m p t to s a v e h is
t h e o r y by a p p e a li n g to e r r o r in th e m o d e of d e s i g n a t i n g s o m e p a r t of
th e s e n t e n c e 's m e a n i n g - - t h a t i s , to m i s - n a m i n g , o r (what c o m e s to th e
s a m e ) m i s r e c o g n itio n .
It w ill be u s e f u l , h o w e v e r , b e f o r e t u r n i n g to t h e s e f u r t h e r d e v e l ­
o p m e n t s , to ha v e in view th e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g p r o d u c e d in th e S o p h i s t ,
on th e b a s i s of w h ic h P l a t o fin a l ly p u ts f o r w a r d a n a c c o u n t of f a ls e h o o d
t h a t h a s s o m e c h a n c e of b e in g a c c e p t a b l e .
I have at v a rio u s p la c e s
a b o v e r e f e r r e d to th e m a i n f e a t u r e s of th e new t h e o r y of m e a n in g , but
it w i ll be u s e f u l to c o l l e c t t h e m h e r e so a s to s e e c l e a r l y th e p l a c e s
w h e r e th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y w a s f in a ll y fo und d e f ic i e n t.
T h e S o p h is t
ha s b e e n m u c h s tu d i e d a nd c o m m e n t e d on, but, w h ile a c u t e l y a w a r e of
th e v e r y g r e a t d i f f ic u l tie s in u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t P l a t o s a y s t h e r e , I
th in k c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e not g e n e r a l l y s e e n th e i m p o r t a n c e of P l a t o ' s
r e c o g n i t i o n of s y n t a c t i c a l e l e m e n t s in th e m e a n i n g of a s e n t e n c e . ^
is i m p o r t a n t to g e t th is s t r a i g h t in o r d e r to show th e b e a r i n g of th e
S o p h i s t ' s d i s c u s s i o n on t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y w h ic h , a s I h a v e b e e n
It
166
c o n te n d in g , i s th e m a i n r e a s o n f o r P l a t o 1s i n t e r e s t in th e s o p h i s t s 1
a rg u m e n t a g a in s t falseh o o d .
In th e S o p h i s t (260b 1 0 - 2 6 3 d 5), th e E l e a t i c S t r a n g e r , h a v in g
a r g u e d a t l e n g t h t h e i n t e r c o m m u n i o n of F o r m s a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t
e x i s t e n c e of n o t - b e i n g , a t l e a s t u n d e r th e a s p e c t of th e n o n - i d e n t i t y of
a n y F o r m w ith a n y o t h e r , u n d e r t a k e s to show t h a t s t a t e m e n t a n d b e l i e f
a r e s u c h a s to a d m i t o f n o t - b e i n g a n d h e n c e of f a l s e h o o d .
At the b e g in ­
nin g of th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p a r t of t h e d i a lo g u e (237a ff. ) he h a s c o n f e s s e d
th e n e c e s s i t y of fin d in g s o m e a n a l y s i s w h ic h w ill p e r m i t a lo g o s to s a y
Tfl.
o \/T a
w i t h o u t i m p l y i n g t h a t it s a y s n o th in g a t a ll :
th e s o p h ­
i s t s , a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m th e E u t h y d e m u s , c a n show th a t f a l s e h o o d is
i m p o s s i b l e u n l e s s in s a y i n g w h a t i s n o t a lo g o s n e v e r t h e l e s s s a y s s o m e ­
th in g t h a t e x i s t s (th a t t h e r e i s t o s a y ) .
H e r e he t u r n s , a t l a s t , to t h i s
task.
I t m a y s e e m p u z z l i n g t h a t , h a v in g sh o w n th e e x i s t e n c e of w h a t
i s n o t i n a s e n s e t h a t d o e s n o t g iv e r i s e to an y p a r a d o x , th e S t r a n g e r
s h o u ld th in k h is j o b s t i l l f a r f r o m c o m p l e t e .
B ut of c o u r s e h e m u s t n o t
only sh o w t h a t " w h a t i s n o t" is a m b i g u o u s , a n d d o e s n o t a lw a y s m e a n
(if i t c o u ld m e a n t h i s a t a l l ) " w h a t h a s no b ein g w h a t s o e v e r " :
he m u s t
sh o w t h a t w h e n a s t a t e m e n t i s s a i d to be f a l s e , an d to s a y " w h a t is
n o t , " t h e s e n s e of " w h a t i s n o t" i s a n in n o c u o u s one w h ic h d o e s n o t
im p l y t h a t s a y i n g n o th in g i s s a y i n g s o m e t h i n g .
T h e r e f o r e , a s he s a y s
(260a 7 - 8 ) , h e a n d T h e a e t e t u s m u s t r e a c h a n a g r e e m e n t a s to w h a t l o g o s
i s in o r d e r to r e f u t e t h e s o p h i s t s o n c e a n d f o r a ll.
O n c e th e n a t u r e of
lo g o s i s u n d e r s t o o d th e q u e s t i o n c a n b e f a c e d w h e t h e r , a n d if s o how,
167
lo g o s " h a s a s h a r e in
to
"
(260d 6 - 8 ).
T h e a r g u m e n t t h e r e f o r e p r o c e e d s in tw o s t a g e s :
f i r s t th e S t r a n g e r
a s k s th e q u e s t i o n w h a t i t i s to s a y s o m e t h i n g , a n d th e n he sh o w s how,
g iv e n t h i s a n a l y s i s of s t a t e m e n t , it is p o s s i b l e to s a y s o m e th in g f a l s e ,
s o m e t h i n g t h a t " i s n o t. "
P u t v e r y r o u g h ly , a n d s u b j e c t to f u r t h e r
c l a r i f i c a t i o n , h e d r a w s a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n n a m in g an d s a y i n g
s o m e t h i n g , a n d e m p h a s i z e s th e f a c t th a t in a s t a t e m e n t s o m e t h i n g g e ts
a s s e r t e d of s o m e t h i n g e l s e , a n d t h a t th is is not a n d c a n n o t be a m a t t e r
of n a m i n g m e r e l y .
A nd f a l s e h o o d th e n e m e r g e s a s th e a s s e r t i o n of one
th in g of a n o t h e r , w h e r e t h e th in g a s s e r t e d i £ n o t (not in th e s e n s e of
n o n - e x i s t e n c e , but in t h e s e n s e of d i f f e r e n c e ) a n y of the th in g s to w h i c h
t h e s u b j e c t d o e s in f a c t s t a n d r e l a t e d a s th e s t a t e m e n t r e p r e s e n t s t h e m .
T h e r e i s , n e i t h e r in t r u e n o r in f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s , a n y th in g n o n - e x i s t e n t
b e in g t a l k e d a b o u t o r a s s e r t e d of a n y th in g , s i n c e s a y in g is n ot j u s t
n a m in g ; e a c h p a r t of th e s e n t e n c e , a n d th e s e n t e n c e a s a w h o le , c a n be
m e a n in g f u l a n d y e t w h a t is s a i d m a y be f a l s e .
T h e s t r a n g e r ' s f i r s t m o v e i s , th e n , to p ro p o u n d a t h e o r y of
lo g o s .
H e r e h is c r u c i a l a d v a n c e o v e r t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y is in a l l o w ­
ing m o r e to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d in a s e n t e n c e t h a n t h e d e s i g n a t i o n of s o m e
e x i s t e n t t h in g s . ^
of s o m e th in g .
As 1 put it above, se n te n c e s a ls o a s s e r t som ething
How do th e y m a n a g e to do t h i s ?
The S tr a n g e r 's e x p o si­
tio n of h is t h e o r y i s v e r y b r i e f , a n d i t w ill r e q u i r e a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to p r o d u c e a c l e a r a n s w e r to th e q u e s tio n .
T h e S t r a n g e r b e g in s i m m e d i a t e l y (2 6 l c ff. ) by s u g g e s ti n g t h a t
not e v e r y m e a n i n g f u l w o r d w i l l fit t o g e t h e r in a s e n t e n c e w ith e v e r y
168
o t h e r m e a n in g f u l w o r d .
w ords,
o v O |^ a To.
T h e r e a r e , in f a c i , two d i s t i n c t k in d s of
(o r n a m i n g - w o r d s ) an d * *
(lite ra lly " v e rb s "
b u t p r o b a b l y in c lu d in g d e s c r i b i n g - w o r d s g e n e r a l l y ) .
17
However m e a n -
in g fu l any two i n d iv id u a l w o r d s m a y be th e y do not w h e n p r o n o u n c e d in
s u c c e s s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e a lo g o s t h a t i t s e l f ha s any m e a n i n g :
a s u c c e s s i o n of n o u n s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r a s u c c e s s i o n of v e r b s , th o u g h
m e a n i n g f u l in it s p a r t s , h a s no m e a n i n g a s a w h o l e .
Any m e a n i n g f u l
lo g o s r e q u i r e s (at l e a s t ) on e n a m i n g - p a r t a n d one d e s c r i b i n g - p a r t :
tw o
s u c h w o r d s fit t o g e t h e r (262c 5 - 6 ) to f o r m a new e n tity , th e l o g o s ,
w h e r e a s w o r d s no t c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g to th is r u l e f a il to c o m b in e a n d
r e m a i n n o th in g m o r e th a n i n d iv i d u a l n a m e s ( o r o t h e r w o r d s ) w ith no
m o r e m e a n i n g th a n th e m e a n i n g s of e a c h in d i v id u a l w o r d .
A lo g o s ,
h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e of th e f a c t t h a t i t c o n s i s t s of d i s p a r a t e p a r t s p e r ­
f o r m i n g d i f f e r e n t f u n c ti o n s d o e s s u c c e e d in m e a n i n g m o r e th a n th e
m e a n i n g s of its p a r t s :
a n y o n e w ho p r o n o u n c e s in s u c c e s s i o n w o r d s th a t
f it t o g e t h e r in th i s w a y ' ' i n d i c a t e s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t w h a t is o r c o m e s to
b e o r c a m e to be o r i s a b o u t to b e , a n d d oesn* t m e r e l y n a m e s o m e t h i n g ,
but g e ts s o m e w h e r e by w e a v in g t o g e t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s w ith n a m e s "
(262d 2 - 4 ) .
T h e e f f e c t, t h a t is to s a y , of n a m in g s o m e o n e a n d t h e n
p r o n o u n c i n g a w o r d m e a n i n g an a c t i o n (262b 5 -6 ) is t h a t you a s s e r t t h a t
j u s t t h a t p e r s o n is p e r f o r m i n g j u s t t h a t a c tio n :
th is you c o u ld n ot h a v e
d o n e if t h e tw o w o r d s w e r e m e r e l y j u x t a p o s e d and not r e a l l y f i t t e d
to g eth er.
T h e s y n t a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t a b o u t nouns a n d v e r b s ( d e s c r i p ­
t i o n s ) , w h ic h e n a b le s t h i s i n t e r w e a v i n g a n d fittin g t o g e t h e r , t u r n s out
not to be th e a r b i t r a r y a n d u n i n t e r e s t i n g th in g w h ic h th e a t o m i s t i c
169
t h e o r y a s s u m e d it to b e , i n s o f a r a s it too k n o tic e of it a t a ll.
For be­
h in d th e s y n t a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t l i e s th e e s s e n c e of the lo g o s , i t s a b i l ­
ity to a s s e r t s o m e th in g , to g e t s o m e w h e r e (
»
v
T <)
a n d do
m o r e th a n n a m e s o m e t h i n g .
How, th e n , a c c o r d i n g to t h is t h e o r y , d o e s a s e n t e n c e m a n a g e to
a s s e r t som ething?
P l a t o s a y s t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e of w o r d s
d o e s not i n d i c a t e a n y f a c t o r e v e n t u n til d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e m in g l e d w i th
n a m e s ; an d th e a b i l i t y of a s t r e a m of w o r d s of th is s o r t to s a y s o m e ­
th in g is put down to th e f a c t t h a t noun a n d d e s c r i p t i o n fit t o g e t h e r
(262c 5).
W hat d o e s t h i s c o m e to ?
d e s c r i p t i o n s in P l a t o ' s e x a m p l e s (
T h e f i r s t p o in t to n o tic e is th a t th e
tPl/ ^ e-»,
Tf
K<X&6 u S V l)
a r e a l l f in ite v e r b s , a n d n o t f o r e x a m p l e in f in i tiv e s o r (if he w e r e
s p e a k in g E n g lis h ) g e r u n d s .
" T o w a lk " an d ’'w a lk in g 11 a r e , a s i t w e r e ,
n a m e s of v e r b s , a n d P l a t o m i g h t h a v e c o n s t r u c t e d his l i s t of v e r b s
w ith in f in itiv e s o r g e r u n d s : w a lk in g , ru n n in g , an d s l e e p in g , o r to w a lk ,
to r u n , to s l e e p .
I th in k i t is c r u c i a l to th e t h e o r y he m e a n s to a d o p t
th a t h is d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e a l l f i n i te v e r b s a n d not in f in itiv e s o r g e r u n d s .
F o r a lth o u g h “ to w a l k ” is a s m u c h a
fe-TT* T“ai s 7T^a£6Tiv^
(262a 3) a s " w a l k s , ” a n d p e r h a p s m o r e so, only th e f in ite v e r b f o r m
c o m e s w ith i ts fu n c tio n in th e s e n t e n c e a l r e a d y c l e a r l y m a r k e d .
" W a l k s ” d e m a n d s to be c o m p l e t e d by th e a d d i tio n of a n a m e b e f o r e it;
i t s d e s c r i b i n g r o l e i s a l r e a d y f ix e d , w h e r e a s a n in f in itiv e , th o u g h p e r ­
haps a p u r e r
of a n a c t i o n , is f o r th a t v e r y r e a s o n n o t a good
c a n d id a te f o r th e m i x e d r o l e t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s p la y in s e n t e n c e s .
L ik e
" t o w a l k , ” " w a l k s ” e x p r e s s e s t h e c o n c e p t of w a lk in g (let us s a y ), b ut
170
u n lik e t h e in f i n i t i v e t h e f in i te f o r m is a d a p t e d to t h e a d d i t i o n a l f u n c tio n
of f itt in g t o g e t h e r w ith a no un s o a s to a p p ly t h a t c o n c e p t to it.
P l a t o 1s
u s e of f i n i t e f o r m s t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t s t h a t th e i m p o r t a n t p a r t of h is
* ✓
t h e o r y i s th e d e s c r i p t i v e f u n c tio n w h i c h h e a s s i g n s to
j and
no t th e f a c t (262a 1 -7 ) t h a t b o th a p e r s o n a n d a n a c t i o n m u s t a p p e a r in
any c o m p le te se n te n c e .
T h e i m p o r t a n t p o in t i s th e f itt in g t o g e t h e r of
n a m e and a c tio n -w o rd .
A s t a t e m e n t , th e n , a s s e r t s s o m e t h i n g (and d o e s n o t m e r e l y
n a m e o r i n d i c a t e s o m e th in g s t h a t e x i s t) b e c a u s e it c o n ta in s a p a r t
w h o s e f u n c ti o n i t i s n o t only to i n d i c a t e s o m e o b je c t (s a y w a l k i n g ) b u t
a l s o to d e s c r i b e th e o b j e c t n a m e d by t h e s u b j e c t of th e s e n t e n c e a s p e r ­
f o r m i n g th e a c t i o n i n d i c a t e d .
By c o n t r a s t w it h th e a t o m i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n
s e t o u t a b o v e , t h i s t h e o r y e x p l i c i t l y o b s e r v e s th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a
n a m e a n d a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d a s s i g n s to th e p a r t s of a s e n t e n c e tw o s e p ­
a r a t e fun ctio n s.
A s e n t e n c e i s to be r e g a r d e d not a s t h e s u m of w o r d s
w h ic h , t a k e n in i s o l a t i o n , p e r f o r m t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c r o l e j u s t a s fu lly a s
w h e n th e y a r e t a k e n t o g e t h e r in a s e n t e n c e .
By i t s e l f 11T h e a e t e t u s 11
n a m e s T h e a e t e t u s , b ut by i t s e l f " w a l k s , ” th o u g h p e r h a p s i t i n d i c a t e s
w a lk in g a n d s o h a s a m e a n i n g in i s o l a t i o n , d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y p e r f o r m
i ts j o b of d e s c r i b i n g .
It is only w i t h i n th e s e n t e n c e t h a t a f i n i t e v e r b
a c c o m p l i s h e s i t s t a s k of d e s c r i b i n g s o m e t h i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e a s e n ­
t e n c e c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d (as th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y r e g a r d e d it) a s a n
a g g r e g a t e of w o r d s w h i c h c o u ld f u n c t io n j u s t a s e f f e c ti v e ly a l l by t h e m ­
selv es.
T h o u g h it i s " f l i e s " in " T h e a e t e t u s f l i e s " w h ic h d e s c r i b e s
T h e a e t e t u s , " f l i e s " t a k e n by i t s e l f d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e a n y th in g .
171
T he S t r a n g e r s t h e o r y of lo g o s t h e r e f o r e r e j e c t s th e tw o c e n t r a l
f e a t u r e s of th e a t o m i s t i c a c c o u n t of th e s e n t e n c e .
T h e re a r e o th er fu n ­
d a m e n t a l L inguistic o p e r a t i o n s th a n n a m i n g , a n d a s e n t e n c e is n ot
m e r e l y a c o l l e c t i o n of w o r d s f u n c tio n in g in c o m p l e t e in d e p e n d e n c e of
one a n o t h e r .
It is o b v io u s , of c o u r s e , t h a t th e new t h e o r y , a s e x p la in e d
by th e S t r a n g e r a n d e x p o u n d e d a b o v e , is i n c o m p l e t e .
ity to th in k up e x a m p l e s f o r w h i c h i t d o e s n o t w o r k .
It t a k e s no i n g e n u ­
W o r d - o r d e r is n o t
m e n t i o n e d , n o r i s a n y a c c o u n t ta k e n of s e m a n t i c a l s o u r c e s of m e a n i n g ­
lessn ess.
B ut i t d o e s a c c u r a t e l y r e c o r d t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t a b o u t a
s t a t e m e n t , t h a t in it a n a s s e r t i o n i s m a d e .
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s
a c h ie v e m en t o v ersh ad o w s a ll th e s e o th e r in a d e q u a c ies:
for P lato w as
th e f i r s t p e r s o n to r e a c h e x p l i c i t p h i l o s o p h i c a l a w a r e n e s s of th is a b s o ­
l u te ly f u n d a m e n ta l f a c t a b o u t l a n g u a g e a n d th o u g h t.
That co m m en tato rs
h a v e not g iv e n h i m c r e d i t f o r t h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t is d u e to th e f a c t
th a t th e y h a v e n o t a p p r e c i a t e d r i g h t l y th e n a t u r e of th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y
w h ic h P l a t o h ad to f ig h t h is w a y t h r o u g h .
T h e new t h e o r y of lo g o s i s , h o w e v e r , only p a r t , th o u g h th e
a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l p a r t , of th e S t r a n g e r * s t a s k .
He m u s t now sh ow
how, on t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of lo g o s , f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e p o s s i b l e in
w h ic h h o w e v e r t h e r e is no a t t e m p t to n a m e o r r e f e r to w h a t is n o th in g
a t a ll .
T h e s u b s e q u e n t e x p la n a ti o n of f a l s e h o o d ( 2 6 2 e -2 6 3 d ) is e x t r e m e l y
b r i e f a n d d if f ic u lt to i n t e r p r e t in d e t a i l w ith an y a s s u r a n c e .
W h a t th e
S t r a n g e r w a n ts to sh o w is t h a t s e n t e n c e s c a n c o n v e y f a l s e h o o d s e v e n
th o u g h th e y m e e t a l l th e r e q u i r e m e n t s of m e a n i n g f u l n e s s , in c lu d in g th e
r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t n o th in g n o n - e x i s t e n t b e m e n t i o n e d .
He t h e r e f o r e
172
p o in ts out, t a k in g a s e x a m p l e s " T h e a e t e t u s s i t s (is s i tt in g ) " a n d " T h e ­
a e t e t u s i s f l y i n g , " tw o f a c t s :
(1) e a c h s e n t e n c e m e e t s t h e s y n t a c t i c a l
r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s a y in g s o m e t h i n g m e a n i n g f u l , a s la i d down a b o v e
(262e 1 2 -1 3 ), a n d (2) b o th t h e c o n s t i t u e n t w o r d s of e a c h s e n t e n c e h a v e
i n d i v id u a lly a m e a n i n g , i. e. , th e y i n d i c a t e s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s (263c
7 - 1 1 , b 1 1 -1 2 )
a n d n o t n o th in g s .
T h e a e t e t u s , fly in g a n d s i t t i n g a r e d e f i n i t e s o m e t h i n g s ,
B o th s e n t e n c e s a r e m e a n i n g f u l , w h e t h e r by t h e s t a n d ­
a r d s of th e s o p h i s t s o r by t h o s e of th e S t r a n g e r h i m s e l f .
B u t in w h a t c o n s i s t s th e f a l s i t y of " T h e a e t e t u s is f ly in g " ?
I t is
in d e c i d i n g w h a t P l a t o 1s a n s w e r to t h i s q u e s t i o n is t h a t d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e .
T h e c r u c i a l l i n e s (263b 4 - 1 2 ) r e a d ( o m itt in g T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e s p o n s e s ) :
(1) T h e t r u e s t a t e m e n t s a y s th in g s t h a t a r e a s th e y a r e in y o u r
case.
(2) W h ile , t h e n , t h e f a l s e s a y s o t h e r t h in g s th a n th e th in g s t h a t
are
(3) So it s a y s th i n g s t h a t a r e n o t a s if th e y w e r e .
(4) T h in g s t h a t a r e , th e n , b u t th in g s o t h e r th a n th e th in g s t h a t
a r e in y o u r c a s e .
F o r w e s a i d t h a t t h e r e a r e in d e e d in th e c a s e of e a c h
th in g m a n y th i n g s t h a t a r e , a n d m a n y t h a t a r e not.
T h is s p e c i f i c a t i o n of how f a l s e h o o d c o m e s a b o u t e v i d e n tly e m ­
p lo y s th e n o tio n of o t h e r n e s s in s o m e w a y .
T h e u s u a l v ie w h a s b e e n
t h a t P l a t o h e r e e x p l a i n s f a l s e h o o d a s p r e d i c a t i n g of a th in g s o m e t h i n g
th a t is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h a n y of t h e th in g s w h ic h it p a r t i c i p a t e s in .
18
T h e r e a s o n f o r th in k i n g t h a t t h i s is P l a t o 1s v iew is p r e s u m a b l y to b e
fo un d in (2), t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t in th u s a s s o c i a t i n g
173
th e n o t - b e i n g of f a l s e h o o d w ith o t h e r n e s s P l a t o m e a n s to be a p p e a l i n g
to th e s e n s e of n o t - b e i n g a s o t h e r n e s s e s t a b l i s h e d in th e d i s c u s s i o n of
th e c o m m u n i o n of F o r m s e a r l i e r in th e d ia lo g u e (2 5 2 -2 5 9 ).
A nd,
th o u g h th a t d i s c u s s i o n is in p l a c e s q u it e o b s c u r e , t h e r e a r e g r o u n d s
f o r th in k in g t h a t th e only k in d of n o t - b e i n g w h ic h is t h e r e p r o v e d to
e x i s t is n o n - i d e n t i t y .
H e n c e , i t is th o u g h t, P l a t o m u s t be s a y in g t h a t a
f a l s e s t a t e m e n t p r e d i c a t e s s o m e t h i n g t h a t is not i d e n t i c a l w ith a ny of
th e th in g s t h a t th e th in g in q u e s t i o n d o e s in f a c t p a r t i c i p a t e in.
Now I th in k m y s e l f t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n a l view is v e r y p r o b a b l y
c o r r e c t ; v e r y l ik e ly , th e s e n s e of o t h e r n e s s P l a t o r e l i e s on in e x p l a i n ­
ing how a f a l s e s t a t e m e n t i s m e a n i n g f u l a n d y e t s a y s " w h a t is n o t" is
th e s e n s e of n o n - i d e n t i t y .
I t is n e v e r t h e l e s s t r u e , a s M o r a v c s i k h a s
a r g u e d , 19 t h a t P la to * s d i s c u s s i o n of n e g a tio n in 2 5 7 b - 2 5 8 c , is not
e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s o p e r a t i n g w ith a n o tio n of n o n - i d e n t i t y e x c lu \
./
siv e ly ; th u s P l a t o s a y s t h a t \ o
KcxAov is o t h e r th a n n o th in g e l s e
than
To
Klokov
(257d 1 0 -1 1 ), w h ile n e v e r t h e l e s s r e c o g n i z i n g ( e . g . ,
259b) t h a t e v e r y th in g i s o t h e r t h a n (not i d e n t i c a l w ith ) e v e r y th in g e l s e .
To go in to th e a n a l y s i s of t h i s v e r y d if f ic u lt p a s s a g e of th e S o p h is t
w o u ld ta k e us too f a r f r o m o u r m a i n c o n c e r n , w h i c h is w i th th e n o tio n s
of s a y in g a nd m e a n i n g a n d t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n w it h P l a t o 1s p r o b l e m a b o u t
falseh o o d .
N o r s h a l l I d i s c u s s th e v ie w a b o u t o t h e r n e s s w h ic h M o r a v c s i k
a t t e m p t s to e x t r a c t f r o m th e p a s s a g e a n d a p p ly to th e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e ­
hood in 2 6 2 - 2 6 3 .
B u t w h a t e v e r s e n s e of o t h e r n e s s 2 5 7 - 2 5 8 o p e r a t e s
w ith , it i s c e r t a i n t h a t o t h e r n e s s a s n o n - i d e n t i t y is r e c o g n i z e d by P l a t o ;
a n d I th in k it c a n be sh o w n t h a t t h i s c o n c e p tio n is a l l one n e e d s in o r d e r
174
to m a k e P l a t o fs a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d b o th c o g e n t in i t s e l f a n d p e r s u a ­
s i v e a g a i n s t th e s o p h i s t s w h o m h is d i s c u s s i o n is m a in ly d e s i g n e d to
placate.
T o sho w th is m u c h is e n o u g h f o r m y p u r p o s e s , s i n c e m y
in te re s ts h ere lie
m a i n l y in P l a t o 1s t h e o r y of m e a n in g a n d s t a t e m e n t
a n d how th i s t h e o r y c o n t r i b u t e s to th e s o lu tio n of th e p r o b l e m of f a l s e ­
ho od , a n d not in th e d e t a i l of th e a n a l y s i s of n e g a t io n a n d f a l s e h o o d f o r
t h e i r own s a k e s .
M o rav csik has arg u ed
20
t h a t th e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d in t e r m s
of n o n - i d e n t i t y is a v e r y f a u lty e x p l a n a ti o n .
F o r if s a y i n g s o m e t h i n g
f a l s e i s s a y in g s o m e t h i n g t h a t is d i f f e r e n t f r o m a ny of th e th in g s t h a t
a r e t r u e in th e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e in q u e s t i o n , it fo llo w s , he t h i n k s , th a t
in o r d e r to know t h a t w h a t s o m e o n e h a s s a i d is f a l s e one m u s t know
t h a t t h e p r e d i c a t e e x p r e s s e d is d i f f e r e n t f r o m a l l th e p r e d i c a t e s th e
s u b j e c t d o e s in f a c t b e a r .
A n d s u r e l y th i s m e a n s t h a t in o r d e r to know
s o m e t h i n g to be f a l s e o n e m u s t know a l l th e t r u t h s t h e r e a r e to know
a b o u t th e th in g .
B u t in r e q u i r i n g t h a t th e p r e d i c a t e be n o n - i d e n t i c a l
w i t h a ny a n d a l l th e p r e d i c a t e s w h ic h th e s u b j e c t a c t u a l l y b e a r s th e
p r o p o s e d a n a l y s i s a p p e a r s to p l a c e a n a b s u r d l y s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n on
o u r a b i l i t y to know an y s t a t e m e n t to be f a l s e .
B u t d o e s th e a n a l y s i s r e a l l y r e q u i r e t h a t fin d in g out t h a t s o m e ­
th in g i s f a l s e m u s t e n t a i l t h i s H e r c u l e a n t a s k ?
M o rav csik * s c r i t i c i s m
s e e m s to in v o lv e t h e n o tio n t h a t in a n a l y z i n g a c o n c e p t one is p r o v i d i n g
ru le s fo r its ap p licatio n :
th u s if f a l s e h o o d is a n a l y z e d a s s a y in g s o m e ­
th in g d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y th in g t h a t i s t r u e of th e s u b j e c t , M o r a v c s i k c o n ­
c l u d e s t h a t on t h i s a n a l y s i s to d e t e r m i n e t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s f a l s e one
175
m u s t a c q u i r e a l i s t of a l l th e th in g s t h a t a r e t r u e of th e s u b j e c t a n d th e n
e s t a b l i s h th a t non e of t h e m i s i d e n t i c a l w ith w h a t w a s a s s e r t e d of it.
B ut I th in k t h i s m i s c o n c e i v e s th e p u r p o s e of p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s in
g e n e r a l a n d th e a i m of P l a t o ' s a n a l y s i s of f a ls e h o o d in p a r t i c u l a r .
An
a n a l y s i s of a c o n c e p t m u s t , in g e n e r a l , a t l e a s t p r o v i d e f o r th e e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a l e n c e of a n a l y s a n s a n d a n a l y s a n d u m , a n d in s o m e c a s e s
p e r h a p s i d e n ti ty of i n t e n s i o n a s w e ll; but in no c a s e m u s t it p r o v i d e
r u l e s f o r th e a p p l i c a t i o n of a c o n c e p t.
P r o v i d e d t h a t th e m e a n i n g of a
w o r d is no t th e s a m e a s th e m e t h o d of v e r i f y i n g t h a t it a p p li e s to s o m e ­
th in g , th e n to a n a l y z e a c o n c e p t e v e n in th e s e n s e of p r o v i d in g a n i n t e n s i o n a l e q u iv a le n t w i ll n o t be th e s a m e a s giving r u l e s f o r i t s a p p l i c a t i o n .
W ha t it m e a n s to s a y t h a t a s e n t e n c e is f a l s e w ill th e n be d i s t i n c t f r o m
how one sh o w s it to b e f a l s e , a n d t h e r e is no r e a s o n to e x p e c t th a t a n
a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d s h o u ld h a v e a n y th in g s p e c i a l l y to do w ith m e t h o d s
of v e r i f i c a t i o n .
T h e m e t h o d s f o r t e s t i n g th e f a l s e h o o d of a s t a t e m e n t ,
w h a t e v e r th e y m a y be, w ill a l s o , g iv e n th e e v id e n t e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a ­
l e n c e of th e a n a l y s i s in t e r m s of n o n - i d e n t i t y , be m e th o d s f o r t e s t i n g
w h e t h e r th e s t a t e m e n t a s s e r t s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y th in g t h a t
is th e c a s e .
H e n c e th e a n a l y s i s d o e s not r e s t r i c t m e t h o d s of v e r i f i c a ­
tio n in a n y w a y in w h i c h th e y w e r e not r e s t r i c t e d b e f o r e th e p r o v i s i o n
of th e a n a l y s i s , a n d a n y o n e w h o a c c e p t s it is f r e e to e m p lo y any t e s t of
t r u t h a n d f a ls e h o o d w h i c h a n y o n e e l s e m i g h t u s e .
It is w o r t h b e a r i n g in m i n d a l s o th a t p h ilo s o p h i c a l a n a l y s e s a r e
o f f e r e d in a p a r t i c u l a r c o n te x t a n d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e .
P la to 's
p u r p o s e in giving a n a n a l y s i s of f a ls e h o o d , i t s h o u ld be r e c a l l e d , is to
176
sho w how, in th e f a c e of th e s o p h i s t s 1 o b j e c t i o n s , a f a l s e s t a t e m e n t c a n
be m eaningful.
F o r th is p u r p o s e he n e e d s only in v o k e n o tio n s w h ic h
th e s o p h i s t s h a v e no d iff ic u lty u n d e r s t a n d i n g and show how th e y a r e
s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s f o r v in d i c a t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of m e a n i n g f u l f a l s e h o o d .
H e n c e he n e e d n ot c l a i m t h a t MX is f a l s e ” m e a n s th e s a m e a s ” X
a s s e r t s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t . . . , ” but only th a t if th e s o p h i s t s g r a n t
h im , a s h e h a s a r g u e d th e y m u s t , th e c o n c e p t of d i f f e r e n c e , he c a n
sh o w t h a t m e a n in g f u l f a l s e h o o d e x i s t s .
F o r th is p u r p o s e th e e x te n -
s i o n a l e q u iv a le n c e of f a l s e h o o d a n d h is a n a l y s i s in t e r m s of d i f f e r e n c e
is su fficien t:
in a llo w in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y of s a y in g s o m e t h i n g m e a n in g f u l
w h e r e t h e p r e d i c a t e e x p r e s s i o n i n d i c a t e s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m a ny
of th e th in g s th a t a r e t h e c a s e f o r a g iv e n s u b j e c t , th e s o p h i s t s a l s o
a d m it falseh o o d .
It s e e m s to m e , th e n , t h a t th e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d in t e r m s of
n o n - i d e n t i t y w h i c h P l a t o i s u s u a l l y th o u g h t to h a v e p r o p o s e d is both
c o g e n t in i t s e l f a n d w e l l - s u i t e d to h is p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s .
Hence a l ­
th o u g h i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t 2 5 7 - 2 5 8 c o n t a i n s a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e of o t h e r n e s s
f r o m t h i s , a n d th o u g h th e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d m a y , on c l o s e e x a m i n a ­
tio n , t u r n o ut to e m p lo y th e s e n s e of o t h e r n e s s fou nd t h e r e , P l a t o 1s
a r g u m e n t c a n b e m a d e i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d s a t i s f y i n g on th e b a s i s of th e
f u l l y - a c c r e d i t e d s e n s e of o t h e r n e s s a s n o n - i d e n t i t y .
If th e n w e a s s u m e t h a t o nly th e n o tio n of n o n - i d e n t i t y is in v o k e d ,
in a d d iti o n to th e a c c o u n t of s t a t e m e n t a l r e a d y e x p la in e d , th e b r i e f p a s ­
s a g e (263b 4 - 1 2 ) , t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e , in w h ic h th e t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d is
e x p la i n e d h a s th e f o llo w in g i m p o r t .
(1)
B o th t r u e a n d f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s
177
a s s e r t s o m e th i n g of a s u b j e c t .
T h e t r u e s t a t e m e n t , t h a t T h e a e t e t u s is
s i t t i n g , a s s e r t s of T h e a e t e t u s t h a t he is s i t t i n g , an d one of th e th in g s
t h a t is th6 c a s e a b o u t T h e a e t e t u s i s t h a t he is s it tin g .
T h e r e is n o th in g
in th e te x t im p ly in g any p a r t i c u l a r a n a l y s i s of th e f a c t t h a t T h e a e t e t u s
i s s i t t i n g - - n o t , f o r e x a m p le , a n a n a l y s i s in t e r m s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a
F o r m S ittin g , th oug h I s e e no h a r m in th in k in g of th e m a t t e r in th is w a y .
W h e t h e r one th in k s of s i tti n g a s a F o r m in w h ic h T h e a e t e t u s p a r t i c i ­
p a t e s , o r j u s t a s an a c t i o n he is p e r f o r m i n g , th e i m p o r t a n t p o in t is t h a t
th e F o r m o r th e a c t i o n is not j u s t i n d i c a t e d by s o m e w o r d in th e s e n ­
t e n c e , but is a s s e r t e d of th e s u b j e c t by m e a n s of th e fittin g t o g e t h e r of
fin it e v e r b and n a m e .
(2)
The fa ls e s ta te m e n t lik ew ise a s s e r t s s o m e ­
th in g , b u t w h a t it a s s e r t s is not a n y of th e th in g s t h a t a r e th e c a s e
about T h e a e te tu s .
G iv e n t h a t t h e s o p h i s t s u n d e r s t a n d w h a t a s s e r t i o n is
a n d w h a t it is f o r s o m e t h i n g to be t r u e of a s u b j e c t , an d g iv e n th a t th e y
allo w a s s e r t i o n s of n o n - i d e n t i t y , th e y h a v e no g ro u n d f o r o b je c t io n to
th is.
(3 -4 ) H e n c e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s s a y " T h i n g s th a t a r e n o t , " but a s
w e h a v e now s e e n t h e r e is n o th in g to be f e a r e d in t h i s .
T he th in g s s a i d
a r e n ot n o thing , th e y a r e m e r e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m s o m e o t h e r th in g s ; but
b e c a u s e t h e s e o t h e r th in g s a r e a l l th e t r u t h s a b o u t th e g iv e n s u b j e c t w e
h a v e by th is m e th o d i n t r o d u c e d f a ls e h o o d .
T h is t h e o r y of t r u t h a n d f a l s e h o o d i s , ro u g h ly s p e a k in g , a t h e o r y
of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of s t a t e m e n t to f a c t .
T h u s w e m a y th in k of th e t r u e
s t a t e m e n t a s a s s e r t i n g a r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n T h e a e t e t u s an d S ittin g w h ic h
d o e s in f a c t o b ta in , a n d th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t th e n a s s e r t s a r e l a t i o n b e ­
tw e e n T h e a e t e t u s a n d F ly in g w h ic h d o e s no t c o r r e s p o n d to th e f a c t s .
178
B u t it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t i c e e x a c tly how th e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o r l a c k of
it is c o n c e i v e d of.
W i t t g e n s t e i n in th e T r a c t a t u s , f o r e x a m p l e , th o u g h t
t h a t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e (fo r e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n s ) w a s a m a t t e r of s i m ­
i l a r i t y of s t r u c t u r e in f a c t a n d p r o p o s i t i o n ; th e n a m e s in th e p r o p o s i t i o n
w e r e in a c e r t a i n o r d e r o r a r r a n g e m e n t a n d th e o b j e c t s n a m e d w e r e
s i m i l a r l y r e l a t e d , s o t h a t in e f f e c t th e p r o p o s i t i o n p i c t u r e d th e f a c t .
A
f a l s e p r o p o s i t i o n w a s a p i c t u r e of a p o s s i b l e s t a t e of a f f a i r s w h i c h j u s t
h a p p e n e d n o t to e x i s t .
Now it s h o u ld be o b s e r v e d th a t a t h e o r y of t h i s
t y p e , th o u g h m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d th a n th e ty p e of a t o m i s m e x p o u n d e d
a b o v e ( s i n c e i t i n t r o d u c e s th e i d e a of s t r u c t u r e o r o r d e r i n g of e l e m e n t s ) ,
f a i l s to g e t r o u n d t h e s o p h is ts * d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith f a ls e h o o d .
F o r if in
g e n e r a l a p r o p o s i t i o n h a s t h r e e p a r t s , tw o n a m e s a n d a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e m , a n d on e t h in k s of f a l s e h o o d a s t h e r e l a t i n g of e l e m e n t s of l a n g u a g e
in a w a y in w h ic h th e c o r r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s of r e a l i t y a r e n ot r e l a t e d , th e
s o p h i s t s e e m s f r e e to r a i s e h is old o b je c tio n a g a i n s t th e p o s s i b i l i t y of
in d icatin g so m eth in g n o n -e x iste n t.
F o r th o u g h th e tw o n a m e s m i g h t
h a v e e x i s t e n t o b j e c t s , th e r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e m w o u ld h a v e n o th in g to
c o r r e s p o n d to a n d w o u ld t h e r e f o r e be i n d i c a t i n g s o m e t h i n g n o n - e x i s t e n t .
P l a t o ' s t h e o r y , a s I h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d it, e v a d e s t h e d if f ic u lty b e c a u s e it
d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e tw e e n t h e f u n c t io n of i n d ic a t in g ( s ta n d in g f o r , r e f e r r i n g
to) a n d th e f u n c tio n of d e s c r i b i n g ; t h e r e is no t h i r d th in g in a s e n t e n c e ,
th e r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n th e e l e m e n t s , w h ic h e i t h e r c o r r e s p o n d s o r f a i l s to
c o r r e s p o n d to a r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n e l e m e n t s of r e a l i t y .
It is th e f i n i t e
v e r b i t s e l f , o r in g e n e r a l th e p r e d i c a t e , w h ic h , p u t t o g e t h e r w i t h a
n a m e , d o e s th e jo b of a s s e r t i o n , a n d a s s e r t i o n is n ot r e d u c e d to a n y
179
kind of in d ic a tin g o r s ta n d in g f o r .
H e n c e t h e r e is no r o o m f o r th e
s o p h i s t to o b je c t th a t a f a l s e s e n t e n c e , o r a n y p a r t of it, r e f e r s to o r
s t a n d s f o r o r i n d i c a t e s (o r p i c t u r e s ) s o m e t h i n g n o n - e x i s t e n t .
P l a t o 1s t h e o r y of m e a n i n g in th e S o p h i s t , th e n , is a n i m p o r t a n t
a d v a n c e o v e r th e n a i v e t h e o r y ly in g b e h in d th e s o p h i s t s 1 o b je c tio n s to
f a ls e h o o d .
W ith o u t it th e s o p h i s t s 1 d e n i a l of f a l s e h o o d c ould not h a v e
been reb u tted .
N ot e v e n th e n o tio n of n o t - b e i n g a s n o n - i d e n t i t y w o u ld
be of any u s e in th e a b s e n c e of th e S t r a n g e r * s t h e o r y of s t a t e m e n t .
It
w o u ld n o t h e lp to be a b l e m e a n i n g f u l l y to s a y th a t s i t t i n g is not i d e n t i c a l
w ith fly in g (et^al) if o ne d id n o t s e e how 11T h e a e t e t u s is fly in g " a f f i r m s
s o m e t h i n g of T h e a e t e t u s .
In th e C r a t y l u s a n d T h e a e t e t u s , to w h ic h we
m u s t now t u r n , w e s h a l l s e e s o m e of th e d i f f i c u l t i e s w h ic h a r i s e if one
f a i l s to s e e t h a t a s s e r t i n g is a s f u n d a m e n t a l a n d n e c e s s a r y a l i n g u i s t i c
o p e r a t i o n a s n a m in g .
C.
C raty lu s and T h e a e te tu s
In th e C r a t y l u s S o c r a t e s is c a l l e d upon to a d j u d i c a t e th e d i s p u t e
w h i c h h a s b r o k e n out b e tw e e n H e r m o g e n e s a n d C r a t y l u s o v e r th e q u e s ­
tio n of th e o r i g i n of n a m e s .
Do w o r d s c o m e to h a v e t h e i r m e a n i n g s by
c o n v e n tio n , a s H e r m o g e n e s h o ld s , o r do th e y h a v e t h e i r m e a n i n g s , a s
C r a t y l u s b e l i e v e s , s o m e h o w by n a t u r e , by s o m e n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n ( e . g . ,
th a t of r e s e m b l a n c e ) to th e th in g s th e y n a m e ?
In th e c o u r s e of th is
d i s c u s s i o n m a n y d i f f e r e n t p o i n ts a r e m a d e w h i c h b e a r on a n u m b e r of
d i f f e r e n t to p ic s in w h ic h P l a t o w a s i n t e r e s t e d .
22
O ne to p ic t h a t f i g u r e s
p r o m i n e n t l y is th e r e l a t i o n of n a m i n g to s a y in g a n d th e p r o b l e m how
f a ls e h o o d i s p o s s i b l e .
180
In th e c o u r s e of t h e d ia lo g u e S o c r a t e s m a n a g e s to e m b r o i l b o th
H e r m o g e n e s a n d C r a t y l u s - - t h e f o r m e r u n w illin g ly , th e l a t t e r w i l l i n g l y - in th e d e n i a l of f a ls e h o o d .
In o r d e r to do th is he o b ta in s t h e i r a s s e n t to
a v e r s i o n of th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y I h a v e e x p o u n d e d a b o v e a n d r e p r e s e n t s
t h e m a s f a i lin g to, o r r e f u s i n g to, d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n w h a t a n a m e
m e a n s ( r e f e r s to) a n d w h a t a p a r t i c u l a r s p e a k e r m a y m e a n ( r e f e r to) by
it.
T h e e f fe c t of th e f a i l u r e to m a k e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is to p r e v e n t b o th
n a t u r a l i s m a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m f r o m m a i n t a i n i n g th e e x i s t e n c e of
" f a l s e " n a m e s ( n a m e s w h i c h r e f e r bu t do so b a d ly ); a n d th i s r e s u l t ,
c o u p le d w ith t h e a t o m i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n of th e m e a n in g of a s e n t e n c e , e f ­
f e c t i v e l y s to p s e i t h e r f r o m g r a n t i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a l s e h o o d .
Soc­
r a t e s h i m s e l f th e n b u ild s up on C r a t y l u s 1 t h e o r y th a t a n a m e ha s m e a n ­
ing by s o m e h o w r e s e m b l i n g th e th in g it n a m e s , in o r d e r to d r a w th e
d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n w h a t a n a m e m e a n s a n d w h a t a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n
m e a n s by it (a p p lie s it to); and h a v in g d o n e th is he p r o p o s e s a t h e o r y of
f a l s e h o o d w h ic h c o n tin u e s to c o n s t r u e a s e n t e n c e a s m e r e l y a c o l l e c t i o n
of n a m e s but a t t e m p t s to p e r m i t s o m e n a m e s to be f a l s e so t h a t lo g o i
m a y be f a l s e a s w e ll.
T h u s th e w h o le d i s c u s s i o n , in c lu d in g S o c r a te s *
p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n , o p e r a t e s w ith in t h e f r a m e w o r k of th e old t h e o r y
of m e a n i n g , a n d th e only a d v a n c e S o c r a t e s m a k e s o v e r H e r m o g e n e s a n d
C r a t y l u s i s in h is r e c o g n i t i o n of tw o f u n c ti o n s of a n a m e w h e n a c t u a l l y
u s e d by s o m e b o d y , a s n a m i n g th e th in g th e p e r s o n u s e s it a s a n a m e of
a n d n a m i n g th e th in g it is i t s e l f a n a m e of.
One m a y u s e a n a m e a s th e
n a m e of s o m e t h i n g t h a t i t d o e s n ot in f a c t n a m e ; a n d f a l s e h o o d of a s e n ­
t e n c e is c o n s t r u e d a s f a l s e h o o d of t h i s s o r t in on e o r m o r e of i t s c o n ­
stitu en t n a m e s .
181
H e r m o g e n e s h a s h a r d l y e n u n c ia te d his th e o r y of c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m
b e f o r e S o c r a t e s fin d s in it a t h r e a t to th e e x i s t e n c e of f a l s e h o o d .
H er­
m o g e n e s h a s s a i d (384d 2 - 4 ) th a t any one c a n e s t a b l i s h any n a m e he
p l e a s e s a s m e a n i n g a n y th in g he w i s h e s , an d c a n c h a n g e his c o n v e n t io n s
w h e n e v e r he is so i n c li n e d ; an d it h a s b e e n e m p h a s i z e d (385a 4 - 1 0 ) th a t
e a c h p e r s o n h a s th e r i g h t to w h a t e v e r u s e of w o r d s he p l e a s e s , w h e t h e r
o r not it a g r e e s w ith any one e ls e * s .
T h is is ta k e n to m e a n t h a t " w h a t V \
'j'
e v e r n a m e any one s a y s a th in g h a s " (O a v
o v o ^ fl, C-v^ai)
r e a l l y b e lo n g s to it (385d 1 -2 ), a n d th is a l r e a d y s u g g e s t s t h a t no n a m e
c a n be f a l s e
F o r if I u s e " h o r s e " to r e f e r to an a n i m a l s ta n d in g b e f o r e
m e , a n d th e n a m e s I u s e r e f e r to w h a t e v e r I ta k e t h e m to, th e n " h o r s e "
i s th e c o r r e c t n a m e (now, f o r m e ) f o r th is a n i m a l .
No one c a n e v e r
m i s u s e a n a m e b e c a u s e to u s e it a t a ll is to n a m e s o m e th in g w ith it,
a n d H e r m o g e n e s 1 c o n v e n t i o n a l i s t v ie w s c o m m i t h im to th e t h e s i s th a t
w h a t e v e r any one d e c i d e s to u s e a n a m e a s th e n a m e of is c o r r e c t l y
d e s i g n a t e d by th a t n a m e .
It is i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e t h a t H e r m o g e n e s th in k s of a ll w o r d s a s
n a m e s , a s e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h d e n o te o r r e f e r to s o m e th in g ; an d h is e x ­
t r e m e c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m t h e r e f o r e a m o u n ts to th e t h e s i s t h a t any one ca n
r e f e r to a n y th in g he p l e a s e s by w h a t e v e r n a m e he p l e a s e s .
And f r o m
th is it is a s h o r t s t e p to th e d e n i a l of f a ls e h o o d ( m i s u s e of n a m e s )
w h ic h S o c r a t e s a t t e m p t s to f o r c e on h im .
H e r m o g e n e s ought, of
c o u r s e , to h a v e r e s i s t e d th e i n f e r e n c e by i n s i s t i n g th a t his c o n v e n t i o n ­
a l i s m is a t h e o r y e n t i r e l y a b o u t how n a m e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d o r c o in e d a s
n a m e s of th i n g s ; a n d s i n c e f a l s e h o o d in v o lv e s th e m i s u s e of a n a m e on ce
182
i t s r e f e r e n c e is fix e d , w h ic h h is t h e o r y d o e s n o th in g to d i s a l l o w , he
h a s no t s a i d a n y th in g i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e no f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s .
T h is r e p l y i n s i s t s m e r e l y upon th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n n a m i n g
s o m e t h i n g x (= b a p tiz i n g it) a n d c a l l i n g s o m e t h i n g X ( r e f e r r i n g to it by
X), a n d H e r m o g e n e s c e r t a i n l y in te n d s to be ho ld in g j u s t th e t h e o r y t h a t
b a p t i s m s a l l t a k e p l a c e by c o n v e n tio n (385d 7 -9 ).
S o c r a t e s is a b l e to
b r o w b e a t h im in t o h a l f - a d m i t t i n g t h a t h is t h e o r y d e n ie s th e p o s s i b i l i t y
of f a l s e h o o d b e c a u s e b o th b a p t iz i n g s o m e t h i n g a n d u s in g a n a m e to r e ­
f e r to a th in g a r e n a m in g it; t h i s e n a b l e s S o c r a t e s to s l i d e f r o m H e r ­
m o g e n e s 1 c l a i m t h a t no b a p t i s m is t r u e r o r m o r e c o r r e c t th a n any
o t h e r to th e c l a i m th a t no a p p l i c a t i o n of a n a m e is m o r e r i g h t t h a n a n y
o th er
Of c o u r s e , h ad H e r m o g e n e s * c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m i n c lu d e d a d i s ­
t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n n a m in g a n d d e s c r i b i n g th i s c o n f u s io n w o u ld h a v e b e e n
m o re easily p rev en ted .
F o r , to ta k e H e r m o g e n e s * e x a m p l e s of " h o r s e "
a n d " m a n , " w h e n I c a l l s o m e t h i n g a m a n I a m not n a m in g h im a t a l l ,
bu t d e s c r i b i n g h im ; " m a n " i s a n a m e f o r a s p e c i e s o r a c o n c e p t o r
w h a t e v e r , a n d in g iv in g th e w o r d a m e a n i n g , on c o n v e n t i o n a l i s t a s s u m p ­
t i o n s , one e s t a b l i s h e s it a s a n a m e f o r th a t c o n c e p t (sa y ), w h ic h i t th e n
c o n v e n tio n a lly e x p r e s s e s .
A nd t h e r e a f t e r , on o c c a s i o n s w h e n i t is
u s e d , it is u s e d to d e s c r i b e (etc. ), c o r r e c t l y o r i n c o r r e c t l y , th e th i n g s
to w h ic h it is a p p l i e d , an d n o t to n a m e t h e m .
H e n c e g iv e n t h e s e d i s ­
t i n c t i o n s H e r m o g e n e s c o u ld s t r a i g h t w a y deny S o c r a t e s th e m e a n s of
c o l l a p s i n g h is c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m in to a d e n i a l of f a ls e h o o d .
B ut H e r m o g e n e s is d e t e r m i n e d to th in k of a l l u s e of w o r d s , a s
w e l l a s a l l i n t r o d u c t i o n of w o r d s , a s s i m p l y n a m in g o r r e f e r r i n g to
183
th in g s .
E v e n so , h o w e v e r , he h a s th e m e a n s of a d m ittin g th e p o s s i b i l i t y
of a f a l s e n a m e , p r o v i d e d t h a t he r e c o g n i z e s th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n
w h a t a n a m e n a m e s (has b e e n in t r o d u c e d to n a m e ) an d w h a t a p e r s o n on
a p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n n a m e s by it.
T h e u n i v e r s a l c o r r e c t n e s s of th e
f o r m e r s o r t of n a m in g d o e s not im p l y th e u n i v e r s a l c o r r e c t n e s s of th e
la tte r so rt.
H e r m o g e n e s is h o w e v e r not p e r m i t t e d ev e n th is d i s t i n c t i o n :
S o c r a t e s w ill in v o k e i t l a t e r on his own a c c o u n t, but n e i t h e r H e r m o g e n e s
n o r C r a t y l u s is p e r m i t t e d to a p p r o p r i a t e i t to his own u s e .
Hence H e r ­
m o g e n e s i s s tu c k w ith th e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t no n a m e c a n be f a l s e , t h a t
is to s a y , n ot th e n a m e of th e th in g th e s p e a k e r u s e s it to r e f e r to.
If
th is is so , S o c r a t e s a t o n c e a r g u e s , th e n no s t a t e m e n t c a n be f a l s e .
F o r a t r u e lo g o s is one in w h ic h a l l th e c o n s t i t u e n t n a m e s a r e t r u e
(385c), a n d a f a l s e lo g o s h a s n e c e s s a r i l y a f a l s e e le m e n t.
But s in c e ,
a s H e r m o g e n e s 1 t h e o r i e s s e e m to i m p ly , no n a m e c a n e v e r be f a l s e ,
no l o g o s c a n e v e r be f a l s e e i t h e r .
H e n c e c o n v e n t i o n a l i s m d o e s aw a y
w ith f a l s e h o o d a nd m a k e s e v e r y t h i n g t r u e .
S o c r a t e s h e r e m a n i f e s t l y in v o k e s a th e o r y of lo g o s t h a t is f u n ­
d a m e n t a l l y th e s a m e a s t h a t w h ic h is to be found in th e T h e a e t e t u s
(2 0 1 -2 0 2 ).
T h e T h e a e t e t u s h a s a t h e o r y of s i m p l e e l e m e n t s of r e a l i t y
w ith c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i m p l e n a m e s w h ic h is l a c k in g in th e C r a t y l u s p a s ­
s a g e , b ut i t a l s o c o n t a in s th e v ie w , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h a t a s t a t e m e n t
i s a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s e a c h of w h ic h p e r f o r m s th e s in g le fu n c tio n of
d e s i g n a t io n ; a n d th is t h e o r y p r e t t y c l e a r l y l i e s b e hind S o c r a t e s 1 v ie w
a b o u t f a l s e h o o d in th e C r a t y l u s p a s s a g e .
F o r if he th in k s t h a t th e only
184
p o s s i b l e s o u r c e of f a l s e h o o d in a lo g o s i s f a l s e h o o d in s o m e on e o r
m o r e of its c o n s t i t u e n t n a m e s , he e v id e n tly i g n o r e s o r f a i l s to n o t i c e
th e c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e to th e s e n t e n c e by e v e r y t h i n g o t h e r th a n th e
n a m e s i t c o n t a i n s , ta k e n one by one.
T h a t th is i s w h a t he h a s in m i n d
b e c o m e s e x p li c it l a t e r in th e d ia lo g u e in h is e x a m i n a t i o n of C r a t y l u s 1
n a tu r a lis t doctrine.
C r a t y l u s h olds th e v iew t h a t e a c h w o r d c o m e s to n a m e a th in g
by s o m e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s a n d a l t o g e t h e r w ith o u t an y c o n v e n ti o n o r d e c i ­
s io n on th e p a r t of a n y m a n .
L i k e H e r m o g e n e s he r e g a r d s h is t h e o r y
p r i m a r i l y a s a n a c c o u n t of how w o r d s c o m e to h a v e th e m e a n i n g s th e y
do h a v e , a n d t h e r e f o r e h is m a i n c o n te n tio n s h o u ld in v o lv e s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t how one w o r d is fit to e x p r e s s a c e r t a i n c o n c e p t a n d a n o t h e r
a n o t h e r , o r how one w o r d is a p p r o p r i a t e to one ty p e of o b j e c t.
B ut,
a g a i n l i k e H e r m o g e n e s , he f a i l s to d r a w th e d i s t i n c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y to
p e r m i t h i m to s t a t e th is d o c t r i n e c l e a r l y .
Ju st as H e rm o g e n e s1 c o n ­
v e n t i o n a l i s m t u r n s out to p r o h i b i t n o t only f a l s e n a m e s in th e s e n s e of
n a m e s n ot s u i te d to e x p r e s s th e m e a n i n g s th e y do e x p r e s s , but a l s o
f a l s e n a m e s in th e s e n s e of n a m e s w r o n g l y a p p lie d to p a r t i c u l a r th i n g s ,
so n a t u r a l i s m a s u p h e ld by C r a t y l u s m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n a m e to
be f a l s e in e i t h e r of t h e s e w a y s .
If a n a m e h a s i ts m e a n i n g by n a t u r e - -
s a y by r e s e m b l i n g th e th in g it n a m e s - - t h e n its m e a n i n g is f ix e d ; no
m a t t e r w h a t u s e y ou m a y t r y to put it to it c o n ti n u e s to r e f e r to w h a t ­
e v e r it r e s e m b le s .
H e n c e " H e r m o g e n e s " ( m e a n in g " s p r u n g f r o m H e r ­
m e s " ) i s n o t th e n a m e of H e r m o g e n e s , w ho h a s not th e c o r r e c t c h a r a c ­
t e r , b ut of s o m e o n e e l s e w h o m t h e n a m e f its (429b 1 2 - c 4).
A nd if a n y
185
one t r i e s to r e f e r by th is n a m e to s o m e o n e to w h o m it d o e s not by
n a t u r e b e lo n g he w il l s i m p l y not h a v e p e r f o r m e d any l a n g u a g e - a c t a t
a ll:
it w ill be a s if he m a d e a n e m p ty m o t i o n lik e s t r i k i n g a gong
(430a 4 - 5 ) .
A ll n a m e s , th e n , a c c o r d i n g to C r a t y l u s , w h ic h a r e r e a l l y
(m e a n in g fu l) n a m e s , a r e c o r r e c t (429b 1 0-11 ).
And th is is ta k e n to
m e a n th a t e i t h e r a s p e a k e r m e a n s by a n a m e w h a t it m e a n s o r he m e a n s
noth in g:
in a p p a r e n t l y n a m in g a d o n k e y s t a n d in g b e f o r e m e a " h o r s e " I
e i t h e r p e r f o r m no s i g n i f i c a n t a c t of s p e e c h o r e l s e I in f a c t r e f e r to
som ething else, v i z ., w h a te v e r " h o r s e " c o r r e c tly n a m e s.
W hereas
f o r H e r m o g e n e s a n a m e a lw a y s m e a n s w h a t I m e a n by it, C r a t y l u s 1
d o c t r i n e m a i n t a i n s t h a t I a lw a y s m e a n (if a n y th in g ) w h a t th e n a m e I
utter m eans.
S o c r a t e s is q u ic k to s e e th a t C r a t y l u s 1 th e o r y c o m m i t s h im to
th e d e n ia l of f a ls e h o o d .
C r a t y l u s in f a c t h a p p ily a d m i t s th a t he th in k s
f a l s e h o o d i m p o s s i b l e a n d s u p p o r t s th is c o n v ic tio n by d i r e c t a p p e a l to
th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of s a y in g w h a t is not (429d 4 -6 ).
B ut it is e v id e n t t h a t
h is v ie w s c o m m i t h im to th e d e n ia l m o r e i n d i r e c t l y a s w e ll:
if a s S o c ­
r a t e s h a s a r g u e d a f a l s e l o g o s m u s t c o n t a i n a f a l s e n a m e th e n giv en
C ra ty lu s* v ie w th a t a l l n a m e s a r e c o r r e c t a l l lo g o i m u s t be t r u e (or
e lse m e a n in g le ss).
T h e d e n ia l of th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a ls e h o o d t h e r e f o r e
re s u lts for C ra ty lu s, as it r e s u lte d fo r H e rm o g e n e s, fro m a c o m b in a ­
tio n of tw o t h e s e s , o r r a t h e r one t h e s i s an d th e f a i l u r e to d r a w a d i s ­
tin c tio n :
th e t h e s i s t h a t a lo g o s is th e s u m of its c o n s t i t u e n t n a m e s a n d
th e f a i l u r e to p e r m i t th a t w h ile a n a m e m a y i t s e l f n a m e one thing a p e r ­
so n m a y r e f e r by it to a n o t h e r .
186
In th e s e q u e l (430a 6 - 4 3 3 b 7) S o c r a t e s r e a f f i r m s th e t h e o r y of
lo g o s w h ile a t t e m p t i n g to d r a w upon th e p o s s i b i l i t y of m i s - n a m i n g to
sh ow how f a l s e lo g o i c a n o c c u r .
He b e g in s by r e c a l l i n g th e t h e o r y he
h a s e a r l i e r p r o p o s e d ( 4 2 2 a - 4 2 4 a ) , t h a t f u n d a m e n ta lly th e m e a n i n g of
w o r d s is d u e to t h e i r b e in g c o p i e s o r i m i t a t i o n s of t h e th in g s th e y m e a n .
C r a t y l u s n o t u n r e a s o n a b l y a c c e p t s (430a 1 0 - b 2) th is t h e o r y a s a p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of his own o t h e r w i s e u n e x p l a in e d
n a m e s h a v e a m e a n i n g g r o u n d e d in n a t u r e .
23
c o n te n tio n t h a t
S o c r a t e s p r e s s e s th e n o tio n
of a c o p y to show (4 3 0 a -4 3 1 b ) t h a t , j u s t a s w h e n one h a s tw o p i c t u r e s of
d i f f e r e n t p e o p le it i s p o s s i b l e to t a k e th e p i c t u r e of A to be a p i c t u r e of
B, s o if n a m e s a r e c o p ie s of th e th in g s th e y d e s i g n a t e i t is p o s s i b l e to
m i s t a k e th e n a m e of on e th in g f o r t h a t of a n o t h e r , a n d w h e n t h i s h a p p e n s
on e g e ts a f a l s e n a m e .
T h e e f f e c t of S o c r a t e s 1 a r g u m e n t h e r e is to d i s ­
tin g u i s h , a t l a s t , b e tw e e n w h a t th e n a m e a c t u a l l y is th e n a m e of a n d
w h a t s o m e o n e m a y m i s t a k e n l y u s e it to d e s i g n a t e .
F o r in ta k i n g th e
n a m e of A f o r th a t of B a n d u s in g th e n a m e "A " to r e f e r to B, I m a k e a
m i s t a k e - - j u s t a s if s o m e o n e sh o u ld t a k e a p i c t u r e of A a nd h old i t up to
B, th in k in g it a p i c t u r e of h im (430e 3 - 4 3 1 a 5).
In e i t h e r c a s e a m i s ­
t a k e is m a d e , a n d in th e c a s e of n a m e s w e sa y t h a t f a l s e n a m in g h a s
o c c u r r e d , a s w e l l a s m i s t a k e n a t t r i b u t i o n (430d 2 - 7 ) .
P l a t o is o fte n t a k e n
24
to h a v e g iv e n in t h is c o m p a r i s o n of a
f a l s e n a m e w ith a w r o n g a t t r i b u t i o n of a p i c t u r e , a b r i e f but q u i t e a d e ­
q u a t e e x p l a n a ti o n of f a l s e h o o d .
No d o u b t t h e g ro u n d f o r th in k in g t h i s is
t h a t S o c r a t e s s e e m s to s a y t h a t f a l s e h o o d r e s u l t s w h e n one m i s d e s c r i b e s
a p e r s o n a s a m a n o r a w o m a n , j u s t a s i t is an e r r o r to t a k e a p i c t u r e of a
187
m an as resem b lin g a wom an.
T h is i m p r e s s i o n is r e i n f o r c e d by th e
f a c t t h a t a t a c r u c i a l p o in t in th e p a s s a g e (430e 9 -4 3 1 a 5) S o c r a t e s
s h i f t s f r o m ta lk in g a b o u t p i c t u r e s an d n a m e s of j u s t one in d iv id u a l
( p o r t r a i t s and p r o p e r n a m e s ) a n d t a lk s i n s t e a d a s if the m i s a p p r o p r i a ­
tio n of n a m e s in v o lv e d s a y in g of a p a r t i c u l a r m a n th a t he is a w o m a n .
A nd th is a p p e a r s to show th a t m i s d e s c r i p t i o n o r f a l s e p r e d i c a t i o n is
w h a t he h a s in v ie w .
B u t th e v e r y f a c t th a t he s h if ts so f r e e l y f r o m
p r o p e r n a m e s a n d p o r t r a i t s to g e n e r a l t e r m s is p r o o f th a t he is t h i n k ­
in g of th e g e n e r a l t e r m " m a n " a s b e in g a k in d of p r o p e r n a m e of a l l th e
m e n , ta k e n s e p a r a t e l y ; a n d th e f a l s e n a m in g he e n v i s a g e s a m o u n ts to
r e f e r r i n g to s o m e t h i n g a s a " w o m a n " w h ic h y e t is n ot i d e n t i c a l w ith
a ny of th e t h in g s w h ic h " w o m a n " p r o p e r l y n a m e s .
H e n c e th e f a l s e
n a m i n g is not m i s d e s c r i b i n g a n d th e view of th e f a ls e h o o d of a n a m e
w h i c h S o c r a t e s r e c o m m e n d s i s n o t so a d e q u a t e a s it a t f i r s t m i g h t
appear.
A t any r a t e th e a c c o u n t of s e n t e n c e - f a l s e h o o d S o c r a t e s goes on
to d e v e lo p on th e b a s i s of m i s - n a m i n g h a s n o th in g in c o m m o n w ith th e
t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d of th e S o p h i s t , in w h ic h m i s d e s c r i b i n g is th e v e r y
nub of th e e x p la n a tio n .
F o r he i m m e d i a t e l y a r g u e s t h a t if a n a m e c a n
be m i s a p p l i e d in th e w a y e x p la in e d so c a n a
t r a t i o n of w h a t he m e a n s by
f
t
m ista k e about ^ ( A & r a
m ean
ii
v e r b n by
c
^
|aa
w o u ld be.
^
He g iv e s no i l l u s -
h e r e o r w h a t he th in k s th e p a r a l l e l
B ut, ev e n if one s u p p o s e s h im to
th e m i s t a k e he h a s in m i n d is p r e s u m a b l y
t h a t one c o u ld u s e " r i d i n g 11 to s a y w h a t s o m e o n e i s doing w h e n he is in
f a c t w a lk in g , and s u c h a m i s t a k e w o u ld a m o u n t to ta k in g w a lk in g f o r
188
r id in g .
In a ny c a s e f r o m th e f a c t t h a t n a m e s a n d " v e r b s " c a n be f a l s e
he i n f e r s t h a t s t a t e m e n t s a s w e l l , s i n c e th e y a r e m e r e l y c o l l e c t i o n s of
n a m e s a n d v e r b s , c a n be f a l s e (431b 5 - c 1).
It is o b v io u s t h a t h e r e
S o c r a t e s a s s u m e s t h a t th e t r u t h o r f a l s e h o o d of a s t a t e m e n t is th e r e ­
s u l t of th e r i g h t n e s s o r w r o n g n e s s of it s in d iv id u a l w o r d s t a k e n in i s o ­
l a t i o n f r o m on e a n o t h e r a n d f r o m th e l o g o s .
" M a n , " " w a l k s , " e tc . ,
e a c h r e f e r to s o m e t h i n g (o r s o m e th in g s ) , a n d if a p e r s o n u s e s " m a n "
to r e f e r to t h a t th in g (o r one of t h o s e t h in g s ) , a n d l i k e w i s e u s e s " w a l k s "
c o r r e c t l y , a n d s o on f o r e a c h w o r d in a g r o u p , th e n w h a t he h a s s a i d is
t r u e ; th e only th in g t h a t c a n m a k e w h a t he s a y s f a l s e is th e m i s u s e of
s o m e on e o r m o r e of th e i n d iv id u a l w o r d s .
T h is a c c o u n t of f a l s e h o o d i s a m p l i f i e d a n d f u r t h e r d e f e n d e d in
th e p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y f o llo w in g (431c 4 - 4 3 3 b 5).
S o c r a t e s b e g in s by
d i s c u s s i n g a p o in t q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e one he h a s j u s t b e e n m a k i n g ,
a n d th e r e l e v a n c e of w h a t he s a y s to th e p o s s i b i l i t y of f a l s e n a m in g a p ­
p e a l e d to a b o v e only e m e r g e s t o w a r d s th e end of th e p a s s a g e .
A por­
t r a i t is w e l l m a d e , S o c r a t e s u r g e s , w h e n it c o n t a in s th e p r o p e r c o l o r s
a n d s h a p e s , e tc . ; b ut it d o e s n o t c e a s e to be a p o r t r a i t j u s t a s s o o n a s
a w ro n g c o lo r is in tro d u c e d .
L ik ew ise fo r n a m e s:
It is s t i l l a p o r t r a i t , only a bad one.
" H e r m o g e n e s " is j u s t a fa u lty copy of H e r ­
m o g e n e s , i t d o e s n !t f a i l a l t o g e t h e r to copy h im , o r b e c o m e a c o py of
so m eo n e e lse.
If i t s l e t t e r s f a i l to c o r r e s p o n d e x a c tl y to H e r m o g e n e s 1
b a s i c c h a r a c t e r , t h a t d o e s n o t m a k e i t n o t'H e r m o g e n e s * n a m e , a n y
m o r e th a n a few i n c o r r e c t c o l o r s o r l i n e s in a p o r t r a i t m a k e it c e a s e
to be a p i c t u r e of t h e p e r s o n r e p r e s e n t e d .
In f a c t, C r a t y l u s is q u i te
189
w r o n g to i n s i s t th a t e v e r y n a m e th a t t r u l y n a m e s a n y th in g m u s t be c o r ­
r e c t , b e c a u s e s in c e n a m e s a r e i m i t a t i o n s of t h e i r n o m i n a ta it m u s t be
p o s s i b l e f o r th e i m i t a t i o n s o m e o n e p r o d u c e s to be a bad one. It is of
y
th e e s s e n c e of a n o v o Jaa t h a t it s h o u ld be a copy an d not a n e x a c t
r e p l i c a , c o r r e s p o n d i n g in e v e r y s in g l e d e t a i l to its o r i g i n a l :
a "copy"
th a t d i f f e r e d not a t a l l f r o m i ts o r i g i n a l w ou ld not be a copy a t a l l , but
a r e - c r e a t i o n of it.
C r a t y l u s a n d his p i c t u r e m u s t be two d i f f e r e n t
t h in g s , o r i g i n a l a n d copy, a n d not two of th e s a m e thing:
one d o e s not
w a n t in m a k i n g a p i c t u r e o r s t a t u e of C r a ty lu s to end up w ith two
C r a t y l u s e s (432a 8 - c 5).
H e n c e a n a m e , a s copy, m u s t f a ll s h o r t in a
v a r i e t y of w a y s , a nd in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , of its o r i g i n a l .
The v e ry
b a s i s of th e t h e o r y of n a t u r a l n a m in g , t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e s th a t t h e r e
be r o o m f o r s o m e n a m e s to be w e ll m a d e an d o t h e r s bad ly m a d e ; if to
n a m e s o m e t h i n g is to i m i t a t e it in l e t t e r s an d s y l l a b l e s (
^ [ a a < T \
T €-
^
\
0c\i
s t 423e 7 -8 ) th e n one c a n p e r f o r m
KCU
th is t a s k w ith v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of c o m p e t e n c e , an d n a m e s c a n be b oth
w e ll an d b a d ly m a d e
Now th is f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n of th e c o p y - t h e o r y of n a m e s is in
th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e d i r e c t e d not to o u r p r o b l e m , th e p o s s i b i l i t y of u s in g
a n a m e on s o m e o c c a s i o n to i n d i c a t e s o m e th in g w h ic h th e n a m e i t s e l f
d o e s n o t in d i c a t e , but to th e q u ite d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e
g ro u n d s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e tw e e n a b e t t e r a nd a w o r s e e s t a b l i s h e d
usage.
S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f s p e a k s of n/o ^ O & h-T<\\
h e r e , a n d is a t l e a s t
p a r t of th e t i m e ta lk in g a b o u t th e f o r m a t i o n of n a m e s a n d th e a s s i g n -
t
f
m e n t to t h e m of t h e i r m e a n i n g s ( C VVc 0
>
V
//
1, 431c 12).
190
In th e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t r u e a n d f a l s e n a m in g an d t r u e a n d f a l s e
s t a t e m e n t , he h a s b e e n t a lk in g n ot a b o u t th e m a k in g of a n a m e o r a p i c 3 /
t u r e but of th e u s e one m a y m a k e of t h e s e
o v ts
o n c e th e y h a v e
been co n stru cted .
H is p o in t t h e r e w a s th a t one c a n m i s u s e a n
a n d th u s f a l s e l y n a m e s o m e t h i n g ; h e r e he is sh o w in g th a t one
>
(
* /
c a n be b e t t e r th a n a n o t h e r a t i m i t a t i n g i ts o r i g i n a l , a n d y e t b o th a r e
of th e s a m e th in g .
n a m e s in tw o s e n s e s :
H e n c e t h e r e is r o o m f o r bad o r w r o n g
n a m e s w h i c h a r e th e e s t a b l i s h e d n a m e s f o r c e r ­
t a i n k in d s of th in g s (or c e r t a i n i n d iv id u a l t h in g s ) b u t w h i c h a r e T T O ^ - '
V
»
/
^<kt
tlK O v ^s
a ll.
B o th n a m e - c r e a t o r s a n d n a m e - u s e r s c a n go w r o n g , in t h e i r d i f f e r ­
of t h e m , a n d n a m e s w h ic h a r e on p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n s
> /
u s e d a s th e n a m e s of c e r t a i n t h in g s of w h i c h th e y a r e n o t
at
ent w a y s .
B ut th o u g h t h e w a y s in w h i c h th e y e r r a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h e r e i s a
c l o s e a n a lo g y b e t w e e n w h a t h a p p e n s in th e two c a s e s , a n d S o c r a t e s
e m p h a s i z e s (432d 1 1 - 4 3 3 b 5) th e p a r a l l e l s b e tw e e n t h e m .
A n a m e is a
c o l l e c t i o n of l e t t e r s , j u s t a s a lo g o s i s a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s .
W hat
m a k e s a n a m e no t a good n a m e , a s w e sa w , is i t s c o n t a in in g s o m e
w r o n g l e t t e r s , i. e. , l e t t e r s w h ic h do n o t c o r r e s p o n d to th e n a t u r e of
th e th in g b e in g n a m e d .
L i k e w i s e , S o c r a t e s now t e l l s u s , a lo g o s c a n
h a v e s o m e w r o n g n a m e s in i t , i. e. , n a m e s w h ic h do n o t c o r r e c t l y
n a m e th e th in g to w h ic h th e y a r e r e f e r r e d .
B ut w e h a v e now s e e n t h a t
e v e n w h e n a n a m e i s n ot th e b e s t o r f u lly c o r r e c t n a m e f o r a th in g it
n e v e r t h e l e s s d o e s n a m e it, if it is c o p i e d a f t e r it.
So a l s o a l o g o s t h a t
c o n ta in s f a l s e n a m e s , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e f a l s e , d o e s n o t f a i l to r e f e r to a
191
th in g o r f a c t (in w h ic h c a s e it w o u ld b e m e a n i n g l e s s ) o r j u s t h a v e a d i f ­
f e r e n t s u b j e c t m a t t e r f r o m th e t r u e s t a t e m e n t w h ic h it is th o u g h t to
c o n tra d ic t:
it s t a t e s th e s a m e th in g s a s th e t r u e s t a t e m e n t , only not so
w e l l , s i n c e s o m e p a r t of th e th in g s o r f a c t s r e p o r t e d a r e m i s - n a m e d
a n d so b adly r e f e r r e d to.
T h u s a s t a t e m e n t w ith w r o n g n a m e s in it
d o e s h a v e a m e a n i n g ( ju s t a s a b a d n a m e is n o tw i th s t a n d in g a n a m e ) ,
and n e v e rth e le ss
c o n ta in in g f a l s e n a m e s a s it d o e s , w h a t it s a y s is
false.
It is i m p o r t a n t to s e e e x a c tly w h a t S o c r a t e s is s u g g e s tin g h e r e .
H is p o in t c a n be p ut in th e fo llo w in g w a y .
d i f f e r only w ith r e s p e c t to s o m e one w o r d :
m a t 11 a n d " T h e c a t i s on th e p illo w "
S u p p o s e tw o s e n t e n c e s w h ic h
e g , " T h e c a t is on th e
V e r y l ik e ly w h e n t h e s e s e n t e n c e s
a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a f f i r m e d only one of t h e m w ill be t r u e .
Now w e
sa w in th e E u th y d e m u s th a t w h e n , f o r e x a m p l e , th e c a t is in f a c t on th e
m a t , th e s t a t e m e n t a s s e r t i n g t h i s f a c t is t r u e , it
Ov) (\^
0 Ao yOi
(283e 9).
^
v
^
A ^ e-i To TT^cMjfAa
And th e t r o u b l e th e n a r o s e
w h a t to do w it h th e s t a t e m e n t t h a t th e c a t is on th e p illow .
It a p p e a r e d
t h a t j u s t b e c a u s e th e one s t a t e m e n t s a i d " p illo w " w h e r e th e o t h e r s a i d
" m a t , " th e y w e r e s i m p l y t a l k in g a b o u t d i f f e r e n t th in g s , s t a tin g d i f f e r ­
ent f a c t s , no t p o s s i b l y i n c o m p a t i b l e (286b 3 -5 ).
T h e one s t a t e d th e
f a c t t h a t th e c a t is on t h e m a t , th e o t h e r j u s t d i d n 't s t a t e th a t f a c t a t a l l
(b 5 -6 ); h e n c e , so f a r a s t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e g o e s bo th m i g h t be t r u e .
H e r e , in th e C r a t y l u s , h o w e v e r , S o c r a t e s th in k s th is view too s i m p l e .
It is not t r u e t h a t t h e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t d o e s n 't s a y th e s a m e l? p c £ y £a (kT o<
a s th e t r u e o ne .
B e c a u s e w e h a v e i n t r o d u c e d th e n o tio n of f a l s e
192
r e f e r e n c e w e a r e in a p o s i t i o n now to s e e how th e two s t a t e m e n t s c a n
be b o th s t a t i n g , in a w a y , th e s a m e f a c t s :
in th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t " p i l ­
lo w 11 d o e s not* n a m e s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t " m a t " d o e s in th e
t r u e o ne.
T h e y n a m e th e s a m e th in g (the m a t ) , only one is its t r u e
n a m e , th e o t h e r a f a l s e one.
-^TTOV
oVo(^fl^t-<r©CL(
H e n c e in th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t
ro
(432e 5 - 6 );
s i n c e th e s e n t e n c e s a r e o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i c a l th e y a r e s i m i l a r en o u g h to
s t a t e th e s a m e g r o u p of th in g s ( ju s t a s tw o d i f f e r e n t but s i m i l a r n a m e s
c a n be a llo w e d to n a m e t h e s a m e th in g ),
}A(KT0S
Too
th e se c irc u m s ta n c e s
(433a 5 - 6 ) .
TTG-fl
• /&
A
y
OO
e
(
av/
-
<W 0 TUTT os
O A o \o 5 ^
v
TO
^
(e6 -7 ).
but
U nder
^
T h u s th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of th e n o tio n of a f a l s e n a m e h a s e n ­
a b l e d S o c r a t e s to g e t r o u n d th e old o b j e c t i o n to f a l s e h o o d a n d c o n t r a d i c ­
t i o n by m a k i n g b o th t r u e a n d f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s s a y , in a w a y , th e s a m e
th i n g s .
F a l s e h o o d is d u e to th e f a c t t h a t , th o u g h a l l th e th i n g s in q u e s ­
tio n a r e s a i d , one (at l e a s t ) is g iv e n a f a l s e n a m e . ^
T h e u p s h o t, a s S o c r a t e s s a y s , is t h a t s o lo n g a s C r a t y l u s
a c c e p t s th e t h e o r y of n a t u r a l n a m in g he c a n n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y den y th a t
f a l s e h o o d i s p o s s i b l e in n a m e s a n d lo g o i, n o r c a n he i n s i s t t h a t e v e r y
w o r d e x p r e s s e s p e r f e c t l y w h a t e v e r m e a n i n g it h a s .
B u t S o c r a t e s in
w h a t f o llo w s a l s o s h o w s p r e t t y c l e a r l y t h a t no s u c h t h e o r y of n a t u r a l
n a m i n g a s th e on e he h a s e a r l i e r c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h a n ey e to C r a t y l u s 1
th e s is can be tr u e :
a s th e e x a m p l e of
<T K A'HpoT'V) 9 ( " h a r d n e s s " )
p r o v e s , t h o s e w h o so p r o n o u n c e th e w o r d c e r t a i n l y do n o t m e a n th e
th in g a n y l e s s o r m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y th a n th e E r e t r i a n s , w h o s a y
193
CT K
0 ‘T'v{^— anc^
d e s p i t e th e fa c t t h a t ^
and <T h a ve by no
m e a n s th e s a m e f o r c e a c c o r d i n g to a n a t u r a l i s t a c c o u n t (4 3 4 c - 4 3 5 c ).
T h e a b ilit y of w o r d s to do t h e i r j o b s e f f e c tiv e ly , o r m o r e an d l e s s
e f f e c ti v e ly , is c e r t a i n l y not a r e s u l t of t h e i r r e s e m b l i n g m o r e o r l e s s
c l o s e l y the th in g s m e a n t .
D o e s S o c r a t e s ' b e la te d r e j e c t i o n of his
t h e o r y of n a t u r a l n a m in g m e a n th a t th e a c c o u n t of f a ls e h o o d j u s t e x ­
p la in e d g o es by th e b o a r d a s w e l l, a s m e r e l y th e b e s t one c a n do on a
n a t u r a l i s t b a s i s a n d t h e r e f o r e n o th in g S o c r a t e s is e i t h e r c o m m i t t e d to
o r u l t i m a t e l y a t t r a c t e d by?
I ha v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d th a t , a s i d e f r o m d e t a i l s d r a w n f r o m
th e copy t h e o r y , S o c r a t e s r e l i e s upon tw o t h e s e s in c o n s t r u c t i n g his
t h e o r y of f a ls e h o o d :
th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n w h a t s o m e o n e u s e s a n a m e
to d e s i g n a t e a n d w h a t th e n a m e i t s e l f n a m e s , an d th e v iew th a t th e m e a n ­
ing of a s e n t e n c e i s th e s u m of th e m e a n i n g s of its c o n s t i t u e n t w o r d s .
Now n e i t h e r of t h e s e tw o f e a t u r e s of th e a c c o u n t of f a l s e h o o d is in any
w a y w it h d r a w n o r , in th e c a s e of th e t h e o r y of lo g o s , ev e n q u e s t i o n e d
a n y w h e r e in th e C r a t y l u s .
O b v io u s ly th e y a r e a t l e a s t a s m u c h th e
p r o p e r t y of S o c r a t e s a s th e y a r e H e r m o g e n e s 1 o r C r a t y l u s 1.
If, t h e r e ­
f o r e , only th is d i s t i n c t i o n a n d th e t h e o r y of lo g o s f i g u r e e s s e n t i a l l y in
th e a c c o u n t of f a l s e h o o d , t h e r e is no r e a s o n to c o n c lu d e t h a t S o c r a t e s
in the end r e j e c t s t h a t a c c o u n t o r t h a t he only in te n d e d it a s a t h e o r y
a p p r o p r i a t e to th e d o c t r i n e of n a t u r a l n a m in g .
And in f a c t it is e a s y to
s e e th a t w h a t S o c r a t e s s a y s n o w h e r e d e p e n d s e s s e n t i a l l y upon th e c o n ­
c e p tio n of n a m e s a s c o p i e s of t h in g s .
T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of m i s n a m i n g f o r
w h ic h he a r g u e s a t 4 3 0 a - 4 3 1 a o b v io u s ly r e m a i n s a p o s s i b i l i t y h o w e v e r
194
w o r d s c o m e to h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g s , w h e t h e r by n a t u r e o r by
c o n v e n t io n o r in any o t h e r w ay you lik e .
So long a s it is l e g i t i m a t e to
a r g u e t h a t tho ug h a n a m e d o e s in f a c t n a m e one th in g it c a n be m a d e to
r e f e r to s o m e th in g e l s e , th i s p a r t of th e t h e o r y r e m a i n s i n t a c t .
The
c o p y - t h e o r y h e r e only p r o v i d e s a c o n c r e t e i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e g e n e r a l
p oint.
L i k e w i s e , a n d e v e n m o r e o b v io u s ly , th e t h e o r y of lo g o s w h ic h
m a k e s a m i s t a k e in n a m in g r e s u l t in a m i s - s t a t e m e n t is e n t i r e l y i n d e ­
p e n d e n t of th e c o p y - t h e o r y .
T h e r e r e m a i n s only one p a r t of th e a c c o u n t w h e r e s o m e c l o s e
r e l i a n c e upon th e c o p y - t h e o r y m a y be lo o k e d f o r .
so n of th e b a d ly m a d e n a m e a n d th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t
T h is is t h e c o m p a r i ­
F o r h ere S o crates
i m p l i e s t h a t w h a t e n a b l e s a t r u e a n d a f a l s e s t a t e m e n t to c o n t r a d i c t one
a n o t h e r is th e f a c t t h a t th e y a r e s u f f ic ie n tly a lik e so th a t e a c h c a n be
r e f e r r e d to th e s a m e th in g s a n d t h u s b o th can, in a w a y , be r e p o r t i n g
th e s a m e f a c t s
A nd he i m p l i e s t h a t w h a t c o n n e c ts a s e n t e n c e a s a
w h o le w ith th e s e t of t h in g s i t m e a n s o r s a y s is i ts r e s e m b l a n c e to
t h e m , j u s t a s a n i n d iv id u a l n a m e h a s its m e a n in g by r e s e m b l a n c e .
A
w r o n g l e t t e r h e r e o r t h e r e d o e s n o t do a w a y w ith th e o v e r a l l r e s e m b l a n c e
of n a m e to th in g , a n d s i m i l a r l y a w r o n g n a m e o r two in a s e n t e n c e
d o e s n 't p r e v e n t i t f r o m b e in g a r e p o r t of th e s a m e f a c t s o r th in g s a s a
s e n t e n c e w ith no w r o n g n a m e s in i t .
A s he s a y s , e v e n in th e f a l s e
s t a t e m e n t th e T VTTOS of th e f a c t r e f e r r e d to r e m a i n s (432e 6), a n d th is
is a s m u c h a s to s a y t h a t th e f a l s e s e n t e n c e d o e s n 't a l t o g e t h e r fa il to
r e s e m b l e th e f a c t s .
T h e n o tio n of m e a n i n g a n d r e f e r e n c e by i m i t a t i o n
th u s p la y s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in th e f in a l s t a t e m e n t of th e t h e o r y ; it i s ,
195
in f a c t, in v o k e d to e x p la in how f a l s e a nd t r u e s t a t e m e n t s m a n a g e to
c o m e in to c o n f lic t by r e f e r r i n g to o r r e p o r t i n g th e s a m e f a c ts
It is t r u e th a t f o r any a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n i n g and any
a t t e m p t to e x p la in f a ls e h o o d a s m i s n a m i n g t h e r e m u s t be a p r o b l e m in
e x p la in in g how th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t m a n a g e s to b e c o m e c o n n e c te d w ith
th e f a c ts it r e p o r t s b ad ly
If th e f a c t is t h a t S o c r a t e s is w a lk in g an d I
s a y " S o c r a t e s i s r id i n g , " th e n f o r w h a t I s a y to be f a l s e not only m u s t
" r i d i n g " be th e w r o n g n a m e f o r w h a t S o c r a t e s is d oing , but I m u s t a l s o
be in te n d in g to n a m e w h a t he is d oing w h e n I s a y " r i d i n g . " My w o r d s
h a v e to be d i r e c t e d
a s it w e r e , a t j u s t S o c r a t e s an d th e w a lk in g ; if,
f o r e x a m p le , " S o c r a t e s " is d i r e c t e d a t S o c r a t e s bu t " r i d i n g " not a t
S o c r a t e s 1 w a lk in g but a t s o m e r id in g b ein g don e e l s e w h e r e in th e
v ic in ity th e n d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t " r i d i n g " is a b ad n a m e f o r w a lk in g ,
w h ic h S o c r a t e s is d oing, w h a t I h a v e s a i d w il l not be f a l s e .
W hen he
f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d th e n o tio n of a f a l s e n a m e in h is e x a m in a ti o n of C r a t y ­
lu s (4 3 0 a -4 3 1 b ), S o c r a t e s s e e m e d to be th in k in g th a t the r e f e r e n c e of
th e f a l s e n a m e w a s m a d e u n a m b ig u o u s by s o m e kind of o s t e n s i o n - - h e
th in k s of a s p e a k e r a p p r o a c h i n g C r a t y l u s , p o in tin g to h im , and s a y in g
" Y o u r n a m e is ' m a n 1" (cf. 430e 9 ff. ).
exam ple:
He is e n c o u r a g e d in th i s by his
s i n c e " m a n " in the p r e d i c a t e of s u c h a ju d g m e n t a s " C r a t y l u s
i s a m a n " is th o u g h t of a s a n a m e of j u s t th e s a m e th in g a s th e s u b je c t
" C r a t y l u s " n a m e s , t h e r e is no d o u bt w h a t th in g is b e in g n a m e d by th e
w o r d , o n c e th e r e f e r e n c e of " C r a t y l u s " is fix e d .
But in m o r e c o m p le x
ju d g m e n t s w h e r e e a c h p a r t n a m e s a s e p a r a t e e l e m e n t in th e s i t u a t i o n
( S o c r a t e s , th e w a lk in g ) p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a m b i g u it y o b v io u s ly a r i s e .
It
196
s e e m s t h a t th e r e s e m b l a n c e of s t a t e m e n t to f a c t s is in te n d e d to c o v e r
such c a ses:
b e c a u s e m o s t of th e n a m e s a r e c o r r e c t th e s t a t e m e n t a s a
w h o le is ti e d by r e s e m b l a n c e to a s e t of f a c t s and th e d e v ia n t n a m e is
t h e r e b y g iv e n i ts r e f e r e n c e .
" S o c r a t e s is s ta n d in g on th e c h a i r " is
r e f e r r e d to S o c r a t e s 1 s t a n d i n g on th e t a b l e by the g e n e r a l r e s e m b l a n c e
of s t a t e m e n t a n d f a c t , a n d " c h a i r " is c l e a r l y th e n t r y i n g to n a m e th e
t a b le .
T h e f a l s e n a m e is r e f e r r e d , a s it w e r e , to th e th in g in th e f a c t
w h ic h r e m a i n s u n n a m e d w h e n a l l th e t r u e n a m e s a r e c o r r e l a t e d w ith
th e ir o b jects.
Now th is is o b v io u s ly v e r y c r u d e , a n d , in f a c t, it is j u s t h e r e
th a t th e T h e a e t e t u s p r e s s e s t h e i d e a th a t f a l s e h o o d a m o u n t s to m i s n a m ­
in g :
th e n o tio n of th e s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n t i o n in u s i n g his w o r d s m u s t be
b r o u g h t in m o r e e x p l ic itly , b u t w h e n it is i n t r o d u c e d th e T h e a e t e t u s
h a s d if f ic u l ty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g how a p e r s o n c a n in te n d to n a m e (e. g. )
s o m e w a lk i n g a nd y e t c a l l it r i d i n g i n s t e a d .
In th e C r a t y l u s t h e s e p r o b ­
l e m s do n o t y e t a r i s e , s i n c e t h e p i c t u r e - t h e o r y e f f e c tiv e ly s l u r s t h e m
over.
B ut i t c a n now be s e e n t h a t th e p i c t u r e t h e o r y is not a n e s s e n t i a l
p a r t of S o c r a t e s ' view t h a t th e j.alse a n d the t r u e s t a t e m e n t b o th r e p o r t
th e s a m e th in g s o r f a c t s :
if one h a s in r e s e r v e s o m e s u c h n o tio n a s
th e s p e a k e r ' s i n te n tio n s th e n no s p e c i a l r e s e m b l a n c e a c c o u n t w ill be
n e e d e d to e n s u r e t h a t th e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t is t r y i n g , but f a ilin g , to n a m e
c o r r e c t l y th e s a m e
a s t h e ' t r u e one.
No do u b t th e c o n v e n ­
t i o n a l i s t t h e s i s w h ic h H e r m o g e n e s s h o u ld h a v e d e fe n d e d w o u ld be a b l e
to h old a t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d in a l l e s s e n t i a l s l ik e th e one S o c r a t e s
e x p o u n d s in 4 3 2 e - 4 3 3 a :
it n e e d s only a s s u m e th a t a s p e a k e r c a n in te n d
197
to be r e p o r t i n g a s e t of th in g s and y e t m i s n a m e one o r m o r e of th e m .
I t a p p e a r s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th o u g h th e t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d S o c r a ­
t e s p ro p o u n d s in 4 3 0 -4 3 3 is t a i l o r e d f o r th e s p e c i f i c c o p y - t h e o r y c o n ­
s t r u c t e d by h i m s e l f e a r l i e r a n d a c c e p t e d by C r a t y l u s , its t r u t h is n o ­
w h e r e m a d e to d e p e n d upon th e s p e c i a l t h e s i s th a t a s e n t e n c e g e ts i t s
r e f e r e n c e by m e a n s of r e s e m b l a n c e .
H e n c e w h e n S o c r a t e s r e j e c t s th e
c o p y - t h e o r y f o r th e r e a s o n s g ive n a b o v e , he d o e s n ot r e j e c t th e t h e o r y
of f a ls e h o o d .
G iv e n h is c o n tin u e d a c c e p t a n c e of th e view of a s e n t e n c e
a s a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s and his d o c t r i n e of f a l s e n a m in g , th e a c c o u n t
of f a l s e s e n t e n c e s r e m a i n s u n to u c h e d .
It is now t i m e , a t l a s t , to r.e tu rn to th e T h e a e t e t u s i t s e l f a nd
e x a m in e th e t r o u b l e s r a i s e d an d p u r s u e d t h e r e c o n c e r n i n g th e n o tio n of
f a l s e ju d g m e n t o r b e lie f .
If w e b e a r in m in d th e t h e o r y of m e a n in g
ly in g be h in d th e d e n ia l of f a ls e h o o d in th e E u th y d e m u s a nd th e r e p l y to
th e E u t h y d e m u s 1 a r g u m e n t s w h ic h th e C r a t y l u s c o n s t r u c t s on th e b a s i s
of th e s a m e th e o r y , th e i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n s of th e T h e a e t e t u s e a s i l y
f a l l in to p la c e .
F i r s t of a l l , th e i m m e d i a t e a s s u m p t i o n s of S o c r a t e s 1 a r g u m e n t
in th e T h e a e t e t u s now h a v e a c l e a r e n o ug h s e n s e and d i r e c t i o n .
F irst
th e a s s u m p t i o n th a t f a l s e b e lie f m u s t a m o u n t to th e f a l s e id e n t i f i c a t i o n
of one th in g w ith a n o t h e r (188b).
A s w e h a v e now s e e n , on th e t h e o r y
of m e a n i n g w ith w h ic h P l a t o h a s b e e n o c c u p ie d e a r l i e r t h e r e is h a r d l y
r o o m f o r f a ls e h o o d of any o t h e r s o r t ; an d th e C r a t y l u s h a s e x p lic itly
t r a c e d f a ls e h o o d in s e n t e n c e s in v o lv in g p r e d i c a t i o n to th is kind of e r r o r .
S o c r a t e s 1 a s s u m p t i o n t h a t f a ls e h o o d m u s t a m o u n t to m i s r e c o g n i t i o n
t h e r e f o r e a l e r t s us th a t th e old t h e o r y of m e a n i n g is s t i l l on th e a g e n d a
in th e T h e a e t e t u s .
T h e o t h e r p u z z l i n g a s s u m p t i o n S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s h o ld s t h a t
f o r o u r p u r p o s e s e v e r y t h i n g f a l l s in t o on e of tw o d i s j o i n t c l a s s e s f o r
an y p e r s o n , th e th in g s he k no w s a n d t h o s e he d o e s n o t know .
T h is d o e s
not m e a n t h a t g iv e n a ny t r u e p r o p o s i t i o n a m a n a t an y g iv e n m o m e n t
e i t h e r k no w s it o r d o e s n ft know i t, b u t is r a t h e r a d i v i s i o n of o b j e c t s
( b r o a d l y c o n c e iv e d a s in c l u d in g b o th p e r s o n s a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , a t t r i b u t e s ) .
A nd it v e r y so o n e m e r g e s (188b) t h a t if yo u don*t know a th in g you can*t
h a v e i t in y o u r t h o u g h t s , s o t h a t t o be d i r e c t i n g y o u r th o u g h t to s o m e
o b j e c t is t a k e n a s r e q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e of it.
T h is in t u r n s e e m s to
i m p l y (188b 3 - 5 ) t h a t you c a n n o t be th in k in g of a th in g u n l e s s you r e c o g ­
n iz e it.
T h e d i v i s i o n of t h in g s kn o w n a n d t h in g s u nknow n t h e r e f o r e
a m o u n t s to a d i v i s i o n b e tw e e n w h a t a n y o n e h a s in h is t h o u g h t s , r e c o g ­
n iz in g it f o r i t s e l f , a n d w h a t he d o e s not h a v e in h is th o u g h ts a t a ll.
C o m b in e d w ith th e f i r s t a s s u m p t i o n t h i s d i v i s i o n p r o d u c e s t h e p a r a d o x
t h a t f a l s e th in k in g i s i m p o s s i b l e , s i n c e t h e r e c a n n o t be an y th o u g h t of
a n o b j e c t w h ic h y e t m i s t a k e s it f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e , a n d if t h e r e a r e no
m i s t a k e s of t h i s s o r t t h e r e a r e no f a l s e th o u g h ts a t a ll.
Why th e n d o e s S o c r a t e s a s s u m e t h a t to h a v e a n y th in g in m in d is
n e c e s s a r i l y to r e c o g n i z e it a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t to m a k e a m i s t a k e a b o u t
it?
T h e s o u r c e of th is a s s u m p t i o n , l ik e t h a t of th e o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , c a n be found in th e t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d S o c r a t e s s e t s
up in t h e C r a t y l u s .
In d i s c u s s i n g t h i s t h e o r y a b o v e I s a i d th a t any
a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n i n g w h i c h m a k e s f a l s e h o o d a m a t t e r of m i s -
199
n a m in g s o m e p a r t of th e th in g s o r f a c t s r e p o r t e d m u s t e x p la in how th e
f a l s e n a m e c o m e s to be a p p lie d to th e th in g it is u s e d to n a m e .
In
s o m e c a s e s , of c o u r s e , a s S o c r a t e s in th e C r a t y l u s r e c o g n i z e d , w h a t
th in g is m e a n t w ill be o b v io u s f r o m th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s - - o n e p o in ts and
s a y s " h o r s e , " o r o t h e r w i s e sh o w s w h a t th in g is in te n d e d .
B ut in g e n e r ­
a l s u c h e x t e r n a l a i d s a r e n ot a v a i l a b l e , an d s o m e t h i n g e l s e m u s t be
b r o u g h t in a n d a p p e a l e d to a s e s t a b l i s h i n g th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n n a m e
a n d th in g .
C l e a r l y e n o u g h w h a t is r e q u i r e d is r e f e r e n c e to w h a t th e
s p e a k e r in t e n d e d to n a m e by th e w o r d :
even w h e re th e re a r e such
e x t e r n a l s ig n s a s p o in t in g , it m i g h t be s a i d , no a m o u n t of g e s t i c u l a t i o n
c a n m a k e th e w o r d n a m e th e th in g u n l e s s th e s p e a k e r is d i r e c t i n g h is
th o u g h t to th e s a m e th in g a s he i s p o in tin g to.
T h e T h e a e t e t u s , in
s h if tin g f r o m f a l s e s t a t e m e n t to f a l s e t h i n k i n g , ta k e s a c c o u n t of th is
f a c t.
A f a l s e s t a t e m e n t r e q u i r e s b o th f a l s e n a m in g and f a l s e th in k in g ;
f a l s e n a m in g in v o lv e s d i r e c t i n g o n e 's th o u g h t t o w a r d an o b je c t, h a v in g
it b e f o r e o n e 's m in d , a n d th e n g iv in g it a w r o n g n a m e .
And j u s t h e r e
is w h e r e th e T h e a e t e t u s ' d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith f a l s e h o o d b e g in .
a n o b je c t b e f o r e h is m i n d how c a n he m i s n a m e it?
If one h as
T o m i s n a m e it is to
fa il to r e c o g n i z e i t f o r w h a t it i s , to c o n f u s e it w ith s o m e th in g e l s e ,
a nd th is s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e .
S u p p o s e f o r e x a m p l e th a t y ou have w a lk in g
b e f o r e y o u r m i n d a n d s a y to y o u r s e l f " s i t t i n g . "
th is w o r d m e a n s ; s i t t i n g is s o m e t h i n g you know.
You u n d e r s t a n d w h a t
H e n c e w h en you s a y
" s i t t i n g " a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h a t you a r e s a y in g , you m u s t h a v e s i ttin g
b e f o r e y o u r m in d a s w e ll.
T h e n to m i s n a m e w a lk in g a s " s i t t i n g " is to
h ave tw o o b j e c ts b e f o r e y o u r m in d , w a lk in g a n d s itt in g , w h ile th in k in g
200
th e y a r e o n e : w a lk in g is ta k e n to be s i t t i n g .
B ut th is s e e m s i m p o s s i ­
b l e , b e c a u s e in h a v in g t h e s e tw o th in g s in m in d you m u s t know th a t th e
one is w a lk in g , t h a t th e o t h e r is s i t t i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h a t th ey a r e
tw o a n d n o t one.
If you do not know t h a t it is w a lk in g t h a t you h a v e in
m in d , w h a t j u s t i f i e s an y one in s a y in g t h a t by " s i t t i n g " you r e f e r r e d
f a l s e l y to w a l k i n g ?
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t th a t you know b o th w h a t " s i t t i n g "
m e a n s a n d w h a t t h in g you a r e r e f e r r i n g to by i t s e e m s to end by r e q u i r ­
ing t h a t you c o n f u s e two th in g s t o g e t h e r w h i le a t th e s a m e t i m e kn o w in g
t h e m to be p e r f e c t l y d i s t i n c t .
T h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t you m u s t know a n y th in g t h a t c a n be a n
o b j e c t of y o u r th o u g h t is t h e r e f o r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d to th e t h e o r i e s of
m e a n i n g a n d f a l s e h o o d S o c r a t e s w a s w o r k i n g w ith in th e C r a t y l u s .
T h o s e t h e o r i e s h a v e r e q u i r e d t h a t one h a v e a th in g in m i n d a n d y e t n ot
know i t f o r i t s e l f ; a n d th e T h e a e t e t u s b e g in s i t s e x a m i n a t i o n of f a l s e ­
hood by e x p r e s s i n g i t s p u z z l e m e n t o v e r how t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n be
m et.
A n d if th e y c a n n o t , a s th e T h e a e t e t u s i m m e d i a t e l y s e e s , th e n th e
p r o p o s e d e x p l a n a t i o n of f a l s e h o o d f a l l s to th e g r o u n d .
B e f o r e p u r s u i n g th e p r o b l e m f u r t h e r th e T h e a e t e t u s p a u s e s , a s
I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d , to c o n s i d e r b r i e f l y th e p r o b l e m of f a l s e h o o d
\v^'
K ATa
*-\V(M
K
(
T h e b r i e f r e h e a r s a l of th e s o p h i s t s 1
p u z z l e a b o u t th in k in g w h a t is f a l s e e n t a ilin g no t th in k in g a t a l l , is
l a r g e l y i g n o r e d in w h a t fo llo w s :
th e only i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t it h a s on th e
s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t a t i o n is in th e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e h o o d a s <xAXo<To£/i*
w h i c h is p r o d u c e d i n t h e i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e e d i n g p a s s a g e (189b 10190e 4).
T h e s o p h i s t s 1 a r g u m e n t h ad a l l e g e d t h a t th in k in g f a l s e l y w a s
201
th in k in g th in g s th a t do not e x i s t , a n d S o c r a t e s in s u p p o s in g th a t e r r o r
c o n s i s t s in oiXAofo^ifc.
e x p lic it ly m e n t i o n s (189c 1-2) th a t th e th in g s
w h ic h on th is a c c o u n t a r e o b j e c ts of th o u g h t in f a l s e b e lie f a r e a ll of
th e m
Ov To\ .
F o r th e r e s t , th e d e f in itio n of f a l s e b e lie f a s <^AAocTo^/a.
seem s
in te n d e d to b r in g out m o r e f u lly a n d e x p lic it ly th e d i f f i c u lti e s a l r e a d y
h in te d a t, s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e l y , in th e i n i t i a l s t a t e m e n t of th e p r o b l e m
a t 1 8 7 d -1 8 8 c .
A c c o r d i n g to t h i s d e f in itio n , th e f i r s t of t h r e e p r o p o s a l s
t r i e d in th e c o u r s e of th e d i s c u s s i o n , w h e n e v e r an y one th in k s s o m e t h i n g
f a l s e he e x c h a n g e s in h is th o u g h t one e x is tin g th in g f o r a n o t h e r .
F a lse
th in k in g is j u s t m i s t a k i n g s o m e t h i n g f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e .
Now th i s d e f in iti o n is m e a n t to c o v e r a l l ty p e s of f a l s e ju d g m e n t ,
a s in d e e d an y one s h o u ld s e e if he b e a r s in m in d w h a t is s a id in th e
C ra ty lu s.
T h is is m a d e c l e a r i m m e d i a t e l y (189c 5 -7 ) by T h e a e t e t u s 1
r e m a r k th a t j u s t th e kind of e x c h a n g e w h ic h S o c r a t e s h a s in m in d d o e s
in f a c t o c c u r w h e n s o m e o n e th in k s ugly i n s t e a d of b e a u tif u l o r b e a u tif u l
i n s t e a d of ugly a n d t h e r e b y th in k s s o m e t h i n g f a l s e .
T h eaetetu s m u s t
h e r e be th in k in g of s u c h m i s t a k e s a s th e j u d g m e n t t h a t th e P r u d e n t i a l
C e n t e r is b e a u tifu l:
he th in k s th a t w h e n s o m e o n e f a l s e l y b e l i e v e s s u c h
a p r o p o s i t i o n he ha s in h is th o u g h ts ( £ o ^ a t)G -i )
sh o u ld h a v e had (the) u gly.
(the) b e a u tif u l w h e n he
And th is is in t u r n b e in g th o u g h t of a s
e x c h a n g in g one th in g f o r a n o t h e r in o n e 's th o u g h ts .
It is no t c l e a r f r o m T h e a e t e t u s 1 r e m a r k w h e t h e r he m e a n s th a t
th e p e r s o n who ju d g e s w r o n g ly h a s bo th th e b e a u tifu l a n d th e ugly in m in d
w h e n he a s s e r t s h is f a ls e h o o d , a t t h a t m o m e n t m ix in g t h e m up, o r
202
w h e t h e r p e r h a p s th e only th in g in his m i n d w h e n he m a k e s h is m i s t a k e
is th e b e a u tif u l, th e th in g he a c t u a l l y n a m e s .
of ugly ( o ^ T l
T h in k in g b e a u tif u l i n s t e a d
189c 6) r a t h e r s u g g e s t s th e l a t t e r .
B u t it
is c l e a r th a t if he only h a s in m in d th e b e a u tif u l it w ill be i m p o s s i b l e ,
on th e t h e o r y a d o p te d by t h e C r a t y l u s , to c o n v i c t him of f a l s e h o o d .
For
th o u g h no d o ub t h e th o u g h t b e a u t if u l i n s t e a d of u gly t h e r e w o u ld be no
e r r o r in t h a t u n l e s s he h a d h i m s e l f w a n t e d to n a m e u gly o r ha d in te n d e d
to s t a t e th e f a c t w h ic h is c o r r e c t l y r e p o r t e d by MT h e P r u d e n t i a l C e n t e r
is ug ly . n If he w a n te d to s a y a n d th in k th e b e a u ti f u l, a n d n o th in g e l s e ,
th e n h is th o u g h t w o u ld a p p e a r to be e n t i r e l y in o r d e r a n d th e s t a t e m e n t
in q u e s t i o n t r u e :
tru e.
O'/
e a c h p a r t n a m e s s o m e t h i n g c o r r e c t l y , s o th e w h o l e is
E v e r y t h i n g he h a s t h o u g h t is a n 0 ^
for so m e o th er
a n d he h a s not e x c h a n g e d an y
ov.
S o c r a t e s in h is e x a m i n a t i o n of f a l s e h o o d a s
(<x.
r e c t s t h i s o m i s s i o n in T h e a e te tu s * u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e t h e s i s .
cor­
He p o in ts
out (190d 7 - 1 0 ) t h a t if a p e r s o n h a s in m in d only one of two t h i n g s he c a n ­
not be ta k in g th e o n e f o r th e o t h e r ; if he isn*t e v e n th in k in g th e ug ly in
any w a y o r to an y d e g r e e ( l A v ^ a f A ^ , 190d 8), but h a s th e b e a u ti f u l in
m in d s i m p l y a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y , th e n he c a n ' t be c o n f u s in g th e two
a n d th in k in g th e u gly is th e b e a u t if u l .
T h e m i s t a k e r e q u i r e s t h a t b o th
be s o m e h o w h a d in m in d .
S u p p o s e , h o w e v e r , t h a t b o th a r e had in m in d .
Then what h ap ­
p e n s w h e n s o m e o n e ju d g e s f a l s e l y t h a t th e P r u d e n t i a l C e n t e r is b e a u t i ­
ful is t h a t he th i n k s b o th t h e b e a u ti f u l a n d th e ugly and j u d g e s t h a t th e
u g ly i s th e b e a u tif u l.
W h a t d o e s t h i s j u d g m e n t t h a t th e b e a u t if u l i s th e
203
ugly a m o u n t to ?
J u d g in g , S o c r a t e s s a y s , is j u s t i n t e r n a l s a y in g
(189e 6 - 190a 6), so t h a t th in k in g th a t th e b e a u tif u l is th e u gly is r e a l l y
sa y in g to y o u r s e l f " T h e b e a u tif u l [w h ic h you h a v e h e r e b e f o r e y o u r
m in d ] is th e ugly [w hich is t h e r e b e f o r e y o u r m in d ] . "
p o ssib le m is ta k e ?
But is th is a
S o c r a t e s th in k s n o t: no on e , ev e n in his s l e e p o r in
a fit of m a d n e s s , h a s e v e r s a id to h i m s e l f th a t th e b e a u tif u l is th e ugly
o r th e w r o n g th e r i g h t , o r th a t odd is e v e n o r two is one.
If you h a v e
two th in g s b e f o r e y o u r m in d and a t t a c h to e a c h i t s own n a m e you c a n n o t
t h e n th in k one is th e o t h e r ; h a v in g t h e m in m in d in th is w ay p r e c l u d e s ,
a c c o r d i n g to S o c r a t e s , th e kind of m i s t a k i n g a n d m i s r e c o g n i z i n g w h ic h
a>AAo<To^!/A
en tails.
H e n c e (kkk o
cannot occu r eith er when
a m a n h a s j u s t one of tw o th in g s in m in d o r w h e n he is th in k in g both;
an d w e h a v e n o t m a d e any a d v a n c e t o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g how f a l s e
th in k in g o c c u r s (190d 1 1 - e 3).
Why d o e s S o c r a t e s th in k t h a t in m i s t a k i n g th e ugly fo r th e b e a u ­
tifu l, in th e p r o c e s s of s a y in g s u c h a th in g a s " T h e P r u d e n t i a l C e n t e r
i s b e a u t if u l " i n s t e a d of " T h e P r u d e n t i a l C e n t e r is u g l y , " I m u s t be
sa y in g to m y s e l f " T h e b e a u tif u l is th e u g l y " ?
L e t us g r a n t h im th a t it
is i m p o s s i b l e to s a y th is to o n e s e lf , u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t one is s a y in g :
th is i m p o s s i b i l i t y r e s u l t s f r o m th e f a c t (as I p ut it j u s t a b o v e ) t h a t to
ha v e th e b e a u tif u l in m in d a n d a t t a c h to it i t s own p r o p e r n a m e is to
d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m any o t h e r th in g s i m i l a r l y h a d in m in d an d r e c o g n i z e d
as itse lf.
T h u s w e m a y g r a n t th a t it is i m p o s s i b l e e v e r to s a y f a l s e l y
to o n e s e l f " M r . J o n e s is M r . S m ith , " s i n c e so to n a m e th e m is to m a r k
th e m off f r o m one a n o t h e r , a n d one c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ho ld th e m
204
a p a r t and c o lla p se th e m to g e th e r.
28
But th is is not th e only w a y in
w h i c h I c o u ld m i s t a k e M r . J o n e s f o r M r . S m i th in m y th o u g h ts :
I
m i g h t h a v e M r . J o n e s in m y th o u g h t no t by w a y of h is p r o p e r n a m e but
by s o m e d e f in ite d e s c r i p t i o n (Mth e b u t c h e r a r o u n d th e c o r n e r 11) a n d th e n
ta k e th i s p e r s o n , w ho is in f a c t M r . J o n e s , f o r M r . S m it h (who is p e r ­
h a p s th e b a k e r ) .
In o r d e r to m i s t a k e M r . J o n e s f o r M r . S m i t h I n e e d
n o t s a y to m y s e l f " M r . J o n e s is M r . S m i t h 11: I m a y s a y i n s t e a d MT h e
b u t c h e r a r o u n d th e c o r n e r is M r . S m ith . " A nd w h e r e a s th e f o r m e r
lo o k s v e r y l ik e s o m e t h i n g i t r s n ot p o s s i b l e to s a y to o n e s e lf , th e l a t t e r
d o e s n lt b e g in to lo o k i m p o s s i b l e .
Is S o c r a t e s , in h o ld in g th a t to t h in k
one th in g is a n o t h e r is to s a y to o n e s e l f t h a t t h e one is th e o t h e r , i g n o r ­
ing th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n p r o p e r n a m e s a n d d e f in ite d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d
i n s i s t i n g t h a t to s a y to o n e s e l f t h a t on e th in g is a n o t h e r m u s t be to
r e f e r to two th in g s by n a m e a n d t h e n c o n f la te t h e m ?
I t is i m p o r t a n t to n o tic e , I th in k , t h a t t h r o u g h o u t th e d i s c u s s i o n
of olXXo
S o c r a t e s h a s in m in d th e k in d of m i s t a k e w h ic h T h e ­
a e t e t u s h i m s e l f i n t r o d u c e d by h i s e x a m p l e of th in k in g b e a u tif u l i n s t e a d
of ugly.
T h a t is to s a y , h e h a s in m i n d p r i m a r i l y not m i s t a k e s of one
p e r s o n f o r a n o t h e r b ut m i s t a k e s in v o lv in g w h a t f o r l a c k of a b e t t e r n o n ­
c o m m itta l e x p re s s io n I sh all call p r e d i c a t e - e n t i t i e s .
And th e c o n d i tio n s
u n d e r w h i c h s u c h m i s t a k e s a r e s u p p o s e d to a r i s e a r e giv e n by th e t h e o r y
of m e a n i n g a n d f a l s e h o o d I h a v e e x p o u n d e d a b o v e .
A f a l s e s t a t e m e n t is
r e p r e s e n t e d a s s a y in g b a dly a l l th e s a m e th in g s a s s o m e t r u e s t a t e m e n t
s a y s w e l l , a n d th in k in g f a l s e l y i s th in k in g of a l l th e s a m e th in g s a s m a k e
up s o m e t r u e th o u g h t but f a i lin g to r e c o g n i z e one of t h e m f o r i t s e l f .
Now
205
t h e r e is no doubt t h a t S o c r a t e s t h i nk s t h i s m i s t a k e i nv ol ve s n a m i n g two
d i f f e r e n t t hi ngs c o r r e c t l y a nd yet c o n f u s i n g t h e m ; but it is not c l e a r
w h e t h e r t hi s is due to t h e f a i l u r e to d i s t i n g u i s h p r o p e r n a m e s f r o m
d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s o r w h e t h e r t h e r e is s o m e f e a t u r e of t he t h e o r y of
f a l s e h o o d w h i c h m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y (or s e e m n e c e s s a r y ) t h a t the f a l s e
t h i n k e r ha ve in m i n d u n d e r t h e i r . p r o p e r n a m e s a l l t he t hi ngs w h i c h
m a k e up t he t r u e t h o u gh t .
If so, S o c r a t e s ' i d e a t h a t in m a k i n g s u c h
f a l s e j u d g m e n t s a s t h a t t h e P r u d e n t i a l is b e a u t i f u l I m u s t s a y to m y s e l f
" T h e b e a u ti f ul is t h e ug l y" w i l l show not a c o n f u s i o n a b ou t two d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s of r e f e r r i n g e x p r e s s i o n but r a t h e r a s e r i o u s d if fic ul ty in th e t h e ­
o r y of m e a n i n g a nd f a l s e h o o d b eing a c c e p t e d in t he w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n .
If on t hi s t h e o r y one i r r e t r i e v a b l y m u s t bot h c o r r e c t l y n a m e two o b j e c t s
a n d n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n f u s e t h e m , t h e n t he t h e o r y is s t u c k w i t h the r u i n ­
ous c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t f a l s e h o o d m u s t i n vo l v e s a y i n g to o n e s e l f "A is B"
in s o m a n y w o r d s .
Now it d o e s s e e m to m e t h a t t h e r e a r e f a i r l y p l a u s i b l e r e a s o n s
f o r t hinki ng t h a t t he t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d a s m i s n a m i n g d oe s r e q u i r e t h a t
one be a b l e to c o n f u s e two o b j e c t s w h i c h one h a s i n m i n d in t h e s t r o n g
s e n s e t h a t e a c h i s g iv e n it s c o r r e c t p r o p e r n a m e .
A c c o r d i n g to t h is
t h e o r y , th e f a l s e t h i n k e r ha s in m i n d , i s d i r e c t i n g h is t hought t o w a r d ,
t h e o b j e c t (s a y, t he b e au t i f u l ) w h i c h t he t r u e s t a t e m e n t n a m e s c o r r e c t l y
a nd w h i c h is one c o n s t i t u e n t of t h e f a c t be i ng r e p o r t e d .
Can he ha v e
t he b e au ti f ul in m i n d w i t h o u t knowi ng t h a t it is t he b e a u t if u l (and so not
t he ugl y)?
D e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e not s o e a s y to t hi nk of f o r p r e d i -
c a t e - e n t i t i e s a s t h e y a r e f o r p e r s o n s , but t h ey do e x i s t .
F o r example
206
" t h e q u a l i t y m e n t i o n e d s e c o n d in t h e t i t l e of B u r k e ' s book on a e s t h e t i c s "
i s a d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b e a u t i f u l , s i n c e t h e t i t l e in q u e s t i o n is
T r e a t i s e on t he S u b l i m e a n d B e a u t i f u l .
Suppose then a m a n has the
b e a u t i f u l in m i n d u n d e r t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n :
t h e n he n e e d not know t h a t t he
o b j e c t h e h a s in v i e w b e a r s t h e p r o p e r n a m e " t h e b e a u t i f u l " a n d r o o m
i s l e f t f o r h i m to t a k e it f o r t h e ugl y.
B ut d o e s he i n t h i s c a s e h a v e t h e
b e a u t i f u l in m i n d in t h e w a y r e q u i r e d by the t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d ?
The
f a c t w h i c h h e is s u p p o s e d to be m i s r e p o r t i n g i s ( sa y) t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
T a j M a h a l is b e a u t i f u l , a n d he is s u p p o s e d to h a v e t h e o b j e c t s Taj
M a h a l a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l in m i n d i n o r d e r to do t h i s .
Is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
Taj Mahal is beautiful the s a m e fact as the fact that the Taj Mahal has
t h e q u a l i t y m e n t i o n e d s e c o n d in B u r k e ' s t i t l e ?
It s e e m s not.
O ne c o ul d,
to u s e a n old i d i o m , m a k e t h e l a t t e r f a c t go out of e x i s t e n c e by a l t e r i n g
e i t h e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e T a j M a h a l o r t h e t i t l e of B u r k e ' s t r e a t i s e ,
but only t h e f i r s t of t h e s e c h a n g e s w o u l d h a v e a s i m i l a r d e l e t e r i o u s
e f f e c t on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e T a j M a h a l i s b e a u t i f u l .
B e c a use the definite
d e s c r i p t i o n i n q u e s t i o n is only c o n t i n g e n t l y r e l a t e d to t h e b e a u t i f u l , a
p a i r of p r o p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e i d e n t i c a l e x c e p t t h a t w h e r e t h e o ne h a s
" b e a u t i f u l " t h e o t h e r h a s a n o n - a n a l y t i c d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b e a u ­
t if ul a r e not t h e s a m e p r o p o s i t i o n a n d do not r e p o r t t h e s a m e f a c t .
If
t h i s i s s o ( or e v e n p l a u s i b l e ) , t h e n I t h i n k t h e t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d a s
m i s n a m i n g m a y i n t h e end r e q u i r e ( o r c o m e c l o s e to r e q u i r i n g ) t h a t
one m i s n a m e s o m e t h i n g he a t t h e s a m e t i m e n a m e s c o r r e c t l y .
F o r if
the fa ct th at the Taj M ahal is beautif ul is a dif ferent fact f r o m the fact
t h a t t h e T a j M a h a l h a s t h e q u a l i t y i n B u r k e ' s t i t l e , a n d t he f a l s e t h i n k e r
207
i s e x p r e s s i n g t he f o r m e r f a c t , but b a dl y, he m u s t h av e t h a t f a c t in
mind.
And t h i s m e a n s t h a t he m u s t h a v e t h e b ea u ti f ul , c o r r e c t l y
l a b e l e d , b e f o r e his m i n d w h e n he s a y s o r t h i n k s to h i m s e l f " u g l y . "
O t h e r w i s e it i s a d i f f e r e n t f a c t he i s (badly) e x p r e s s i n g and d i f f e r e n t
t h i ng s w h i c h he is (badly) n a m i n g .
The a r g u m e n t j u s t p r e s e n t e d obviously invokes the in tentionality
of t h i n k in g and t u r n s upon t h e f a c t t h a t t he o b j e c t of t h ou g ht i s a n i n t e n ­
tional object.
It m a y be c o n t e n d e d t h a t t h e s e n o t i o n s a r e too s o p h i s t i ­
c a t e d to h a v e l a i n b e h i n d P l a t o * s i d e a i n t he T h e a e t e t u s t h a t f a l s e t h i n k ­
i ng m u s t c o n s i s t in t a k i n g one t hi ng , th ou g h c o r r e c t l y n a m e d , f o r a n ­
other, a lso c o r r e c tly na m ed .
It is c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t no s u c h vi ew is
a n y t h i n g l i k e e x p l i c i t i n Plato* s t e x t; but t h e n n e i t h e r d oe s any o t h e r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o m e c l o s e to b ei n g e x p l i c i t l y w a r r a n t e d by t he t e x t i t ­
s e lf .
And t he f a c t t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t he d i s c u s s i o n in 1 89c- 190e it is t h e
m i s t a k e of one p r e d i c a t e - e n t i t y f o r a n o t h e r t h a t is giving t he t r o u b l e
m u s t be s o m e h o w t a k e n a c c o u n t of.
It i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e to d e c i d e a t t hi s poi nt why e x a c t l y S o c r a t e s
t h i n k s f a l s e i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s a r e of th e t y p e "A i s B" w h e r e “ A" a nd
"B" a r e na m e s.
But i t is i m p o r t a n t to h a v e t he a l t e r n a t i v e s c l e a r l y in
m i n d b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g , so t h a t t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n c a n be c o n ­
s i d e r e d in t h e l i g h t of e a c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , hop ef ul l y m a k i n g p o s s i b l e a
decision between them .
In e i t h e r c a s e t he dif f ic ul t y a b o u t i d e n t i t y j u d g ­
m e n t s a r i s e s in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d w h i c h m a k e s al l
f a l s e j u d g m e n t s , p r e d i c a t i v e a s w e l l a s o t h e r s , t h e r e s u l t of m i s i d e n t i fications.
But on t h e f i r s t v ie w d i s c u s s e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r p u z z l e a b ou t
208
m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h P l a t o r a i s e s w i l l be a d i f f ic u lt y w h i c h m i g h t
j u s t a s w e l l h a v e a r i s e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t he t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d :
any
one who w a s not c l e a r a b o u t t he d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n a m e a n d a d e ­
s c r i p t i o n m i g h t b e c o m e p u z z l e d a b o u t how f a l s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e e v e r
p o s s i b l e , s i n c e a ny f a l s e i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t , if one i g n o r e s t h e d i f f e r ­
e n c e b e t w e e n n a m e s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s , c o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d a s h a v i n g
t he f o r m of t h e i m p o s s i b l e j u d g m e n t " J o n e s is S m i t h . " On t h e s e c o n d
vie w it i s no g e n e r a l t r o u b l e a b o u t f a l s e i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s a n d e s s e n ­
t i a l l y no c o n f u s i o n a b o u t n a m e s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t s t a n d s in P l a t o ' s
way.
On t h i s v i e w, w h e n P l a t o i m p l i e s t h a t m a k i n g a m i s t a k e r e q u i r e s
n a m i n g a t h in g c o r r e c t l y a n d y e t m i s n a m i n g it he is not s l i d i n g f r o m
" T h e m a n on t h e c o r n e r Lwho is i n f a c t J o n e s ] is S m i t h " to " J o n e s is
S m i t h , " but t a k i n g n o t i c e of t h e f a c t t h a t on t he a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of
m e a n i n g , to m a k e a m i s t a k e r e q u i r e s g e t t in g s o m e t h i n g i n t o o n e ' s
t h o u g h t s by n a m e a n d y e t m i s n a m i n g it.
In f a c t , a s S o c r a t e s ' d i s c u s ­
s i o n of t h e w a x - t a b l e t m o d e l b r i n g s out, i t is t h e l a t t e r vie w w h i c h
s e e m s to be t h e c o r r e c t one:
but t h i s c a n only be s h o w n l a t e r on.
B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e n e x t s t a g e of t h e a r g u m e n t in d e t a i l it
wi ll be u s e f u l to h a v e i n m i n d t h e c o u r s e of d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e w h o l e
a r g u m e n t f r o m t h e r e j e c t i o n of <^X\o
t<x
a s a n e x p l i c a t i o n of
f a l s e h o o d r i g h t t h r o u g h to t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of t he t o p ic of f a l s e b e l i e f .
In w h a t f o ll o w s S o c r a t e s a t t e m p t s to t h r o w l i g ht on t h e a p p a r e n t l y
i m p o s s i b l e f a l s e i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s he h a s u n c o v e r e d , in t h e hope t h a t
it m a y y e t t u r n out to b e p o s s i b l e t o m i s t a k e one t h in g f o r a n o t h e r w i t h ­
out h a v i n g to r e c o g n i z e b o t h of t h e m i n t h e p r o c e s s .
He s t a r t s by
209
p r o d u c i n g s o m e c a s e s w h e r e one c a n and d o e s m i s t a k e one p e r s o n o r
thi ng f o r a n o t h e r w it h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y a l s o r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m , a nd t h e n
c o n s t r u c t s a m o d e l of t he m i n d ' s o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h s ho ws how t h e s e
m i s t a k e s can o c c u r .
T h i s is t he s i m i l e of t he wa x t a b l e t .
But the
c a s e s he had s t a r t e d w i t h , f o r w h i c h t h e wa x t a b l e t m o d e l had b e e n
i n t r o d u c e d , di d not i n c l u d e any m i s t a k e s w h i c h w e r e w ho l ly in t he
m i n d , a s th e e x a m p l e s w h i c h c a u s e d t h e o r i g i n a l t r o u b l e w e r e .
In
t h e s e e x a m p l e s , a nd i n d e e d in f a l s e b e l i e f in g e n e r a l a c c o r d i n g to th e
t h e o r y b e i n g a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h o u t t he d i s c u s s i o n , one t a k e s one thing
he is t h i n k i n g of f o r a n o t h e r he i s t hi nk in g of, a n d t h e m o d e l of the
w a x t a b l e t , a s S o c r a t e s s h o w s , f a i l s to p e r m i t s u c h m i s t a k e s a s t h e s e .
H e t h e n c h a n g e s m o d e l s , i n t r o d u c i n g t he s i m i l e of t he a v i a r y in
t h e p l a c e of t he wa x t a b l e t .
T h e hope i s , e v i d en t l y , to put to u s e t he
l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t he t yp e of m i s t a k e a c c o u n t e d
f o r on t h e w a x t a b l e t m o d e l .
T h e s e m i s t a k e s a l l i nv o l v e d th e m i s f i t t i n g ,
a s S o c r a t e s p u t s it (193c), of p e r c e p t i o n s to t he m e m o r y - i m p r e s s i o n s
w h i c h a r e t he o b j e c t s of t hought .
T h e thi ng p e r c e i v e d , a b o ut w h i c h t he
m i s t a k e is m a d e , is be i ng r e f e r r e d to a n d so, in a w a y, t ho ug ht a bout,
but not f o r a l l t h a t r e c o g n i z e d f o r w h a t it i s .
Wh a t t he a v i a r y is
e x p e c t e d to do (cf. 199b 1 - c 7 ) i s to m a k e r o o m f o r a s i m i l a r d i s ­
t a n c i n g , a s it w e r e , of t h e o b j e c t a b o u t w h i c h t he m i s t a k e is m a d e
f r o m t h e full r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h w o u l d be e n t a i l e d by havi ng it a s a
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d o b j e c t of t h ou gh t a t the t i m e w h e n t he m i s t a k e is m a d e .
J u s t a s the p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t is b e i n g r e f e r r e d to and so in a w a y had in
m i n d (in p e r c e p t i o n , not p u r e l y in t hought ), so t h e a v i a r y p r o v i d e s two
210
m o d e s in w h i c h a n o b j e c t c a n be h a d i n m i n d :
w h e n one i s a c t u a l l y
t h i nk i n g a b o u t it he h a s h is k n o w l e d g e of it d i r e c t l y b e f o r e h i s m i n d a n d
t h e n knows it f o r w h a t it i s , b ut he m a y a l s o h a v e it in m i n d in t h e
w e a k e r s e n s e t h a t he h a s c o m e to know it a nd t h e r e f o r e h a s a n a c q u i r e d
a b i l i t y to b r i n g it b e f o r e h is m i n d w h e n he w i s h e s .
T h e s u g g e s t i o n is
t h a t w h e n a n o b j e c t is ha d in m i n d i n t h e w e a k e r , but not i n t h e s t r o n g e r ,
sense misidentifications can occur.
T h i s s u g g e s t i o n is a t o n c e r e j e c t e d
( a i n c e ( h a v i n g t h e ki nd of p o t e n t i a l k n o w l e d g e S o c r a t e s h a s in m i n d o b v i ­
o u s l y d o e s n ot by i t s e l f e n a b l e one to b e a c t u a l l y t h in k in g a b o ut a n o b j e c t ,
but a m i s t a k e a b o u t a t h i n g c a n n o t o c c u r o t h e r w i s e ) ; a n d w i t h t h a t t h e
whole investigation is abandoned.
T h e r e s e e m s no w a y , g i v e n t h e v i e w
of f a l s e h o o d a s m i s n a m i n g , to a v o i d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t i n t h e g e n e r a l
c a s e t h i n k i n g f a l s e l y r e q u i r e s t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one s h o ul d b ot h
n a m e two t h i n g s c o r r e c t l y a n d y e t t a k e t he one f o r t h e o t h e r .
T h e t wo m o d e l s of t h e m i n d h e r e i n t r o d u c e d a r e , a s t h e f o r e ­
going s u m m a r y of t h e a r g u m e n t i n d i c a t e s , i n t e n d e d to be g r a p h i c i l l u s ­
t r a t i o n s of t h e p r o c e s s of m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h h a s b e e n b e d e v i l l i n g
t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t r u e a n d f a l s e b e l i e f .
T h e i r i n t e r e s t is p r e t t y c l e a r l y
r e s t r i c t e d to t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .
Thus when the wax
t a b l e t m o d e l t u r n s out not to p e r m i t p u r e l y m e n t a l m i s t a k e s S o c r a t e s
b o t h r e j e c t s ( 196c) t h e d e f i n i t i o n of e r r o r f ou n de d upon it (the m i s f i t t i n g
of t h ou g ht to p e r c e p t i o n ) a n d, a p p a r e n t l y , a b a n d o n s a l t o g e t h e r t h e m o d e l
of m e m o r y a s i m p r e s s i o n s i n a w a x - b l o c k .
The av iary m odel s u p e r ­
s e d e s , a n d d o e s n ot m e r e l y s u p p l e m e n t , t h e wa x b l oc k.
S o c r a t e s is
s e e k i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n of f a l s e h o o d a s in vo lv i n g m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h
211
w i l l a c c o u n t a t o nc e f o r a U f a l s e t hin ki ng ; a n d t h e wa x b l o c k is no t
t h o ug ht of a s having s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n e d s o m e e r r o r s , l e a v i n g only
c e r t a i n o t h e r s to be c a t e r e d f or by s o m e o t h e r m o d e l .
Neither sim ile
is t r e a t e d a s if it had a n y t h i n g m o r e to r e c o m m e n d it t h an t h a t it p e r ­
m i t s o r s e e m s to p e r m i t in a not i m p l a u s i b l e w a y t he o c c u r r e n c e of
m is identification.
Bot h m o d e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d in s u c h a wa y t h a t a p p a r e n t l y e v e r y ­
thi ng t h a t i s in any o n e ' s m i n d o r w h i c h he c a n b r i n g b e f o r e it h a s b e e n
a c q u i r e d f r o m e x p e r i e n c e of " e x t e r n a l 11 o b j e c t s .
the account d e s e r v e special e m p h a sis?
Do e s t h i s f e a t u r e of
C o r n f o r d t h i n k s it d o e s .
He
t h i nk s t h a t t h i s f a c t a b o u t t he two s i m i l e s i s i m p o r t a n t a s sho wi ng t he
l i m i t s of t he T h e a e t e t u s 1 d i s c u s s i o n :
t he a p p a r a t u s w h i c h is a v a i l a b l e
in t h e T h e a e t e t u s f o r t he s o l u t i o n of t h e p r o b l e m of e r r o r is r e s t r i c t e d
to j u s t w h a t e v e r a n " e m p i r i c i s t " c ou ld in c o n s i s t e n c y c l a i m f o r his own.
And in p a r t i c u l a r t h e F o r m s , in w h i c h P l a t o h i m s e l f b e l i e v e d a nd w h i c h
he th ou gh t to be t he b a s i s of the only a l t e r n a t i v e e p i s t e m o l o g y , a r e
b e in g e xc l ud e d.
I nd e e d , C o r n f o r d t h i n k s , t h e f a i l u r e to get r o u n d th e
T h e a e t e t u s * t r o u b l e s w i t h f a l s e b e l i e f i s e n t i r e l y due to t he f a c t t h a t t he
w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n w o r k s w i t h the " e m p i r i c i s t a s s u m p t i o n " t h a t m i n d s
a r e e m p t y a t b i r t h a n d only " g r a d u a l l y f i l l e d w i t h c o n t e n t s d e r i v e d f r o m
s e n s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e a n d l e a r n i n g " ( P T K , p. 136).
W h e n t he F o r m s a r e
b r o u g h t i n t o vi ew, i n t h e S o p h i s t , C o r n f o r d t h i n k s , t h e T h e a e t e t u s ' p r o b ­
l e m s c a n be b r o k e n t h r o u g h , a n d a c o r r e c t a n a l y s i s of f a l s e t h in k in g c a n
be p r o v i d e d .
T h i s is a c o m p l e t e r e d h e r r i n g .
As w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , it is
212
not e ve n c l e a r t h a t a ny F o r m s a r e i n t r o d u c e d into t he S o p h i s t 1s a n a l y s i s
of f a l s e h o o d , a nd e v e n if t h e r e a r e t he s o l u t i o n of t he p r o b l e m e m p h a t i ­
c a l l y d o e s not t u r n upon t a l k a b o u t F o r m s .
N o r is it a ny i n a d e q u a c y of
" e m p i r i c i s m " t h a t c a u s e s t h e T h e a e t e t u s 1 i n a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d f a l s e
t h i nk i ng .
On e c an s u p p o s e t h a t o u r a v i a r i e s a r e f i l l e d up h o w e v e r you
l i k e - - b y God a t o r b e f o r e b i r t h , by a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h F o r m s , by i n t u i ­
t i o n of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e n t i t i e s , o r in any ott e r n o n - e m p i r i c i s t w a y any
one s h o u l d p r o p o s e - - a n d t he d i f f i c u l t y a l l e g e d by t he T h e a e t e t u s w i l l
not be t o u c h e d .
It d o e s n ft m a t t e r in t h e s l i g h t e s t how t h i n g s get t h e r e ,
s o lo ng a s in m i s t a k i n g one f o r a n o t h e r you t a k e y o u r s e l f to be n e v e r ­
th e le ss naming and recognizing them for what they a r e .
And t hi s
a s s u m p t i o n h a s , a s s h o u l d be o bv i ou s f r o m m y d i s c u s s i o n so f a r , 110
e s se n tia l connection w h a ts o e v e r with " e m p i r i c i s m , " w h a te v e r exactly
C o r n f o r d m e a n s by t h a t t e r m .
It i s , t h e n , t h e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g a n d not (or not p r i m a r i l y )
m e t a p h y s i c s a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y t o w h i c h t h e T h e a e t e t u s 1 d i s c u s s i o n of
false belief belongs.
It d o e s , in f a c t , a p p e a r t h a t b o th w a x b l o c k a n d
a v i a r y a r e a s s u m e d (191 d 7 ff. , 194d 6 - 7 , 197e) to be e m p t y a t b i r t h
a n d f i l l e d up by o r d i n a r y p r o c e s s e s of e x p e r i e n c e .
29
Bu t t h is is an
i n n o c u o u s a s s u m p t i o n a n d n o th i n g of i m p o r t a n c e t u r n s on it.
None of
t h e d e t a i l s of e i t h e r s i m i l e m a t t e r to t h e a r g u m e n t e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s
t h e y f o r m p a r t of a n a c c o u n t of t h e t y p e of m i s t a k e w h i c h S o c r a t e s a n d
T h e a e t e t u s a r e i n t e r e s t e d in.
30
T h e wa x t a b l e t m o d e l i s , t h e n , i n t r o d u c e d b e c a u s e it p r o m i s e s
to give a c l u e t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d m i s r e c o g n i t i o n .
213
S o c r a t e s b e g i n s t he d i s c u s s i o n by i n d i c a t i n g t h a t he and T h e a e t e t u s
m u s t give up one of t h e a s s u m p t i o n s th ey h av e m a d e in t h e i r p r i o r
a r g u m e n t ; only s o c a n t h ey a v o i d th e c o n s e q u e n c e to w h i c h t hey h av e
b e e n l ed.
T h e y h a v e a c c e p t e d t h a t one c a n n o t know a thing and y e t not
know a n d fail to r e c o g n i z e it.
Now (191a 8 - c 1 ) S o c r a t e s is p r e p a r e d
to d eny t h i s , by a l l o w i n g a g r o u p of e x c e p t i o n s .
It is s t i l l f i r m l y a c ­
c e p t e d t h at if one h a s a thi ng in m i n d , giving it i ts c o r r e c t n a m e , one
c a n n o t t a k e it f o r a n y o t h e r t h in g to w h i c h one g iv es its c o r r e c t n a m e ,
w h e t h e r t h i s o t h e r t h i n g is had in m i n d o r m e r e l y p e r c e i v e d (193a 1 - 3,
d 1 0 - e 4).
But w h e n a t h i ng is p e r c e i v e d it c a n be taken, w r o n g l y , to
be s o m e t h i n g w h i c h one h as in m i n d u n d e r i ts c o r r e c t n a m e :
seeing
T h e o d o r u s , I t h i n k S o c r a t e s a n d s ay w r o n g l y t h a t the m a n I s e e is S o c ­
rates.
In t h i s w a y one n e e d not be a c t u a l l y knowi ng both o b j e c t s , a nd
r o o m is lef t f o r e r r o r ; so p e r h a p s m e n t a l e r r o r s c a n be e x p l a i n e d by
a r r a n g i n g f o r a c t u a l k n o w l e d g e of j u s t one o b je c t, t he o t h e r be in g had
in m i n d by s o m e m e a n s a n a l o g o u s to p e r c e p t i o n a nd not r e q u i r i n g t h a t
t he c o r r e c t n a m e be a p p l i e d to it.
S o c r a t e s a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n s t h r e e c a s e s in w h i c h e r r o r c a n
o c c u r (192c 9 - d 1):
(1) one c a n know both T h e o d o r u s a nd S o c r a t e s ,
s e e one of t h e m a n d t a k e h i m to be t h e o t h e r ; (2) one c a n know S o c r a ­
t e s , s e e a t o t a l s t r a n g e r a n d t a k e h i m f o r S o c r a t e s ; (3) knowing
T h e o d o r u s a n d S o c r a t e s a n d s e e i n g t h e m both, one c a n t hi nk T h e o d o r u s
is S o c r a t e s a n d S o c r a t e s T h e o d o r u s .
A c c o r d i n g to t he t e r m s of t he
wax t a b l e t s i m i l e , k no wi ng S o c r a t e s a n d T h e o d o r u s is c o n s t r u e d a s
h avi ng a n i m p r i n t of e a c h on o n e ' s wa x bl ock; and t he m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s
214
in q u e s t i o n t a k e p l a c e w h e n o ne h a s a p e r c e p t i o n of s o m e o n e a n d r e f e r s
it to t h e w r o n g i m p r e s s i o n in t h e w a x.
One, a s it w e r e , hol ds t h e i m ­
p r e s s i o n up t o ' t h e p e r c e p t i o n a n d t h i n k s t h e y fit t o g e t h e r w h e n in f a c t
t h e y do not.
( C o m p a r e C r a t . 4 3 0 d - 4 3 1 a , a n d m y d i s c u s s i o n a b o v e , pp.
186 ff. ).
T h o u g h S o c r a t e s m e n t i o n s t h e s e t h r e e c a s e s a nd d e s c r i b e s t he
k i n d of e r r o r a n d f a l s e h o o d p r o v i d e d f o r by t h e w a x b l o c k m o d e l a s
d e n t l y f i t s a l l t h r e e e x a m p l e s , h e in f a c t c o n c e n t r a t e s a l l his a t t e n t i o n
on t h e f i r s t a n d t h i r d .
T h u s he c h o o s e s to i l l u s t r a t e i n d e t a i l onl y t he
t wo c a s e s w h e r e t h e o b j e c t p e r c e i v e d i s s o m e t h i n g a l s o known, a nd t h e
o t h e r c a s e , in w h i c h s o m e t h i n g p e r c e i v e d b ut not known a t a l l i s m i s ­
f i t t e d i n to a n i m p r i n t of s o m e t h i n g known, i s j u s t f o r g o t t e n a b o u t a l t o ­
gether.
T h i s i s a l l t h e m o r e s t r i k i n g w h e n S o c r a t e s g i ve s h is f i n a l
r e s u m e of t h e m i s t a k e s now s h o w n to be p o s s i b l e , w h e r e he t a k e s a c ­
c o u n t only of t h e t w o c a s e s w h e r e s o m e t h i n g k no wn a n d p e r c e i v e d is
\
v
>/
_
^
C \-
____ S .
* Cl -
\
F i r s t , S o c r a te s h im s e lf when introducing the exceptional c a s e s w h e re
k no wi n g a nd n ot k n o w i ng b o t h t a k e p l a c e s a y s ( 191a 8 - b 1 } t h a t h e a n d
T h e a e t e t u s w e r e w r o n g t o a g r e e t h a t no one c a n t h i n k t h i n g s he k no ws
t o b e t h i n g s he d o e s n o t k n o w ; a n d T h e a e t e t u s i m m e d i a t e l y e x p l a i n s t h i s
by p r o d u c i n g e x a c t l y t h e s e c o n d c a s e m e n t i o n e d l a t e r by S o c r a t e s :
215
" S o m e t i m e s I, knowing S o c r a t e s but s e e i n g f r o m a d i s t a n c e s o m e o n e
e l s e w h o m I do not know, t hi n k h i m to be S o c r a t e s w h o m I do know"
(191b 3- 5) .
And f o r a t i m e S o c r a t e s c o n t i n u e s to h av e t hi s t ype of
c a s e in m i n d in his a c c o u n t of t he w a x b l o c k a nd t he m i s t a k e s o c c u r r i n g
in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h it (cf. 191e 6 - 7 , 192e 5- 6) .
But a s so on a s he b e g i n s
to i l l u s t r a t e t he m i s t a k e s in d e t a i l t h e o r i g i n a l e x a m p l e is q u i e t ly , but
completely, dropped.
S e c o nd ly , t he t y pe of c a s e i g n o r e d is in f a c t t he g e n e r a l c a s e of
w h i c h the o t h e r two a r e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and, w h a t is w o r s e , t he t h i r d is
onl y a m o r e c o m p l e x v e r s i o n of t h e f i r s t a nd in no w a y i n d e p e n d e n t of it.
To know bo t h T h e o d o r u s a n d S o c r a t e s a n d p e r c e i v e t h e m both, but get
t h e p e r c e p t i o n s a nd t he m e m o r y i m p r e s s i o n s m i s f i t t e d , t h e r e b y t a ki ng
S o c r a t e s f o r T h e o d o r u s a nd T h e o d o r u s f o r S o c r a t e s , is o b v io u sl y only
to do t w i c e w h a t in t he f i r s t t y p e of c a s e h a p p e n s once:
f o r in t hi s c a s e
One s e e s only T h e o d o r u s but m i s f i t s t h e p e r c e p t i o n of h i m i nto t he i m ­
p r e s s i o n of S o c r a t e s .
And t he f a c t t h a t t h e p e r s o n a c t u a l l y s e e n is a l s o
s o m e o n e you know i s a m e r e m i n o r v a r i a t i o n of t h e p a t t e r n .
Why t he n
d o e s S o c r a t e s i g n o r e t h e g e n e r a l c a s e , w h e r e t he e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of
p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n m i g h t be e x p e c t e d to e m e r g e m o s t c l e a r l y ,
i n f a v o r of two s u b - c a s e s w h i c h n ot onl y i n t r o d u c e i r r e l e v a n c i e s but
a r e not even b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m one a n o t h e r ?
T he a n s w e r to t h i s q u e s t i o n , a n d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of S o c r a t e s 1
p e c u l i a r t r e a t m e n t of t h e e x a m p l e s he d i s c u s s e s , is t h a t he is not i n t e r ­
e s t e d in p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in g e n e r a l , o r i n d e e d in f a i l u r e s
to r e c o g n i z e s o m e t h i n g a s a g e n e r a l p h e n o m e n o n .
He s t i l l h a s in m i n d
216
t h e f a l s e b e l i e f s m e n t i o n e d in t he d i s c u s s i o n of a ^
i a. /
where,
a s w e h a v e s e e n , i t a p p e a r e d to be r e q u i r e d t h a t one know two o b j e c t s
a n d y e t m i x t h e m up.
So h e r e s p e c i a l a n d e x p l i c i t p r o v i s i o n i s m a d e
f o r t h e t y p e of p e r c e p t u a l m i s t a k e i n v o l v i n g two p e r c e p t i o n s e a c h b e l o n g ­
i ng to a d i f f e r e n t k no wn p e r s o n .
An d n a t u r a l l y eno ug h t he t a k i n g of a
s e e n b ut u nk n o w n p e r s o n f o r s o m e o n e y ou know i s l a r g e l y i g n o r e d , s i n c e
i t p r o v i d e s no a n a l o g u e to a n y t h i n g t h a t c a n be going on in t h e s e t of
c a s e s i n w h i c h S o c r a t e s is i n t e r e s t e d .
If y ou do not h a v e a ny k n o w l e d g e
of a p e r s o n a t a l l y o u c a n n o t h a v e h i m in y o u r t h o u g h t s ; so t h e t y p e of
c a s e whic h T h e a e t e t u s and S o c r a t e s f i r s t m e n tio n as allowing both
k n o w l e d g e a nd n o t - k n o w l e d g e is in f a c t b e s i d e t h e p o i n t in w h i c h t h e y
are interested.
So i t i s n ot s u r p r i s i n g t h a t S o c r a t e s c o n c e n t r a t e s his
a t t e n t i o n on t h e c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t is a l s o known, but
not r e c o g n i z e d .
It m i g h t be s a i d , of c o u r s e , t h a t e ve n s o h e o ught not to h a v e s o
c o n c e n t r a t e d his i n t e r e s t :
if he ha d s t u c k to his i n i t i a l e x a m p l e of m i s ­
t a k i n g a p e r c e i v e d s t r a n g e r f o r a p e r s o n w h o m you know, he w o u l d h a v e
s t o o d a b e t t e r c h a n c e of s e e i n g t h a t w h a t m a k e s t h i s e r r o r p o s s i b l e a l s o
m a k e s p o s s i b l e f a l s e i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s w h e r e only m e n t a l l y c o n c e i v e d
objects a r e concerned.
F o r i n t h e c a s e of p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s
t h e m i s t a k e is n e v e r of t h e e x p l i c i t f o r m MX is YM w h e r e MX M a n d "Y "
are proper names:
t he e x a m p l e i t s e l f s h o w s t h a t only one n a m e is a v a i l ­
a b l e , s i n c e t h e p e r s o n p e r c e i v e d i s not known by n a m e a t a ll .
In f a c t ,
a s r e f l e c t i o n on t h i s e x a m p l e m a k e s c l e a r , t h e p e r s o n p e r c e i v e d i s not
n a m e d but i d e n t i f i e d by m e a n s of a d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n , t o g e t h e r p e r h a p s
217
w i t h o s t e n s i o n a nd o t h e r a i d s .
T h i s s h ow s t h a t t h e r e is a c r u c i a l d i f ­
f e r e n c e b e t w e e n n a m i n g s o m e t h i n g a n d pi ck in g it out by d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p ­
ti on, a nd t h a t it i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of knowi ng one, o r a l i m i t e d n u m b e r ,
of i n d i vi d ua t in g f a c t s
32
a b o u t a p e r s o n o r t hi ng w i t h o u t knowi ng o t h e r s
a nd w i t h o u t knowing i ts n a m e , t h a t m a k e s i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s both u s e f u l
on o c c a s i o n a nd l i a b l e to i n n o c e n t f a l s e h o o d .
Th u s i n t h e p e r c e p t u a l
s i t u a t i o n e n v i s a g e d t h e s p e a k e r s a y s " T h e m a n c o m i n g up t he hil l is
S o c r a t e s , " a n d w h a t m a k e s t h i s s t a t e m e n t n e i t h e r t r i v i a l l y t r u e , if t r u e
a t a l l , n o r s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y if f a l s e , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t h a s
b e e n p i c k e d out by m e a n s of a d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n .
T h e f a c t t h a t t he
d e s c r i p t i o n s e r v e s to p i c k h i m out in a p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n is a n u n e s ­
s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e e x a m p l e , a n d c a s e s w h e r e only t h in k in g i s i n v o l v e d
s h o u l d e a s i l y s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s o nc e t he p e r c e p t u a l e x a m p l e is s e e n
in i ts p r o p e r light .
P l a t o , by a b a n d o n i n g t h e g e n e r a l c a s e in f a v o r of
t h e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d c o nf u si n g c a s e s w h e r e t h e p e r s o n s e e n is a l s o
known, o b s c u r e s t he i s s u e s a nd p r e v e n t s h i m s e l f f r o m s e e i n g hi s own
e x a m p l e s in t h e i r p r o p e r l ight.
Now t hi s c r i t i c i s m a s s u m e s t h a t P l a t o ' s d i f fi c ul ty h e r e a n d
t h r o u g h o u t t he d i s c u s s i o n is due to h is t hi n k i ng (e. g. ) t h a t if t h e p h i l b s o p h e r wh o t u t o r e d A l e x a n d e r t he G r e a t w a s A r i s t o t l e , a n d I a m t h i n k i n g
of t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r , I m u s t be t h i n ki n g of A r i s t o t l e :
t h e d i f f i c ul t y t h e n
a r i s e s t h a t s i n c e I m u s t know w h a t I ' m t h i n k in g I m u s t know t h a t I ' m
t h i nk i ng of A r i s t o t l e , s o t h a t a ny s t a t e m e n t l i k e " T h e p h i l o s o p h e r wh o
t u t o r e d A l e x a n d e r w a s P l a t o " m u s t be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , a s i n v o l vi n g t he
i m p o s s i b l e th ou g h t t h a t A r i s t o t l e w a s P l a t o .
T h a t is to s a y , t he
218
c r i t i c i s m a s s u m e s t h a t P l a t o is d i s c u s s i n g a p r o b l e m a b o u t i d e n t i t y
j u d g m e n t s in g e n e r a l ; a nd i t is t r u e t h a t in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e
j u d g m e n t s i t is n e c e s s a r y to s e e t h a t n a m e s a nd d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s
a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s a nd t h a t (in t y p i c a l c a s e s ) i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t s
i n v o l ve d e s c r i p t i o n s a s w e l l a s , o r i n s t e a d of, n a m e s .
We h a v e now,
h o w e v e r , a r r i v e d a t t h e p o i n t in P l a t o 1s a r g u m e n t w h e r e i t b e c o m e s
c l e a r t h a t t h i s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g , a n d t h e c r i t i c i s m f oun de d upon it,
m i s r e p r e s e n t s t he p r o b l e m P l a t o i s e x p l o r i n g in t h i s p a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e .
At 195b 9 - 196c 9 S o c r a t e s , h a v i n g a n a l y z e d his two f a v o r e d p e r ­
c e p t u a l m i s t a k e s , p o i n t s out t h a t n ot h i ng in t h e a p p a r a t u s of t he w a x
ta b le t as so f a r explained offers any opening for the m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
of one t hi n g m e r e l y t h o u g h t of, a s s o m e t h i n g e l s e a l s o m e r e l y t h o u g h t
of.
I t h a s b e e n p a r t of t he a p p a r a t u s of t h e w a x b l o c k t h a t s o f a r a s t h e
m e m o r y i m p r e s s i o n s i n t h e b l o c k a r e c o n c e r n e d no m i s t a k e i s p o s s i b l e :
e a c h one c o m e s l a b e l l e d , a s it w e r e , w i t h it s n a m e .
It w a s b e c a u s e
p e r c e p t i o n s do not c o m e l a b e l l e d w i t h t h e i r n a m e t h a t e r r o r w a s p o s ­
sible.
Bu t w h e n one m a k e s a m i s t a k e e n t i r e l y in o n e l s t h i n k i n g it
a p p e a r s t h a t one m u s t be p r e c i s e l y n ot g e t t i n g t h e n a m e of one of t h e
m e m o r y - i m p r e s s i o n s r i g h t , a n d t h i s h a s b e e n f o r b i d d e n (192a 2 - 4 , e 8 193a 3).
But t h e r e c e r t a i n l y a r e m i s t a k e s w h i c h i nv ol v e only t h i n k i n g :
e. g. , it i s p o s s i b l e to m a k e a m i s t a k e in r e c k o n i n g , a n d t hi n k t h a t 7 + 5
i s 11.
T h i s f a l s e b e l i e f a m o u n t s , S o c r a t e s s a y s (196b 4 - 6 ) , to t h i n k i n g
t h a t t he 12 in y o u r b l o c k is t he 1 1 , a n d t h a t s e e m s not a p o s s i b l e m i s ­
t a k e to m a k e .
So t he m o d e l of t h e w a x t a b l e t h a s not y e t b r o u g h t us
w i t h i n s i g h t of t h e s o l u t i o n to t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a b o u t f a l s e t hi n k i n g t h a t
h a v e b e e n p l a g u i n g us.
219
It is v e r y i m p o r t a n t to s e e c l e a r l y j u s t how S o c r a t e s is h e r e
t h i nk i ng of t he j u d g m e n t t h a t 7 + 5 i s 11.
D oe s he thi nk of it a s i t s e l f a
f a l s e i de n t i t y j u d g m e n t , o r d o e s he t h i nk t h a t it m e r e l y i n v o lv e s a m i s ­
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( m u c h a s “ T he P r u d e n t i a l is b e a u t i f u l " w a s not o v e r t l y a n
i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t but i n v o l v e d o ne )?
If th e f o r m e r , t h e n "7 + 5" is
b ei ng r e g a r d e d a s n a m i n g o r o t h e r w i s e p i c k i n g out t he n u m b e r 1 2 , so
t h a t to h a ve t h e s u m of 7 + 5 in m i n d is to h a v e 12 in m i n d (just a s in
m y f o r m e r e x a m p l e to h av e t he p h i l o s o p h e r wh o t u t o r e d A l e x a n d e r in
m i n d w a s to be t h i n k i n g of A r i s t o t l e ) ; a nd t h e a p p a r e n t l y i m p o s s i b l e
m i s t a k e a r i s e s b e c a u s e one t a k e s 1 2 , w h i c h one h a d in m i n d in h av in g
t h e s u m of 7 a n d 5 in m i n d , to be 11 w h i c h one n a m e s a n d t hi nk s a f t e r
the "i s " or " e q u a ls . "
T h i s i s the w ay one w o ul d e x p e c t t h e dif f ic ul t y
a b o ut m i s t a k e s in t h i nk i ng to a r i s e a g a i n , if t h e c r i t i c i s m m a d e a b o v e
of P l a t o ' s a n a l y s i s of p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o r r e c t .
For
he wo ul d t he n, in e ff ec t, h a v e e m p l o y e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n n a m e s
a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s in t he c o n t e x t of p e r c e p t i o n in o r d e r to show m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s to be p o s s i b l e , but w o u l d s t i l l f ai l to s e e how t he s a m e d i s t i n c ­
t i on a p p l i e s in o t h e r c o n t e x t s .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h i s vi e w, h o w e v e r , "7 + 5 = 12" is not t r e a t e d
by S o c r a t e s a s an i d e n t i t y j u d g m e n t a t a l l , a nd "7 + 5" is not b eing
t h ou gh t of a s a n a m e o r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e o b j e c t 12.
A ccordingly the
f a l s e j u d g m e n t "7 + 5 = 11" i s n ot t h o u g h t to be i m p o s s i b l e on t he
g r o u n d t h a t to h a v e 7 + 5 in m i n d i s to h a v e 12 in m i n d ; t h e p l a c e in t h e
j u d g m e n t w h e r e 12 i s m i s t a k e n f o r 11 c o m e s a f t e r t he " i s " o r " e q u a l s . "
T h e t r u e s t a t e m e n t i s "7 + 5 = 1 2 , " a n d in s a y i n g to o n e s e l f i n s t e a d
220
"7 + 5 = 11" one g e t s e v e r y t h i n g r i g h t but t he 11111*; t he p a r t of t he t r u e
s t a t e m e n t w h i c h t he " 1 1 " d i s p l a c e s i s " 1 2 , M e r g o 12 is t a k e n f o r 1 1 .
( C o m p a r e " T h e P r u d e n t i a l i s ugl y" a nd " T h e P r u d e n t i a l is b e a u t i f u l "
a n d S o c r a t e s 1 view' t h a t h e r e t h e ugly a nd t h e b e a u t i f u l a r e c o n f u s e d
w i t h one a n o t h e r . ) T h e m i s t a k i n g of 12 f o r 11 e n t e r s t he a n a l y s i s not
b e c a u s e t h e r o l e of d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s is not u n d e r s t o o d but b e c a u s e
t h e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g b e in g a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s e e m s
t o r e q u i r e t h a t two t h i n g s be h a d in m i n d by n a m e a n d y e t m i s t a k e n f o r
o ne a n o t h e r .
T h a t t h i s i s how t h e e x a m p l e i s u n d e r s t o o d i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d
in t h e t e x t .
S o c r a t e s s a y s (196b 4 - 6 ) t h a t w h e n any one t h i n k s t h a t 7 + 5
i s 11 he t h i n k s t h a t t he 12 in h i s w a x b l o c k is 11.
But he a l s o s a y s
(196a 2 - 7 ) t h a t w h e n s o m e o n e w o n d e r s how m u c h 5 a n d 7 a r e he h a s in
m i n d t h e 5 in h i s b l o c k a n d t h e 7 in h i s b lo ck, a nd w a n t s to know t he
a n s w e r to t he q u e s t i o n how m u c h t h e y a dd up to.
T h a t is to s a y , t he
t h o u g h t " 7 + 5 i s 1 2 " c o n t a i n s r e f e r e n c e s to t h r e e i m p r e s s i o n s in t h e
b l o c k, 7 , 5 , a n d 1 2 ; a n d t h e only p l a c e w h e r e 12 i s i n t r o d u c e d i nt o t he
thought is w hen it is n a m e d .
is e x c l u s i v e l y 7 a n d 5.
W h a t t he p a r t b e f o r e t h e " i s " i n t r o d u c e s
And t o w o n d e r how m u c h 7 a n d 5 a r e i s not to
w o n d e r w h a t o b j e c t one h a s i n m i n d a l r e a d y in t h i n k i n g "7 + 5" but to
i n q u i r e w h a t n u m b e r m u s t be n a m e d (what i m p r e s s i o n in t h e b l o c k m u s t
be t h o u g h t of) a f t e r t h e " 7 + 5 , " i f one i s to t h i n k s o m e t h i n g t r u e .
T h e r e f o r e w h e n S o c r a t e s s a y s t h a t t h in k in g " 7 + 5 = 11" i s t a k i n g 12 f o r
11 he c a n n o t m e a n t h a t b e c a u s e 7 + 5 is t h e s a m e a s 12 one ca n s u b s t i ­
t u t e " 1 2 " f o r "7 + 5" in t h e f a l s e j u d g m e n t a n d g et "12 = 11" a s w h a t t he
221
m a n w a s r e a l l y t hi nk i ng .
T h e vi ew t h a t t he a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of s e n ­
t e n c e m e a n i n g is w h a t is c a u s i n g t he t r o u b l e h e r e fits m u c h b e t t e r t he
d e s c r i p t i o n S o c r a t e s a c t u a l l y g i v e s of t he m i s t a k e he ha s in m i n d .
For,
a s I h av e a r g u e d a b o v e , t h i s t h e o r y of m e a n i n g in r e d u c i n g f a l s e h o o d to
m i s n a m i n g d o e s s e e m to r e q u i r e t h a t one know two e n t i t i e s by n a m e
and y e t u s e t h e n a m e of t he one to d e n o t e th e o t h e r .
T h e u p s h o t , t h e n, of t h i s a n a l y s i s of S o c r a t e s 1 u s e of t he wa x
t a b l e t m o d e l is t h a t he is r i g h t to t a k e s p e c i a l n o t i c e of t he i n s t a n c e s of
p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w h e r e t h e thing p e r c e i v e d is a l s o known.
S i n c e he i s a t t e m p t i n g to find r o o m f o r f a l s e h o o d w i t h i n t he l i m i t s p e r ­
m i t t e d by t he a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n i n g , he w i l l h a v e to find s o m e
w a y f o r a thing in s o m e s e n s e h ad in m i n d and known f o r w h a t it is to
be m i s t a k e n f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e s i m i l a r l y had in m i n d a nd known.
The
f a c t s a bo u t p e r c e p t u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t t hi s c a n o c c u r w h e n
t h e thing is known by n a m e but not ha d in m i n d in t he d i r e c t a nd s i m p l e
w a y w h i c h the d i s c u s s i o n of
s u p p o s e d a nd w h i c h t he wax
bl oc k s i m i l e t u r n e d out not to a v o i d in th e c a s e of p u r e l y m e n t a l m i s ­
t a k e s : w h a t is n e e d e d is a p u r e l y m e n t a l a n a l o g u e of p e r c e p t i o n so t ha t
a thing c a n be had in m i n d but not a c t i v e l y known f o r i t s e l f .
T h e a n a l o g u e s u g g e s t e d is not r e a l l y a v e r y p r o m i s i n g one
(though, on the o t h e r h and, it h a s to be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e t a s k S o c r a t e s
s e t s h i m s e l f l o ok s p r e t t y n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e ) .
S o c rate s introduces
(197a 8 - c 5) t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t i v e a n d l a t e n t k n ow l ed g e o r , as
he pu ts it, b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i n g t he k no wl e d g e of s o m e t h i n g a nd havi ng
it ( ac t iv e ly in m i n d ) .
And t h ou g h one c a n n o t m i s t a k e 12 f o r a ny t hi ng
222
e l s e w h e n o ne h a s t h e k n o w l e d g e of it a c t i v e l y in m i n d , i. e. , w h e n one
i s r e c o g n i z i n g it a n d n a m i n g it c o r r e c t l y , n ot hi ng s e e m s to p r e v e n t a
m i s t a k e a b o u t i t so lon g a s t he k n o w l e d g e i s m e r e l y p o s s e s s e d a n d not
b e in g a c t u a l l y c o n s u l t e d , j u s t a s one f a i l s to r e c o g n i z e a p e r s o n he
s e e s b e c a u s e s e e i n g h i m i s n ot y e t h a v i n g t h e k n o w le d ge of h i m a c t u a l l y
in m i n d .
T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i n g t he k no w l e d g e of s o m e ­
t h i ng a n d a c t u a l l y h a v i n g it in m i n d , a n d t he p o s s i b i l i t y of m e n t a l e r r o r
t h i s s e e m s to i n t r o d u c e , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by t he s i m i l e of t he a v i a r y .
T h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i n g a b i r d , t h a t i s to s a y , h a v i n g
i t in y o u r p o w e r b e c a u s e you h a v e l o c k e d it up in a c a g e , a n d h a v i n g it
i n y o u r h a n d ( j u s t a s t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n owning a c o a t a n d
w e a r i n g it).
S o c r a t e s t h e r e f o r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e r e i s a ki nd of b i r d ­
c a g e i n e v e r y m i n d i n to w h i c h one p u t s e v e r y " b i r d " he c a t c h e s , i. e. ,
t h e k n o w l e d g e of e a c h t h in g h e g e t s to know.
When, t h e r e f o r e , one h a s
g o t t e n to know S o c r a t e s one h a s a k n o w l e d g e of h i m in h i s b i r d - c a g e ;
b ut to h a v e t h i s k n o w l e d g e in t he c a g e i s not to be a c t i v e l y k no wi ng S o c ­
r a t e s , t h a t i s to s a y , t h i n k i n g of h i m a n d k nowing t h a t i t i s S o c r a t e s
one i s t h i n k i n g of.
To h a v e t h i s k i nd of k n o w l e d g e of S o c r a t e s i s l i k e
h a v i n g t a k e n a b i r d , w h i c h w a s f l yi ng a r o u n d y o u r a v i a r y , a c t u a l l y i n t o
y ou r hands.
T h e w a y i n w h i c h m i s t a k e s c o m e a b o u t c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d by f o l l o w i n g up t h e s i m i l e .
33
J u s t a s t h e r e a r e two p r o c e s s e s t h a t m i g h t be
c a l l e d " h u n t i n g b i r d s , " t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of b i r d s f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n in
o n e ' s c a g e a n d t h e a t t e m p t to g e t h ol d of a b i r d a l r e a d y in t h e a v i a r y ,
s o t h e r e a r e t wo p r o c e s s e s of g e t t i n g t o know.
One g e t s to know a thi ng
223
i n t he f i r s t i n s t a n c e by a c q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g e of i t a s a p e r m a n e n t p o s ­
s e s s i o n , a nd t h e n l a t e r m a y o nc e a g a i n g et to know this s a m e thing by
b r i n g i n g t he k n ow le d ge f r o m t he b a c k of o n e ' s m i n d to th e s t a g e of
explicit a w a re n e s s .
T h i s d ou bl e s e n s e of hu nt i ng a nd g et tin g to know
s e e m s to s o l v e t he old p r o b l e m .
F o r e x a m p l e , I m a y know al l t he
n u m b e r s , a n d ha v e t h e r e f o r e t h e k n o w l e d g e of e a c h of t h e m in m y a v i ­
a r y , b ut I n e e d not t h e n h a ve t he k n o w l e d g e of any of t h e m i m m e d i a t e l y
before m y mind.
Whe n t h i s is m y s i t u a t i o n I m a y w e l l a s k m y s e l f how
m u c h 7 a n d 5 m a k e , a n d t h e n, in o r d e r to c o m p l e t e th e j u d g m e n t "7 + 5
i s . . . , 11 I r e a c h in to m y a v i a r y i n t e n d i n g to l a y hold of m y k n o wl e dg e
of 12, but i n s t e a d c o m e out w i t h m y k n o w l e d g e of 11.
34
T hen, in c o m ­
p l e t i n g t he j u d g m e n t "7 + 5 i s 11" I j u d g e f a l s e l y , h avi ng m i s t a k e n l y
g o t t e n hold of m y k n o w l e dg e of 11 i n p l a c e of t he k n o wl e dg e of 12 w h i c h
I was after.
I t h i nk w r o n g l y t h a t 11 i s 12 b e c a u s e I t a k e the k n o wl e dg e
of 11 w h i c h I get hold of to be t he k n o w l e d g e of 12 w h i c h I w a s t r y i n g to
grab.
35
H e n c e a l l f a l s e j u d g in g in t h e end c o m e s down to t he i n t e r -
c h a n g e of one k n o w le d g e f o r a n o t h e r ( p ^ T t f - A A a ^ ' A
& 71"l<^ T*|
199c 10).
It i s p a t e n t , of c o u r s e , a s s o o n a s t h i s s o l u t i o n is s t a t e d t h a t it
w o n ' t in t he l e a s t do, a nd S o c r a t e s i m m e d i a t e l y d e c l a r e s i ts i n a d e q u a c y
(199d 1-5).
It m a y v e r y w e l l be t h a t i n r e a c h i n g i nt o t h e a v i a r y you
e m e r g e w i t h y o u r k no w l e d g e of 11 a n d n ot w i t h y o u r k n o w l e dg e of 1 2 .
An d no doubt, s i n c e y o u r k n o w l e d g e of 12 r e m a i n s f r e e l y f l u t t e r i n g in
the c a g e , you a r e n ot d e b a r r e d by t h e f a c t t h a t you know 12 f r o m m a k i n g
a m i s t a k e a b o ut it (cf. 199c 5-7):
a f t e r a l l you d o n ' t h a v e y o u r k n ow l e d g e
224
of 12 a t h a nd , j u s t a s in p e r c e p t u a l m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s y ou h a v e n ot
b r o u g h t y o u r k n o w l e d g e int o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t h i ng p e r c e i v e d .
But
w h a t you do h a v e t h e k n o w l e d g e of d i r e c t l y b e f o r e y o u r m i n d is 1_1_: how
t h e n c a n y o u t h i n k you h a v e t h e k n o w l e d g e of 12 by you, if i t f s t h e
k n o w l e d g e of 11 s t a r i n g you in t h e f a c e ?
It*s no good t r y i n g t h e d i v e r ­
s i o n a r y t a c t i c of e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t 12 isn*t, a f t e r a l l , b e i n g a c t i v e l y
known, s i n c e to a c t i v e l y know 11 i s i p s o f a c t o not to c o n f u s e it w i t h a ny
other num ber.
T h u s a l t h o u g h s o f a r a s y o u r kno wi ng 12_ g o e s n o t h i n g
i n t h e s i t u a t i o n a s d e s c r i b e d p r e v e n t s you f r o m m a k i n g a m i s t a k e ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e f a c t t h a t you know 11 in t h e s t r o n g e r of t h e t wo s e n s e s
d i s t i n g u i s h e d i s s u f f i c i e n t to d i s a l l o w t h e m i s t a k e .
W h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t s h o w s i s t h a t s o long a s t h e b l a n k i n M7 + 5
is . . . " i s f i l l e d w i t h a r e f e r e n c e to s o m e t h i n g w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r
k no ws by n a m e a n d w h i c h he k no w s he i s r e f e r r i n g to, no m i s t a k e c a n
o c c u r . ( T h e a e t e t u s t r i e s to e v a d e t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e , a s w e s h a l l s e e in
a m o m e n t , by m a k i n g n ot hi ng in t h e s i t u a t i o n a c t i v e l y k nown. ) T h u s if
I s a y " 1 1 " a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h a t I a m s a y i n g t h e n I know I a m r e f e r r i n g
to l i t
11 i s b e f o r e m y m i n d a n d I know i t f o r 11.
no e r r o r h a s o c c u r r e d a n y w h e r e i n t h e s e n t e n c e :
It t h e n a p p e a r s t h a t
7, 5, a n d 11 a r e a l l
c o r r e c t l y n a m e d a n d t h o u gh t, a n d t h e r e i s no o t h e r p l a c e w h e r e t h e
s t a t e m e n t c o u l d go w r o n g .
P e r h a p s h o w e v e r I h ad i n t e n d e d t o s a y " 1 2 "
a n d to g e t 12 i nt o m y t h o u g h t s s o a s t o c o m p l e t e t h e s e n t e n c e c o r r e c t l y :
t h e n I h a v e g o n e w r o n g in p u t t i n g 11 in i t s p l a c e ; a n d i s t h a t not to m i s ­
t a k e 11 f o r 12?
No, c o m e s t h e a n s w e r , f o r a t t he t i m e w h e n I g e t 11
i nt o m y t h o u g h t s I c a n n o t t hi n k t h a t I h a v e 12 t h e r e .
So l o n g a s I know
225
t h a t 11 is w h a t I a m r e f e r r i n g to, th en , no m a t t e r w h a t I ha d s t a r t e d
out in s e a r c h of, I c a n n o t a t t h a t t i m e t hi nk I h a v e s o m e t h i n g in m i n d
w h i c h I do not h a v e
199b 2 - 4 ,
'T o r f
> /
?
'
: t h e T^T(r
t
l/
in m i n d (cf.
is w r o n g ) .
yQ )
To*
* .
^
. . .<KV& <ri £ par
o^rav'
cP
^ cT^-kcx
And if I do not t h e n m a k e a ny
m i s t a k e I a m not t h e n i n te n d i n g to r e f e r to 12 but in f a c t r e f e r r i n g to
1 1 : I m u s t be b o t h i n t e n di ng to r e f e r to 11 a nd in f a c t
a n d t h e n no e r r o r a n d no f a l s e h o o d r e m a i n .
r e f e r r i n g to it,
T he f a c t t h a t I h a v e r e a c h e d
i nto m y a v i a r y i nt e n d i n g to s a y a nd t hi nk 12 d o e s not b r i n g a b o ut any
m i s t a k e in w h a t I do end up s a y i n g a n d th in k in g.
T h a t c o u l d be m i s t a k e n
only if I s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s a i d a nd m e a n t " l l " a n d t ho u gh t I w a s m e a n i n g
12.
An d if t h i s i s i m p o s s i b l e t h e a v i a r y a p p a r a t u s h a s done n o th i ng to
ge t r o u n d it.
T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t w e find o u r s e l v e s in the v e r y p o s i t i o n w e w e r e
in a f t e r t he i m p o s s i b i l i t y of f a l s e h o o d a s s i m p l e
shown.
(A*
ha d b e e n
To t h i n k f a l s e l y t h a t t he Ta j M a h a l is ugly s e e m e d i m p o s s i b l e
b e c a u s e in o r d e r to do s o ' y o u ha d to h a v e both the ugly a nd t h e b e a u t i f u l
in m i n d , knowing e a c h by n a m e , a nd y e t t h i n k t h e ugly w h e r e you knew
you ought to t h i n k t he b e a ut i f u l .
T h e a v i a r y s i m i l e h a s a t t e m p t e d to
l o o s e n t he knot by, in ef fect , h av ing y o u i n t e n d to s a y a n d t h in k t h e
b e a u t i f u l w i t h o u t e v e r g et ti n g it fully in m i n d a nd t h e r e f o r e w i t h o u t e v e r
n a m i n g it c o r r e c t l y :
but you m u s t , e ve n on t h e a v i a r y m o d e l , h a v e
fully in m i n d t he t hi ng you f i n a l l y do s ay a n d thi nk.
And to h a v e t he
ugly in m i n d a n d know it f o r i t s e l f p r e c l u d e s t h i n k i ng to a ny e x t e n t o r
in any w a y t h a t w h a t you h a v e in m i n d i s t h e b e a ut if u l.
It a p p e a r s t h e n
226
t h a t if f a l s e h o o d is to b e e x p l a i n e d a s i n v o l v i n g t he m i s t a k e of one t hi ng
f o r a n o t h e r t he m i s t a k e m u s t o c c u r a t t he v e r y m o m e n t w h e n t he ugly
i s h ad in m i n d .
But s i n c e a t t h a t m o m e n t , on t he a v i a r y m o d e l , only
one t hi ng i s h a d in m i n d t h e r e c a n be no m i s t a k i n g going on:
in o r d e r
t o m a k e a m i s t a k e , t h e n , one w o u l d h a v e to h a v e two t h i n g s in m i n d ;
b ut t h i s b r i n g s t he ol d i m p o s s i b i l i t y b a c k upon u s .
The upshot is that
t h e ki nd of m i s t a k e r e q u i r e d by t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n i n g , if
f a l s e h o o d is to b e p o s s i b l e , c a n n o t h a p p e n .
No one c an s a y " u g l y " a n d
t h i n k a n d m e a n t h e u gl y w h i l e a l s o p a r t l y t h in k in g a nd m e a n i n g t he b e a u ­
tiful; but, on t h e o t h e r h an d, if he i s no t t h i n k in g a nd m e a n i n g t h e b e a u ­
t if ul a t a l l t h e n t h e r e h a s b e e n no m i s t a k e a n d t h e r e f o r e ex h y p o t h e s i no
falsehood.
A n d t h i s e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e s to a b s u r d i t y th e a t o m i s t i c t h e ­
o r y of m e a n i n g w h i c h h a s t h e s e u n a c c e p t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s .
When P lato
n e x t r a i s e s t he t o p i c , in t he S o p h i s t , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t he i d e a t h a t
falsehood c o n sists in m is n a m in g has been abandoned completely.
T h o u g h t he T h e a e t e t u s n e i t h e r a n n o u n c e s t h i s a s i t s a i m n o r d e c l a r e s it
a s t h e o u t c o m e of i t s a r g u m e n t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t i ts d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e ­
hoo d d o e s s how t h a t m i s n a m i n g c a n n o t be e s s e n t i a l l y in vo lv e d.
T h e a e t e t u s m a k e s one l a s t e f f o r t to e v a d e t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e
(199e 1- 6) .
If t h e m i s t a k e of 11 f o r 12 i s p r e v e n t e d by t he f a c t t h a t one
m u s t know 11 f o r i t s e l f a t t h e t i m e w h e n t h e m i s t a k e , if t h e r e is a m i s ­
t a k e , m u s t o c c u r , t h e n p e r h a p s w e c a n m a k e r o o m f o r it by h a v i n g o u r
f a l s e - t h i n k e r not know 11 a t t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t .
P e r h a p s w h a t he h a s
t a k e n f r o m h is a v i a r y is not h is k n o w l e d g e of 11 but h is i g n o r a n c e of
11,
36
a n d in t h a t c a s e n ot h i ng p r e v e n t s h i m f r o m t a ki ng 11 to be 1 2 :
227
h a v i n g a n i g n o r a n c e of 11 b e f o r e h i m he n e e d not know 11 f o r i t s e l f ,
t ho ug h he is in f a c t t hi nk ing of it.
S o c r a t e s has no t r o u b l e r e b u t t i n g t h i s f in al p l e a (199e 7 - 2 0 0 c 5).
F o r t he q u e s t i o n i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e s w h e t h e r the p e r s o n who l a y s hold of
h is i g n o r a n c e of 11 k nows t h a t it is a n i g n o r a n c e he h a s g ot te n in hand.
I t w o ul d s e e m t h a t he m u s t not know t h i s , s i n c e if he knows it is an
i g n o r a n c e he w i l l not t r u s t any j u d g m e n t he is l e d to m a k e on t he b a s i s
of it.
But if he d o e s not k n o w t h a t h i s i g n o r a n c e is an i g n o r a n c e , but
t h i n ks it is a k n ow l e d g e , w e m u s t c o m p l i c a t e t he m a c h i n e r y of t he a v i ­
a r y f u r t h e r a n d a l l ow not only t he k n o w l e dg e of 11 a nd t he i g n o r a n c e of
11 to be flying a r o u n d in t he m i n d ' s c a g e , but a l s o t he k n o w l e dg e of t he
i g n o r a n c e of 11 a n d t he i g n o r a n c e of th e i g n o r a n c e of 11.
T h e n , in
e ff e ct , w h e n a m a n m i s t a k e s 11 f o r 12 he g e t s in h and h i s i g n o r a n c e of
h i s i g n o r a n c e of 11.
But o b v i o u s ly t h e r e is no s to p pi n g h e r e , s i n c e if
he knows t hi s i g n o r a n c e f o r an i g n o r a n c e he w i l l not on t he b a s i s of it
j u d g e 11 to be 12; w e a r e off on a n i n fi n i t e r e g r e s s .
We c an do no
b e t t e r t h e n t h a n s u p p o s e a n a v i a r y c o n t a i n i n g only k n o w l e d g e s ; a nd in
t h a t c a s e t h e r e s e e m s no r o o m f o r t h e kind of m i s t a k e r e q u i r e d by t he
t h e o r y of f a l s e h o o d a s m i s n a m i n g .
Wi t h t h i s S o c r a t e s c o n f e s s e s h i m s e l f s t y m i e d f o r f u r t h e r w a y s
of a t t e m p t i n g to s a l v a g e f a l s e b e l i e f f r o m t h e o b j e c t i o n t h a t has b e e n
r a i s e d a g a i n s t it.
He s u g g e s t s , in a n a l l u s i o n to t he d i s t i n c t i o n d r a w n
e a r l i e r ( 1 9 7 a- b ) b e t w e e n h av i ng k n o w l e d g e ( a c t u a l l y a b o u t one) a nd
m e r e l y p o s s e s s i n g k no wl e dg e , t h a t he ha s f a i l e d b e c a u s e he h a s a t ­
t e m p t e d to r e a c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f a l s e b e l i e f b e f o r e h avi ng u n d e r s t o o d
228
what knowledge is.
In o r d e r to ge t c l e a r of t he d i f f i c u l t i e s t a n g l i n g up
t h e n o t i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f t h e c o r r e c t o r d e r of p r o c e d u r e i s to e x p l a i n
knowledge first.
How e x a c t l y S o c r a t e s c o n n e c t s t h e s e two t h i n g s is by
no m e a n s c l e a r .
It is t r u e t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t he d i s c u s s i o n , a n d p a r t i c u -
l a r l y t o w a r d s t he end, t he w o r d s
*
/
*
£Tt i v T'V|| aY| a nd
/
r\
I;
etc. ,
a r e u s e d r e p e a t e d l y , a n d t r u e a l s o t h a t t he f in a l s h i p w r e c k of t he a r g u ­
m e n t i s d ue p a r t l y to t he f a c t t h a t in a ny t h in k in g t h e o b j e c t s of t h o ug ht
a r e a s s u m e d to be r e c o g n i z e d a s it w e r e by n a m e .
It m a y be t h a t S o c ­
r a t e s h e r e e n t e r t a i n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e g e n e r a l l i n e of a r g u m e n t
b e i n g p u r s u e d a b o v e w i l l f i n a ll y t u r n out w e l l if only it c a n be s ho wn
t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e one i s r e q u i r e d to h a v e of t h e o b j e c t s of o n e !s
t h o u g h t s is s o m e h o w c o m p a t i b l e w i t h not r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m f o r t h e m ­
s e l v e s o r by n a m e .
B u t it is o bv i ou s t h a t s u c h a r e s u l t w o u l d only give
t e m p o r a r y r e l i e f to a dyi ng t h e o r y ; a n d w h a t e v e r h op e S o c r a t e s h e r e
e n t e r t a i n s it is c e r t a i n t h a t P l a t o h i m s e l f in t he S o p h i s t t a k e s t h e m o r e
r a d i c a l l i n e of r e j e c t i n g a l t o g e t h e r t h e t h e o r y of m e a n i n g w h i c h m a k e s
t h e s e h o p e s s e e m t h e only w a y out.
In a ny event, S o c r a t e s 1 o pi ni on t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r of b u s i n e s s
i s to find out
Tl
troT'
s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e of
r e m i n d i n g T h e a e t e t u s t h a t hi s old d e f i n i t i o n s t i l l r e m a i n s on t h e a g e n d a ,
a n d he c o n f e s s e s h i m s e l f s t i l l s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t r u e
b e l i e f is k n o w l e d g e (200e 4 -6 ).
229
D.
T he Re f ut a ti on of t he S e c o n d D e f ini t io n of Kn owl edge ( 2 0 1 a - c )
At t h i s po in t, f o r t he f i r s t t i m e , S o c r a t e s f a c e s T h e a e t e t u s 1
s e c o n d d e f in i ti o n, r e f u t i n g it a l m o s t a t a g l a n c e ( 20 1a -c ).
If t r u e b e l i e f
a nd k n ow l e dg e w e r e i d e n t i c a l t h e n e v e r y t i m e a j u r y m a n b e c o m e s p e r ­
s u a d e d of t he t r u t h and m a k e s hi s d e c i s i o n a c c o r d i n g l y , his j u d g m e n t
would be t he r e s u l t of k n o w le d ge .
But in f a c t t h e r e a r e m a n y c a s e s
w h e r e t he t r u t h of t he m a t t e r c a n only be known by s o m e o n e who h a s
w i t n e s s e d t he event; a n d w h e n a j u r y m a n b e c o m e s c o n v i n c e d of a w i t ­
n e s s 1 v e r a c i t y a nd a c c e p t s h is a c c o u n t of w h a t h a p p e ne d he j u d g e s t r u l y
i n d e e d but, s i n c e he w a s not a w i t n e s s , he d oe s not h av e t he k n ow le d ge
w h i c h t he w i t n e s s p o s s e s s e s .
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s a r g u m e n t a r e w o r t h dwe ll in g on f o r a
moment.
As R u n c i m a n h a s c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e d ,
37
t he v a l i d i t y of the
a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s a b s o l u t e l y u pon t h e t r u t h of the p r e m i s s t h a t w h at
t h e e y e - w i t n e s s ha s is r e a l l y k no wl e dg e .
T he c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n j u r y ­
m a n a nd w i t n e s s wo ul d be wh o l ly w i t h ou t t he d e s i r e d e ff ect if n e i t h e r
e v e r has r e a l k no wl ed g e .
S u p p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o n e in t he vei n
of R e p u b li c 4 7 7 c - 4 7 8 a m a i n t a i n s t h a t s i n c e j u r y m a n and w i t n e s s m a k e
s t a t e m e n t s a bo ut t he s a m e m a t t e r s t h e y m u s t both, w h a t e v e r t h e i r d i f ­
f e r e n c e s f r o m one a n o t h e r , be e x e r c i s i n g t he s a m e f a c ul t y , t h a t of
be li ef :
t h e n t r u e b e l i e f w i l l not h a v e b e e n s h ow n not to be i d e n t i c a l w i th
k no wl e dg e, but, at b e s t , one t y pe of t r u e b e l i e f w i ll ha ve b ee n m a r k e d
off f r o m a n o t h e r .
A s R u n c i m a n s a y s , " i f e y e - w i t n e s s k n ow le d g e is not
k n o wl e d g e but k n o w l e d g e , 1 t h e n t he a r g u m e n t ha s only p r o v e d t ha t t r u e
230
o p in i o n i s n ot fk n o w l e d g e . 111 E i t h e r , t h e r e f o r e , k n o w l e d g e h a s not
b e e n s h o w n to be d i s t i n c t f r o m t r u e b e l i e f , o r t h e r e is s u c h a t h i n g a s
k n o w l e d g e of t e m p o r a l e v e n t s a nd s t a t e s of a f f a i r s .
38
T h i s a r g u m e n t s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e gi ve p a u s e to t h o s e i n t e r p r e t e r s
w h o t h i n k t h a t t h e p u r p o s e of t he T h e a e t e t u s a s a w h o l e i s to s h o w by
i n d i r e c t a r g u m e n t s t h a t t h e r e m u s t be (old, m i d d l e - p e r i o d ) F o r m s ,
s i n c e k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t be d e f i n e d by any m e t h o d e x c e p t one w h i c h
identifies the F o r m s as its objects.
T h a t i n t e r p r e t e r s f ai l to s e e t h i s
only s h o w s how a n i d e e f i xe c a n c o m e to o c c u p y so m u c h of a p e r s o n * s
a t t e n t i o n t h a t he s e e s it a f f i r m e d e v e n w h e r e it is a l m o s t e x p r e s s l y
denied.
C o r n f o r d ' s c o m m e n t on t h i s p a s s a g e i s a n a m u s i n g i n s t a n c e of
this phenomenon.
He s a y s (p. 141, m y i t a l i c s ) :
" This a r g u m e n t is
r e p e a t e d in a l a t e r d i a l o g u e , t h e T i m a e u s (51d), w h e r e t h e e x i s t e n c e of
t h e F o r m s i s s a i d t o fol l ow f r o m t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e o r
rational understanding ( v o G s )
a n d t r u e b e li e f. "
T h e a r g u m e n t of
T h e a e t e t u s 2 0 1 a - c i s m o s t c e r t a i n l y not r e p e a t e d a n y w h e r e in P l a t o .
Wh a t d o e s r e c u r i n t he T i m a e u s p a s s a g e C o r n f o r d r e f e r s to i s t h e
r o u t i n e p o in t t h a t t r u e b e l i e f is a c q u i r e d n ot by i n s t r u c t i o n b u t by p e r ­
s u a s i o n a n d p l a u s i b l e a r g u m e n t ; a n d e v e n if in t h e T h e a e t e t u s t h e f u r t h e r
r o u t i n e poi nt , found i n t h e T i m a e u s p a s s a g e a n d e l s e w h e r e , t h a t k n o w l ­
e dg e i m p l i e s a b i l i t y t o g i ve a n a c c o u n t a nd e x p l a n a t i o n , h ad b e e n a d d e d ,
t h a t w o ul d not h a v e m a d e t he a r g u m e n t a ny t he m o r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e
T i m a e u s 1.
C o r n f o r d fs i d e e f ixe p r e v e n t s h i m f r o m o b s e r v i n g t h e s e e l e ­
m e n t a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s , a n d f o r c e s h i m to s e e in t h e a c t u a l a r g u m e n t of
t h e T h e a e t e t u s a m e r e l y " a n a l o g o u s c o n t r a s t " (p. 142) to t h a t b e t w e e n
r e a l k n o w l e d g e a n d r e a l t r u e b e li e f.
231
O t h e r s who a c c e p t C o r n f o r d ' s g e n e r a l l in e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
t h e a r g u m e n t n o t i c e t he e m b a r r a s s i n g f a c t t h a t t he a r g u m e n t r e a l l y
i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of k n o w l e d g e t h a t is not a w a r e n e s s of a F o r m .
Th e y e v a de t he e m b a r r a s s m e n t by f ind ing h e r e , a s S t o e l z e l f o r e x a m p l e
d o e s , 39 a " k l e i n e U n g e n a u i g k e i t i m B e w e i s e 11 o r p e r h a p s a n ii" U n g e s c h i c k l i c h k e i t . n T h a t it is no s m a l l i m p r e c i s i o n m y a n a l y s i s of t he
arg u m e n t above shows.
S t o e l z e l , a nd no doubt C o r n f o r d a nd C h e r n i s s
a s w e l l , f e e l c o nf i d e n t in not a t t a c h i n g m u c h i m p o r t a n c e to t he r e a l
a r g u m e n t of t he p a s s a g e b e c a u s e t he y t hi nk t h a t e a r l i e r in th e T h e a e t e t u s
P l a t o h a s a f f i r m e d h is old vi ew t h a t k n o w l e dg e i s d i r e c t e d e x c l u s i v e l y
t o w a r d t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i t i e s w h i c h c a n only be th o ug ht a nd n e v e r p e r ­
c e i v ed :
and, it m u s t b e g r a n t e d , if t h i s w e r e so one w ou ld h a ve a
s t r o n g m o t i v e f o r fi n d i ng in t h e a r g u m e n t of 2 0 1 a - c no m o r e t h a n a
c a s e of P l a t o d o r m i e n s (as S t o e l z e l p u t s it).
But t h e p a s s a g e to w h i c h
S t o e l z e l r e f e r s (1 84 - 18 6 ) a s s h ow i ng Plato* s c o n t i n u e d a c c e p t a n c e of
t he old vi ew is i t s e l f a n o t h e r c a s e w h e r e i d e e fi xe h a s b l a n k e t e d t he
t e xt .
As I h a v e s h o w n a b o ve , n o t hi ng in t he a r g u m e n t of t h a t p a s s a g e
s u p p o r t s t he u s u a l v ie w ( a c c e p t e d by C h e r n i s s a n d C o r n f o r d a s w e l l a s
S t o e l z e l ) t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s b ei ng l o c a t e d a s t he a c t i v i t y of t h e s o u l by
w h i c h it c o n t e m p l a t e s t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i t i e s w i t h o u t r e l i a n c e on t he o b ­
j e c t s of s e n s e .
T h o u g h t h e r e m a y be t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i t i e s in t he c o n ­
t e x t t h e i r m o d e of a c q u i s i t i o n a nd t he a c t i v i t y of i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e m a r e
found in t he t e x t only by m i s r e a d i n g it.
In f a c t , k n o w l e d g e in t h a t p a s ­
s a g e i s k n o wl e dg e a b o u t o b j e c t s of p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e a r g u m e n t of 184-
186, t he n, w h e n c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d p r o v i d e s no r e a s o n w h a t s o e v e r
232
f o r r e f u s i n g to a c c e p t t h e a r g u m e n t of 2 0 1 ; - c at f a c e v a l u e .
contrary:
Q u i t e t he
b o t h t h e a r g u m e n t of 1 8 4 - 1 8 6 , w h i c h c o n c l u d e s t he e x a m i n a ­
t i on of p e r c e p t i o n , a n d t h a t of 2 0 1 a - c , w h i c h c o n c l u d e s t he e x a m i n a t i o n
of t r u e b e l i e f , a r e in a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e r e i s s u c h a t hi ng a s k n o w l e d g e
of t h e t h i n g s of s e n s e .
T h e a r g u m e n t of 1 84 -1 8 6 t h e r e f o r e r e i n f o r c e s
t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e a r g u m e n t of 2 0 1 a - c g i v e n
above.
W h a t t h e s e two a r g u m e n t s s how i s t h a t k n ow l e d g e is n ot m e r e
p e r c e p t i o n a n d t h a t it is not m e r e t r u e b e l i ef .
Th ese conclusions
e x p r e s s t r u t h s ; t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h l e a d to t h e m a r e good a r g u m e n t s .
B u t a s t h e y a r e good a r g u m e n t s only if t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d to s t a r t
f r o m t h e p r e m i s s t h a t t h e r e is k n o w l e d g e of t h i ng s in t he e m p i r i c a l
w o r l d , s o u n d p r i n c i p l e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e q u i r e t h a t w e not r u i n t he
a r g u m e n t s a n d u n s e t t l e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s by p r e t e n d i n g t h a t in P l a t o 1s
v ie w t h e r e w a s no s u c h t h in g a s k n o w l e d g e of a n y t hi n g i n t h e e m p i r i c a l
world.
T h e f i n al a r g u m e n t , t h e n , of t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n of t h e d i a l o g u e ,
a n d t h e only r e f u t a t i o n S o c r a t e s a n y w h e r e p r o v i d e s of t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
k n o w l e d g e a s t r u e b e l i e f , c l e a r l y i m p l i e s P l a t o rs a c c e p t a n c e of t h e
c o m m o n - s e n s e v ie w t h a t s o m e t i m e s a p e r s o n k n o ws , a nd s o m e t i m e s
he d o e s n ot know, but only b e l i e v e s r i g h t l y , a m a t t e r of e m p i r i c a l f ac t.
It s h o u l d not be c a u s e f o r s u r p r i s e t h a t he a c c e p t s t h i s v i ew ; t h e t e n ­
d e n c y, r a m p a n t in t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s c h o l a r l y w r i t i n g s on P l a t o 1s p h i ­
l o s o p h y , to d en y t h a t he d o e s a c c e p t i t i s e n t i r e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to a
m i s g u i d e d s e n s e t h a t e a c h d i a l o g u e P l a t o w r o t e f o r m s p a r t of a p r e ­
c o n c e i v e d p l a n of p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g to t h i s c a n o n
233
t h e T h e a e t e t u s 1 v i e w s a bou t k no wl e dg e m u s t , a t a l l c o s t s , be m a d e to
be e l a b o r a t i o n s , d e f e n s e s , a nd r e p e t i t i o n s of t h o s e e x p r e s s e d in the
Re p u b l i c a nd T i m a e u s .
We h av e s e e n a l r e a d y t h a t one thi ng t he f i r s t
p a r t of t he T h e a e t e t u s d oe s i s to r e f u t e t he i d e a , e x p l i c i t
in t he
T i m a e u s a n d n e a r l y s t a t e d in t h e R e p u b l i c , t h a t t he w o r l d of s e n s e is
a w o r l d of
/
15
> (
d ev oi d of Ov/Cl * .
And if, a s t h i s a r g u m e n t
>1
i m p l i e s , t he o b j e c t s of p e r c e p t i o n a r e o v T a
f
a n d no t m e r e l y yvyVOjuS-VA
(in t he old s e n s e ) , one of the c h i e f r e a s o n s t he Re pu bl i c g av e f o r hol di ng
( w h a t e v e r t he vi e w w a s m e a n t to c o m e to) t h a t
a r e t hi n gs
a b o u t w h i c h no th ing c a n e v e r be known is e f f e c t i ve l y d i s a r m e d .
d o c t r i n e t h a t only
ov
is
The
(R e p . 4 7 8 a - b ) now no l o n g e r
n e e d i m p l y t h a t only F o r m s and not o b j e c t s of s e n s e c a n be known ab ou t .
A c c o r d i n g l y w e find T h e a e t e t u s 2 0 1 a - c a f f i r m i n g t he p o s s i b i l i t y of
k n o w l e d g e of t he w o r l d of s e n s e ; t h i s is j u s t a s one w o ul d e x p ec t , g i v e n
t h e m a n i f e s t i n t e n t i o n s of t he a r g u m e n t s of t he f i r s t p a r t of t he d i a l o g u e
mentioned above.
C H A P T E R VI
K N O W L E D G E AS T R U E B E L I E F P L U S LOGOS ( 2 01 c -2 1 0b )
A.
Introduction
T h e l a s t s e c t i o n of t h e T h e a e t e t u s (201c 7 - 2 1 0 b 3 ) e x a m i n e s a
f r e s h d e f i n i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e . T h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n h as s h ow n t h a t
t r u e j u d g m e n t by i t s e l f c a n n o t be k n o w l e d g e , a n d it o c c u r s to T h e a e t e t u s
t h a t t h e ol d d e f i n i t i o n i s not s o m u c h w r o n g a s o v e r - i n c l u s i v e :
knowl­
e dg e m i g h t be d e f i n e d a s t r u e b e l i e f o r j u d g m e n t r e s t r i c t e d in s o m e
w a y. H e r e m e m b e r s h a v i n g h e a r d i t s a i d t h a t k n ow l e d g e is t r u e b e l i e f
( j u d g m e n t ) a c c o m p a n i e d by A c f y o x
( a c c ou n t , e x p l a n a t i o n , e t c . ) , a n d
t h i s d e f i n i t i o n now s e e m s to h i m a p l a u s i b l e s u g g e s t i o n .
I n o r d e r to
put it to w o r k , h o w e v e r , one w o u l d h a v e to know m o r e a b o u t w h a t m i g h t
be m e a n t by l o g o s i n t h i s c o n t e x t .
In t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n and
e x a m i n a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , f o u r e f f o r t s a r e m a d e to give a p r e c i s e s e n s e
to t h i s n ot ion; but i n e a c h c a s e t h e c o n c r e t e d e f i n i t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t s is
rejected.
H e re the m a t t e r is dropped:
t h e r e s e e m s to be n ot hi ng
b ey o n d t h e f o u r e x p l a n a t i o n s of l o g os p r o p o s e d by S o c r a t e s w h i c h t he
p e r s o n w h o s e t h e o r y T h e a e t e t u s h a s a d o p t e d m i g h t h a v e m e a n t by s a y ­
ing t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s t r u e b e l i e f p l u s l o g o s .
c l o s e s w i t h a d e c l a r a t i o n of d e f e a t :
The dialogue thereupon
k n o w l e d g e is n e i t h e r p e r c e p t i o n
n o r t r u e b e l i e f n o r t he l a t t e r t o g e t h e r w i t h l o g o s , a n d no f u r t h e r l i k e l y
candidate sug gests itself.
T h e b a r e b o n e s of t he a r g u m e n t t h u s s e e m p e r f e c t l y s t r a i g h t -
235
forward.
It m i g h t a p p e a r f r o m m y s u m m a r y t h a t th e a r g u m e n t c a r r i e s
on f r o m t h e r e f u t a t i o n of the p r e c e d i n g de f ini ti on, a t t e m p t i n g to g et at
t he f e a t u r e of t he e y e w i t n e s s 1 j u d g m e n t o r o pi ni on w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s it
f r o m t h a t of t h e j u r y m a n .
Not hi ng, h o w e v e r , in th e w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n of
t he f in a l d e f i ni t i o n e v e n r e m o t e l y a p p r o a c h e s a s e n s e of l ogos w h i c h
m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e to t h i s c a s e .
And, ev e n w o r s e , f o r m o s t of t he
d i s c u s s i o n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s c l o s i n g p a g e s , 2 0 6 e - 2 1 0 ) , th e s e n s e
of f o a n d
play th e re :
i s c l e a r l y not t he s a m e a s t h a t w h i c h w a s in
both t he w i t n e s s a n d t h e j u d g e hold an opi ni on o r b e l i e f in
the s e n s e that t h e r e is s o m e p r o p o s itio n which they a c c e p t or s o m e
s t a t e m e n t w h i c h t h e y m a k e ; w h a t t h e y s a y o r b e l i e v e is t r u e .
aA'VtOvjS
fofa.
Hence
c ou l d t h e r e be t r a n s l a t e d Mt r u e j u d g m e n t , " a s it
c o u ld be in t h e p a s s a g e ( 1 8 5 a - 1 8 6 e ) a t t he end of t he f i r s t p a r t of t he
dialogue which suggested
as a likely candida te for
kn ow l e dg e , a nd w h i c h w a s f ull of r e f e r e n c e s to t he thou gh t t h a t two
t h i ng s e x i s t (185a 9), t h a t s o m e t h i n g is good o r bad, etc. (186a).
t r u e a nd f a l s e
But
a s i nv o lv in g a s s e r t i o n , a f f i r m a t i o n , s t a t e m e n t ,
etc. , is p r e t t y w e l l l o s t s i g h t of a l t o g e t h e r in t he f i na l s e c t i o n of t he
d i a l o g u e , a n d w e find t he d i s c u s s i o n c e n t e r i n g i n s t e a d a r o u n d o b j e c t s - a w ag o n, t h e s u n , T h e a e t e t u s , t h e n a m e " T h e a e t e t u s 11- - a n d c^k
of t h e m .
H e r e n ot " t r u e j u d g m e n t " n o r e ve n " t r u e b e l ie f " i s
a ny t hi n g l i k e a p p r o p r i a t e .
C o r n f o r d t r a n s l a t e s " t r u e n o ti on, " a n d
"r ig h t idea" or " c o r r e c t i o n conception" a r e other possibilities.
To
h a v e a r i g h t i d e a of a w a g o n o r T h e a e t e t u s 1 n a m e i s a p p a r e n t l y to be
a b l e to r e c o g n i z e t h e s e i t e m s upon s i g h t o r h e a r i n g , o r , in g e n e r a l , to
236
h a v e s o m e t h i n g in o n e ' s m i n d t h a t c o r r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e m ; a n d t h e n
t h e d i s c u s s i o n a p p a r e n t l y t a k e s a s i t s t a s k to s ay w h a t m o r e one n e e d s
to h a v e in o r d e r to be c o r r e c t l y s a i d to know t h e w a g o n o r t h e n a m e .
T h e s u g g e s t e d d e f i n i t i o n s of l o g o s a r e s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t w h a t t h i s
s o m e t h i n g m o r e c ou l d be.
Thus the original suggestion that knowledge
w a s to be f o u n d in t h e a r e a of r e a s o n i n g a nd j u d g m e n t c e r t a i n l y e n v i s ­
aged knowledge as a faculty that m a k e s a s s e r t i o n s about things, and the
r e f u t a t i o n of t h e s i m p l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e a n d t r u e b e l i e f r e i n ­
f o r c e d t h i s p r e s u m p t i o n ; but in t h e f i n a l p a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e k n o w l e d g e
and
s e e m n ot to be f a c u l t i e s of j u d g m e n t so m u c h a s a p p r e h e n ­
s i o n o r i n t u i t i on .
A n o t h e r oddi ty t h a t b e a r s m e n t i o n h e r e is t he d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e f i r s t d e f i n i t i o n of l o g os a nd t h e o t h e r t h r e e .
In t h e o t h e r s , l o g o s i s
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n be a d d e d to th e r i g h t i d e a of s o m e t h i n g :
one h a s
t he r i g h t i d e a f i r s t , t h e n gi ve s it v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n (206d 1 ), o r a d d s
a n e x p l i c i t l i s t of i t s p a r t s (207c 6 ), o r g r a s p s t he p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e of
i t w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s it f r o m o t h e r s (208c 7).
T h e s e s e n s e s of l o g o s
a r e p r o p o s e d a n d c r i t i c i z e d a s a n s w e r s to t h e q u e s t i o n , W h a t m u s t be
h ad i n a d d i t i o n to a r i g h t i d e a in o r d e r to a t t a i n k n o w l e d g e ?
In s h o r t ,
th e y a r e p r o p o s e d a n d c r i t i c i z e d a s a t t e m p t s to p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t c o n ­
ditions for knowledge.
T h i s is j u s t w h a t one i s l e d t o e x p e c t , g i v e n
t h a t t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n a s a w h o l e i s i n t r o d u c e d (2 0 1 c 8 - d 2 ) a s a n e x a m ­
i n a t i o n of t h e p r o p o s e d d e f i n i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e a s t r u e b e l i e f p l u s l o g o s .
F o r a s s u m i n g t h a t one h as a t r u e b e l i e f (and t r u e b e l i e f i s t h r o u g h o u t
t a k e n a s u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l ) t h e n on t h i s d e f i n i t i o n h a v i n g l o g o s a s w e l l ,
237
w h a t e v e r it t u r n s out to be, s h ou l d be a s u f f i c i e nt s i g n of k n o w le d ge .
T he f i r s t s e n s e of l o g o s , th e one wh i c h S o c r a t e s e x p l a i n s by
e xp oundi ng a d r e a m he h a s ha d (201d 8 - 2 0 2 c 5), i s not so s t r a i g h t f o r ­
wardly comprehensible.
It s e e m s to be c o n c e r n e d to a r g u e bot h f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t c o nd i t i on of k n o w l e d g e and a l s o f o r a n e c e s s a r y c ondit i on;
a n d S o c r a t e s 1 c r i t i c i s m c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h t he n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n
(and m a t t e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it) to t he t o t a l e x c l u s i o n of q u e s t i o n s c o n ­
c e r n i n g t h e a d e q u a c y of t he p r o p o s e d s u f f i c i e n t c o nd i t i o n of kn ow l e dg e .
T h e s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s e e m s to be j u s t t h a t any one wh o c a n p r o d u c e
a l i s t of a l l t he p a r t s of a th ing knows it.
T h is i d e a i s n e v e r c l e a r l y
s t a t e d in t h e d r e a m , but it is i m p l i c i t in t he a c c o u n t of a c o m p l e x
o b j e c t a s a c o l l e c t i o n of s i m p l e e l e m e n t s , and is no doubt w h a t is
a l l u d e d to a t t he end of th e d r e a m w h e r e S o c r a t e s s a y s t h a t b e s i d e s
h a v i n g a r i g h t i d e a of a c o m p l e x thi ng one m u s t a l s o be a b l e to give it s
l o g o s in o r d e r to know it. * T h i s c o n c e p t i o n of l o g o s i s , i n d ee d , b r i e f l y
t o u c h e d upon in S o c r a t e s 1 c r i t i c i s m of t he d r e a m t h e o r y ( 203a -b) ; b ut
it r e c u r s l a t e r (206e) a s t h e s e c o n d of t he t h r e e s u b s e q u e n t d e f i n i t i o n s
of l o g o s , w h e r e it i s e x a m i n e d on i t s own a c c o u n t , a n d d o e s not f i g u r e
p r o m i n e n t l y in e i t h e r t h e e x p o s i t i o n o r t he c r i t i c i s m of t he d r e a m t h e ­
ory itself.
The d r e a m and its c r i t i c i s m a r e r a t h e r m o r e c o n c e r n e d
w i t h t he q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r only c o m p l e x o b j e c t s c a n be known a nd w i t h
t h e q u e s t i o n w h a t t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a c o m p l e x o b j e c t c o n s i s t s in.
t h e o r y of s i m p l e e l e m e n t s
)
T he
w h i c h c a n be p e r c e i v e d a nd
n a m e d but not known, t h o u gh t h e y c a n be c o m b i n e d int o c o m p l e x e s
w h i c h , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c o m p l e x , c a n be known, s e e m s
238
p r i m a r i l y intended as propo sin g a n e c e s s a r y condition for knowledge.
T h e f i r s t s e n s e of l o g o s , t h en , i s not m e r e l y c o n c e r n e d to p r o ­
v i d e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c o u l d b e a d d e d to t r u e b e l i e f s o a s to m a k e k n o w l ­
edge; a n d S o c r a t e s * i n t e r e s t in a n d c r i t i c i s m of t h i s a c c o u n t of l o g o s i s
not d i r e c t e d a t i t s i n a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m t h i s r o l e a d e q u a t e l y .
The d o c ­
t r i n e t h a t k n owi ng r e q u i r e s a c o m p l e x o b j e c t a nd t he t h e o r y of c o m p l e x ­
i ty w i t h w h i c h t he d r e a m o p e r a t e s a r e t he foci of t he d i s c u s s i o n a n d
c r i t i c i s m of t h e t h e o r y .
Any s a t i s f a c t o r y a n d t h o r o u g h - g o i n g i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n of t h e f i n a l a r g u m e n t s of t h e d i a l o g u e m u s t e x p l a i n , s o f a r a s
p o s s i b l e , how t h e f i r s t t h e o r y of l o g o s a nd i t s r e f u t a t i o n b e l o n g t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e o t h e r t h r e e ; a n d w e m u s t a l s o e x p l a i n wh y t h e d i s c u s s i o n in
t h e c l o s i n g p a g e s f o c u s e s on t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a r i g h t i d e a of a
t hi ng a n d k n o w l e d g e of it.
S o m e h o p e of s u c c e s s i s e n c o u r a g e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t b o t h
p a r t s of t he d i s c u s s i o n c o n t i n u e to a c c e p t t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n ­
ing w h i c h l i e s b e h i n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a b o u t f a l s e b e l i e f a s w e l l a s c e r t a i n
v i e w s a b o u t t h i n k i n g a n d r e f e r e n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it.
th eory, in a m o r e or l e s s explicit form ,
2
Thus the d r e a m
c o n t a i n s t h e v i e w of s t a t e m e n t
w h i c h i s a s s u m e d in t h e d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f :
a se nte nc e is ju s t a
c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s , to m a k e a s t a t e m e n t i s j u s t to think t o g e t h e r a g r o u p
of o b j e c t s , a n d t h e only s o r t of m e a n i n g t h e r e i s i s d e s i g n a t i o n .
An d it
i s t h e c o n c e p t i o n of c o m p l e x i t y w h i c h i s h e r e a s s u m e d - - c o m p l e x i t y i s
in e f f e c t no m o r e t h a n c o m p o s i t i o n , j u x t a p o s i t i o n - - t o w h i c h S o c r a t e s
s u b s e q u e n t l y d i r e c t s h is a t t e n t i o n .
A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s a c c o u n t of
s ta te m e n t is the idea that m e n ta l op erations u ltim ately re d u c e to sim ply
239
d i r e c t i n g o n e !s t h ou g h t s t o w a r d a n o b j e c t , h a v i n g it in m i n d , a n d l a b e l ­
l in g i t w i t h i t s p r o p e r n a m e .
T h i s view w a s v e r y m u c h in p l a y in t he
d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l ie f ; a n d I b e l i e v e it is a l s o o p e r a t i v e in t h e f i na l
t h r e e s e n s e s of l o g os of t h e l a s t p a r t of t he d ia l o g u e .
Kn owi ng s o m e ­
th in g is a m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n , so t h a t if k n o w l e d g e i s to be e x p l a i n e d on
th e old t h e o r y of m e a n i n g , it m u s t be s o m e s o r t of a w a r e n e s s of a n
object or objects.
W ha t r o o m c a n be m a d e , t he n, f o r a d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n m e r e a w a r e n e s s of a t h i ng (a r i g h t i d e a of it) a n d t he m o r e
t h o r o u g h - g o i n g a w a r e n e s s w h i c h t he w o r d " k n o w l e d g e " i m p l i e s ?
The
f i na l t h r e e s e n s e s of l o g o s p r o p o s e d s e e m to m e to be a t t e m p t s to d i s ­
c o v e r , w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e old t h e o r y and t h e r e f o r e w i t h o u t i n ­
v oki ng any m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n o t h e r t h a n s i m p l e a w a r e n e s s of a p r o p e r l y
l a b e l l e d o b j e c t , s o m e t h i n g t h a t goe s be yo nd t he m e r e r e c o g n i t i o n
e n t a i l e d by t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e r i g h t i d e a of a thing.
In m y v i e w , t he n , t he l a s t p a r t of t he d i a l o g u e is e x p l a i ni n g a nd
t e s t i n g f u r t h e r t h e t h e o r i e s of t h in k in g , m e a n i n g , s a y i n g , a nd j u d g in g
w h i c h t he m i d d l e s e c t i o n w a s e n t a n g l e d in.
B efore pursuing the detail
of t h e a r g u m e n t w i t h t h i s t h e s i s in m i n d , h o w e v e r , n o t i c e s h o u l d be
t a k e n of t h e p r e v a l e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
3
w h i c h a p p r o a c h e s t h i s p a r t of
t h e d i a l o g u e w i t h a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s e t of q u e s t i o n s in m i n d .
On t h i s
vi ew, w h a t P l a t o i n t e n d s to be s h o wi n g in t h e f i na l s e c t i o n i s t h a t t h e r e
c a n n o t be k n o w l e d g e a b o u t p h e n o m e n a b e c a u s e t he only s e n s e of l og o s
in w h i c h t h e a b i l i t y to gi ve l o g o s is s u f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t i o n of t he p o s s e s ­
s i o n of k n o w l e d g e i s one w h i c h c a n be a p p l i e d to a F o r m a n d to n o t h in g
else.
A c c o r d i n g to t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n P l a t o r e g a r d s t h e n o t i o n t h a t
240
k n o w l e d g e a l w a y s i n v o l v e s a b i l i t y to give a l og os a s e v i d e n t l y c o r r e c t ,
a nd w h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s h o w s i s t h a t no w a y in w h i c h you m i g h t t r y to
give t h e l o g o s of a s e n s i b l e o b j e c t c a n s u c c e e d in b e s t o w i n g k n o w l e d g e
of it.
K n o w l e d g e a n d t h e r i g h t ki nd of l og o s c a n only be ha d f o r F o r m s .
T h i s v ie w h a s b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y u n d e r m i n e d by R o b i n s o n
a t t e m p t a f u l l - s c a l e r e v i e w a n d c r i t i c i s m of it.
4
and I s h a l l not
But it is w o r t h m e n ­
t i o ni n g t wo p o i n t s a b o u t t h e f o r m of a r g u m e n t w h i c h t h i s vi ew m u s t
a t t r i b u t e to P l a t o i n o r d e r to e x t r a c t f r o m t he d i s c u s s i o n t h e c o n c l u ­
s i o n s it w i s h e s t o find in it.
One p r e l i m i n a r y c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s to be m a d e .
The a s s o ­
c i a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e w i t h a b i l i t y to g i ve a l o g o s a nd t h e c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e s e t wo a n d t h e t h e o r y of F o r m s a p p e a r i n s e v e r a l r a t h e r
d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s in P l a t o * s w r i t i n g s .
S o m e t i m e s (as in M e n o 8 5 b - 8 6 a ,
9 7 e - 9 8 a ) it s e e m s t h a t k n o w l e d g e d o e s not a l w a y s h a v e F o r m s f o r i t s
o b j e c t s , b ut t h a t k n o w l e d g e of a n y t h i n g r e q u i r e s a g r a s p a nd u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing of F o r m s ; in t h i s c a s e t h e l o g o s w h i c h k n o w l e d g e i m p l i e s i s a n
a c c o u n t e x p l a i n i n g how a n d wh y t he t hi ng a l l e g e d to be kn own i s t r u e ,
a n d t he d o c t r i n e is t h a t t h e a b i l i t y to do t h i s i n v o l v e s a r e f e r e n c e to
Form s.
In t h e s e c o n t e x t s t r u e b e l i e f s a r e s a i d to b e c o m e i n s t a n c e s of
k n o w l e d g e w h e n t h e e x p l a n a t o r y a c c o u n t h a s b e e n a c q u i r e d in a d d i t i o n .
H e r e t h e s a m e t r u t h s c a n be e i t h e r b e l i e v e d o r k nown, a n d t h e d i f f e r ­
e n c e b e t w e e n b e l i e f a nd k n o w l e d g e i s not t h a t k n o w l e d g e is c o n c e r n e d
w h o l l y w i t h o b j e c t s of a d i f f e r e n t r e a l m , but t h a t i t i n v o l v e s a r e f e r e n c e
to s u c h o b j e c t s .
On t h e o t h e r ha nd, i n o t h e r p a s s a g e s w h e r e P l a t o is
p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n s f r o m t h e s e , he e s p o u s e s t h e
241
d o c t r i n e t h a t k n o w l e d g e a n d b e l i e f do not o v e r l a p one a n o t h e r a t a l l ,
a nd t h a t not hi ng t h a t c a n be a n o b j e c t of b e l i e f c a n be an o b j e c t of k n o w l ­
e dge ( R e p . , 4'47a-d, 4 7 9 d - e ) .
H e r e t h e r e is no q u e s t i o n of a c c e p t i n g a
t r u t h a nd t he n a c q u i r i n g a l o g o s of it so a s to b e c o m e p o s s e s s e d of
k n o w l e d g e of t h e v e r y t hi ng w h i c h one e a r l i e r only b e l i e v e d t r u l y .
To
o b t a i n k no wl e dg e it is n e c e s s a r y to t u r n a wa y f r o m b e l i e f a nd i ts o b ­
j e c t s a l t o g e t h e r ( R e p . , 5 2 3 a - c ) a nd d i r e c t o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n to F o r m s
e x c l u s i v e l y ; it is t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g of F o r m s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s k n o w l ­
e dge .
And in t h e s e c o n t e x t s (cf. T i m . , 5 1 d - e ) giving a l o go s not m e r e l y
i n c l u d e s r e f e r e n c e to F o r m s but is s o m e h o w e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h
them.
Now t ho u g h t he two v i e w s a bo u t k n ow le dg e a nd l og o s j u s t r e ­
f e r r e d to m i g h t be c o m b i n e d so a s to m i n i m i z e o r r e m o v e t h e i r d i f f e r ­
e n c e s , ^ t he y s h o u l d not be f o r t h w i t h c o nf l a t e d .
C o m m e n t a t o r s who
t h i n k t h a t t he f in al s e c t i o n of t h e T h e a e t e t u s m o u n t s an i n d i r e c t a r g u m e n t
in s u p p o r t of t he v ie w t h a t p h e n o m e n a a r e not s u i t a b l e o b j e c t s of k n o w l ­
ed g e , t ho ug h t h e y t e n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y to c i t e p a s s a g e s b e l o ng i ng to
b ot h of t h e two l i n e s of t ho u g h t c i t e d a bo ve , ^ h av e m a i n l y in m i n d t he
s e c o n d s o r t of e x p l a n a t i o n of how k n ow le dg e a n d F o r m s a r e a s s o c i a t e d .
In a ny c a s e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o u r s e of t h e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a r g u ­
m e n t is m o r e e a s i l y d e f e n s i b l e t a k e n in t hi s w ay :
t he T h e a e t e t u s 1 c o n ­
c e n t r a t i o n on k n o w l e d g e a n d b e l i e f of o b j e c t s , a nd not of t r u t h s a b o ut
t h e m , f inds an e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l in the p r e o c c u p a t i o n of t he Re pu b l ic w i t h
F o r m s a s t he only o b j e c t s of y >/
.
In w h a t f oll ows I a s s u m e t h a t ,
a c c o r d i n g to t he i n t e r p r e t a t i o n being c o n s i d e r e d , it i s t he R e p u b l i c 1s
242
b i f u r c a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e a n d b e l i e f i nt o f a c u l t i e s d i r e c t e d a t d i f f e r e n t
o b j e c t s t h a t i s b ei ng i n d i r e c t l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e d i s c u s s i o n of l o g o s i n
the T h e a e t e t u s .
Now P l a t o m i g h t h a v e a r g u e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s d i r e c t l y by s h o w i n g ,
a s h e a t t e m p t s to do in t he R e p u b l i c , t h a t p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s a r e too
i n d e f i n i t e to be known:
t h e r e is no th ing w h i c h any s u c h t hing i s , so
t h e r e is n ot hi ng it c a n be known to be.
But, a c c o r d i n g to t h e s e i n t e r ­
p r e t e r s , in t h e T h e a e t e t u s he w i s h e s to s u g g e s t t h is c o n c l u s i o n i n d i ­
r e c t l y , by sh o wi n g t h a t t h o u g h k n o w l e d g e is a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i e d by t he
a b i l i t y t o g i ve a l o g o s o r e x p l a n a t o r y a c c o u n t of t h e th in g k nown, no
s u c h a c c o u n t c a n be g i v e n of a p e r c e p t i b l e thi ng.
One m i g h t e x p e c t ,
n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e r e a s o n why no a c c o u n t c a n be g i v e n of a
p e r c e p t i b l e t h i ng is t h a t it is^ i n d e f i n i t e in t he w ay P l a t o a r g u e s in t h e
R e p u b l i c ; but in f a c t t h e r e s e e m s to be no s u c h t h o u gh t ly in g b e h in d t he
c r i t i c i s m s of t he v a r i o u s s e n s e s of l o g o s p r o p o s e d in t h e f i n al s e c t i o n
of t h e d i a l o g u e .
N o t hi ng is s a i d to s u g g e s t t h a t " T h e a e t e t u s " isn*t
r e a l l y j u s t t h a t one n a m e w h i c h w e t a k e it to be, o r t h a t t he s u n isn*t
r e a l l y a s u n a m b i g u o u s l y a s p o s s i b l e t he su n.
So, in a n y e v e nt , t he
o b j e c t i o n to th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r i g h t kind of l o g os c a n be gi v en of a
p e r c e p t i b l e t hi ng is q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t one f r o m t h e o b j e c t i o n s r a i s e d in
the Republic and e lse w h ere ag ainst the supposition that pe rc e p tib le
7
t h i n g s c a n be known.
T h e a r g u m e n t , a s C o r n f o r d c o n s t r u e s it, a t t e m p t s to s how, f o r
a s e r i e s of d e f i n i t i o n s of l o g o s , t h a t t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e l o g os of a
p e r c e p t i b l e t h in g i n any of t h o s e s e n s e s i s no s u f f i c i e n t s i g n t h a t t he
243
t hi ng i s known; a n d t he f a i l u r e of t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s is i n te n d e d to s how
t h a t t h e r e is no s e n s e of l o g os in w h i c h to give t he l o g os of a p e r c e p t i ­
b le thi ng is s u f f i c i e n t t o i m p l y t h e p o s s e s s i o n of k n o wl e d g e .
To d e f i n e
k n o w l ed g e and l og o s one m u s t l e a v e p e r c e p t i b l e t h i ng s to t h e i r own
d e v i c e s a nd a t t e n d to F o r m s .
T h e r e a r e two i m p o r t a n t d if f i c u l t i e s
w h i c h t h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a c e s .
(1 )
F o r C o r n f o r d !s r e d u c t i o a r g u m e n t to be a t a l l c o n v i n c i n g
one w ou ld h a ve to b e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e no o t h e r d e fi n i t i o n s of
l o g os a p p l i c a b l e to p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s t h a n th e on es w h o s e i n a d e q u a c y
t h e d i s c u s s i o n a t t e m p t s to p r o v e .
F o r if t h e r e w e r e o t h e r s P l a t o c o u ld
n ot c o n c l u d e t h a t p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s c a n n o t be known u nt il he had s h ow n
t h a t t r u e b e l i e f p l u s l o g o s in t h e s e f u r t h e r s e n s e s d oe s not a m o u n t to
k n o wl e dg e .
G o r n f o r d r e c o g n i z e s t h i s a nd e x p r e s s e s h i s ' b e l i e f (p. 1 6 2 )
t h a t t he t h r e e s e n s e s of l o g o s c o n s i d e r e d (the e x p r e s s i o n of t he t hi ng i n
w o r d s , the e n u m e r a t i o n of i t s p a r t s , and t he a c c o u n t of how t he t hing
d i f f e r s f r o m a n y th i ng e l s e ) e x h a u s t t he w a y s in w h i c h a n a c c o u n t m i g h t
be g i v e n of a n i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i b l e thi ng.
this?
But why s ho u l d one t hi nk
S u r e l y o t h e r s e n s e s w o ul d o c c u r to a ny s t u b b o r n d e f e n d e r of the
view ( w h a t e v e r e x a c t l y it c o m e s to) t h a t i n di v i d u a l p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s
c a n be known.
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e m i g h t be a L e i b n i z i a n d e fi n i ti o n of
l og os a s t he c o n j u n c t i o n of a l l t h e t r u e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t a gi ve n t hing:
t h o u g h no doubt t h i s w o u l d r e d u c e t he n u m b e r of o b j e c t s a n yo n e k no ws ,
a n d p e r h a p s l e a v e God a s t he only ( r e a l ) k n o w e r , it a p p e a r s to be d i f ­
f e r e n t f r o m any of t h e t h r e e P l a t o g i v e s .
The a rg u m e n t Cornford con ­
s t r u c t s is t hu s v a l i d onl y on t he v e r y d ub i o u s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e
244
no o t h e r t y p e s of a c c o u n t of s e n s i b l e t h i n g s t h a n t he o n e s he m e n t i o n s .
Can P l a t o r e a l l y h a v e i n t e n d e d to r e s t h is c a s e on s u c h a w e a k r e e d ?
A g a i n , if a s C o r n f o r d t h i n k s t h e r e i s a f o u r t h s e n s e of l o g o s
w h i c h is t he s e n s e in w h i c h it n e c e s s a r i l y a c c o m p a n i e s k n o w l e d g e a n d
w h i c h , in P l a t o * s v i e w , c a n be g i ve n onl y of F o r m s , it is odd t h a t i n a
r e d u c t i o of t he i d e a t h a t t h i s l o g o s c a n b e g i v e n of s e n s i b l e p a r t i c u l a r s ,
g
P l a t o d oe sn*t e v e n m e n t i o n i t ( or a ny a n a l o g u e of it).
If t h i s s e n s e of
l o g o s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t one c o ul d a t t e m p t to a p pl y to a p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g ,
t h e n P l a t o s h o u l d s u r e l y (and w o u l d s u r e l y ) h a v e s c r a p p e d h i s o t h e r
s e n s e s a n d p r o d u c e d a good r e d u c t i o by s h ow i ng t h a t w h e n one t r i e s to
a p p l y l o g o s i n t h i s s e n s e to p h e n o m e n a t h e r e s u l t i s not k n o w l e d g e .
On
t h e o t h e r h an d, if in i t s v e r y n a t u r e t h e l og o s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s k n o w l ­
e dg e c a n n o t b e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d w i t h o u t r e f e r r i n g to F o r m s , t h i s w a s
h a r d l y t h e p l a c e to a t t e m p t a n i n d i r e c t a r g u m e n t a t a l l .
E ith e r way,
t h e a r g u m e n t C o r n f o r d a t t r i b u t e s t o P l a t o is a n a b o r t i o n .
(2)
A c c o r d i n g to t h e u s u a l v ie w t h e f a i l u r e to d i s c o v e r a s a t i s ­
f a c t o r y s e n s e of l o g os f o r p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s s h ow s t h a t p h e n o m e n a a r e
t h e w r o n g s o r t of o b j e c t s f o r k n o w l e d g e to be of.
P l a t o , h o w e v e r , in
gi vi ng r e a s o n s r e j e c t i n g t h e s e n s e s of l o g o s p r o p o s e d s e e m s a c t u a l l y
t o i m p l y t h a t t h e r e i s s u c h a t h i ng a s k n o w l e d g e of p h e n o m e n a .
The
m e t h o d P l a t o u s e s , a t l e a s t p a r t of t h e t i m e , to s ho w t h a t t h e s e n s e s of
l o g o s p r o p o s e d a r e not s a t i s f a c t o r y s e e m s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e c o n ­
c l u s i o n of t h e a r g u m e n t a s C o r n f o r d i n t e r p r e t s it.
The
method
I h a v e i n m i n d i s a m e t h o d of c o u n t e r e x a m p l e :
i t i n v o l v e s a p p e a l to a p a r t i c u l a r e x a m p l e a n d to w h a t k n o w l e d g e of t h a t
245
e x a m p l e wo ul d a c t u a l l y be.
H e r e one a r g u e s t h a t a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t i o n
is u n s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e c a s e s w h e r e one h a s to do m o r e to
a t t a i n k n ow l e dg e t h a n j u s t h a v e a r i g h t i d ea pl us l og os in t he s e n s e
d e f in e d.
By u s i n g t h i s m e t h o d one i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e is s u c h a t h in g a s
k n o w l e d g e in t h e c a s e s e n v i s a g e d , but t h e d e f i ni t i on p r o p o s e d f a i l s to
a c c o u n t f o r it.
P l a t o f o l lo ws t h i s m e t h o d in t h e r e f u t a t i o n of t he s e c o n d
s e n s e of l og os (207c 6 - 2 0 8 b 1 0 ).
H e r e S o c r a t e s t a k e s t he e x a m p l e of
t he n a m e " T h e a e t e t u s , " a n d i m p l i e s t h a t t he p r o p o s e d d e fi n i t i o n of
k n o w l e d g e w ou ld h a v e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t s o m e o n e knows t h i s n a m e
e ve n t ho u gh h i s c o m m a n d of th e i n d i v i d u a l l e t t e r s is so f au lt y t h a t w h e n
he h e a r s t h he s o m e t i m e s t h i n k s he h a s h e a r d t_(though in t h i s c a s e he
h a s g o t t e n it r i gh t ).
But why s h o u l d th is c o n s e q u e n c e not be a c c e p t e d ?
Why s ho u l d one not s a y t h a t a n y o n e wh o r e c o g n i z e s t he n a m e w h e n he
h e a r s it, a nd c a n s p e l l it c o r r e c t l y , knows i t?
B ecause, S o c ra te s says,
t h a t is not, a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , w h a t c ou n t s a s k n o w l e d g e in s u c h a
case:
it is j u s t a f a c t t h a t w h e n s o m e o n e h a s beg u n to l e a r n h is l e t t e r s
h e w i l l f o r a w h i l e g et t h e m r i g h t s o m e of t h e t i m e , but on o t h e r o c c a ­
s i o n s w h e n he is c a l l e d upon to s p e l l t he s a m e s y l l a b l e he w i l l i n s e r t a
w r o n g l e t t e r o r l e a v e one out.
Wh e n t h i s i s t he s i t u a t i o n w e do not s a y
he k no ws th e l e t t e r s a n d s y l l a b l e s in q u e s t i o n , a nd so not t he n a m e s
either.
He d o e s not ye t (208a 5, b 9) know t h e m ; he w i l l know t h e m
w h e n he c e a s e s to m a k e l e a r n e r , s m i s t a k e s of t he s o r t i n d i c a t e d .
Now
i t is e s s e n t i a l to n o t i c e t h a t t he r e f u t a t i o n S o c r a t e s h e r e c o n s t r u c t s
w o u ld f a i l a l t o g e t h e r if it w e r e not p o s s i b l e to know l e t t e r s , s y l l a b l e s ,
or n a m e s.
If t he f u r t h e r a b i l i t i e s S o c r a t e s i m p l i e s a m a n m u s t p o s s e s s
246
i n o r d e r to know a n a m e d id not h a v e a n y t h i n g to do w i t h k n o w i ng a n y ­
t h in g , t h e n t h e a b s e n c e of t h e m c o u l d not show t he a b s e n c e of k n o w l e d g e .
The fact is that S o c r a te s , like T h e a e te tu s, naturally a s s u m e s that his
t a s k h e r e i s to e x p l a i n w h a t it i s to know, i n t e r a l i a , p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s ,
an d he r e j e c t s t h e p r o p o s e d e x p l a n a t i o n b e c a u s e it d o e s not fit e v i d e n t
f a c t s a b o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of n a m e s .
He is not, a nd c a n n o t be , a r g u i n g
i n d i r e c t l y t h a t t h e r e isn*t a n y s u c h t hi ng a s k n ow l e d g e of n a m e s o r of
p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s in g e n e r a l .
It m i g h t be r e p l i e d to t h i s t h a t S o c r a t e s ( P l a t o ) n e e d no t a c c e p t
t h e ’’e v i d e n t f a c t s ” a b o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of n a m e s ; a l l he r e q u i r e s f o r
t h e v a l i d i t y of h is a r g u m e n t i s t h a t t h e s e f a c t s be s u c h t h a t a n y o n e who
t h i n k s (as P l a t o d o e s not) t h a t t h e r e is s u c h a thing a s k n o w l e d g e of
p e r c e p t i b l e things cann ot deny th e m .
T h e n any one who t h i n k s t h a t th e
n a m e “ T h e a e t e t u s ” c a n be k no wn w i l l h a v e to a d m i t t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d
d e f i n i t i o n of l o g o s a s a n a l y s i s i n t o e l e m e n t s f a i l s a s a n a c c o u n t of
k no wi ng a n a m e ; f o r hie m u s t g r a n t t h a t one c a n h a v e l o g o s in t h i s
s e n s e a n d n ot h a v e w h a t he c a l l s ( t hough of c o u r s e w r o n g l y ) k n o w l e d g e
of “ T h e a e t e t u s . ” So t h e a r g u m e n t w i l l h a v e s ho wn t h a t no one wh o
t h i n k s t h e r e i s k n o w l e d g e of p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s c a n a c c e p t t h e p r o p o s e d
d e f i n i t i o n , a n d t h a t i s e n ou g h t o r e f u t e it.
T h i s d e f e n s e is n ot c o n v i n c i n g .
By w h a t r i g h t d o e s S o c r a t e s
a s s u m e t h a t a n y o n e w h o t h i n k s t h e r e is s u c h a t h i ng a s k n o w l e d g e of a
n a m e w i l l h a v e to a c c e p t h i s a p p e a l to l e a r n e r ’s m i s t a k e s a s s h o w i n g
t h a t o ne d o e s n o t e x h i b i t k n o w l e d g e of a n a m e m e r e l y by s p e l l i n g it
correctly?
He c e r t a i n l y c o u l d h a v e n o t h in g to s a y to a p e r s o n w h o j u s t
247
d e n i e d t h a t one m u s t do m o r e t h a n s p e l l t he w o r d c o r r e c t l y a t s o m e
t i m e i n o r d e r to know it a t t h a t t i m e :
S o c r a t e s a n d s u c h a n o pp o n e n t
w o u l d be in a g r e e m e n t t h a t f u r t h e r a b i l i t i e s ( c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g on o t h e r
o c c a s i o n s ) h a v e no t e n d e n c y to show k n o wl e dg e of a ny th i ng , s o t h a t
S o c r a t e s , a t a ny r a t e , w o ul d h a v e no t hi ng to w h i c h to a p p e a l in o r d e r to
show t h e m a n t h a t h i s a c c o u n t of k no w l e d g e i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .
The a r ­
g u m e n t to w h i c h C o r n f o r d 1s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s f i na l l y r e d u c e d in t he c a s e
of t h e s e c o n d s e n s e of l og o s is t hu s a t b e s t e n t i r e l y ad h o m i n e m , a n d
h a s no e ff ec t a g a i n s t a ny one who d o e s not a c c e p t t he d i s t i n c t i o n , to
w h i c h S o c r a t e s a p p e a l s , b e t w e e n g e t ti ng a n a m e r i g h t on a s i n g l e o c c a ­
s i o n a n d k n owi ng it.
An d S o c r a t e s , who, on C o r n f o r d , s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
d o e s n ot a c c e p t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n h i m s e l f , c a n n o t i n s i s t t h a t his o p p on e nt
a c c e p t it.
It s e e m s to m e , t he n, t h a t i n t e r p r e t e d in t he m o s t n a t u r a l w a y
P l a t o* s r e f u t a t i o n of t he s e c o n d s e n s e of l og o s (206e ff. ) i m p l i e s t h a t
he a c c e p t e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e of p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s i s p o s s i b l e .
So i n t e r ­
p r e t e d t h e a r g u m e n t is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a nd c o g e n t , r e j e c t i n g t h e d e f i ­
n i t i on of k n o w l e d g e a s a r i g h t i d e a of a t h in g p l us a n a n a l y s i s of it i nto
p a r t s f o r a good r e a s o n :
t h e r e a r e c a s e s w h e r e t h e c o nd i t i o n s of t h e
d e f i n i t i o n a r e m e t w h i c h a r e u n d o ub te d ly not i n s t a n c e s of k no wl e d g e .
B u t i f t h i s i s P l a t o 1s a r g u m e n t h e r e , it c a n n o t be his l o n g - r a n g e o b j e c ­
t i v e to p r o v e t h a t t h e r e is no s u c h t hi ng a s k n o w l ed g e of t h e o b j e c t s of
t he s e n s e s .
In o r d e r to e v a d e t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e a n d p r o t e c t th e i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d m a k e t hi s P l a t o 1s o v e r a l l a i m in t h i s p a r t of the
d i a l o g u e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to p o s t u l a t e a c o m p l i c a t e d a nd u nc o n v i n c i n g
248
ad h om ine m a rg u m e n t.
I s e e no r e a s o n to a t t r i b u t e t h e b a d a n d g r a c e ­
l e s s a r g u m e n t to P l a t o , r a t h e r t h a n t he n e a t a n d e f f e c t i v e one, a n d
a c c o r d i n g l y I r e j e c t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d f o r c e us to a t t r i b u t e
t h e b ad one to h im.
To s u m up t h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n :
I find C o r n f o r d * s i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n of t h e l a s t s e c t i o n of t h e T h e a e t e t u s u n c o n v i n c i n g f o r two r e a ­
sons.
It a t t r i b u t e s to P l a t o a r e d u c t i o a r g u m e n t w h i c h i s a w k w a r d and
i n e f f e c t i v e ; a n d it r e q u i r e s g r o t e s q u e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g of one p a r t of t h e p a s s a g e , a n d e ve n t h e n p r o d u c e s no v e r y
c o n v i n c i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of w h a t i s b e i n g a r g u e d t h e r e .
These seem
t o m e good r e a s o n s f o r g iv in g up t h e i d e a t h a t t he t h i r d p a r t of t h e d i a ­
l o g u e i n t e n d s to s ho w t h a t k n o w l e d g e ha s o t h e r o b j e c t s t h a n p e r c e p t i b l e
things.
T h i s n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n is f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by t he c o n s i d e r a ­
t i o n t h a t t h e c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t he a r g u m e n t of t h e e a r l i e r p a r t s
of t h e T h e a e t e t u s i t s e l f p r o v i d e s v e r y w e i g h t y r e a s o n s f o r n ot e x p e c t i n g
P l a t o to h a v e a ny s u c h i n t e n t i o n in t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n .
As I r e m a r k e d
a b o v e , t h e c h i e f r e a s o n f o r a c c e p t i n g C o r n f o r d rs i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o r
s o m e t h i n g l i k e it, i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t a t t h e t i m e h e w r o t e t h e T h e a e t e t u s
P l a t o 1s v ie w a b o u t k n o w l e d g e w a s t h a t it n e c e s s a r i l y w a s d i r e c t e d
t o w a r d F o r m s , a n d t h a t k n o w l e d g e c o u l d n ot be h a d of p e r c e p t i b l e
things.
But a s I h a v e a r g u e d a b o v e , t h e m a i n g r o u n d on w h i c h t h i s v i ew
w a s a c c e p t e d in t h e R e p ub l i c - - t h a t p h e n o m e n a l o b j e c t s h a v e no e x i s t ­
e n c e a n d no s e t t l e d c h a r a c t e r a t a ny m o m e n t o r f o r a ny p e r i o d of t i m e - i s i n f a c t o v e r t u r n e d in t h e T h e a e t e t u s i t s e l f .
The supposition that
249
t h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t w o r l d s , one of c h a n g e w i th ou t p e r m a n e n c e a nd
b e c o m i n g w i t h o u t any b e i n g a t a ll , and t he o t h e r a w o r l d of be in g w i t h ­
out any kind of c h a n g e , h a s b e e n s hown to be a b s u r d .
The l ogic of the
c o n c e p t s of b ei ng a n d b e c o m i n g d oe s not in f a ct s u p p o r t s u c h a d i v i s i o n ,
a n d P l a t o p l a i nl y i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e g r e g a t i o n of t he two m u s t be a b a n ­
d oned.
In t he s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t he in f a ct do e s a ba n do n it ( 184-186);
a n d t h e r e f o r e w h e n in t he f i n al a r g u m e n t of the s e c o n d s e c t i o n (2 0 1 a - c )
he a b a n d o n s i t s c o r o l l a r y , a l l o wi n g k n ow le dg e of m a t t e r s of e m p i r i c a l
f a c t , he i s only b ei ng c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the p a t e n t c o n c l u s i o n s of his own
arguments.
H e n c e t he f a c t t h a t t he l a s t p a r t of t he d i a l o g u e i s , j u d g e d
i n t e r n a l l y , n ot p l a u s i b l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s m a k i n g a r e a r - g u a r d a r g u m e n t
f o r t he old s e g r e g a t i o n of k n o w le d ge a nd be li ef , is e n t i r e l y w h a t one
w oul d e x pe c t.
And, of c o u r s e , t h is f a c t i t s e l f gi ve s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t , if
s u p p o r t is n e e d e d , to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the e a r l i e r a r g u m e n t s w h i c h
I h a v e d e f e nd e d.
T h e u p s h o t is t h a t t he u s u a l wa y of r e a d i n g t he fi nal
s e c t i o n of the d i a l o g u e m u s t be r e j e c t e d a s f o r c i n g c o n c e r n s upon the
a r g u m e n t w h i c h it d o e s not h ave; a nd t h e w ay is l e ft open f o r an
a t t e m p t to i n t e r p r e t it in a w a y w h i c h is m o r e fait hf ul both to t he l a r g e r
c o n c e r n s of t h e d i a l o g u e a n d to the d e t a i l of i ts own d e v e l o p m e n t .
B.
T he D r e a m a n d I t s R e f u t a t i o n (2 0 1 c - 2 0 6 b )
As I s a i d a b o v e , one m u s t l ook to t he a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of m e a n ­
i ng a nd t he t h e o r y of m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it in o r d e r to
d e v e l o p a m o r e a d e q u a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c l o s i n g p a g e s of t he T h e ­
aetetus.
In g e n e r a l , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I s h a l l a d v a n c e in w h a t f ol lows
250
tr e a t s the d r e a m and its c r i t i c i s m as specially co n cerned with the c e n ­
t r a l a t o m i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n of t he s e n t e n c e a s a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s ; a n d
t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of t he s u b s e q u e n t t h r e e s e n s e s of l og os t h e n e x p l o r e s
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of findi ng r o o m w i t h i n t h e a t o m i s t i c s c h e m e f o r a n a d e ­
q u a t e c o n c e p t i o n of k n ow l ed g e.
I s a i d a b o v e (pp. 2 3 6 - 2 3 8 ) t h a t t h e d r e a m is a t h e o r y of l o g o s i n
t h e s e n s e of a c c o u n t a nd t h a t it s p e c i a l l y e m p h a s i z e s t he p o i n t t h a t a
t h in g , in o r d e r to be s u b j e c t to l o g o s a n d h e n c e to k n o w l e d g e , m u s t be
complex.
How c a n t h is u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t he d r e a m , w h i c h e v i d e n t l y
m a k e s i t p r i m a r i l y a t h e o r y a b o u t k n o w l e d g e , be s q u a r e d w i t h t h e v i e w
t h a t t h e d r e a m a nd i ts c r i t i c i s m a r e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a t o m i s t i c
c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e s e n t e n c e ?
It is t r u e , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h e s a m e w o r d
" l o g o s " c o v e r s bot h " s e n t e n c e " (and " s t a t e m e n t " ) a nd " a c c o u n t , " b ut by
i t s e l f t h i s f a c t p r o v e s no t hi ng , s i n c e in c o n t e x t t h e w o r d c a n o b v i o u s l y
b e a r one m e a n i n g to t h e e x c l u s i o n of t he o t h e r , a n d in t h e c o n t e x t of t he
f i n a l s e c t i o n of t he d i a l o g u e " a c c o u n t " is c e r t a i n l y a t l e a s t i t s d o m i n a n t
sense.
W h e r e in t h e d r e a m is a ny t h e o r y a bou t s t a t e m e n t to be fo u n d ?
R y le a p p a r e n t l y t h ou g ht t h a t i n t he d r e a m l o g o s a c t u a l l y m e a n t
9
s ta te m e n t or sentence.
He t o o k t h e d r e a m , in s a y i n g t h a t k n o w l e d g e
m u s t be of a c o m p l e x o b j e c t w h i c h h a s a l o g o s , to be a d o p t i n g t h e v i ew
t h a t w h a t is k n o w a b l e i s t h e s a m e t hi ng a s w h a t i s s t a t a b l e .
According
t o Ryl e, P l a t o i s h e r e n o t i c i n g t h a t k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e s f o r i t s e x p r e s ­
s i o n a c o m p l e t e s e n t e n c e , w h i c h i s a c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e of e l e m e n t s a n d
n ot t h e s a m e a s , o r r e d u c i b l e to, a m e r e n a m e .
K n o w l e d g e i s of t r u t h s
o r f a c t s , w h i c h a r e c o m p l e x , a n d n e v e r of s i n g l e o b j e c t s ; o b j e c t s a r e
251
n a m e d , f a c t s a r e s t a t e d , a nd k n o w l e d g e is i n v a r i a b l y of t h e l a t t e r .
T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s u g g e s t i v e a s it i s, c a n n o t , I t hi nk,
be r i g h t .
F o r t h e g e n e r a l t h e s i s b e in g i n t r o d u c e d by t h e d r e a m is
q u i t e c l e a r l y (cf. 202c 2 - 5 ) t he view t h a t to know i n v o l v e s giving an
e x p l a n a t i o n , a nd t h o ug h t he d r e a m g oe s on to a s s e r t t h a t nothing c a n
h a v e an e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n of it w h i c h is not c o m p l e x , it d oe s not s a y
t h a t n ot hi ng c a n be known e x c e p t t r u t h s o r p r o p o s i t i o n s o r s t a t e m e n t s .
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n , in f a c t , of t h e t h e o r y of e l e m e n t s a nd c o m p l e x e s i s
t h a t o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s (e. g. , T h e a e t e t u s , a wa go n) a r e the
t h i n g s t h a t a r e kn o wn (201 e 1 - 2 ), a nd t ho ug h t h e t h e o r y w i s h e s to t hi nk
of t h e s e a s c o m p l e x , it d o e s not s e e m to hold t h a t knowing t h e m is t he
s a m e a s knowing s o m e f a c t .
It do e s not s e e m p o s s i b l e , t he n, to i n t e r ­
p r e t t h e d r e a m 1s c e n t r a l c o n t e n t i o n a s t he g e n e r a l d o c t r i n e t h a t t r u t h s
o r f a c t s a r e t he o b j e c t s of k n o wl e dg e ; and in a r g u i n g t h a t a n y t hi n g k n ow a b l e m u s t be c o m p l e x b e c a u s e it m u s t h a v e a l o g o s , t he d r e a m is not
d i r e c t l y e xpoundi ng a d o c t r i n e a b o u t s t a t e m e n t s .
But t h o u gh t he d r e a m t h e o r y is not a s a w h o l e a t h e o r y a b ou t
s t a t e m e n t s , I t h i nk it c o n t a i n s one.
T h e m a i n t h e s i s u r g e d in t he
d r e a m , a s I h a v e s a i d , is t h a t k nowi ng i n v o l v e s a n a c c o u n t a nd t h a t ,
s i n c e giving a n a c c o u n t is a c o m p l e x a c t i v i t y , nothing c a n be known
w h i c h d o e s not h av e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o m p l e x i t y .
a sh arp line between
T h e e f f ec t i s to d r a w
a n d k n o wl e dg e , on t he g r o u n d
t h a t k n o w l e dg e i n v o l v e s a n a r t i c u l a t i o n w h i c h p l a c e s it a t a n e n t i r e l y
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l f r o m t he s i m p l e " r i g h t i d e a " wh i c h , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y
r e m a r k e d , s e e m s to a m o u n t to no m o r e t h a n t he a b i l i t y to r e c o g n i z e .
252
T h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , a s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n a m e a n d a s e n ­
tence or proposition:
a s e n t e n c e , b e c a u s e it a s s e r t s s o m e t h i n g , is a
c o m p l e x e x p r e s s i o n , by c o n t r a s t w i t h a s i n g l e n a m e , w h i c h p e r f o r m s a
sim p le designating function.
I b eli ev e that the d r e a m t h e o r y , as P l a t o
s e t s it out in t h e T h e a e t e t u s , t a k e s n o t e of t h i s p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n k no wi ng
a n d s a y i n g , on t h e one h a nd, a n d n a m i n g a n d r e c o g n i z i n g on t h e o t h e r ;
a n d t h e c o n c e p t i o n of c o m p l e x i t y w h i c h t h e d r e a m o p e r a t e s w i t h , a nd
w h i c h a t t r a c t s t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n of P l a t o * s i n t e r e s t in t h e w h o l e t h e o r y ,
i s p r e c i s e l y t h e n ot i o n of c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d in t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y
w h i c h w e fou nd b e d e v i l l i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f e a r l i e r i n t h e
dialogue.
T h e r e f o r e , in t h e s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m of t h e d r e a m * s c o n ­
c e p t i o n of c o m p l e x i t y , w h e r e i t i s s h ow n t h a t on a t o m i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s
i t c a n n o t be m a i n t a i n e d t h a t only c o m p l e x e s a r e k n o w a b l e , t h e c o r r e s ­
p o n d i ng t h e s i s a b o u t t h e c o m p l e x i t y of s t a t e m e n t s i s a l s o u n d e r i m p l i c i t
examination.
T h e a c c o u n t of t h e c o m p l e x i t y of k n o w l e d g e a n d t h a t of
t h e c o m p l e x i t y of s t a t e m e n t s t a n d o r f a l l t o g e t h e r .
T h e t wo t h e o r i e s a r e c o n n e c t e d i n t h e d r e a m by m e a n s of t h e
a m b i g u i t y of t h e k ey w o r d l o g o s , w h i c h m e a n s b ot h " s t a t e m e n t " a n d
"account," "explanation," "definition."
T h e p a s s a g e e x po u n d i n g t h e
d r e a m r e a d s a s f o l lo w s (201 e 2 - 2 0 2 b 5):
E a c h [ s i m p l e e l e m e n t ] j u s t by i t s e l f it is p o s s i b l e only to n a m e ,
a n d i t is n o t p o s s i b l e to s a y a n y t h i n g e l s e a b o u t it, n e i t h e r t h a t it
is n o r t h a t it is_ n o t : f o r t h a t w o u l d a l r e a d y a d d be i ng o r n ot b e i n g
t o i t a n d one ou g ht n o t to b r i n g i n a n y t h i n g e x t r a , if one i s to s a y
t h a t one i t s e l f a l o n e . I n d e e d , one ought n ot e v e n to b r i n g in " t h a t
o n e " n o r " i t s e l f " n o r " e a c h " n o r " a l o n e " n o r " t h i s one " n o r m a n y
o t h e r s u c h t h i n g s : f o r t h e s e r u n a b o u t a nd g e t a p p l i e d to e v e r y ­
t h i ng , a n d a r e d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s f r o m ' t h o s e t o w h i c h t h e y a r e a p ­
p l i e d , b ut [a s i m p l e ] ought, if i t w e r e p o s s i b l e f o r i t to b e s a i d
253
(A G
- ' j \) a n d it h ad i ts own p r o p e r l o g o s , to be s a i d
(
i) w i t h o u t a l l t h e o t h e r s . But in f a c t it is i m p o s s i b l e
f o r any of t h e s i m p l e s to be s a i d
&*\\/c\ i ) w i t h a l o g o s : t hey
c a n only be n a m e d , f o r t h e y h av e only a n a m e . B ut a s f o r t he c o m ­
p l e x e s m a d e up of t h e m , j u s t a s t he y Lthe s i m p l e s ] fit t o g e t h e r to
f o r m t h e m [the c o m p l e x e s ] , so a l s o t h e i r n a m e s j o i n e d t o g e t h e r
c o n s t i t u t e a l o g o s : f o r t h e j o i n i ng t o g e t h e r of n a m e s is j u s t w h a t
a l o g os i s .
Now m u c h i n t h i s p a s s a g e is o b s c u r e .
But it s e e m s c l e a r t h a t
s o m e t h i n g s a r e s a i d not to be s u s c e p t i b l e of any a c c o u n t , on t he g r o u n d
t h a t t he y h a v e no p r o p e r p a r t s .
An a c c o u n t , o r
>
\ t
Aoyo* ,
^
t her\ c o n t a i n s a r e f e r e n c e to e a c h of t he p r o p e r p a r t s of a th in g, a n d m e n ­
t i o n s n o th i ng o u t s i d e i t.
(It i s u n c l e a r h e r e , a nd, i n de e d, t h r o u g h t he
whole subsequent discu ssio n , ^
w h a t f o r m t h is lo go s t a k e s :
Q, R, S, T " o r j u s t MQ, R, S, T " ?
is it " P is
But t h a t the p r o p e r l og o s of a thing
m e n t i o n s e a c h p a r t is c l e a r enough. ) T h e t h e o r y is t h us t h a t one knows
a t hi ng w h e n he c a n n a m e i t s s m a l l e s t p a r t s , a n d t h a t a n y t hi n g w h i c h
l a c k s p a r t s c a n n o t be known.
Su ch a s i m p l e o b j e c t c a n be n a m e d , but
it is no t s u b j e c t to t h e kind of a r t i c u l a t i o n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t he o b ­
j e c t s of k n o w l e d g e .
O t h e r o b j e c t s , t he c o m p l e x e s o r
a r e t h o u g h t to be k n o w a b l e j u s t on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t hey c o n t a i n a p l u r a l i t y
of s i m p l e p a r t s .
S i m p l e s a n d c o m p l e x e s d i f f e r in only t h i s one r e s p e c t .
i
But t h e s o r t of l i s t w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s a thi ng s
^
^
0 IKQ.1OS
v
/
is not m e r e l y a n a c c o u n t o r de fi ni ti on ; it is a l s o , a s t he l a s t s e n t e n c e
of t he p a s s a g e j u s t t r a n s l a t e d i m p l i e s , a s t a t e m e n t .
o f l og o s a s
o-vjJla.IT A OKvy
OVOja/tvOV'
F o r t he d e fi ni t i on
w h i c h is h e r e a p p e a l e d to, o c ­
c u r s in a n u m b e r of p l a c e s in P l a t o , in w h i c h it u n i f o r m l y m e a n s
"statem ent."^
So h e r e t h e l o g o s in w h i c h a c o m p l e x t hi ng is a n a l y z e d ,
and k n o w l e d g e of it d i s p l a y e d , i s a l s o a s t a t e m e n t , s i n c e in it s e v e r a l
254
n a m e s a r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r a n d s t a t e m e n t c o n s i s t s p r e c i s e l y in t h e c o n ­
j u n c t i o n of s e v e r a l n a m e s .
It m a y be h a r d to b e l i e v e t h a t P l a t o s h o u ld
r e a l l y i n t e n d in 202 b 2 - 5 to be s a y i n g t h a t the l i s t of t h e p a r t s of a t hi ng
c o n s t i t u t e s a s t a t e m e n t , but, a s I h a v e a r g u e d a b o v e , bo th t he C r a t y l u s
a n d t h e T h e a e t e t u s i t s e l f , in t h e d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f , do in f a c t
r e g a r d a s e n t e n c e a s no m o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s ; a nd t h e r e f o r e
to d e f i n e o r g i ve a n a c c o u n t of a t hi ng by n a m i n g i ts p a r t s in s u c c e s s i o n
m e e ts the r e q u i r e m e n t s for stating something.
T h a t t h e a c c o u n t of a c o m p l e x t h i ng i s a s t a t e m e n t is p e r h a p s a l s o
i m p l i e d by w h a t i s s a i d e a r l i e r in t h e p a s s a g e .
F o r at s e v e r a l points,
P l a t o m e n t i o n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o r i m p o s s i b i l i t y of " s a y i n g " an o b j e c t in
a l o g o s (a 2, 7, 8; b 1), a n d t h i s c u r i o u s m o d e of e x p r e s s i o n m a y r e f l e c t
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d r e a m t h e o r y t h i n k s of t he l o g o s o r a c c o u n t of a th in g,
w h i c h is t h e p r i m a r y t o p i c of d i s c u s s i o n , a s a l s o a s t a t e m e n t .
F o r if
a n a c c o u n t i s a s t a t e m e n t , t h e a c c o u n t of a t hing i s no t u n n a t u r a l l y
d e s c r i b e d a s " s a y i n g " it, w h i l e a t h i n g w h i c h h a s no p a r t s a nd t h e r e f o r e
l a c k s a n a c c o u n t i s n a t u r a l l y s a i d to be only n a m a b l e a n d not " s a y a b l e . "
Of c o u r s e , t h i s u s e of
the fact that
A c-'^'V
a n d 6- ^ i V
m i g h t be due m e r e l y to
i s *he v e r b c o g n a t e t o A o ' j o S }
e v e n t h o u g h in
c o m m o n u s a g e it c o r r e s p o n d s t o A ovjq S in t h e s e n s e of s t a t e m e n t , it
c o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e u s e d to m e a n no m o r e t h a n " g i v e a n a c c o u n t of" in
a c o n t e x t w h e r e A o j o$
m e a n t a c c o u n t only.
But in v i e w of t h e i n t r o ­
d u c t i o n of l o g o s in t h e s e n s e of s t a t e m e n t a t b 2 - 5 it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e
A
say or state. "
I
and
)
a b o v e in t h e i r u s u a l s e n s e ,
to
255
It s e e m s to m e , t h e n, t h a t the d r e a m t h e o r y , a s P l a t o p r e s e n t s
it, d o e s c o n t a i n not only a t h e o r y of l ogos o r a c c o u n t but a l s o a vie w of
l o g o s o r s t a t e m e n t ; f o r it a s s u m e s t h a t e v e r y a c c o u n t is a s t a t e m e n t on
t h e g r o u n d t h a t a n a c c o u n t c o n s i s t s of a c o n j u nc t i o n of n a m e s .
It s h o u l d
be o b s e r v e d t h a t I h a v e not, a s C o r n f o r d do e s (P T K , p. 145), a s s e r t e d
t h e c o n v e r s e , n a m e l y , t h a t t he t h e o r y holds e v e r y s t a t e m e n t to be a n
a c c o u n t (or p a r t of a n a c c o u n t ) in th e s e n s e i n t r o d u c e d in the d r e a m .
W h e t h e r t he d r e a m a d o p t s t he vi ew, w h ic h a p p e a r s in t he P a r m e n i d e s
(142b 5 - d 5), t h a t to d e s c r i b e a t hing is to n a m e s o m e of i ts p a r t s ,
s e e m s t o m e not d e c i d a b l e on t he b a s i s of w h a t P l a t o t e l l s us a bo u t t he
theory.
Al l one m a y r e a s o n a b l y a t t r i b u t e to it is t he c o n c e p t i o n of a
s t a t e m e n t a s a c o m b i n a t i o n of n a m e s - - w h e t h e r t he n a m e s n a m e p a r t s
of t h e s a m e t hi ng o r not.
F r o m w h a t P l a t o s a y s , w e a r e j u s t i f i e d in
i n f e r r i n g only t h a t t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h a r e a l s o a c c o u n t s r e s t r i c t
t h e m s e l v e s to n a m i n g p a r t s of a s i n g l e t hing.
Bu t t h a t t h e d r e a m a s s e r t s ev e n t he l e s s e r t h e s i s is a v e r y
i m p o r t a n t f ac t.
F o r in holdi ng t h a t a c c o u n t s a r e s t a t e m e n t s t he d r e a m
t h e o r y g i v e s to s t a t e m e n t s c o m p l e x i t y of j u s t t h e s a m e t y pe a s i t a t t r i ­
b u t e s t o t h e c o m p l e x o b j e c t s w h i c h it h olds to be k no wa b le , a n d to t he
a c c o u n t s in w h i c h s u c h k n o w l e d g e i s ex hi b it ed .
As I have a lread y said,
a n d a s S o c r a t e s 1 c r i t i c i s m of t h e d r e a m b r i n g s out q u i t e c l e a r l y , t he
t h e o r y of c o m p l e x i t y b e in g a c c e p t e d i n t h e d r e a m is a t o m i s t i c in c h a r ­
a c t e r ; i n c r i t i c i z i n g t h e d r e a m ’s c o n c e p t i o n of c o m p l e x i t y S o c r a t e s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c r i t i c i z e s t he a t o m i s t i c vi e w of s t a t e m e n t .
H ere lies
t he c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l a s t p a r t of t he d i a l o g u e a n d t he d i s c u s s i o n
of f a l s e b e li e f.
256
S o c r a t e s * c r i t i c i s m p o i n t s out a n i n c o h e r e n c e in t h e t h e o r y of
the d r e a m .
T h e d r e a m h a s w i s h e d to i n s i s t t h a t k n o w l e d g e m u s t be
c o m p l e x , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h a t it m u s t h a v e a c o m p l e x o b j e c t .
But t h e
a c c o u n t of c o m p l e x i t y to w h i c h t h e d r e a m is c o m m i t t e d p r e v e n t s it,
S o c r a t e s a r g u e s , f r o m m a k i n g out t h i s c l a i m .
E i t h e r t h e a c c o u n t of
s i m p l e s a n d c o m p l e x e s m u s t be m o d i f i e d , o r e l s e it m u s t be g r a n t e d
t h a t s i m p l e s a r e k n o w a b l e e v e n t h o u g h t h e y c a n h a v e no a c c o u n t g i v e n
of t h e m .
L i k e w i s e , e i t h e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s e n t e n c e s to t h e i r c o n ­
s t i t u e n t w o r d s m u s t be c o n c e i v e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e w a y t h e d r e a m
conceives them, or else
it c a n n o t be m a i n t a i n e d t h a t s e n t e n c e s , a s
c o m p l e x e n t i t i e s , a r e on a b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l f r o m s i n g l e w o r d s .
S o c r a t e s * c r i t i c i s m of t h e d r e a m t h e o r y t h u s p o s e s a d i l e m m a w h i c h
g o e s to t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i ng an a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of
language.
S o c r a t e s h a s , i n f a c t , t wo d i f f e r e n t but r e l a t e d a r g u m e n t s
ag a in st the d r e a m th eory.
T h e f i r s t , w h i c h is a n n o u n c e d a t t h e v e r y
o u t s e t of h is c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n ( 2 02 e 3 - 2 0 3 a 2) b ut n ot a c t u a l l y p r o ­
d u c e d u n t i l a f t e r t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t i s fully e x po u n d e d ( 2 0 6 a - b ) ,
a r g u e s t h a t t h e v e r y e x a m p l e of l e t t e r a n d s y l l a b l e , i n t e r m s of w h i c h
t h e d o c t r i n e of s i m p l i c i t y a nd c o m p l e x i t y w a s f r a m e d , s h o w s t h e e r r o r
of ho ld in g c o m p l e x e s to be, but s i m p l e s not to be, k n o w a b l e .
The s e c ­
ond, a n d m o r e a m b i t i o u s , a r g u m e n t ( 2 0 3 a - 2 0 5 e ) a t t e m p t s to r e c o m ­
m e n d t h i s s a m e m o r a l by p o i n t i n g out t h e i n s u f f i c i e n c y of t h e d r e a m * s
c o n c e p t i o n of c o m p l e x i t y to s u p p o r t a ny d o c t r i n e to t h e e f f ec t t h a t
k n o w l e d g e is of c o m p l e x e s e x c l u s i v e l y a n d not a l s o of s i m p l e e l e m e n t s .
257
T o g e t h e r t h e two a r g u m e n t s show t h a t b ot h S o c r a t e s a n d the i m a g i n e d
t h e o r i s t of the d r e a m c o n t i n u e to a c c e p t a n a t o m i s t i c d o c t r i n e of l a n ­
g u a g e a nd r e a l i t y , a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t t he c o n s e q u e n t t h e s i s
t h a t t h e r e i s k n o w l e d g e of s i m p l e o b j e c t s w h i c h c a n only be n a m e d and
r e f e r r e d to.
K n o w l e d ge m u s t u l t i m a t e l y , on t h i s t h e o r y , be a s p e c i e s
of g e t t i n g a thi ng i nt o m i n d , of r e c o g n i t i o n o r c o r r e c t m e n t a l r e f e r e n c e .
T he l o n g e r a r g u m e n t p o s e s a d i l e m m a , on n e i t h e r h o r n of w h i c h
c a n t he d r e a m t h e o r i s t c o m e c o m f o r t a b l y to r e s t .
((?\J
If t he c o m p l e x
is j u s t t h e s a m e a s a l l it s e l e m e n t s (as w e ha v e s e e n a
s e n t e n c e h a s b e e n t a k e n to be a c o l l e c t i o n of n a m e s ) , t h e n knowing t he
c o m p l e x m u s t be n ot hi ng m o r e o r l e s s
t h a n knowing a l l i ts e l e m e n t s .
An d to know al l t he m e m b e r s of a c e r t a i n g r o u p is t he s a m e a s knowing
e a c h s e v e r a l l y , so t h a t if a c o m p l e x is a s u m of e l e m e n t s , k n o w l ed ge
of a c o m p l e x r e q u i r e s k n o w l e d g e of e a c h of t he e l e m e n t s a s w e l l .
On
t h i s c o n c e p t i o n of a c o m p l e x , t h e n , t h e d r e a m t h e o r i s t s t h e s i s c a n no t
be d e f en de d.
But if, S o c r a t e s c o n t i n u e s
t h e s a m e a s t h e s u m of i t s e l e m e n t s it m u s t be s o m e t h i n g e l s e , d i f f e r ­
ent f r o m t he e l e m e n t s , w h i c h c o m e s into b ei ng w h e n t hey a r e c o l l e c t e d
to gether.
T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , if t h e s e n t e n c e " S o c r a t e s is fl yi ng" d oe s
not m e a n w h a t " S o c r a t e s " a n d " f l yi n g " t a k e n t o g e t h e r m e a n , it m u s t be
t h o u gh t of a s m e a n i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e - - n o t S o c r a t e s a nd flying o r t h e i r
c o m b i n a t i o n , but s o m e t h i n g new a n d d i f f e r e n t , not m e a n t by e i t h e r o r
bot h of t h e s e .
T h e m e a n i n g of a s e n t e n c e , if it is not i d e n t i c a l w i t h the
s u m of t he m e a n i n g s of it s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s , m u s t be s o m e t h i n g q u i t e
258
u n r e l a t e d to t he c o n s t i t u e n t n a m e s a nd t h e i r m e a n i n g s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t
c o m e s to be i n d i c a t e d w h e n t h e n a m e s a r e c o n j o i n e d but n ot by_ t h e c o n ­
joined n a m e s.
On t h i s v i ew a < P o A X ^
h a s no p a r t s ; t h e t h i n g
d e s i g n a t e d by t h e w o r d " c o m p l e x " is s o m e t h i n g e l s e t h a n t h e e l e m e n t s ,
w h i c h c o m e s int o be i ng w h e n t h e y a r e pu t t o g e t h e r .
12
B u t if t h e c o m ­
p l e x h a s no p a r t s , i t m u s t be a s s i m p l e a s t he e l e m e n t s w e a r e now
f o r b i d d e n to s a y it c o n s i s t s of.
And if t h i s v i e w of c o m p l e x a n d e l e m e n t
i s a d o p t e d it t u r n s out s t r a i g h t w a y t h a t in s a y i n g t h a t a c o m p l e x is k n o w able the d r e a m th e o r i s t has a s s e r t e d that something s im p le is knowable;
c o m p l e x e s end up b e i n g r e a l l y s i m p l e s .
T h u s in w h i c h e v e r of t h e s e two w a y s one t h i n k s of a c o m p l e x ,
c o m p l e x e s a r e no m o r e k n o w a b l e t h a n s i m p l e e l e m e n t s , a n d t h e d r e a m
t h e o r i s t * s a t t e m p t to a s s o c i a t e k n o w l e d g e w i t h c o m p l e x i t y f a i l s .
In
e f f e c t w h a t S o c r a t e s d o e s in t h i s a r g u m e n t i s to p r e s e n t a s e x h a u s t i v e
a l t e r n a t i v e s t wo c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e r e l a t i o n of c o m p l e x to e l e m e n t o r
w h o l e to p a r t , s h o w i n g t h a t on e i t h e r vi ew t h e t h e o r i s t * s c o n t e n t i o n c a n ­
not be defended.
T h e two c o n c e p t i o n s in q u e s t i o n a r e r e m i n i s c e n t of a n
a r g u m e n t in t h e P a r m e n i d e s ( 1 4 5 a - e ) , w h e r e t h e One, w h i c h h a s b e e n
s h o w n t o b e i n f i n i t e l y p l u r a l a s w e l l a s s i n g l e , i s d e c l a r e d to be a w h o l e
of p a r t s .
T h e One i s , t h e n , q u a p l u r a l , a l o t of p a r t s , a n d a l s o a w h o l e
of p a r t s .
Bu t a w h o l e i s t h a t w h i c h c o n t a i n s o r e n c o m p a s s e s a l o t of
p a r t s , s o t h a t q u a w h o l e t h e O n e is o u t s i d e a l l t h e p a r t s a n d e a c h of
t h e m ; and q u a a l l t h e p a r t s t h e One i s c o n t a i n e d by t h e w h o l e .
H e n c e it
i s a g r e e d t h a t t h e One i s b ot h i n i t s e l f a n d in s o m e t h i n g e l s e , a n d o t h e r
c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n c l u s i o n s f ol low.
It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e f u t a t i o n of t h e
259
d r e a m p r e s e n t s t h e s e tw o c o n c e p ti o n s of th e r e l a t i o n of a th in g to i t s
p a r t s a s e x h a u s tiv e a l t e r n a t i v e s , a r g u i n g th a t w h e t h e r a (T U A
is
a l l its p a r t s o r s o m e t h i n g a s it w e r e s u r r o u n d i n g th e p a r t s , it is not in
any c a s e an e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t ty p e of th in g f r o m th e p a r t s t h e m s e l v e s .
B ut th o u g h th e T h e a e t e t u s d o e s s e e m to be u s in g th e P a r m e n i d e s 1
tw o c o n c e p t i o n s , it p r e s e n t s t h e m r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y .
In th e P a r m e n i d e s
th e w h o le is s a i d to be s o m e t h i n g e l s e b e s i d e s th e p a r t s , w h ic h h as
p a r t s by c o n ta in in g o r s u r r o u n d i n g th e m ; a n d a w h o le is not ex vi t e r m i n i
i d e n t i c a l w ith a ll i ts p a r t s .
Of c o u r s e b e c a u s e th e O ne is s u c c e s s i v e l y
id e n t i f i e d w ith th e w h o le a n d w ith th e s u m of it s p a r t s , th e w h o le w ill
t u r n out i d e n t i c a l w ith , a s w e ll a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m , a l l th e p a r t s .
B u t th e
tw o c o n c e p tio n s of w h o le a nd s u m of p a r t s a r e c a r e f u l l y k e p t d i s t i n c t .
In th e T h e a e t e t u s , h o w e v e r , t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is d e l i b e r a t e l y a nd f o r c e ­
fu lly d is a llo w e d .
S o c r a t e s a r g u e s v e r y h a r d (204a 7 - 2 0 5 a 7), o v e r
T h e a e t e t u s 1 o b j e c t i o n s , th a t w h o le of p a r t s a n d s u m of p a r t s a r e th e
s a m e th in g ; a n d w h e r e a s th e P a r m e n i d e s d e f in e s a w h o le a s w h a t s u r ­
r o u n d s a n d c o n ta in s th e p a r t s , w h en th e T h e a e t e t u s p r e s s e s th e c o n c e p ­
tio n of Gvk\(\{t>sv\ a s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e p a r t s , it g o e s out of
i t s w a y to den y t h a t s u c h a
is a w h o l e .
In o t h e r w o r d s ,
w h e r e th e P a r m e n i d e s u s e s the w o r d " w h o le " a s th e n a m e of th e a d d i ­
tio n a l th in g c o n ta in in g th e p a r t s , th e T h e a e t e t u s r e j e c t s th is u s a g e ,
s u b s t i t u t i n g i n s t e a d th e s u m of th e p a r t s a s w h a t " w h o le " n a m e s .
The
f a c t t h a t th e u s a g e of th e w o r d " w h o l e " is th u s r e v e r s e d in th e T h e a e t e ­
tu s m i g h t be t a k e n to th r o w d o u b t on th e id e a th a t th e T h e a e t e t u s h a s
th e s a m e c o n c e p tio n of th e r e l a t i o n of a th in g to i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s a s th e
P a r m e n id e s p a s s a g e con tain s.
260
In any e v e n t th e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n th e tw o p a s s a g e s d o e s not
a f f e c t one c h ie f p o in t of s i m i l a r i t y .
th e p a r t s - - t h e O ne, a c o m p le x (
In bo th p a s s a g e s th e th in g t h a t h a s
A
) ----- c a n be th o u g h t of in e i t h e r
of two w a y s , a s i d e n t i c a l w it h a l l th e p a r t s o r a s s o m e th in g e l s e o u t s i d e
of a n d d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e p a r t s .
13
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e two d i s ­
c u s s i o n s c o n c e r n s only w h i c h of t h e s e tw o c o n c e p ti o n s is th e c o n c e p t i o n
of th e th in g (<ToAAa (3/Vj
th e One) a s a w h o le :
in th e P a r m e n i d e s th e
w h o le is th e th in g c o n c e i v e d a s o u t s i d e th e p a r t s , w h e r e a s in th e T h e a e ­
t e t u s th e w h o le i s th e th in g c o n c e i v e d a s i d e n t i c a l w ith th e p a r t s .
And
it i s , in f a c t , e a s y to s e e w hy th e T h e a e t e t u s d e p a r t s f r o m th e P a r ­
m e n i d e s 1 u s a g e , w h e n one r e f l e c t s t h a t in th e T h e a e t e t u s th e ^ r u A M ^
a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e p a r t s is go ing to be found to be s o m e t h i n g p a r t l e s s a n d t h e r e f o r e s i m p l e (and i n d e e d m u s t be so found if th e r e f u t a t i o n
of th e d r e a m t h e o r y i s to be s u c c e s s f u l ) ; f o r to c a l l th e <S'uAAc^/'Vj
as
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e p a r t s a w h o le w o u ld s i m p l y i n v i te th e o b j e c t i o n t h a t a
w h o le m u s t be a w h o le of p a r t s , so t h a t if th e a l t e r n a t i v e to t h in k in g of
a c o m p l e x a s a s u m of p a r t s is to th in k of it a s a w h o le , t h e n on th e
s e c o n d c o n c e p t i o n to know a c o m p l e x is n e i t h e r th e s a m e a s k n ow ing i t s
s e v e r a l s i m p l e p a r t s n o r is it to know s o m e t h i n g in i t s e l f s i m p l e a n d
p artless.
In v ie w of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of w h o le a n d p a r t , t h e r e f o r e , S o c ­
r a t e s m u s t r e f u s e to d i s t i n g u i s h w h o le f r o m s u m , if he is to s u c c e e d in
r e d u c i n g k n o w le d g e of a c o m p l e x to k n o w le d g e of one o r m o r e s i m p l e s .
B ut th o u g h i t is e a s y to u n d e r s t a n d w hy S o c r a t e s s h o u ld w a n t to
r e f u s e to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a w h o le a n d a s u m of p a r t s , it is q u e s t i o n ­
a b l e w h e t h e r th e r e f u s a l c a n be s u p p o r t e d by good r e a s o n s .
The a rg u m e n t
261
S o c r a t e s a c t u a l l y g iv e s is e x t r e m e l y s i m p l e .
T a k in g a s h is (not v e r y
f e l i c i t o u s ) e x a m p l e th e n u m b e r s ix , he a r g u e s t h a t six is th e s u m of its
c o n s t i t u e n t u n i t s , a n d th a t to ta lk a b o u t a l l th e u n its is th e s a m e th in g
a s ta lk in g a b o u t th e s u m of six i t s e l f .
p a r t s (204e 2 ).
H e n c e th e s u m is m a d e up of its
T h e r e f o r e if, a s T h e a e t e t u s h a s s u g g e s t e d (204b 2 - 3 ) ,
a w h o le is not j u s t i d e n t i c a l w ith th e s u m of its p a r t s , a w h o le m u s t not
be m a d e up of its p a r t s a t a ll.
But a p a r t is a lw a y s p a r t of a w h o le , so
t h a t it s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e to d en y t h a t a w h o le is m a d e up of p a r t s ; a n d ,
f u r t h e r m o r e , a n y th in g th a t l o s e s one of i t s p a r t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c e a s e s
to be b o th th e w h o le th in g it w a s a nd th e s u m th a t it w a s .
H e n c e w h o le
a n d s u m s e e m n o t to be d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p ti o n s a f t e r a l l (205a 7).
T h e s e a r e , in f a c t , not v e r y good r e a s o n s f o r id e n tify in g th e
c o n c e p tio n of a w h o le w i th t h a t of a s u m , an d it is e a s y to s y m p a t h i z e
w ith T h e a e t e t u s 1 i n c l i n a t i o n to b alk a t th e c o n f la tio n .
It d o e s not follo w
th a t any w h o le is th e s a m e a s a m e r e s u m j u s t b e c a u s e it is (in a w ay)
m a d e up of i t s p a r t s .
F o r in a s u m e a c h p a r t c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e t o t a l
n o th in g m o r e t h a n w h a t it in i s o l a t i o n a l r e a d y c o n ta in e d ; its fu n c tio n in
th e to t a l is p r e c i s e l y i t s f u n c tio n in is o l a t i o n .
B ut in s u c h a n o r d e r e d
w h o le a s a s e n t e n c e o r a s y l l a b l e , e ve n th o u g h it is m a d e up of i ts e l e ­
m e n t s , th e e l e m e n t s do n o t j u s t p e r f o r m t h e jo b w h ic h th e y p e r f o r m
w h e n ta k e n by t h e m s e l v e s .
T h u s if " r u n s " ta k e n a lo n e i n d i c a t e s a n
a c tio n , th e s a m e w o r d in th e s e n t e n c e " J o n e s r u n s " d o e s n o t only i n d i ­
c a t e a n a c t io n ; it a l s o d e s c r i b e s , o r a p p l i e s to, J o n e s .
H ence even
th o u g h th e w h o l e s e n t e n c e is m a d e up of two p a r t s , " J o n e s " a n d " r u n s , "
a n d e ve n th o u g h if on e of t h e s e w e r e t a k e n a w a y t h e r e w o uld no l o n g e r
262
b e th e w h o le s e n t e n c e , i t s t i l l d o e s no t fo llow t h a t t h e w h o le i s j u s t t h e
s u m of its p a r t s .
T h e a e t e t u s w a n t s , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , to m a i n t a i n t h a t
a w h o le is n ot i d e n t i c a l w i t h a s u m , b u t is r a t h e r s o m e t h i n g w h i c h
a r i s e s w h e n th e p a r t s a r e p u t t o g e t h e r , a n d w h i c h is n e i t h e r s i m p l y
r e d u c i b l e to th e p a r t s n o r t o t a l l y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e m (204a 8 - 9 ) .
T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s , a s w e s h a l l s e e d i r e c t l y , th a t th e v ie w T h e a e t e ­
t u s is i n c l in e d to t a k e is a t h i r d a l t e r n a t i v e , w h ic h P l a t o h i m s e l f h a d
a l r e a d y e n v i s io n e d in o n e p l a c e in th e P a r m e n i d e s ; a n d th e e m p h a s i s
w i t h w h ic h S o c r a t e s d e n i e s t h i s t h i r d c o n c e p tio n to T h e a e t e t u s is p e r ­
h a p s a s ig n t h a t in P la to * s v ie w t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s S o c r a t e s f o r c e s on
T h e a e t e t u s m u s t b e r e j e c t e d in f a v o r of t h i s o t h e r c o n c e p t i o n of w h o le
and p a rt.
B u t e v e n if th is is so , I th in k it i s c l e a r t h a t th e a t o m i s t i c
t h e o r i e s w ith in w h ic h t h e w h o le d i s c u s s i o n h a s b e e n m o v in g h a v e n o t th e
m e a n s to r e s i s t th e a s s i m i l a t i o n of w h o le to s u m .
If t h e p a r t s of a
c o m p le x a r e j u s t t a k e n in s u c c e s s i o n , s i m p l y a d d e d t o g e t h e r , it is i n ­
d e e d i m p o s s i b l e to s e e how a w h o le c o u ld b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s u m .
S o c r a te s * a r g u m e n t to show th e i d e n ti ty of w h o le a n d s u m i s t h e r e f o r e
r e a s o n a b l e , g iv e n t h e l i m i t s of th e d i s c u s s i o n .
t h e s e c o n d c o n c e p t i o n of a
u AA
H ence w hen he ta k e s
} t h e one c o r r e s p o n d i n g to th e
P a r m e n i d e s * w h o l e - a s - c o n t a i n e r , a n d a r g u e s t h a t on t h i s v ie w a c o m ­
p le x is i t s e l f p a r t l e s s a n d t h e r e f o r e s i m p l e , he is a r g u i n g p e r f e c t l y
fairly .
If th e m e a n i n g of a s e n t e n c e (fo r e x a m p le ) d o e s n o t c o m e p i e c e ­
m e a l , w o r d by w o r d (as t h e c o n c e p t i o n of (TO A
a s a s u m w o u ld
263
im p ly ) , th e n it m u s t c o m e a l l a t o n c e upon th e ju x t a p o s i t i o n of th e w o r d s .
A nd in th a t c a s e th e c o m p le x w i ll be s o m e th in g u n i t a r y and not r e l a t e d
to th e s in g le w o r d s a s w h o le to p a r t s .
But th e p o s s i b i l i t y s t i l l r e m a i n s th a t T h e a e te tu s* d i s i n c l i n a t i o n
to a c c e p t S o c r a te s * d ic h o to m y s h o w s a g r e a t e r s h r e w d n e s s on h is p a r t .
P e r h a p s P l a t o is h e r e in d ic a tin g th a t, th o u g h th e d r e a m t h e o r y h a s not
th e m e a n s of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e m , a w h o le an d a s u m a r e r e a l l y d i f f e r ­
ent, a n d th a t if one a t t e m p t s to s e e how th is is so he w il l d i s c o v e r j u s t
w h e re a to m is m goes w rong.
T h is p o s s i b i l i t y is e n h a n c e d by a c o m p a r i ­
s o n of S o c r a t e s 1 a r g u m e n t in th e T h e a e t e t u s w ith a s e c o n d p a s s a g e of
th e P a r m e n i d e s (1 5 7 b -1 5 8 b ).
In th e T h e a e t e t u s it is s u p p o s e d t h a t if a
(204a 1 -2 ), a n d a s s u c h not a w h o le of p a r t s but a n a l t o g e t h e r new a nd
u n i t a r y ( ^ 0 VO C-iS~6- 1
T (
205d 1 -2) e n t i t y .
ka I
But th e P a r m e n i d e s p a s s a g e , in la n g u a g e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l to t h a t of th e
T h e a e t e t u s , s u p p o s e s t h a t w h e n p a r t s a r e put t o g e t h e r in to a w h o le it is
th e w h o le , w h ic h is in a w a y th e m a n y p a r t s (cf. 157e 4 - 5 ) , w h ic h is
I
y<c-'yov/OS
(157d 8 - e 2).
In o t h e r w o r d s , th e P a r m e n i d e s s e e m s in
th i s p a s s a g e to be r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t a w h o le is p r e c i s e l y not m e r e l y th e
s u m of th e e l e m e n t s , bu t a new un ity w h ic h is not f la tly i d e n t i c a l w ith
t h e m n o r y e t q u i te s e p a r a t e a n d d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e m , a s the T h e a e t e t u s
h ad t r i e d to m a k e th e
•
Of c o u r s e th e P a r m e n i d e s d o e s not
e x p la in how a w h o le is s u c h a u n ity , b u t th e b a r e f a c t th a t it r e c o g n i z e s ,
264
in th is p a s s a g e a t a ny r a t e , th e n e c e s s i t y cf t r e a t i n g a w h o le a s n e i t h e r
a s u m n o r a s s o m e t h i n g u n i t a r y but s e p a r a t e f r o m th e p a r t s , s e e m s to
m e to s u g g e s t th a t by d e n y in g th e d r e a m t h e o r y th is p o s s i b i l i t y P l a t o
m e a n s to be p o in tin g out th e d i r e c t i o n in w h ic h one m u s t b e g in to th in k
in o r d e r to a c h i e v e a c o r r e c t t h e o r y of c o m p le x ity .
A
m u s t in f a c t be a n o r d e r e d w h o le w h ic h is both m a d e up of i t s p a r t s a n d
y e t a new un ity not r e d u c i b l e to th e s u m of th e p a r t s ta k e n s e p a r a t e l y .
T h o u g h P l a t o d o e s no t f i r m l y a t t a i n a n y s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e o r y of c o m p l e x ­
ity in th e T h e a e t e t u s o r P a r m e n i d e s , w h e n in th e S o p h is t ( 2 5 2 d -2 5 3 a )
h e d o e s f in a lly f o r m u l a t e a b e t t e r t h e o r y it is by t a k in g th e P a r m e n i d e s 1
m i d d l e w a y b e t w e e n th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 two a l t e r n a t i v e s .
T h e P a r m e n i d e s , th e n , in one p l a c e s e e m s to a d o p t a t h e o r y of
th e r e l a t i o n of w h o le to p a r t w h ic h , if a p p li e d to th e T h e a e t e t u s * q u e s ­
tio n a b o u t <T*0 AAevj^
and <I~Tu I ^
a n d m a d e f u lly e x p l i c i t , w o u ld
l e a d to r a d i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s in th e a c c o u n t of lo g o s a n d c o m p l e x i t y w ith
w h ic h th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 d r e a m o p e r a t e s
A nd it a p p e a r s t h a t in p o in te d ly
d e n y in g th e d r e a m th is t h i r d w a y of c o n c e iv in g a <T ° A A ^ p ^ ; P l a t o
m e a n s to be i n d ic a tin g bo th t h a t it is not a v a i l a b l e to a n y o n e w h o th in k s
of th e r e l a t i o n s of p a r t to w h o le a n d
S~T o i^(^?O V
to (ToAAgvP'Vj
as
no m o r e th a n a d d i t i v e , a n d t h a t th is i s a f a u lt jn th e d r e a m t h e o r y .
H o w e v e r t h i s m a y be , S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f in th e T h e a e t e t u s a c c e p t s t h e
s a m e a s s u m p t i o n a s th e d r e a m t h e o r i s t , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d
a n d a s h is f u r t h e r a r g u m e n t (206 a - b ) a g a i n s t th e d r e a m t h e o r y s h o w s :
it i s n o t S o c r a t e s 1 p u r p o s e to p o in t t h i s out a s a n i n a d e q u a c y in th e
th eo ry .
He i s , r a t h e r , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e only tw o p o s s i b l e w a y s
265
of c o n c e iv in g th e r e l a t i o n of 0
e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e to know a
*
0
CO ^
one m u s t be a l s o know ing one o r m o r e
t o c*TO i X ^ l t)
a n d th a t on
(w h a t e v e r th a t sh o u ld c o m e to)
CTO I
f t
And w h e t h e r o r
not P l a t o m e a n s us to s e e t h a t th e two a l t e r n a t i v e s do not in f a c t e x h a u s t
th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , th e y do e x h a u s t th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o pen to the d r e a m
t h e o r y , an d t h e r e f o r e S o c r a t e s 1 r e f u t a t i o n is a f a i r one.
H av in g a r g u e d to th is c o n c l u s io n , S o c r a t e s c l i n c h e s his p o in t by
ta k in g up h is p r o m i s e to " t e s t th e l e t t e r s an d s y l l a b l e s " of w o r d s , to
s e e w h e t h e r o r n o t l e a r n i n g o n e 's l e t t e r s c o m e s a b o u t c o n s i s t e n t l y w ith
th e t h e s i s t h a t
» in g e n e r a l c a n be known but not <TTo *^(6-1
If th e d r e a m t h e o r y w e r e c o r r e c t w e sh o u ld only be a b le to know c o m b i ­
n a tio n s of l e t t e r s , an d o u r a p p r e h e n s i o n of s i n g le l e t t e r s sh o u ld n e v e r
a m o u n t to k n o w le d g e .
B ut in f a c t, S o c r a t e s a s s e r t s (206a 5-8), in
l e a r n i n g to w r i t e a n d s p e l l, th e l e a r n e r * s v e r y o b je c t is to b e c o m e
p r o f i c i e n t a t r e c o g n i z i n g a nd d i s c r i m i n a t i n g by sig h t a n d h e a r i n g e a c h
s in g le l e t t e r j u s t by i t s e l f ( OLOTO
aU To
Kcx<T T o v ^
sepa­
r a t i n g it off f r o m th e o t h e r s w ith w h ic h it a p p e a r s in c o m b in a tio n .
K now ing o n e 's l e t t e r s is p r e c i s e l y know ing e a c h l e t t e r ; a n d know ing
c o m b i n a tio n s of l e t t e r s is s i m p l y th e r e s u l t of know ing th e in d i v id u a l
le tte rs.
H e n c e th e k n o w le d g e of l e t t e r s is a m o r e f u n d a m e n ta l i n s t a n c e
of k n o w le d g e t h a n th e k n o w le d g e of th e s y l l a b l e s c o n s t r u c t e d out of
th e m .
T o ju d g e , th e n , f r o m th e c a s e of l e t t e r s a n d s y l l a b l e s , it m u s t
be m e r e jo k in g p a r a d o x to s a y th a t c o m p l e x e s a r e k n o w a b le w h ile s i m ­
p le e l e m e n t s a r e not.
H e r e S o c r a t e s is u n m i s t a k a b l y e n d o r s i n g th e view t h a t a c o m p le x
266
is no m o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n of in d e p e n d e n t p a r t s ; a n d a c c o r d i n g l y he
m a k e s k n o w le d g e of th e p a r t f u n d a m e n t a l to k n o w le d g e of th e w h o le .
It
is i m p o r t a n t to s e e t h a t by k n o w le d g e of th e in d iv id u a l l e t t e r he h a s in
m in d a s o r t of a w a r e n e s s w h i c h in no w a y d e p e n d s u pon k n o w le d g e of i t s
r o l e in c o m b i n a t i o n s :
k n o w le d g e of c o m b i n a t i o n s , in S o c r a t e s 1 v ie w , is
l o g i c a l l y p o s t e r i o r to k n o w le d g e of e l e m e n t s ta k e n j u s t by t h e m s e l v e s .
S in c e s y l l a b l e s a r e only c o l l e c t i o n s of l e t t e r s , no l e t t e r c a n be do in g
a n y th in g in c o m b i n a t i o n w h ic h i t d o e s n o t a l s o do in i ts i s o l a t e d s t a t e ;
h e n c e k n o w le d g e of one*s l e t t e r s c a n s a f e l y be th o u g h t of a s f u lly i n d e ­
p e n d e n t of k n o w le d g e of s y l l a b l e s .
N a t u r a l l y enou gh S o c r a t e s th i n k s of
t h i s k n o w le d g e a s b a s i c a l l y a m a t t e r of r e c o g n i t i o n , of s in g lin g out a n d
c o r r e c t l y n a m in g a so u n d o r w r i t t e n s y m b o l.
I t is w o r t h o b s e r v i n g h e r e th a t in l a t e r d ia lo g u e s t h i s s i m p l e
v iew of l e t t e r s a n d s y l l a b l e s i s c o m p l e t e l y a b a n d o n e d .
L e t t e r s a r e no
l o n g e r th o u g h t of a s s i m p l e e l e m e n t s of s y l l a b l e s , a n d k n o w le d g e of
l e t t e r s is a c c o r d i n g l y n ot a n y k in d of s i m p l e a w a r e n e s s of i s o l a t e d e l e ­
m e n t s of la n g u a g e .
T h u s in th e P h i l e b u s (18c 7) P l a t o a r g u e s t h a t it is
not p o s s i b l e to know an y one l e t t e r w ith o u t kn ow ing t h e m a l l , a n d
P o l i t i c u s 2 7 8 a - c , a s i t s c o n te x t s h o w s ,
14
r e g a r d s th e o c c u r r e n c e of
l e t t e r s in c o m b i n a t i o n not a s a n u n f o r t u n a t e c o n tin g e n c y w h ic h m e r e l y
m a k e s th e t a s k of i s o l a t i n g e a c h l e t t e r a n d g e ttin g a c l e a r v ie w of it
d if f ic u lt to a c c o m p l i s h (cf. T h t . , 2 0 6 a 7), b u t a s th e c r u c i a l a n d e s s e n ­
t i a l f a c t a b o u t w h a t e a c h l e t t e r i£: to l e a r n a l e t t e r is to know w h a t
f u n c tio n s i t p e r f o r m s in s y l l a b l e s a n d w o r d s , a nd t h e r e is no g u a r a n t e e
t h a t k n ow ing a l e t t e r in i s o l a t i o n w il l in v o lv e th e k n o w le d g e of a l l t h e s e
267
f u n c ti o n s .
T h u s th o u g h l e t t e r s a r e th e e l e m e n t s of s y l l a b l e s , a n d P l a t o
c o n t in u e s to s p e a k of kn ow ing t h e s e e l e m e n t s , they a r e no l o n g e r t r e a t e d
a s s i m p l e e n t i t i e s in th e s e n s e of th e T h e a e t e t u s , a n d k n o w le d g e of t h e m
is not th e s i m p l e ty p e of a w a r e n e s s w h ic h th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 a c c o u n t i m p l i e s .
T h e T h e a e t e t u s n o w h e r e e s p o u s e s th is l a t e r v ie w , but w o r k s
e n t i r e l y w ith in th e c o n f in e s of t h e o r i e s b u ilt on th e o p p o s ite a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t l e t t e r s (and o t h e r e l e m e n t s ) a r e a l t o g e t h e r p r i o r to th e s y l l a b l e s
(and o t h e r c o m p l e x e s ) w h ic h a r e m a d e up f r o m t h e m .
H e n c e it i s going
too f a r to s a y , a s P r o f e s s o r R yle s e v e r a l t i m e s h a s c o m e c l o s e to s a y ­
ing, ^
t h a t in th e d r e a m a n d i ts r e f u t a t i o n P l a t o d e f i n i t e l y sh o w s h i m ­
s e l f a w a r e t h a t k n o w le d g e is p r o p o s i t i o n a l o r r e q u i r e s a kin d of c o m ­
p l e x ity w h ic h a s i m p l e o b j e c t t a k e n in i s o l a t i o n d o e s not h a v e .
On th e
o t h e r h a n d th e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d s o m e of th e u n p l e a s a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s of
th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r i e s w e h a v e b e e n c o n f r o n te d w i th in th e l a s t h a lf of
t h e d ia lo g u e a r e so c l e a r l y s e t out in th e d r e a m a n d i ts r e f u t a t i o n t h a t
it is f a i r to s a y t h a t th e w ay is b e in g p r e p a r e d f o r l a t e r p o s i t i v e d o c ­
t r i n e s a lo n g th e l i n e s R y le h a s in d ic a t e d .
B ut if th e d r e a m a n d i ts r e f u ­
t a t i o n p r o v i d e th e n e c e s s a r y food f o r th o u g h t w h ic h w ill, w h e n d i g e s t e d ,
r e s u l t in the e l a b o r a t i o n of th e l a t e r t h e o r i e s , th is is not t h e s a m e a s
r e j e c t i n g old t h e o r i e s in f a v o r of new .
And it d o e s s e e m c l e a r t h a t th e
m o s t t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of th e d r e a m d o e s is to w o r k out th e c o n s e q u e n c e s
of a t o m i s m , w ith o u t m o r e p o s i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s . ^
T h e u p s h o t i s t h a t th e d r e a m t h e o r y c a n n o t h o ld t h a t c o m p l e x e s
only c a n be known.
B e c a u s e it th in k s of th e r e l a t i o n of a w h o le to its
p a r t s a s m e r e l y a d d i t i v e , i t c a n n o t m a r k th e kin d of d i f f e r e n c e it
268
r e q u i r e s b e tw e e n s i m p l e an d c o m p l e x in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n th e c o m p l e x ­
ity of k no w ing a n d i ts o b je c t.
T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t in v o k e d by S o c r a t e s
a g a i n s t t h i s e f f o r t a l s o s h o w s th a t on a s i m i l a r l y a d d i t i v e a t o m i s t i c
c o n c e p tio n of s t a t e m e n t a n d la n g u a g e in g e n e r a l , sa y in g s o m e t h i n g is
only a m a t t e r of n a m in g .
N e i t h e r c a n k n o w le d g e of c o m p le x d i f f e r
e s s e n t i a l l y f r o m k n o w le d g e of s i m p l e s , n o r c a n a s t a t e m e n t d i f f e r f r o m
a n a m e , if th e k in d of a t o m i s m w h ic h w e sa w b e d e v i l l i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n
of f a l s e b e l i e f c o n t i n u e s to be a f f i r m e d .
C.
T h e T h r e e S u b s e q u e n t S e n s e s of L o g o s (2 0 6 c - 2 1 0 b )
T h e r e m a i n d e r of th e T h e a e t e t u s d o e s not c a r r y t h i s r e a s o n i n g
f o r w a r d to a n y m o r e p o s i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n .
C o n tin u in g to a c c e p t th e
a s s u m p t i o n s w h ic h h a v e h a d t h e s e o m in o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s , S o c r a t e s
g o es on to i n q u i r e w h a t k n o w le d g e c a n be, g iv e n t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s
a n d th e r e s u l t s a t t a i n e d so f a r .
T h e e f f e c t of h is f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
is to t u r n h is a t t e n t i o n f r o m th e o b je c t of k n o w le d g e a n d th e q u e s t i o n of
i t s c o m p l e x i t y , to th e m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n of know in g a n d th e q u e s t i o n
w h a t, on a t o m i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s , k no w in g c a n be.
As I have a lre a d y
s a id , th e e f f e c t of a t o m i s m i s to b r e a k down th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n
know ing s o m e t h i n g a n d m e r e l y g e ttin g it in to m in d , r e c o g n i z i n g i t a n d
n a m in g it:
in m a k i n g k n o w le d g e of c o m p l e x e s a m a t t e r of k n o w le d g e of
s i m p l e s i t m a k e s a l l k n o w le d g e a s p e c i e s of m e n t a l a t t e n t i o n to s i m p l e
elem en ts.
T h e s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t (206c l - 2 1 0 b 3) c o n s i d e r s th e
c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s .
In t h i s p a s s a g e S o c r a t e s p r o p o s e s t h r e e s e n s e s of lo g o s w h ic h
269
s o m e o n e m ig h t in v o k e a s w h a t m u s t be had in a d d itio n to a r i g h t id e a in
o r d e r to p o s s e s s k n o w le d g e .
I p o in te d out a b o v e t h a t th e d r e a m t h e o r y
is n o t c r i t i c i z e d a s a t h e o r y of lo g o s in th e s e n s e in w h ic h lo g o s is
s o m e t h i n g one g iv e s of o r f o r s o m e t h i n g of w h ic h he h a s a r i g h t id e a .
I th in k th e f i r s t two of th e t h r e e s u b s e q u e n t s e n s e s of lo g o s a r e in f a c t
a p p l i c a t i o n s of th e d r e a m t h e o r y w h ic h m a k e it y ie ld a s e n s e of lo g o s
of th e s o r t f o r w h i c h S o c r a t e s a n d T h e a e t e t u s w e r e s e e k i n g .
T h u s if,
a c c o r d i n g to th e d r e a m t h e o r y , th in g s w h ic h c a n be i n d i c a t e d by a
p l u r a l i t y of n a m e s s a i d in s u c c e s s i o n h a v e lo g o s , lo g o s m ig h t c o n s i s t
j u s t in p u ttin g s o m e n a m e s in to c o n ju n c t io n in s p e e c h .
T h e n to h a v e
k n o w le d g e w o u ld j u s t be to h a v e s o m e o b je c ts in m in d a nd sa y t h e i r
nam es.
" G iv in g lo g o s " w o u ld j u s t be s p e a k in g th e n a m e s of th in g s of
w h ic h one had p r e v i o u s l y only a r i g h t id e a .
But o b v io u s ly m e r e l y e x ­
p r e s s i n g a r i g h t id e a in s p e e c h is n ot s u f f ic i e n t to show k n o w le d g e :
a n y o n e h a s th e p o w e r of s p e e c h , so t h a t in e ff e c t a n y o n e w ith a r i g h t
id e a w o uld a l s o be a b l e to h a v e k n o w le d g e (206d 7 - e 2 ).
But if m e r e l y e x p r e s s i n g o n e s e l f in s p e e c h w o u ld not show
k n o w le d g e , th o u g h t h i s is on e o b v io u s s e n s e of lo g o s s u g g e s t e d by th e
a c c o u n t of s i m p l e s an d c o m p l e x e s g iv e n in th e d r e a m , p e r h a p s th e
d r e a m t h e o r y c a n be m a d e to y i e ld a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e of logos. G iving
lo g o s in th e r e l e v a n t s e n s e m i g h t be not j u s t s p e a k in g bu t s a y in g in
s u c c e s s i o n th e n a m e s of a l l t h e e l e m e n t s of a th in g :
one m i g h t h a v e
th e th in g in m in d w ith o u t ha v in g a ll th e e l e m e n t s d i s c r i m i n a t e d an d
e x p lic itly l a b e l l e d
a nd to t h i s (a r i g h t id e a ) one m i g h t a d d e x p l ic it
a t t e n t i o n to e a c h of the e l e m e n t s , th u s a c q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e i n s t e a d of
270
a m e r e rig h t id e a .
On th is s u p p o s iti o n , k n o w le d g e w o u ld a m o u n t to th e
a b i l i t y to a n a l y z e a n o b je c t in to i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s i m p l e p a r t s , a n d c o n ­
jo i n in g th e n a m e s of th e e l e m e n t s , i. e. , c o n s t r u c t i n g a lo g o s , w o u ld be
th e e x p r e s s i o n of th e k n o w le d g e of th e c o m p le x th in g .
It w o u ld a l s o , of
c o u r s e , show k n o w le d g e of th e e l e m e n t s , s i n c e a s w e h a v e s e e n to know
a c o m p le x j u s t ijs to know it s p a r t s .
W e h a v e s e e n a b o v e , (p. 245 f. ) how S o c r a t e s r e j e c t s th e d e f i n i ­
tio n of k n o w le d g e a s a r i g h t id e a of a th in g p lu s a n a n a l y s i s of i t in to
its s im p le e le m e n ts .
It c a n n o t be r i g h t to s a y th a t a p e r s o n k no w s th e
f i r s t s y lla b le of T h e a e t e t u s 1 n a m e j u s t b e c a u s e he l i s t s c o r r e c t l y i ts
s i m p l e p a r t s (208a 9 - b 2).
K n ow ing th e s y l l a b l e is k n o w in g t h e l e t t e r s ,
b u t o n e s u c h p e r f o r m a n c e on one o c c a s i o n d o e s n o t show k n o w le d g e of
e i t h e r s y l l a b l e o r l e t t e r s . A t th e v e r y l e a s t one m u s t c o r r e c t l y l i s t
th e l e t t e r s on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s w h e n th e s a m e s y l l a b l e t u r n s up, in o r d e r
to be r i g h t l y s a i d to know th e l e t t e r in q u e s t io n .
If you s o m e t i m e s
th in k t h a t " T " a n d ME M a r e t h e p a r t s of " T h e , 11 a n d s o m e t i m e s " T H 11^
a n d 11E" t h e n you n e i t h e r know " T H " n o r th e s y l l a b l e " T H E " of w h i c h it
i s a p a r t , e i t h e r on th e o c c a s i o n w h e n you g e t t h e m r i g h t o r w h e n you
get th e m w rong.
S in c e th is is s o th e a b i lity to p r o v i d e a n a n a l y s i s of a
th in g c a n n o t be a s u f f i c i e n t m a r k of k n o w le d g e of it.
Now in t h i s s e c o n d d e f in it io n of lo g o s S o c r a t e s h a s a l l o w e d th e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one c o u ld h a v e a r i g h t id e a of a n o b j e c t w ith o u t a l s o
h a v in g in m i n d a n d r e c o g n i z i n g i t s p a r t s .
Thus he su p p o se s th a t s o m e ­
one c o u ld h a v e th e n a m e " T h e a e t e t u s " in m in d , w h i c h w o u ld p r e s u m a b l y
in v o lv e t h e a b i l i t y to r e c o g n i z e i t a n d p r o n o u n c e i t c o r r e c t l y , w ith o u t
271
h av in g in m in d , a t l e a s t in th e s a m e w a y , th e l e t t e r s of w h ic h th e n a m e
is m a d e up.
It is by r e l y i n g on t h i s d i f f e r e n c e th a t he i n t r o d u c e s a d i s ­
tin c tio n b e tw e e n k n o w le d g e of th e n a m e a n d its l e t t e r s , a n d a m e r e
r i g h t i d e a of th e n a m e .
B ut it m ig h t be s a id th a t s i n c e a c c o r d i n g to th e
d r e a m t h e o r y of c o m p l e x e s , w h ic h S o c r a t e s a c c e p t s , a c o m p le x of
p a r t s is j u s t i d e n t i c a l w ith i t s p a r t s , to h a v e e v e n so m u c h a s a r i g h t
id e a of a c o m p le x is to h a v e a l s o a r i g h t id e a of i t s p a r t s .
To h a v e in
m i n d a n d r e c o g n i z e " T h e a e t e t u s " is a t th e s a m e t i m e to h a v e TH in
m in d r e c o g n i z e d f o r i t s e l f , a n d so on th r o u g h a l l th e l e t t e r s of th e
nam e.
T h is is in f a c t th e p o s iti o n ta k e n in th e t h i r d d e f in itio n a n d its
c ritic ism .
A c c o r d i n g to th is d e fin itio n , know ing a th in g is h a v in g a
r i g h t i d e a of it, p lu s th e a b ili ty to e x p r e s s i t s d i f f e r e n t n e s s f r o m o t h e r
th in g s (208d 6 -7 ).
A c c o r d in g to th e t e r m s of th e d r e a m t h e o r y , an
o b j e c t (e. g. , T h e a e t e t u s ) is ta k e n to be a c o m p le x m a d e up of s i m p l e
elem en ts;
18
a n d g r a s p i n g his d i f f e r e n c e a m o u n t s to g e ttin g e x p lic itly
in to one*s th o u g h ts t h a t e l e m e n t o r s e t of e l e m e n t s w h ic h b elon g e x c l u ­
s iv e ly to h im .
T h e c r i t i c i s m of th is t h e o r y t u r n s on th e i n s i s t e n c e t h a t
e v e n in h a v in g a r i g h t i d e a of T h e a e t e t u s one m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e a l l his
s i m p l e p a r t s p r e s e n t to th e m in d an d fully r e c o g n i z e d .
In e x p la in in g th i s t h i r d d e fin itio n of lo g o s S o c r a t e s a t f i r s t
e m p lo y s th e i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e sun, w h ic h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a l l
o t h e r th in g s by th e f a c t t h a t it is th e b r i g h t e s t body th a t g oe s a r o u n d
th e e a r t h .
B ut he so o n s h i f ts to th e e x a m p l e of T h e a e t e t u s , w h i c h he
c a n m o r e e a s i l y h a n d le in a c c o r d a n c e w i th th e t h e o r y of c o m p le x i ty
th a t is c e n t r a l to t h e w h o le d i s c u s s i o n .
To e x p r e s s T h e a e t e t u s 1
272
d i f f e r e n t n e s s is to h a v e in m in d , r e c o g n i z e , an d n a m e h is p e c u l i a r
s n u b n e s s a n d th e o t h e r e l e m e n t s p r o p e r to h im .
d if f ic u lty .
But h e r e t h e r e is a
A c c o r d i n g to th is a c c o u n t w e a r e to h a v e T h e a e t e t u s r i g h t l y
in m i n d a n d th e n a d d lo g o s of h im in th e s e n s e e x p la in e d .
d o e s t h i s r i g h t id e a c o n s i s t in ?
B ut w h a t
It a p p e a r s , in f a c t, t h a t an y one w ho
h a s so m u c h a s a r i g h t id e a of T h e a e t e t u s m u s t ha v e a l s o in m i n d t h o s e
f e a t u r e s of h im w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e his d i f f e r e n t n e s s .
F o r if only t h o s e
f e a t u r e s w h i c h T h e a e t e t u s s h a r e s w ith o t h e r s a r e p r e s e n t in th e i d e a
s o m e o n e h a s in m i n d , it d o e s not s e e m c o r r e c t to s a y th a t he i s t h i n k ­
ing of T h e a e t e t u s a t a ll, r a t h e r th a n of any of th e o t h e r s w ho h a v e j u s t
those sam e fe a tu re s .
T o be r e a l l y h av in g an id e a of T h e a e t e t u s o n e
m u s t h a v e in m i n d a l l h is e l e m e n t s - - h i s p e c u l i a r s n u b n e s s , f o r e x a m ­
p le , an d h is p e c u l i a r p o p - e y e d n e s s .
In th a t c a s e , in h a v in g a r i g h t
id e a of T h e a e t e t u s one n e c e s s a r i l y a l s o h a s a r i g h t i d e a of h is d i f f e r ­
e n t n e s s , s i n c e h a v in g h im in m in d in v o lv e s h a v in g a r i g h t i d e a of a l l
th e e l e m e n t s of w h ic h he c o n s i s t s .
of lo g o s c o m e to ?
W hat th e n d o e s th e t h i r d d e f in itio n
S in c e in h a v in g a r i g h t id e a of a th in g w e n e c e s s a r i l y
a l s o h a v e a r i g h t i d e a of i t s d i f f e r e n t n e s s , it c a n n o t m e a n by th e a d d i ­
tio n of lo g o s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of a r i g h t id e a of th e d i f f e r e n t n e s s .
We
a l r e a d y h a v e th a t , a n d , in a n y c a s e , h a v in g it, a s w e h a v e s e e n , is
c o m p a t i b l e w ith h a v in g no m o r e t h a n a r i g h t id e a of th e th in g .
On th e
o t h e r h an d, if th e a d d i t i o n of lo g o s m e a n s a c q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e of th e
thing*s d i s t i n c t i v e e l e m e n t s , th e d e f in itio n of k n o w le d g e a s r i g h t id e a
p lu s lo g o s h a s t u r n e d out to b e c i r c u l a r ,
K n o w le d g e of th e th in g
in v o lv e s k n o w le d g e of i t s d i s t i n c t i v e e l e m e n t s , but one c a n n o t hop e to
273
c l a r i f y k n o w le d g e of th e c o m p le x by a p p e a li n g b la n k ly to k n o w le d g e of
th e p a r t s .
H e n c e th e t h i r d s e n s e of lo g o s c a n n o t be e m p lo y e d to c l a r i f y
th e n o tio n of k n o w le d g e.
How a r e t h e s e fin a l tw o d e f in i tio n s a nd t h e i r r e f u t a t i o n s to be
constru ed ?
A s is q u ite c l e a r f r o m m y e x p o s i tio n of th e a r g u m e n t , th e y
a r e i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c te d w ith th e t h e o r y of la n g u a g e , th o u g h t, a n d c o m ­
p le x ity in g e n e r a l w h ic h th e d r e a m t h e o r y a d o p ts an d w h ic h S o c r a t e s
shares.
T h e y t r e a t a c o m p le x o b je c t a s th e s u m of its p a r t s , and
a s s u m e t h a t know ing a c o m p le x i s a l s o kn ow ing i ts p a r t s .
A nd th e y
show t h a t , w h e t h e r o r not ha v in g a r i g h t i d e a of a th in g a l s o in v o lv e s
h a v in g a r i g h t id e a of i t s p a r t s , k n o w led g e of th e th in g c a n n o t be d e f in e d
by r e f e r e n c e to o n e ’s s it u a t i o n v i s - a - v i s th e p a r t s .
T h e re is a d i f f e r ­
e n c e b e tw e e n h a v in g a r i g h t id e a of th e p a r t s an d k now ing t h e m , thou gh
w h a t th e d i s t i n c t i o n is th e t h e o r y c a n n o t sa y; a n d a p p e a l to th e f o r m e r
is i n s u f f i c i e n t w h ile a p p e a l to the l a t t e r , so long a s it is le f t u n e x ­
p la in e d , in v o lv e s a v ic io u s c i r c l e .
To o b ta in a f i r m e r g r a s p on th e a r g u m e n t I th in k it w ill be u s e ­
ful to c o n s i d e r a g a in th e d if f ic u ltie s th a t a r o s e in th e d i s c u s s i o n of
f a l s e b e lie f .
At th e o u t s e t (1 8 8 a -b ) S o c r a t e s a s s u m e s th a t a n y th in g
a n y o n e c a n h a v e in his th o u g h ts m u s t be s o m e t h i n g he k n ow s:
if he
d oesn*t know, e. g. , S o c r a t e s a t a l l th e n of c o u r s e he c a n ’t e n t e r t a i n
any th o u g h t of S o c r a t e s .
And w e saw th a t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n w a s d e p e n ­
d e n t on th e id e a t h a t to h a v e s o m e th in g in o n e ’ s th o u g h ts w a s to h a v e ,
a s it w e r e , a n o b je c t b e f o r e o n e ’ s m in d , c o r r e c t l y r e c o g n i z e d a n d
lab elled .
T h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n a t t e m p t e d v a r i o u s w a y s of
274
l o o s e n i n g th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n h a v in g a th in g in m in d a n d k no w in g it,
but it w a s a c c e p t e d th r o u g h o u t th a t if one is a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d in th in k in g
of a th in g th e n one m u s t know w h a t th in g is th e o b j e c t of h is th o u g h t, a n d
th is in v o l v e s n a m in g it c o r r e c t l y (and t h e r e f o r e p r e v e n t s m i s t a k i n g it
f o r a n y th in g e ls e ) .
K now ing a n o b je c t is h e r e th o u g h t of a s a k in d of
r e c o g n i t i o n o r a c q u a i n t a n c e a n d t h e r e f o r e a c t i v e l y th in k in g of a n y th in g
is a l s o know in g it.
Now th e f u n d a m e n t a l t h e s i s ly in g b e h in d th is w h o le d i s c u s s i o n
i s , a s I h a v e a r g u e d , th e v ie w t h a t s p e a k in g is a t b o tto m no m o r e th a n
n a m in g .
S ta tin g a f a c t is th o u g h t of a s n a m in g th e e l e m e n t s t h a t m a k e
it up; s a y in g s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a th in g is c o n s t r u e d a s n a m in g th e th in g s
in q u e s t i o n , a n d n o th in g m o r e .
H e n c e th in k in g a b o u t a th in g o r a f a c t
i s j u s t d i r e c t i n g one*s th o u g h ts t o w a r d s o m e o b j e c t s .
K n o w le d g e of
f a c t s t h u s m u s t r e d u c e to k n o w le d g e of o b j e c t s , a n d t h e r e a p p e a r s to
be no r o o m f o r k n o w le d g e e x c e p t a s r e c o g n i t i o n o r a c q u a i n t a n c e , s i n c e
t h e r e is no r o o m f o r any o t h e r m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n th a n r e c o g n i z i n g .
H e n c e in th e d i s c u s s i o n of f a l s e b e l i e f e v e n th in k in g of a n o b j e c t is
know ing it.
In th e t h i r d s e c t i o n of th e d ia l o g u e , h o w e v e r , t h e d i s t i n c ­
tio n b e tw e e n s i m p l e s a n d c o m p l e x e s is i n t r o d u c e d a n d , a lth o u g h t h e r e
is s t i l l f u n d a m e n ta ll y no m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n e x c e p t r e c o g n i t i o n , l a b e l l i n g ,
a c q u ain tan ce, and co n tact
190c 6 ), i t a p p e a r s to
be p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h , a t l e a s t f o r c o m p l e x e s , b e t w e e n m e r e h a v i n g i n - m i n d a n d k now ing.
F o r if a th in g h a s p a r t s it m a y be p o s s i b l e to
h a v e it in m i n d , r e c o g n i z e d a n d l a b e l l e d c o r r e c t l y , w ith o u t, h o w e v e r ,
h a v in g e x p l i c i t a w a r e n e s s of i t s p a r t s .
275
I t is th is h y p o th e s is w h ic h th e fin a l two d e f in it io n s of lo g o s e x ­
p lo re.
I t t a k e s two f o r m s :
to know a thing is e i t h e r to h a v e it in m in d
a n d h a v e a l s o in m in d a ll i t s s i m p l e p a r t s , o r to h a v e it in m in d a n d
h a v e a l s o in m in d t h a t one s i m p l e p a r t o r s e t of s i m p l e p a r t s w h ic h is
d i s t i n c t i v e of th e th in g in q u e s t i o n .
T h e c r i t i c i s m of th e two s u g g e s ­
tio n s s h o w s (a) th a t e v e n in th e c a s e of c o m p l e x e s k n o w le d g e r e q u i r e s
know ing th e p a r t s a n d (b) t h a t know ing th e p a r t s c a n n o t s im p l y be g e t ­
tin g t h e m in to m in d a n d r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m (having a r i g h t id e a of t h e m ) .
A t th e v e r y l e a s t , k n o w le d g e of a s i m p l e p a r t (e. g. , a l e t t e r ) r e q u i r e s
r e c o g n i t i o n of it not only on one o c c a s i o n but a s a r e g u l a r th in g .
And
th o u g h in m a k in g t h i s p o in t (2 0 7 d -2 0 8 a ) S o c r a t e s a p p e a r s to th in k of
k n o w le d g e of a l e t t e r a s no m o r e th a n th e a b i lity to g r a s p o r r e c o g n i z e
a d i s c r e t e e l e m e n t (it d o e s n o t in v o lv e the m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d k n o w le d g e
of f u n c ti o n a p p e a l e d to in th e P h i l e b u s an d P o l i t i c u s ), he a t l e a s t s h o w s
t h a t k n o w le d g e of a l e t t e r c a n n o t be s o m e t h in g e x h ib ite d on a s in g le
o c c a s i o n w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to o t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e s on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s :
a t th e v e r y l e a s t k n o w le d g e is n o t m e r e g r a s p i n g o r r e c o g n i t i o n of a
th in g o r g r o u p of th in g s .
T h e p o in t is r e i n f o r c e d w h e n S o c r a t e s u r g e s ,
in h is c r i t i c i s m of th e t h i r d d e f in itio n , th a t e v en to h a v e a r i g h t id e a of
a c o m p le x is a l r e a d y to h a v e a r i g h t id e a of a ll its e l e m e n t s .
F o r in
th a t c a s e one h a s don e a l l th e g r a s p i n g a n d r e c o g n i z i n g w h ic h t h e r e is
r o o m f o r e v e n b e f o r e t h e r e is any q u e s ti o n of h av in g a c q u i r e d k n o w le d g e .
B o th th e c o m p le x an d a l l i t s e l e m e n t s ha v e b e e n p ic k e d o ut a n d c o r r e c t l y
r e c o g n i z e d a n d s t i l l k n o w le d g e h a s not r e s u l t e d .
W hat m o r e is t h e r e
w h ic h one c o u ld do, on th e t h e o r y of la n g u a g e a n d th in k in g b e in g a c c e p t e d
276
h e r e , to p e r m i t k n o w le d g e
place?
w h e t h e r of c o m p le x o r of s i m p l e , to ta k e
I t s e e m s t h a t th e n o tio n s of r e c o g n i t i o n , m e n t a l to u c h in g , a n d
h a v in g s o m e t h i n g in th e m i n d a r e not s u f f i c i e n t a p p a r a t u s f o r u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g k n o w le d g e , e v e n k n o w le d g e of, a s o p p o s e d to k n o w le d g e a b o u t,
an o b je c t .
F o r th o u g h g iv e n a t o m i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s t h e r e m u s t be
k n o w le d g e of s i m p l e o b j e c t s if t h e r e is k n o w le d g e of a n y th in g , th e b a t ­
t e r y of c o n c e p t s a d m i t t e d by a t o m i s m p r o v e s i n s u f f i c i e n t to d i s t i n g u i s h
b e t w e e n a r i g h t id e a a n d k n o w le d g e of s i m p l e o b j e c t s ; but, a s S o c r a t e s
sh o w s f o r tw o f a v o r e d c a s e s , t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n k n ow ing a
s i m p l e o b j e c t a n d m e r e l y h a v in g a r i g h t id e a of it.
Now I do n o t w i s h to s a y th a t th e a r g u m e n t of t h e c l o s i n g p a g e s
of th e d ia l o g u e r e f u t e s th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r i e s of m e a n i n g a n d th in k in g
w hich have th e s e u ltim a te c o n se q u e n c e s.
I h a v e a l r e a d y s a i d th a t I
th in k t h e t e n o r of t h e a r g u m e n t e x p l o r a t o r y r a t h e r th a n d e s t r u c t i v e .
B ut th e g r o u n d is l a i d in th e f in a l s e c t i o n of th e T h e a e t e t u s f o r a
d e s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m of t h e s e t h e o r i e s .
F o r th e a n a l y s i s is c a r r i e d to
th e p o in t w h e r e s o m e e x p la n a ti o n of k n o w le d g e of a s i m p l e o b j e c t m u s t
be p r o v i d e d .
A nd a s th e e x p la n a tio n m u s t s q u a r e w i t h th e s i m p l i c i t y of
th e o b j e c t s in q u e s t i o n , it m a y w e ll be d o u b te d w h e t h e r a n y s u c h e x p l a ­
n a t io n c a n be f o r t h c o m i n g .
A s i m p l e o b je c t h a s (201 e 3) only a n a m e ;
it m u s t be i m m e d i a t e l y a p p r e h e n d e d .
s i o n is th e
O ne m o d e of i m m e d i a t e a p p r e h e n ­
in q u e s t i o n t h r o u g h o u t th e c l o s i n g p a g e s of
th e d ia lo g u e , w h ic h in t h is c o n t e x t i n v o lv e s r e c o g n i t i o n , c o r r e c t n a m i n g ,
and s i m i l a r c a p a c itie s .
W h e t h e r t h e r e i s r o o m f o r two d i f f e r e n t m o d e s
of i m m e d i a t e m e n t a l a w a r e n e s s s e e m s d o u b tfu l.
B ut to th e e x i s t e n c e of
277
s o m e s u c h a d d iti o n a l a w a r e n e s s , s o m e h o w d e e p e r o r c l o s e r th a n a
r i g h t i d e a , a t o m i s m is c l e a r l y c o m m i t t e d .
W h e th e r a t th e t i m e he w r o t e th e T h e a e t e t u s P l a t o saw th e n e c ­
e s s i t y of ab a n d o n in g th e a t o m i s m to w h ic h he had e a r l i e r b e e n a t t r a c t e d
is not e a s i l y d e c id a b le .
It m a y be t h a t hav in g r e a c h e d th e c o n c lu s io n s
s e t out j u s t a b o v e r e f l e c t i o n le d h im to s e e th a t k n o w le d g e of e l e m e n t s
in g e n e r a l , l e t t e r s a s w e ll a s o t h e r ty p e s of c o n s t i t u e n t s , is in f a c t not
a p tly r e p r e s e n t e d on th e m o d e l of b e in g in c o n ta c t w ith s o m e th in g o r
r e c o g n i z i n g s o m e th in g f o r it s e l f .
It is in any c a s e c e r t a i n th a t both in
h is u s e of th e l e t t e r s - s y l l a b l e s a n a lo g y in d ia lo g u e s c e r t a i n l y l a t e r th a n
th e T h e a e t e t u s , an d in s u b s e q u e n t r e m a r k s a b o u t know ing, he c l e a r l y
d o e s not th in k of l e t t e r s o r o t h e r e l e m e n t s a s s i m p l e s in a n y th in g lik e
th e s e n s e of th e T h e a e t e t u s 1 d r e a m .
E l e m e n t s , lik e a n y th in g e l s e , a r e
th e s u b j e c t s of j u d g m e n t s a n d not m e r e l y of n a m e s , and a c c o r d i n g l y
know ing t h e m is not h av in g any kind of s i m p l e a w a r e n e s s of a n o b je c t.
In th e p a s s a g e s f r o m th e P o l i t i c u s a n d P h i l e b u s a l r e a d y c ite d (pp. 2 6 6 267) th e k n o w le d g e of l e t t e r s , w h e t h e r w r i t t e n s y m b o l s o r u t t e r e d
so u n d s , 19 is not a r e c o g n i z i n g a nd l a b e llin g o p e r a t io n .
It is k n o w le d g e
a b o u t s o m e th in g r e c o g n i z e d a n d n a m e d c o r r e c t l y , k n o w le d g e t h a t it fi ts
w ith o t h e r l e t t e r s in c e r t a i n w a y s a n d n ot in o t h e r s ; th a t it b e lo n g s to
c e r t a i n s u b g r o u p s a m o n g th e l e t t e r s an d n ot to o t h e r s (cf. P h i l e b u s ,
18b 8 - c 5, S o p h i s t , 25 2e 9 - 2 5 3 a 7).
K now ing a b o u t l e t t e r s is a t th e
s a m e t i m e know ing a b o u t s y l l a b l e s .
In c o n c e n t r a t i n g on th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r i e s a t w o r k in th e d i s c u s ­
s io n of k n o w le d g e in th e l a s t p a r t of th e T h e a e t e t u s I hav e had no th in g
278
to s a y a b o u t th e t h e o r y of F o r m s ( e x c e p t in c o n n e c tio n w ith w h a t I h a v e
ta k e n to be m i s t a k e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of th e a r g u m e n t ) .
T h is w a s b e c a u s e
t h e p r o b l e m s a b o u t s a y in g , th in k in g , and know ing w h ic h o c c u p y P l a t o 1 s
a t t e n t i o n t h r o u g h o u t th e d i s c u s s i o n a r e m u c h m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l o n e s
t h a n t h o s e w h ic h l e d h im , in e a r l i e r d i a l o g u e s , to h o ld th a t k n o w le d g e of
F o r m s i s e i t h e r th e only k n o w le d g e t h e r e i s , o r is th e p r e e m i n e n t k in d ,
a s b e in g i m p l i e d by k n o w le d g e of o t h e r t y p e s .
F o r w h e t h e r th e o b j e c t s
a p e r s o n k no w s a r e F o r m s o r s o m e o t h e r kind of th in g , t h e r e is t h e f u r ­
t h e r q u e s t i o n how to d e s c r i b e th e m e n t a l p h e n o m e n o n w h ic h is th e k n o w l ­
e d g e of t h e s e o b j e c t s .
A nd in e a r l i e r d ia lo g u e s P l a t o e i t h e r n e g l e c t s
t h i s q u e s t i o n o r s u g g e s t s t h a t kno w ing a th in g is a kind of m e n t a l t o u c h ­
ing.
In th e l a s t h a lf of th e T h e a e t e t u s th is p r e v i o u s l y n e g l e c t e d o r i l l -
c o n c e i v e d q u e s t i o n i s b r o u g h t to th e f o r e a n d v ig o r o u s l y p u r s u e d , a s w e
have seen .
I t is only n a t u r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e F o r m s a r e n o t b r o u g h t
in to t h e d i s c u s s i o n . ^
T h is d o e s n o t, h o w e v e r , m e a n th a t th e d i s c u s s i o n d o e s n o t h a v e
v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g s on t h e t h e o r y of F o r m s .
F o r if k n o w le d g e of
a n o b je c t i s n o t r e c o g n i t i o n a l but e s s e n t i a l l y a m a t t e r of k no w in g s o m e
t r u t h s a b o u t it, th e n F o r m s , in o r d e r to be know n, m u s t be th e k in d of
th in g a b o u t w h ic h t h e r e a r e t r u t h s .
J u s t as l e t t e r s cannot be s im p le
e l e m e n t s of la n g u a g e , so F o r m s c a n n o t be s i m p l e o b j e c t s of th o u g h t.
A n d th e s h i f t in t h e c o n c e p t io n of l e t t e r s a n d w h a t i t is to know t h e m
b r i n g s w ith it a c l a r i f i c a t i o n , e v e n if not a r a d i c a l c h a n g e , in t h e c o n c e p ­
tio n of F o r m s a n d w h a t i t i s to know t h e m .
T h u s P l a t o in th e P h i l e b u s
( I 6d 5 - 7 ), in a n e v id e n t s e l f - c r i t i c i s m , r e m a r k s t h a t it i s n ot e n o u g h
279
s i m p ly to d i s c e r n a s in g le F o r m p r e s e n t in m a n y i n d iv id u a ls ; a l l th e
d i s t i n c t i o n s to be found w ith in it m u s t a l s o be n o t ic e d a n d g iv e n t h e i r
p r o p e r p l a c e in th e s c h e m e of F o r m s m a k in g up th e o r i g i n a l unity d i s ­
c e r n e d ; a n d know ing t h e s e s u b o r d i n a t e F o r m s , a s P l a t o ’s i l l u s t r a t i o n
a b o u t k n o w le d g e of l e t t e r s (17a 8 ff. ) s h o w s , i n v o lv e s th e d i s c e r n m e n t
of s i m i l a r i t i e s , d i f f e r e n c e s , a n d o t h e r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s a m o n g F o r m s ,
a d i s c e r n m e n t w h ic h is not in a n y c a s e a m a t t e r of fix in g a t t e n t i o n upon
a n o b je c t r e g a r d e d a s a s im p le o b je c t of a p p r e h e n s i o n .
21
In th e T h e a e t e t u s , h o w e v e r , a s I h a v e s a id , n o thing of t h e s e
fu r th e r developm ents a p p e a rs .
L e t t e r s a r e s i m p l e c o n s t i t u e n t s of s y l ­
l a b l e s , s y l l a b l e s a r e c o l l e c t i o n s of l e t t e r s .
S a y in g is n a m in g s o m e
o b je c ts an d th in k in g is hav in g o b je c t s b e f o r e th e m in d .
The c o n se ­
q u e n c e s of t h e s e v ie w s a r e fo llo w e d up so f a r a s to show t h a t s i m p l e
e l e m e n t s m u s t be k n o w a b le , a n d it i s th e n sh ow n t h a t know ing h e r e
m u s t c o n s i s t in s o m e th in g m o r e th a n r e c o g n i t i o n o r g e ttin g th e th in g
into m in d , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t any one w ho h e ld th e v ie w s in q u e s t i o n
w o u ld be h a r d - p r e s s e d to s a y w h a t b e yo nd th is k n o w le d g e of a s i m p l e
e l e m e n t c o u ld be.
W ith th i s S o c r a t e s a n d T h e a e t e t u s a b a n d o n th e
s e a r c h f o r a d e fin it io n of k now le d g e :
b e f o r e th e d i s c u s s i o n c a n be
c a r r i e d to a m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n c lu s io n , th e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y of
m e a n i n g a n d i t s a s s o c i a t e d t h e o r y of m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s m u s t be d e f i n i ­
tiv e ly r e j e c t e d in f a v o r of m o r e c o r r e c t w a y s of th in k in g a b o u t a s s e r ­
tio n , b e lie f , a n d k n o w le d g e .
FOOTNOTES
( F o r c o m p l e t e r e f e r e n c e s and e x p l a n a t i o n o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s ,
t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d . )
NOTES TO INTRODUCTION
1.
C f . D i e s , N o t i c e t o Bude e d i t i o n o f T h t . ,
p.
1 2 0.
2.
C f . The T h e a e t e t u s o f P l a t o , p p . l x i - l x i i .
(Camp­
b e l l , h o w e v e r , t h o u g h t t h e d i a l o g u e was com posed much l a t e r . )
C a m p b e ll* s r e a s o n s f o r r e j e c t i n g t h e 369 d a t e f o r t h e b a t t l e
seem t o me c u r i o u s l y w e ak .
T hat T e rp sio n sh o u ld have w a ite d
30 y e a r s t o a s k t o s e e E u c l i d e s 1 r e c o r d o f S o c r a t e s 1 c o n v e r ­
s a t i o n w i t h T h e a e t e t u s ( l ^ 3 a 6 - 7 ) seem s t o me n o t so much
more u n u s u a l t h a n t h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e w a i t e d 6 o r 7 ; and i t s
i m p l a u s i b i l i t y i s f a r l e s s t h a n t h e i m p l a u s i b i l i t y w h ic h ( i f
I am r i g h t a b o u t t h e m e m o r i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e d i a l o g u s )
C a m p b e ll i s l e f t w i t h , g i v e n h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e d i a l o g u e was
w r i t t e n much l a t e r t h a n 39 I4..
(C f. a ls o D i e s 1 re m a rk s, op. c i t .
p p . 120 - 1 2 1 . )
3 . C f. S h o r e y , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Loeb R e p u b l i c , I ,
x x i v - x x v , and R o s s , P l a t o ! s T h e o r y o f I d e a s , p p . 5 - 6 .
if..
C f. o p . c i t . ,
pp.
pp. x x ii- x x iv .
5.
As S o c r a t e s * r e f e r e n c e a t T h t . l 8 3 e 7
• to h is
y o u t h f u l e n c o u n t e r w i t h P a r m e n i d e s seem s good r e a s o n t o
th in k .
6 . C f. G .E .L . Owen, "The P l a c e o f t h e T i m a e u s , M SPM
pp. 313-338.
S ee a l s o b e lo w p p . 9 f*
7 . C f . The U n i t y o f P l a t o * s T h o u g h t and " R e c e n t
P la to n ism i n E n g lan d ,
AJP 9 ( l t f 8 d ) , 27 I4—309*
8 . C f. L u t o s l a w s k i , O r i g i n and G row th p p . 22ij.-5, and
S u sem ih l G e n e tis c h e E n tw lc k e lu n g , I , p. l 6 l .
9.
S ee h i s a r t i c l e s on " P l a t o * s L a t e r T h e o r y o f I d e a s , "
J o u r n a l o f P h i l o s o p h y 1 8 8 2 - 1 8 8 8 ; c f . S h o r e y * s a t t a c k on J a c k s o n *s ( and A r c h e r - H i n d 1s ) v ie w s i n h i s " R e c e n t P l a t o n i s m " .
10.
C f.
"R ecent P la to n ism " pp. 279-281.
11.
C f. U n i t y p p . 1+9 f f . ,
e s p e c i a l l y pp. 5 5-56;
cf.
fo r
281
t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t "R ecen t P la to n is m " pp. 2 80-281 ( i t i s
one m ain t h e s i s o f h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , De P l a t o n i s I d e a r u m
D o c trin a ) .
12.
By G .E .L . Owen,
"The P l a c e o f t h e T i m a e u s ".
13.
And t h e one m o s t c i t e d a s a b a s i s
fo r s c e p tic ism
a b o u t 0 w e n f s " r e d a t i n g " o f t h e T i m a e u s : c f . R u ncim an,
" P l a t o 1s 1P a r m e n i d e s 1 , SPM p . lf>2, and Skemp, P l a t o ' s S t a t e s ­
man p . 2 3 8 .
H4..
15.
logues",
A C om m entary on P l a t o ' s T i m a e u s , p . l\..
"The R e l a t i o n o f t h e T im aeu s t o P l a t o f s L a t e r D i a ­
SPMp p . 31|4, 3I4.6 .
16.
Op. c i t . ,
pp. 315-316.
17.
Op. c i t . ,
p.
3ip5•
NOTES TO CHAPTER I
1.
C f. a l s o 168b 6 - 7 and 183 a 3 - l | w h e re t h e same r e l a ­
t i o n i s c l e a r l y a s s e r t e d t o h o ld betw een T h e a e te tu s * d e f i n i ­
t i o n and t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s .
2.
I s h a l l n e v e r mean by " P r o t a g o r a s " a n y t h i n g b u t t h e
opponent P la to p r e s e n ts h im s e lf w ith in t h i s d ia lo g u e .
S uch
a t t e m p t s a s C o r n f o r d ' s ( PTK, p p . 3 3 - 3 6 ) , b a s e d on an a r t i c l e
o f B ro ch ard ( " P r o ta g o r e e t D e m o c rite ", E tu d es pp. 23- 33) to
d e t e r m i n e w h a t P r o t a g o r a s r e a l l y s a i d may o r may n o t be o f
i n t e r e s t fr o m o t h e r p o i n t s o f v ie w , b u t f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
u n d e rsta n d in g P la to th e y are a t b e s t s u p e rflu o u s .
(C ornfordfs
e x c u r s u s h e r e a c t u a l l y seem s t o m i s l e a d him i n t o g r o s s l y m i s ­
u n d e r s t a n d i n g 172 a - b ; s e e my d i s c u s s i o n b e lo w ( p p . 8 l f f . ) .
T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t o f t h e two a l t e r n a t i v e s C o r n f o r d d i s ­
c u s s e s , i t i s t h e s e c o n d w h ic h P l a t o 1s P r o t a g o r a s a d o p t s ; so
t h e l e s s s a i d a b o u t t h e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e , w h ic h C o r n f o r d
th in k s P ro ta g o ra s a c t u a l l y h e ld , th e b e t t e r .
3 . The t h e o r y o f p e r c e p t i o n o u t l i n e d a t 15 6-15 7* w h ic h
i s p re se n te d as th e t ^ r T ^ f i a o f c e r ta in s o p h is tic a te d th in k e r s ,
i s p r e t t y c l e a r l y l i k e w i s e an e l a b o r a t i o n , o f P l a t o ' s own d e ­
v is in g , o f th e e s s e n t i a l d o c trin e s o f H e ra c le ite a n ism .
Thus
b o th th e a p p e a l to th e f l u x d o c tr in e as a g e n e r a l s u p p o rt f o r
P r o t a g o r e a n i s m and t h e d e t a i l e d e x p l o r a t i o n o f how t h e d o c t r i n e
282
a p p l i e s t o p e r c e p t i o n and s u p p o r t s a P r o t a g o r e a n a c c o u n t o f
p e r c e p t u a l j u d g e m e n t s , a r e c l e a r l y m ark e d a s c o n t r i b u t i o n s
o f P l a t o ’ s own t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e q u e s t i o n s
an d d o c t r i n e s c o n c e r n e d .
ij..
Owen, " P r o o f " , SPM p . 30 5; c f . w i t h my r e m a r k s h e r e
Owen’ s d i s c u s s i o n o f kckQ’ a i r o ^ and vr(>o\ n , p p . 3 0 2 - 3 0 9 .
N ot I n s u c h p l a c e s a s 5 l 8 c 9 , 525 c 5 a n d 5 3 ^ a I4. w h e re
o c c u r s a s a s t a t u s w ord d e s i g n a t i n g t h e r e a l m o f p e r c e p tib le s.
S u c h c a s u a l u s e s o f t h e t e r m c a n n o t be made t o
b e a r any heav y p h i l o s o p h i c a l w e ig h t in th e ab sen ce o f e x p l i c i t
a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o r o f one t h e o r y o r a n o t h e r .
,
5-
6 . My u s e o f t h e T im , h e r e t o e s t a b l i s h w h a t t h e s i s i s
a s s e r t e d I n t h e T h t . d o e s n o t i m p l y any d e c i s i o n on my p a r t
o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e c h r o n o l o g y o f T im , and T h t .
I do I n f a c t t h i n k I t e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e T im , p o s t ­
d a t e s t h e T h t . ( i n v iew , f o r ex a m p le , o f P l a t o ’ s r e f u t a t i o n
o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f f l u x i n l 8 l ~ l 8 lp ) . B u t e v e n t h o s e who
th in k t h a t P la to in th e T h t. a c c e p ts a f lu x d o c tr in e o f s o r t s
( o n e r e s t r i c t e d , a s t h e T im . ’ s c l e a r l y i s , t o p e r c e p t i b l e
t h i n g s ) , and o n ly r e j e c t s a s o - c a l l e d " u n r e s t r i c t e d H e rac l e i t e a n i s m " w h ich , l i k e t h a t announced a t T h t . I 5 2 d - e ,
h o l d s t h a t n o t h i n g a n y w h e re ( h e r e b e lo w o r i n a s u p p o s e d
h i g h e r re a lm ) i s s t a b l e in any r e s p e c t , w i l l have t o g r a n t
t h a t t h e f l u x d o c t r i n e o f t h e T im , c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h a t o f
th e T h t. fo r th e a re a o f t h e i r o v e rla p .
I u s e t h e Tim . h e r e
m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e d o c t r i n e I s more f u l l y e l a b o r a t e d t h e r e
th a n i t i s in th e T h t.
7.
S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , some p a r t o f t h e r e c e p t a c l e o f
b e c o m i n g ; t h e d i s t i n c t i o n d o e s n o t m a t t e r f o r my p u r p o s e s .
8 . C o m m e n ta ry , p . 67 ; c o m p are C o r n f o r d PC p . 25:
" i t i s t r u e t h a t I n s u c h ’b ecom ing * s o m e t h i n g new i s a l w a y s
a p p e a r i n g , s o m e t h i n g o l d p a s s i n g away; b u t t h e p r o c e s s i t ­
s e l f c a n b e c o n c e i v e d a s g o i n g on p e r p e t u a l l y . "
9.
C om m e nta ry, p p .
7 1-2.
10.
I do n o t w i s h t o i m p l y t h a t t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n s
have a r i g h t to t h i s u se o f
i f th e y deny th e m s e lv e s
t h e o t h e r ( i n d e e d P l a t o a r g u e s i n l 8 l - l 8 [j. t h a t t h e y do n o t ) ,
b u t o n l y t h a t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y w i s h t o m a i n t a i n one m u s t
p e r m i t th e m t o r e t a i n i t a t l e a s t p r o v i s i o n a l l y w i t h o u t t h e
o th e r u se.
283
11.
E .g .
C om m entary p p .
3J4.8 , 3l|2, 122, 117*
12. , The s i m j l a p a r g u m e n t p f R e p u b l i c 52lj.d-e e x p l i c i t l y
says
ti
6^ara< <^vo,vt^^<k^ c f . P h d o . 7k 'o -c .
The P h aed o n o w h e re t h r o u g h t h i s d i s c u s s i o n e v e n s u g g e s t s
t h a t i t i s c h a n g e t h a t makes p h y s i c a l e q u a l s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
in sta n c e s of e q u a lity .
13.
O r, p o s s i b l y , e q u a l t o one o b s e r v e r tp.nd n o t J:o
s m o t h e r ( d e p e n d i n g on how one t a k e s
\<ra • - .
cP<^J 7[j.b 8 - 9 : c f . Owen, " P r o o f " , SPM p ‘. 306 n . 2 ) .
14.
T h a t i t b ec o m e s f i e r y a t moment ;t i s n o t t h e same
t h i n g a s i t s b e i n g i n p r o c e s s o f b e c o m in g f i e r y a t moment
_t. The f o r m e r ( n o n - c o n t i n u o u s ) u s a g e i s r e q u i r e d by t h e
f lu x th e o ry , th e l a t t e r (c o n tin u o u s) i s a p p a re n tly re q u ire d
by T a y l o r f s a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f l u x t h e o r y t o t h e P h a e d o 1s
d isc u ssio n of e q u a lity .
1$.
C f. C a m p b e ll p . 53*
A c t u a l l y i t i s t h e f i r s t two
w h ic h c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e t h i r d .
T h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n h e r e
( p a c e R o b i n s o n "Form s an d E r r o r " , p . 2 9 - 3 0 , s e c o n d e d by
R uncim an PLE p . 17 n o t e ) t h a t t h e t h r e e p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e
i n t e r n a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t o r s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b u t o n ly t h a t
t h e y c a n n o t a l l be t r u e i f c e r t a i n f u r t h e r p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e
ac c e p ted :
c f . a l s o C h e r n i s s AJP 68 ( 19I4.7 ) P* 138.
1 6.
T h i s b e i n g so I d o u b t t h a t i t i s r i g h t t o s a y t h a t
t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p u z z l e s a b o u t s i z e and num ber r e p r e s e n t s
an a d v a n c e on t h e P h a e d o ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s .
(C f.
S o p h . 255c 12 - d 1 , 2 5 6 a 1 0 -b Ij.)
1 7.
The T h e a e t e t u s o f P l a t o , p . 59 (a d l5&c 9 ) .
18 .
So P r o t a g o r a s i s made t o s a y i n h i s r e p l y (1 6 6 b 8 ):
i n t h e a c t u a l e x p o s i t i o n ( l 57 e - l 60 c ) t h i s i s n e v e r s t a t e d
b l u n t l y , th o u g h i t
i s c l e a r l y i m p l i e d b y , e . g . , I 59 e 8 f f .
19.
C a m p b e l l , p . 7ip ( a d l 6 0 e 5)*
20.
C f. C a m p b e l l p . 71 ( ad l 5 9 e 7 ) :
MThe i n t e n t i o n o f
t h e s e w o rd s i s t o m ark t h e i n c o m m u n ic a b l e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f
e v e r y a c t o f s e n s e ; i . e . n o t w in e o r b i t t e r n e s s , b u t t h e
p e c u l i a r b i t t e r n e s s o f a p a r t i c u l a r w ine t o a p a r t i c u l a r
p a l a t e a t a p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t."
21.
So a p p a r e n t l y C a m p b e ll ( p . 68 , ad 159a 6 ) .
281422.
By G u l l e y ,
P l a t o ! s T h e o r y o f K n o w le d g e, p p . 7 8 - 8 0 .
2 3 . I t s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d h e r e t h a t i t i s n o t o n l y t h e
a r g u m e n t o f 157-160 w h ic h i s i n c o n s e q u e n t , b u t a l s o t h a t o f
t h e p u z z l e s o f s i z e an d n um ber ( 15I4. - I 5 5 ) ; and t h e t h e o r y o f
p e r c e p tio n , as I have a lr e a d y rem arked, i s h a r d ly a s e r io u s
H e ra c le ite a n th e o ry .
In f a c t , t h e r e i s n o th in g o f any r e a l
i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e w h o le c o u r s e o f t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n w h ic h i s
w e ll argued.
2I4..
The T h e a e t e t u s o f P l a t o , p . 6 8 .
NOTES TO CHAPTER I I
1.
So I i n t e r p r e t S o c r a t e s 1 c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k ,
179c.
2.
Or made s i n c e r e l y .
P r e s u m a b l y P r o t a g o r a s w o u ld
n o t w i s h t o d e n y t h a t a mam m i g h t l i e .
I n t h i s c a s e one
c a n s a y t h a t P r o t a g o r a s 1 d i c t u m d o e s n o t make t h e l i a r f s
s ta te m e n t t r u e , b e c a u s e w hat th e l i a r say s i s n o t what
r e a l l y seem s t o h im t o be t h e c a s e :
P ro ta g o ra s 1 th e o ry
c a r e f u l l y m a i n t a i n s o n l y t h e t r u t h o f a m an f s
3.
C f . e . g . 1 5 2 a 6 - 8 , b 6 - 7 , c 3 , 158a 6 - 7 , e 5 - 6 ,
160 c 7 - 8 , t o m e n t i o n o n l y r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e s o c c u r r i n g b e ­
fo re l 6lc .
T here i s a te n d e n c y t o drop th e s u f f i x e s o n ly
when one a r g u e s fr o m s o m e t h i n g f s b e i n g t r u e t o x t o i t s
b e i n g known b y him (k n o w in g a t h i n g b e i n g t h r o u g h o u t
a s s o c ia te d w ith i t s e x is te n c e o r i t s b ein g th e c a s e ,
s i m p l l c l t e r ):
c f . 152c 5 - 6 , 158a 2 - 3 , 160 c 8 - 9 .
I4..
C o r n f o r d a p p e a r s t o t h i n k ( PTK p . 6 2 ) t h a t t h e
f a c t t h a t men h a v e a f a c u l t y o f t h o u g h t a s w e l l a s p e r ­
c e p t i o n d o e s make a d i f f e r e n c e , b u t i t o b v i o u s l y d o e s n o t .
5.
P r o t a g o r a s i s h e r e t r e a t e d n o t a s t h e m ere c u s t o ­
d i a n o f T h e a e t e t u s 1 t h e o r y , b u t a s i f he w i s h e d t o a r g u e
T h e a e t e t u s 1 t h e o r y on h i s own a c c o u n t .
TH is i s o ne o f t h e
p l a c e s w h e re t h e e a r l i e r r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r i e s t o o n e
a n o th e r i s t r e a t e d as e f fe c te d ( t h i s d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t
in t h i s passage T h e a e te tu s i s s p e c if ic a l l y tw itte d f o r c a re ­
l e s s l y i d e n t i f y i n g p e r c e p t i o n and k n o w le d g e :
l a t e r on i n
t h e r e f u t a t i o n P r o t a g o r a s h i m s e l f ^ i s g iv e n h i s f u l l v iew ,
w h ic h d o e s n o t l i m i t k n o w le d g e t o ^ s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n ) .
6.
PTK p p . 6 2 - 3 .
285
7.
PTK p p . 67 - 8 . How t h i s r e s u l t i s s u p p o s e d t o
fo llo w Is n o t easy to d is c e r n .
C o r n f o r d seems t o make
T h e a e t e t u s 1 ac cep tan c e o f th e account o f p e r c e p tio n g iv e n
above t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n th e a r g u m e n t s v a l i d i t y .
But
n o th in g in th e argum ent even s u g g e s ts t h a t s e e in g i s b e in g
th o u g h t o f as th e k in d o f p ro c e s s th e H e r a c le ite a n acco u n t
m akes i t ; n o r do I s e e how t h e a r g u m e n t g a i n s i n c o g e n c y
by so c o n s t r u i n g i t .
As I p o i n t o u t b e l o w , i t i s i n f a c t
n o t a good a r g u m e n t a t a l l , n o r do I t h i n k i t v a l i d a g a i n s t
e i t h e r T h ea etetu s or P ro ta g o ra s.
8.
PLE p .
13.
9 . Even s t e r n P l a t o w r o t e t h e E u th y d e m u s . Of c o u r s e
t h e f a c t t h a t a d i a l e c t i c a l d i s p l a y i s p r i m a r i l y meant f o r
am usem ent d o e s n o t p r e v e n t i t fro m r a i s i n g some d i f f i c u l t i e s
w h ic h w ou ld t r o u b l e e v e n a p h i l o s o p h e r I n more s o b e r mood.
T h i s i s t h e c a s e w i t h some o f t h e E u t h y d e m u s 1 a r g u m e n t s , a s
w e ll as w ith th e second o f th e s e t h r e e argum en ts o f th e
T h ea etetu s.
10.
C o r n f o r d ( PTK p . 6 3 ) c a r e l e s s l y s a y s t h a t w hat
t h i s a r g u m e n t shows i s t h a t t h e r e I s a s e n s e o f "know"
(w h ic h o c c u r s i n " I know F r e n c h ” ) w h ic h c a n n o t be r e d u c e d
t o kn o w in g a s p e r c e i v i n g .
B ut a s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s s e n s e
o f Mknow ", I c a n know s o m e t h i n g e v e n when I ' m a s l e e p and
n o t p e r c e i v i n g a n y t h i n g , I t i s n o t q u i t e t h e s e n s e o f f,know M
a t I s s u e I n t h e a r g u m e n t (h o w e v e r r e l a t e d i t may b e ) .
The
c o r r e c t " s e n s e ” o f ”know ” i s t h e one i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t e x t —
a c c o r d i n g t o w h ic h I know c e r t a i n s o u n d s J u s t i n c a s e I am
a c t u a l l y p e r c e i v i n g them and r e c o g n i z i n g th em a s t h o s e s o u n d s .
1 1 . I t h e r e f o r e do n o t s e e how t h i s a r g u m e n t h a s w h a t ­
e v e r v a l i d i t y i t does have o n ly (o r p r i m a r i l y ) i n c o n n e c tio n
w i t h some one who a c c e p t s t h e H e r a c l e i t e a n t h e o r y o f p e r c e p ­
tio n .
I t m a n i f e s t l y a p p l i e s f o r an y one who g r a n t s t h a t
t h e r e a r e two o r g a n s o f s i g h t .
1 2 . 166 b 1 —ip: u n d e r g o i n g a memory e x p e r i e n c e i s h a v i n g
an e x p e r i e n c e o f a d i f f e r e n t s o r t fr o m t h e o r i g i n a l p e r c e p t u a l
one ( t h o u g h he d o e s n o t q u i t e say t h e memory e x p e r i e n c e I s a
k i n d o f s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e ) . The e x t e n s i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n t o i n ­
c l u d e s u c h modes o f a w a r e n e s s a s re m e m b e rin g i s , a s C o r n f o r d
s a y s ( PTK p . 6 5 ) , t h e i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t f o r c e d b y t h e s e c o n d
argum ent upon T h e a e t e t u s 1 d e f i n i t i o n .
13.
T h i s r e p l y seem s t o me d i r e c t e d a s much a g a i n s t t h e
s e e i n g - n o t s e e i n g a r g u m e n t a s a g a i n s t t h e memory a r g u m e n t ,
286
g i v e n t h a t t h e " s e e i n g " a r g u m e n t i s j u s t a more e x t r e m e
v e rsio n o f i t s p re d e c e sso r.
I a g r e e w i t h R un cim an ( PLE
p p . 1 3 - 1 4 ) t h a t C o r n f o r d (PTK p . £ 9 ), i s w rong t o t a k e i t
a s a r e p l y o n l y t o t h e <$VtVororov
but I th in k
R u n cim an h i m s e l f w ron g t o t h i n k t h a t n e i t h e r t h i s n o r t h e
o t h e r r e p l i e s answ ers t h a t o b j e c t i o n .
14.
C f. E u t h y d . 287 a w h e re a s i m i l a r v ie w o f t h e s o p h i s t s
D i o n y s o d o r u s and E u th y d e m u s ( t h o u g h b a s e d on E l e a t i c and n o t
P r o t a g o r e a n g r o u n d s ) i s made t o l e a d t o a s i m i l a r p e r s o n a l
em b arrassm en t.
I t i s i m p o r ta n t t o n o t e , how ever, t h a t P r o ­
ta g o r a s ta k e s th e e m b arrassm en t s e r i o u s l y , w h ereas D io n y so ­
doru s does n o t:
t h e s o p h i s t i c a l movement h a d n o t t h e u n i ­
fo rm ity o fte n a t tr i b u te d to i t .
l£ .
I am u n i m p r e s s e d by C o r n f o r d f s a s s u r a n c e s ( PTK p . 7 2 )
t h a t t h i s p a r t o f th e D efense r e p r e s e n t s g en u in e P ro ta g o re a n
d o c trin e .
I f P ro ta g o ra s h im se lf a c tu a lly h eld th e th e o ry o f
w isdom a t t r i b u t e d t o him b y P l a t o , I s e e no r e a s o n f o r S o c r a ­
t e s * c a u t i o n b e lo w ( l 69 d - e ) , w h e re he f e e l s t h e n e e d o f p r o v ­
i n g fr o m P r o t a g o r a s * own w o rd s t h a t he a c c e p t s d i f f e r e n c e s
o f w isdom o f t h e s o r t a t t r i b u t e d t o him i n t h e D e f e n s e .
C o r n f o r d i n e f f e c t l a t e r g r a n t s t h i s ( p . 77)> b u t w i t h o u t
f i n d i n g , any c o n f l i c t w ith th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e D e fe n se
he e a r l i e r a d o p t s .
v o l.
16.
ii,
G. G r o t e , P l a t o an d t h e O t h e r C om pan ion s o f S o c r a t e s ,
c h . x x v i ( c f . p p . 347-363 o f t h e 2 nd e d . } .
17.
R un cim an h o l d s a s i m i l a r v iew ( PLE p p . 2 6 - 2 9 ) .
But
he t h i n k s t h a t what P la t o i s o u t to g e t in th e d i g r e s s i o n i s
t h e " p r a g m a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f wisdom " w h i c h P r o t a g o r a s h a s
been u p h o ld in g .
A g a i n s t t h i s he f i n d s P l a t o s a y i n g t h a t w i s ­
dom c o n s i s t s i n k n o w le d g e o f c e r t a i n " a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d s " .
B u t ( a ) n o w h e re i n t h e d i g r e s s i o n i s a n y e m p h a s i s p u t u p o n
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e man o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s i s w i s e i n P r o t a g o r a s *
sense:
he d o e s n o t c h a n g e a n y la w s o r a n y o n e * s o p i n i o n s
by " r e f e r e n c e to c r i t e r i a o f e x p e d ie n c y " .
H is f u n c t i o n i s
r a t h e r t h a t o f m a n i p u l a t i n g e x i s t i n g la w s t o h i s own b e s t
ad v a n ta g e .
And ( b ) t h e p a s s a g e w h ic h i s s u p p o s e d t o g i v e
P l a t o ’ s a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n o f w isdom an d k n o w l e d g e d o e s
n o t s a v w h a t R u ncim an q u o t e s i t a s s a y i n g .
The p a s s a g e
(1 7 6 b o - c 5 ) s a y s :
"God i s n o w h e re an d i n no way u n r i g h t e o u s ,
b u t a s r i g h t e o u s a s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o b e , a n d n o t h i n g i s m ore
l i k e go d t h a n t h a t man o f u s who becom es a s r i g h t e o u s a s
p o s s i b l e ........................The k n o w le d g e o f t h i s f a c t i s w isdom and
tru e v irtu e ."
No r e f e r e n c e h e r e t o " a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d s " a s
w h a t o ne m u s t g e t i n t o u c h w i t h i n o r d e r t o h a v e k n o w l e d g e .
287
18. t/C o r n f o r d t a k e s 172b 2 - 6 t o be s t a t i n g a view a b o u t
cTtKaiA, o r i * i
e t c . w h ic h i s a t v a r i a n c e w i t h P r o t a g o r a s 1
an d g o e s b ey o n d i t by d e n y i n g t h a t an y o f t h e s e h a s a n y
" o b j e c t i v e b e i n g " (PTK p . 8 2 ) o f i t s own:
J u s t i c e and
r e l i g i o u s p r o p r i e t y a r e m ere c o n v e n t i o n s and h a v e
no
o'o<rt<k o f t h e i r own.
I t i s n o t , how ever, e a s y t o u n d e r s ta n d
w h a t t h e n C o r n f o r d b e l i e v e s P r o t a g o r a s 1 view t o b e , i n a s m u c h
a s he g r a n t s t h a t 172a 1-1*. e x p r e s s e s P r o t a g o r a s 1 v i e w , a n d
c a n h a r d l y d e n y t h a t 177 c 8 - d 2 re s u m e s t h a t same v ie w :
th ese
p a s s a g e s , a s w e l l a s 167c
make i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t P r o ­
t a g o r a s h e l d t h a t a l l a s t a t e h a s t o do t o make a n y t h i n g r e a l l y
r i g h t f o r i t i s t o d e c r e e t h a t i t i s s o , and t h e v ie w w h ic h
d en ies
6 o<ria to^ r * <fn<cuc*, e t c . , i s i t s e l f g l o s s e d a s
h o l d i n g £h%jb T o >(k o i J fo fa v ^ T o O ro y ^ Y ^ tac
TDTe,oTav
fo fy
a v cTokv\ y ^ o v o \ / . The two v ie w s seem , t h e r e ­
f o r e , t o c o i n c i d e , and C o r n f o r d i s a b l e t o p e r s u a d e h i m s e l f
t h a t t h e y d i v e r g e o n l y b e c a u s e he t h i n k s ( c f . n . 2 t o c h . I ,
p . 281 a b o v e ) t h a £ P r o t a g o r a s 1 view a b o u t s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s d o e s
n o t d e n y t h e i r ov/<su* i n t h e t h i n g p e r c e i v e d t o h a v e th e m b u t
r a t h e r a s s e r t s t h e co m presence o f a l l t h e q u a l i t i e s w hich any
an d e v e r y one p e r c e i v e s .
T h i s i s , h o w e v e r, / l i g h l y c o n j e c t u r a l ,
and i n an y c a s e t h e d e n i a l o f 0 0 ^ 1 a t o Ty* <Tikcm« a t 172 b d o e s
n o t i n t r o d u c e an a n a l o g u e o f t h e more e x t r e m e d o c t r i n e a b o u t
s e n s e - q u a l i t i e s w h i c h C o r n f o r d c a n v a s s e s and r e j e c t s ( p p . 3 2 3 6 ) a s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P r o t a g o r a s 1 view a b o u t t h e m . F u r ­
th erm o re, th e
Aovjoi o f 172 b 8 q u i t e c e r t a i n l y ( c f . d 5 - 6 )
m eans " l o n g e r d i s c u s s i o n " and n o t "more i m p o r t a n t t h e o r y " , a s
C ornford ta k e s, i t / s o as tp su p p o rt h is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
d e n i a l o f oo<ri*
t o r * S i * * 1 * ) ( c f . B i s c h o f f Herm es 1939
p p . 101*.-108). T h i r d l y ,
av
( 172 b 6 - 7 ) s h o u l d be
r e a d an d i n t e r p r e t e d ( s o D i e s i n t h e Bude t r . ) t o mean t h a t
t h o s e who do n o t go a l l t h e way w i t h P r o t a g o r a s w i l l i n g l y
ad m it (a s P r o ta g o r a s do es n o t) t h a t ju dgem ents a b o u t what i s
t o t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a s t a t e may be r i g h t o r w ro n g , b u t a g r e e
w ith P r o ta g o r a s i n h o ld in g t h a t w h a te v e r any s t a t e ju d g e s t o
be r i g h t i s , r i g h t .
I d o u b t t h a t , e v e n w i t h t h e r e a d i n g o T o(
• • • Ac-yow<n ( C o r n f o r d f s p r e f e r e n c e ) , any o t h e r s e n s e
c o u l d n a t u r a l l y be g o t t e n fr o m t h e G re e k :
t o s a y t h a t some
one d o e s n o t a r g u e TravT<iTra<ri t h e same a s someone e l s e i s t o
i m p ly t h a t t h e r e i s some common g r o u n d b e t w e e n th e m , a n d I f
P r o t a g o r a s and t h e s e a l l e g e d o t h e r p e o p l e do n o t a g r e e a b o u t
rA Sikcki*, i t I s n o t c l e a r w h a t t h q y d o a g r e e a b o u t .
19 .
175c 1 - 6 .
C ornford se e s h e re a r e f e r e n c e t o th e
M o r a l Forms o f t h e R e p u b l i c . B u t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r h e r e i n
q u e s t i o n i s n o t s p e c i a l l y a P l a t o n i s t , a s 173^ an d e p r o v e ;
no p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y a b o u t how t h e s e l a r g e q u e s t i o n s a r e a n ­
s w e r e d s h o u l d b e r e a d i n t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m ,
A ll th a t
288
i s s a id i s t h a t th e p h ilo s o p h e r re c o g n iz e s th e s e q u e s tio n s
in a d d itio n to th o se th e leg al-m in d ed p erso n asks h im s e lf.
( C f . R o b i n s o n , "Form s and E r r o r " , p . 9 ) .
NOTES TO CHAPTER I I I
1.
P arm .
138 b .
2 v. 0 o £ e Tiv* 0-AA^v (X«r 0 'n<riv p^AAov o)| |^>t m u s t mean
( s o D i e s , c f . C a m p b e ll ad l o c . ) " n o r i s a n y o t h e r s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n a n y more t h a t one t h a n a n o t h e r " , an d n o t ( s o
C o r n f o r d ) " n o r i s a n y o t h e r p e r c e p t i o n e n t i t l e d t o be c a l l e d
p e r c e p tio n r a t h e r th a n n o t - p e r c e p t i o n " . U n d e rstan d in g P la to
i n C o r n f o r d 1s way h e r e m akes f o r a s m o o t h e r i n f e r e n c e i n
e 1 0 - 1 1 ( c f . C h e r n i s s " R e l a t i o n o f t h e T i m a e u s " , SPM p . 358:
" s i n c e s e n s a t i o n i s t h e n no more s e n s a t i o n t h a n n o t s e n s a t i o n
a n d so no m ore k n o w le d g e t h a n n o t k n o w l e d g e " ) , b u t i s q u i t e ,
c e r t a i n l y n o t what th e ^ G re e k sa y s:
C o rnfo jrd t r a n s l a t e s OocTe
T i^ 1 o^AAvw
<*\<r0'vvriv' n\ ^w\.
3.
I b e l i e v e e 10-11 c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f e r e n c e :
( a ) Ex h y p o t h e s l k n o w le d g e = p e r c e p t i o n an d ( t h e r e f o r e : c f .
161+b 1 - 2 ; n o t - k n o w l e d g e = n o t - p e r c e p t i o n .
(b) B ut a c c o rd in g
t o H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , a s we h a v e now s e e n , n o t h i n g i s a n y m ore
e n t i t l e d t o be c a l l e d p e r c e p t i o n t h a n n o t - p e r c e p t i o n .
E rgo,
we h a v e n o t s a i d a n y t h i n g i n ( a ) t h a t i n a n y way d i s t i n g u i s h e s
n o t - k n o w l e d g e fro m k n o w l e d g e ; a n y t h i n g t h a t i s k n o w le d g e by
t h a t d e f i n i t i o n t u r n s o u t t o be a l s o n o t - k n o w l e d g e , so t h a t
o u r d e f i n i t i o n f i t s k n o w le d g e no b e t t e r t h a n i t d o e s n o t k now ledge.
Ij.. R o b i n s o n , "Form s and E r r o r , " p p . 9 - 1 0 ;
" P l a c e o f t h e T i m a e u s , " SPM p p . 323-321]..
Owen,
5.
The d o c t r i n e i t p r o v i d e s f o r P l a t o , t h a t a i r O 'h 'p a
a r e i n f l u x b u t t h e Form s a r e n o t , h a s b e e n t a k e n a s c a n o n ­
i c a l P l a t o n i c m e ta p h y s ic s s in c e th e tim e o f A r i s t o t l e : c f .
M e t . A. 6 . 9 8 7 a 3 2 - b 1.
And a s A r i s t o t l e i m p l i e s t h a t P l a t o
n e v e r g a v e u p h i s r e s t r i c t e d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , so i n t e r p r e t e r s
o f t e n t a k e i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e weak i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u st
be t h e c o r r e c t o n e .
6.
says,
PTK, p .
101.
7.
C h e r n i s s , SPM p . ^ ^ n . , q u o t i n g Owen, SPM p . 32if,
" i t i s c l e a r t h a t ou<ria i s n o t f a s c r i b e d t o t h e o b j e c t s
289
o f p e r c e p t i o n 1 a s s u c h b u t i s an ’o b j e c t o f t h o u g h t * . "
T h i s shpws l g n o r a t l o e l e n c h l :, o b j e c t o f t h o u g h t o r n o ,
0U<re^r* a r e s a i d t o h a v e o"ut<cl.
8 . G u l l e y , p p . 73> 81^. f f . , t h i n k s t h a t P l a t o ’ s a r g u ­
m ent a t 182-3 d o e s i m p ly t h a t n o t h i n g c a n be s a i d o f phenom ­
e n a , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e no " d e t e r m i n a t e s e n s i b l e c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c s , " and y e t t h a t he i n t e n d e d t h i s n o t a s a r e d u c t i o o f t h e
f l u x d o c t r i n e o f p h eno m ena b u t a s t h e c o r r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e
of a tru e d o c trin e .
The n e c e s s i t y he t h e n f i n d s h i m s e l f i n
( p p . 86 - 8 7 ) ^of, e x p l a i n i n g away t h e a r g u m e n t o f l 8 JLp- 6 and i t s
a p p e a l t o o o c i ^ i s s u f f i c i e n t p ro o f t h a t G u lley has n o t g o t
l8 l- l8 1 j. r i g h t e i t h e r .
9.
I t s h o u l d be f u r t h e r o b s e r v e d t h a t C o r n f o r d p e r ­
f o r m s an a c t o f s u p e r e r o g a t i o n i n i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o h i s a n a ­
l y s i s o f t h i s p a s s a g e a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Forms
a r e o b j e c t s o f k n o w le d g e and a r e r e q u i r e d i f k n o w le d g e i s
t o be p o s s i b l e . A l l t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t s e t s o u t t o show i s
XT) t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n o^f k n o w le d g e w i t h p e r c e p t i o n c a n n o t
be d e f e n d e d Vc<xYa T^\v t o o traVT* k
a
n
d
(2 )
t h a t H e r a c le ite a n is m i s f a l s e ( e i t h e r w h o lly o r in p a r t ) .
To do t h e s e t h i n g s Form s a s o b j e c t s o f k n o w le d g e a r e i r ­
r e l e v a n t ; a t t h e m o s t i t i s p e r t i n e n t t o i n t r o d u c e Forms
a s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e n t i t i e s w h ic h make p o s s i b l e d i s c o u r s e
a b o u t p h en om ena a s a b o u t o t h e r t h i n g s .
I t i s o n ly in th e
a r g u m e n t o f I 8 I4. - I 8 6 , i f a n y w h e r e , t h a t Forms a s o b j e c t s o f
k n o w le d g e become r e l e v a n t : f o r t h e r e , when P l a t o a t t e m p t s
t o p ro v e d i r e c t l y t h a t p e r c e p t i o n i s n o t k now ledge, i t i s
a t l e a s t r e l e v a n t t o m en tio n t h a t o b j e c t s o f p e r c e p t i o n
c h a n g e w h e r e a s k n o w le d g e r e q u i r e s u n c h a n g i n g o b j e c t s .
For
t h i s r e a s o n H a c k f o r t h ’ s d e f e n s e ( " P l a t . Forms i n t h e T h t . "
pp. 5 ^-5 5 ) o f C ornford in th e fa c e o f R o b in so n ’s a t t a c k
( F o r m s and E r r o r " p p . 9 - 1 0 ) c a n n o t h e l p m a t t e r s :
th e c o r­
r e c t r e p l y t o R ob inson (th o u g h I t h i n k n o t even t h i s c o u ld
u l t i m a t e l y be d e f e n d e d ) i s t h a t i t ij> c o r r e c t t o i n f e r
fro m t h e r e f u t a t i o n o f H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
Forms b e c a u s e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f Forms a l o n e p r e v e n t s phenom­
e n a l p r o c e s s e s fro m b e i n g n o t a m e n a b le t o t r u t h and f a l s e ­
hood.
217),
10.
ACP p p . 2111.-218 ( c f . 3 1 5 -3 1 6 and n o t e s 216 an d
and " " P h i l o s o p h i c a l E co n o m y ," SPM p p . 9 - 1 0 .
11.
ACP p . 2 1 7 .
12.
Ib id .,
p. 218.
290
13* The i d e a seem s t o be t h e same a s t h a t w h i c h I s a i d
above T a y l o r so m etim es s l i p s i n t o a t t r i b u t i n g t o P l a t o i n
t h e T im a e u s (S e e p p . 2k, f f . a b o v e ) .
14.
AJP 1936 ( SPM p p . 1 - 1 2 ) ; c f . p p . 9 - 1 1 f o r t h e a r g u ­
m en t.
T h a t t h e v e r s i o n h e r e i s i n t e n d e d t o be t h e same a s
th a t in
ACP e x p o u n d e d a b o v e i s e v i d e n t fr o m , among
o th e r
th in g s,
th e i d e n t i t y o f th e fo rm u la tio n o fth ec o n c lu sio n
and o f t h e g e n e r a l l i n e o f a r g u m e n t .
15.
P. 9 .
1 6.
P. 10.
17 .
C f . P arm . I 6 0 e 1 -2 f o r a som ewhat s i m i l a r u s e o f
an a b s t r a c t n o u n f o r s o m e t h i n g n o t an a b s t r a c t q u a l i t y i n
th e re q u ire d sen se.
18.
T h i s same p o i n t r e f u t e s S h o r e y f s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
( AJP v o l . 10 ( 1 8 8 9 ) p . 6J4.) o f t h i s p a s s a g e .
S horey say s
t h a t ^ h e r e a n d In C r a t . l;3 9 - l|4 0 P l a t o a l l o w s t o h i m s e l f
T o io ^ to v i n d e s c r i b in g a phenom enal o b j e c t , b u t d e n ie s even
t h i s much t o H e r a c l e i t e a n s ; and a c c o r d i n g t o S . he i s n o t
i n c o n s i s t e n t i n so d o i n g , s i n c e he h a s , w h i l e t h e H e r a c l e i ­
t e a n s do n o t , t h e F orm s t o f a l l b a c k ^ o n .
H a v in g t h e ^ F o r m s
i s s u p p o s e d t o p e r m i t P l a t o t o s a y 0?^ oorr*
tA
(l8 2 c 1 0 ).
B u t a s we h a v e s e e n P l a t o a r g u e s t h p t t h e c o n ­
d i t i o n o f b e i n g a b l e t o s a y t h i s i s t h a t t h e s e curra n o t be
i n m o tio n i n e v e r y r e s p e c t .
So e v e n i f he h a s t h e Form s he
i s no m ore a b l e t o a l l o w h i m s e l f Toioor*v t h a n t h e H e r a c l e i ­
t e a n s a r e , i f he a g r e e s w i t h th e m t h a t no phenom enon i s s t a ­
b l e i n any r e s p e c t .
19«
C h ern iss r e f e r s to th e passage in h is d is c u s s io n s
o f t h e T h t . a r g u m e n t b o t h i n ACP ( p . 2 1 7 ) an d i n "Economy"
( SPM p . 1 0 ) .
C o r n f o r d ( PTK p . 9 9 ) e v e n q u o t e s i t .
C f. a l s o
S to e lz e l p. 70n.
For d e t a i l s o f th e s i m i l a r i t y o f A r is t o t l e * s
a r g u m e n t i n T . 5 a s a w h o le and P l a t o * s r e f u t a t i o n o f P r o t a g ­
o r e a n i s m an d H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , c f . C h e r n i s s ACP p . 2 1 7 .
20.
I n d e e d , he l i m i t s h i s c r i t i c i s m o f i t t o t h i s p o i n t ,
w h e r e a s a s I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d r l a t o g o e s f u r t h e r ( 183 a 8 b 5 ) an d p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e t h e o r y d o e s n o t r e a l l y i m p l y t h a t
a n y th in g i s b o th l a r g e and n o t - l a r g e ( e . g . ) , b u t i s d e n ie d
a l l u s e o f l a n g u a g e , t h i s on e i n c l u d e d .
21.
ACP p . 2 1 7 .
291
22.
C f. C a m p b e ll p .
l£ l,
etc.
23.
T h e s e f a c t s , and t h e f a c t t h a t no w h e re e l s e i n h i s
e x ta n t w ritin g s does P la to d i r e c t l y co n fro n t H e ra c le ite a n is m ,
h a v e p l a u s i b l y b e e n a r g u e d t o show t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l a f f i n i t y
o f T h e a e t e t u s and C r a t y l u s : C f. W a rb u rg , Zwel F r a g e n zum
K r a t y l o s , p p . 3 1 - 6 1 , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 55 f f .
C f. a l s o Owen,
" P l a c e o f t h e T i m a e u s " SPM p . 323 n . 3 .
2I4..
C f. [j.02a-c and lj_llb-c w h e re t h e d o c t r i n e s o f H e r a c l e i t u s and h i s f o l l o w e r s a r e p u t i n t e r m s w h i c h , i f r e g a r d e d
q u i t e s t r i c t l y , do make t h e t h e p r y q u i t p c l o s e t o t h a t o f t h e
T h e a e t e t u s ( c f . e s p . ^ i i l l b 8, TTcwt^s^
c I4.
s
i<aX v / £ v < £ < B u t i n t h e e t y m o l o g i e s
w h ic h a r e s u p p o s e d t o e x h i b i t d e p e n d e n c e on t h i s t h e o r y i t
i s o n l y t h e i d e a o f m o t i o n t h a t i s r e t a i n e d , and n o t t h a t o f
m o tio n o f a t h i n g i n e v e r y r e s p e c t .
L ikew ise th e f i n a l a r g u ­
m ent a g a i n s t H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m , w h i l e o b v i o u s l y aw are o f t h e
s e l f - r e f u t i n g c h a r a c t e r o f t h e t h e o r y ( c f . k-39^ 8 - e 3 * k-39e 7 LpLj-Oa ! | ) , d o e s n o t p r e s s t h e p o i n t b u t i n p t e a d g o e s on t o t a l k
a b o u t ,some h y p o t h e s i z e d ( c f . l | 39 c 7 0
TtoAAc(kis
o>/tv^TTv^ i ^ o c 1 - 3 , d 2 - 3 ) e n t i t i e s t h a t n e v e r c h a n g e i n an y
re sp e c t.
25.
C f. G u l l e y p p . 7 0 -7 6* C h e r n i s s " R e l a t i o n o f t h e
T i m a e u s " , SPM p . 3 5 6 .
G u l l e y a r g u e s , and C h e r n i s s a s s e r t s ,
t h a t i n t h e C r a t y l u s P l a t o g r a n t s t h a t phenom ena a r e i n
c o n s ta n t flu x ^
G u l l e y b a s e s t h i s v iew on two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
( l ) i n lj-39 ^ k t h e c l a u s e kcu 5 W * \ yT*Svx TravT*
appears
n o t t o mean ( c a r r y i n g f o r w a r d t h e fc’ o f d 3 ) "[we a r e n o t
e n q u i r i n g ] w h e t h e r a l l t h e s e seem t o be i n f l u x " , b u t r a t h e r
( t h o u g h t h i s i s g r a m m a t i c a l l y more d i f f i c u l t ) "an d a l l t h e s e
do seem t o be i n f l u x . "
The l a t t e r r e a d i n g , he t h i n k s ( p . 7 2 ) ,
m akes t h e c l a u s e a " s t a t e m e n t by P l a t o t h a t h e a c c e p t s t h e
d o c trin e o f flu x as tr u e fo r s e n s ib le s " .
But t h i s i s s i l l y . .
A l l P l a t o s a y s , e v e n a s s u m i n g t h e d o u b t f u l r e a d i n g G. w a n t s ,
i s t h a t f a c e s and o t h e r s u c h t h i n g s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y o b v i o u s ­
l y do c h a n g e , l e n d p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e f l u x d o c t r i n e ; i t i s
n o t s t r a i g h t o f f o b v io u sly f a ls e o r absurd to say t h a t th e y
are in flu x .
He d o e s n o t s a y he a c c e p t s t h e f l u x d o c t r i n e
f o r th e m , b u t o n l y t h a t h e f s n o t g o i n g t o d i s c u s s i t s a d e ­
q u a c y a s an a c c o u n t o f th e m .
( T h i s i s o n l y p r u d e n t , i f my
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t s o f C r a t . an d T h t . i s r i g h t ,
s i n c e i t r e q u i r e s more t h a n one S t e p h a n u s p a g e ( t h e e x t e n t
o f t h e C r a t y l u s 1 a r g u m e n t ) t o show why H e r a c l e i t e a n i s m i s
n o t t r u e o f phenom ena ( t h e T h e a e t e t u s r e q u i r e s m a j o r p o r t i o n s
o f t h i r t y p a c e s , l 5 2 - l o 3 , t o p r e p a r e f o r and p r o v i d e t h e
p ro o f)).
(2 )
I n h i s s u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t P l a t o shows t h a t
i f t h e f l u x d o c t r i n e i s t r u e t h e r e c a n be no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i s c o u r s e and no k n o w l e d g e .
But he i s n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith
m ak in g t h i s p o i n t a b s t r a c t l y :
he m e n t i o n s a s o b j e c t s o f
292
k n o w le d g e t h e F o rm s , w h i c h he a r g u e s m u s t t h e r e f o r e be a t
re st.
S u r e l y h i s r e a s o n f o r d o i n g t h i s i s t h a t he a c c e p t ­
ed t h a t p h eno m en a a r e i n f l u x and t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d
t h a t i f t h e r e w e re n o t some n o n - s e n s i b l e e n t i t i e s t h e r e
w o u ld i n f a c t be no k n o w l e d g e .
T h is i s a n o n - s e q u i t u r .
T hough i t i s t r u e t h a t P l a t o i m p l i e s (IjlpOb lp-c l ) t h a t k n o w l e d g e
m u s t be o f a b s o l u t e l y u n c h a n g i n g o b j e c t s , n o t h i n g i n t h e
argum ent r e q u i r e s o r even s u g g e s ts t h a t n o th in g e l s e th a n
t h e Form s i s u n c h a n g i n g i n a n y r e s p e c t o r f o r a n y t i m e .
P henom ena may v e r y w e l l b e e x e m p t fro m f l u x w i t h o u t y e t b e ­
i n g s u i t a b l e o b j e c t s o f k n o w l e d g e ; t h i s , i n f a c t , seem s t o
be t h e p o s i t i o n a t w h ic h P l a t o h a s a r r i v e d b y t h e en d o f
th e C r a t y l u s . N e ith e r o f G u lle y !s a l l e g a t i o n s , th e n , can
stan d c r it i c i s m :
P la to d oes n o t announce h i s a c c e p ta n c e
o f t h e f l u x t h e o r y f o r p h en o m e n a , and b y m a k in g Form s t h e
o b j e c t s o f k n o w le d g e he d o e s n o t i m p ly t h a t p h en o m en a a r e
in t o t a l flu x .
26.
I t i s o m itte d a lto g e th e r in C h e r n is s ’ p a ra p h ra se
o f th e s e c lo s in g pages o f th e C r a ty lu s , " R e la tio n o f th e
T i m a e u s " SPM p p . 3 5 6 - 7 .
C. w i s h e s t o s a y t h a t P l a t o a r ­
g u e s fr o m t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f k n o w le d g e t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f
F o rm s ; e v e n i f t h i s i s w h a t i s a r g u e d a t Ii39e 7 -IilpOc 1 , i t
i s p e rv e rs e to speak as i f t h a t ’s a l l th e p assag e a rg u e s .
I t a l s o a r g u e s fr o m t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i s c o u r s e , and n o t
m e re ly o f k n ow ledge.
27.
C f. S o p h . 2i^9b, w h ic h l i k e w i s e a s s e r t s t h a t t o
know a n y t h i n g i t m u s t b e a t r e s t i n some r e s p e c t s , and
d e n i e s t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f k n o w le d g e i s a l t o g e t h e r u n m o v in g
( c f . M o r a v c s i k , " B e in g and M eaning i n t h e S o p h i s t " , p p . 3 9 1 |0 ).
A lte rn a tiv e in te rp re ta tio n s of th is passage, lik e
t h a t w h ic h C h e r n i s s a n n o u n c e s w i t h s u c h e l a n , b u t d o e s n o t
a r g u e ( SPM p . 3 5 2 ) , f a i l f o r , among o t h e r s , t h e r e a s o n s
c i t e d by M o ra v csik a g a i n s t R o ss.
28.
U n l e s s e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e fo rm " n o t e v e n s u c h - a n d su ch ", u n d e rsto o d as
c a n b e em p lo y e d
( 183 b l p - 5 ) .
P r o f . Owen h a s s u g g e s t e d t o me ( w h a t C a m p b e ll
may b e h i n t i n g a t , p . 2 7 2 ) t h a t S o c r a t e s may h e r e h a v e i n
m ind p u r e l y n e g a t i v e u s e s o f l a n g u a g e , i . e . o n e s w h ic h a r e
n o t t a k e n i n a n y way t o d e l i m i t o r d e f i n e i n a n y p o s i t i v e
way a t a l l t h e s u b j e c t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .
293
NOTES TO CHAPTER IV
1.
C om pare, e . g . , t h e b r i e f r e m a r k s o f C a m p b e ll
( p p . l i i i - l i v ) , R y le ( " P l a t o ' s P a r m e n i d e s " , SPM p . 1 3 6 ) ,
and Owen ( " P l a c e o f t h e T i m a e u s " , SPM p . 32J4. ) , w i t h t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f C h e rn is s ( " R e la tio n o f th e T im aeus",
SPM p . 357 n . , and ACP p p . 2 3 5 - 6 , n . l i | l ) , C o r n f o r d (PTK
p . 108 - 109 )
and S t o e l z e l ( p p . 7 I4. - 7 6 ) .
2.
So C o r n f o r d , PTK p . IOI4.; c f . R uncim an PLE
and my com m ents b e l o w , n o t e 9 .
3.
357 n . ;
p.
15
So C h e r n i s s , " R e l a t i o n o f t h e T i m a e u s " , SPM p .
c f . S h o r e y , U n i t y p p . 33 -lj. ( 1 5 9 - 6 0 H
4.
C o r n f o r d PTK p .
109; c f .
5.
C f. C o r n f o r d PTK p p .
102,
a l s o R uncim an PLE p .
105,
15.
108.
6 . C h i e f l y t h e f a c t t h a t ( l 86 e ) he r e s t r i c t s t r u t h
t o t h e r e a l m w h e re t h e s o u l o p e r a t e s w i t h o u t an o r g a n , t h u s
d en y in g t h a t sen se p e r c e p tio n s are t r u e .
7.
T h r o u g h o u t h e r e I make no e f f o r t t o f o r m u l a t e my
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P la to w ith a t t e n t i o n to a l l th e n i c e t i e s
t h e s u b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n r e q u i r e s on i t s own a c c o u n t .
P l a t o o f c o u r s e w r i t e s i n a s i m i l a r l y r o u g h and r e a d y way.
8.
So C o r n f o r d ,
PTK p .
105.
9 . ’C t n c K O n e e d n o t mean " c o n t e m p l a t e " ( s o C o r n ­
f o r d , c f . R u n c im a n , l o c . c i t . ) : c f . <£-Tn<SKG-'Va<rOa
w h ic h i s
t h e a o r i s t u s e d t o m e e t t h e d e f e c t i n ^iricTKOTT^v J u s t a b o v e ,
18 5b, 5 .
C f . a l s o l 6 l d 5j a 7 , w here b o t h c-tt
and Q - X r komsIV a p p e a r and n e i t h e r means " c o n t e m p l a t e " .
10.
O n ly l 86 a
e v e n r e m o t e l y , i m p o r t s an i n t e r e s t i n how
we become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e K o w a ,
and i t s i m m e d ia t e s e ­
q u e l i s q u i t e e v i d e n t l y , c o n c e r n e d n o t w i t h how t o a c q u i r e an
a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h 4* 01 v a / b u t w i t h how t o em p lo y i t i n m aking
J u d g m e n ts a b o u t <\\
11.
T h i s much h a s b e e n s e e n by v a r i o u s w r i t e r s : t h u s
H orn ( P l a t o n s t u d i e n , N . F . , p p . 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 ) and T a y l o r (PMW
p. 339 )7 B u t t h e y seem n o t t o h a v e f o l l o w e d o u t v e r y f a r
i t s co n se q u e n c e s: c f . H o rn 's r e f e r e n c e to th e th e o r y o f
F o rm s , p . 23 9-
291+
12.
C f. C a m p b e l l , p .
13.
C f. p .
1 62 , C o r n f o r d ,
PTK p .
107n.
126 a b o v e an d n o t e 6 .
li+.
We h a v e now s e e n t h a t t h e r e a s o n i n g h e r e r e f e r r e d
to i s re a so n in g about th e e x is te n c e , s i m i l a r i t y , u s e f u ln e s s ,
e t c . o f o b j e c t s o f s e n s e : and n o t ( a s C h e r n i s s w o u ld h a v e
i t , " R e l a t i o n o f t h e T i m a e u s " , SPM p . 3 5 7 n . ) t h e a p p r e h e n ­
s i o n o f E x i s t e n c e , e t c ”! " b y t h e s o u l f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h o u t a n y
o r g a n o f s e n s e and r e a s o n i n g a b o u t t h e
15 .
S o , t h o u g h C o r n f o r d ( PTK p . 106) may b e r i g h t t o
o b j e c t t o C am p b ell* s c a l l i n g t h e K o t v * " n e c e s s a r y fo rm s o f
t h o u g h t , w h i c h a r e a s i n s e p a r a b l e fro m p e r c e p t i o n a s fro m
r e a s o n i n g " ( p . l i i i ) , t h e t h o u g h t C a m p b e ll was e x p r e s s i n g
t h e r e com es much c l o s e r t o P l a t o * s m e a n in g t h a n d o e s C o r n ­
f o r d w i t h h i s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Kotv'* a r e
t h i s f a c t , i f i t i s a f a c t , i s not to th e p o in t in
P l a t o *s a r g u m e n t .
NOTES TO CHAPTER V
1.
S h o r e y ( U n i t y , p . 5 5 ) h o l d s t h i s v iew i n a q u i t e
e x p l i c i t form .
C o r n f o r d s a y s (PTK p . 113) t h a t S o c r a t e s *
a r g u m e n t a t l 87 c - l 88 c i s " p s y c h o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n l o g i c a l .
. . . L o g i c i a n s m ig h t m a in t a i n t h a t t h e r e i s a f a l s e p r o p o s i t i o n
. . . w h i c h h a s a m ean in g , th o u g h I c a n n o t b e l i e v e i t .
W ith
t h a t we a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d , b u t o n l y w i t h j u d g e m e n t s and
s t a t e m e n t s t h a t c a n b e a c t u a l l y made and b e l i e v e d b y some
r a ti o n a l b e in g ."
S i n c e t h e w h o le d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e T h e a e ­
t e t u s d e v e l o p s an d a t t e m p t s t o a n s w e r t h e
argum ent c i t e d ,
C o rn fo rd o u g h t t o have co n c lu d e d f o r th w it h t h a t th e S o p h is t
i s a lto g e th e r a d if f e r e n t m atter.
I n f a c t , h o w e v e r , he d o e s
n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y d ra w t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e :
s t i l l , p a r t o f th e
tim e he do es t h i n k o f th e T h t . as d e a lin g w ith a p s y c h o ­
l o g i c a l p r o b l e m ( w h i c h he t h i n k s a r i s e s f o r a n v on e who a c - /
c e p ts " e m p i r i c i s t " a ssu m p tio n s ab o u t k n o w led g e ).
D i e s (Bude
e d i t i o n , p p . 31+0-11+2) f o l l o w s B r o c h a r d (De l * e r r e u r , p p . 1 6 2 0 ) i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s h a r p l y b etw een "d T F fT cu T tes s u b j e c t i v e s "
and " o b j e c t i v e s " , and f i n d s t h e T h e a e t e t u s c o n c e rn e d w ith
th e fo rm er e x c lu s iv e ly :
i t t r e a t s " l a d i f f i c u l t e fam euse:
p e u t - o n n e p a s s a v o i r ce q u * o n s a l t ? " ( D i e s p . 3 l+ 2 n .) .
Now
B r o c h a r d ( c f . p p . 1$ , 20). a t l e a s t f i n d s t h e T h t . *s h a n d l i n g
o f t h i s s o p h i s t i c a l p u z z le a p re lim in a r y sk irm is h in th e
same w a r w hose d e c i s i v e b a t t l e i s fo u n d i n t h e S o p h i s t ; b u t
h i s s u g g e s t i o n , t h a t t h e co m preeence o f su ch c o n t r a r i e s as
295
k n o w in g and n o t k n o w in g i s f i n a l l y e x p l a i n e d by t h e S o p h i s t 1s
d i s c u s s i o n o f b e i n g and n o t - b e i n g , i s c e r t a i n l y o b s c u r e .
In
t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y e v i d e n t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e tw o one
sh o u ld , in th e i n t e r e s t o f c l a r i t y , say ro u n d ly t h a t th e
p ro b lem s a r e d i f f e r e n t .
R o b i n s o n (" F o rm s and E r r o r " p . 2 6 )
f in d s t h a t th e S o p h is t does n o th in g to so lv e th e T h e a e t e t u s 1
p r o b l e m b e c a u s e t h e T h e a e t e t u s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h "how a
f a l s e s t a t e m e n t c a n g a i n a n y b o d y 1s c r e d e n c e " .
2.
T h i s v ie w was u p h e l d by J . L . A c k r i l l i n a p a p e r
r e a d i n November 196ij. t o t h e H a r v a r d P h i l o s o p h y C l u b .
C f.
a l s o h i s r e p l y t o Demos, J o u r n a l o f P h i l o s o p h y , f a l l 19614-.
3 . I assu m e t h e o r d e r o f c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e w o rk s h e r e
c o n c e r n e d t o b e E u th y d e m u s , C r a t y l u s , T h e a e t e t u s , and S o p h i s t .
The o n l y p r o b a b l e d i s a g r e e m e n t a n y one m i g h t h a v e w i t h t h e
o r d e r i n g i s o v e r t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f E u th y d em u s and
C r a t y l u s . M. W arb u rg h a s g i v e n a num ber o f a r g u m e n t s (some
g o o d , some b a d ) f o r m ak in g C r a t y l u s c l o s e i n d a t e t o T h e a e t e ­
tu s.
( Zwei F r a g e n zum K r a t y l o s , p p . 3 1 - 6 1 ) :
and t h e s t a t e
o f t h e p r o b l e m o f f a l s e b e l i e f i n t h e two d i a l o g u e s , a s w e l l
a s o t h e r m a t t e r s , shows T h e a e t e t u s t o be l a t e r .
I4..
The same p o i n t c a n be p u t n e g a t i v e l y a s w e l l ( a s
E u th y d em u s h i m s e l f p u t s i t i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d , 28 I4I) 3 - c 6 ):
to speak f a l s e l y i s t o say
fcvTa, t h i n g s t h a t a r e n o t ; b u t
w h a t i s n o t d o e s n o t e x i s t , and t o w h a t d o e s n ' t e x i s t y o u
c a n ' t do a n y t h i n g a t a l l ; s p e a k i n g i s d o i n g s o m e t h i n g ; h e n c e
you c a n ' t say w h a t 's f a l s e .
The p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n t i s more
u s e f u l f o r my p u r p o s e s .
5.
So S h o r e y r e g u l a r l y c a l l s i t , e . g . U n i t y p . 53S h o re y 's la m e n ta b le i n a b i l i t y to see t h a t b eh in d t h i s f a l ­
l a c y l a y a d e e p and d i f f i c u l t t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g , and t h a t i t
i s t h i s w h ic h t h e S o p h i s t f i n a l l y o v e r t u r n s , l e d him t o t h i n k
t h a t , s in c e th e argum ent i s a p a lp a b le f a l l a c y , P la t o c o u ld
a t a n y t i m e i n h i s c a r e e r h a v e e x p o s e d i t , by r e l y i n g on t h e
arg u m en ts o f th e S o p h i s t .
(So a l s o M rs. S p r a g u e , P l a t o 1s
Use o f F a l l a c y p p . 1^
and 17.), T h i s v iew i n t u r n l e a d s him
in to th e fo llo w in g e v id e n t m ista k e s:
( l ) P la to laughs a t
t h e a r g u m e n t i n t h e E u t h y d . ( 286 c - 2 8 7 c ) ( a s a l s o i n t h e C r a t .
Ii29 d J ) , w h ic h shows he was n o t b a f f l e d b y i t ( p . 5 5 ) ;
( 2 ) b e c a u s e P l a t o knows t h e r e i s a f a l l a c y i n t h e E u t h y d . ' s
a r g u m e n t he m u s t h a v e a l r e a d y known
what t o say t o r e f u t e
it.
I n f a c t t h e m a in
b r u n t o f S o c r a t e s ' humor i n t h e E u t h y d .
i s n o t t h e a r g u m e n t a t a l l , b u t D i o n y s o d o r u s who p r o p o u n d s
it:
D. p r e t e n d s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t ' s c o n c l u s i o n
i s t r u e b u t d o e s n o t l i m i t h i s b e h a v i o r i n t h e way he o u g h t
296
i f h i s v ie w w e re c o r r e c t ( c f . t h e o b j e c t i o n t o P r o t a g o r a s i n
T h t. I 6 l d - e ) .
What he r i d i c u l e s i s l a c k o f s e r i o u s n e s s and
n o t th e argum ent i t s e l f .
And i f t h i s shows t h a t P l a t o knew
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o be f a l s e (o n e o u g h t n o t t o h a v e t o s a y )
i t d o e s n ft f o l l o w t h a t he knew w h a t e x a c t l y was w rong w i t h
th e arg u m en t.
And i t c e r t a i n l y d o e s n ft f o l l o w t h a t he a l ­
r e a d y h a d f u l l y I n v ie w t h e t h e o r y o f m e a n in g he l a t e r r e ­
j e c t s I n t h e S o p h i s t , l e t a l o n e t h a t he h a d a l r e a d y w o rk e d
o u t t h e S o p h i s t r s new t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g ’ O n ly a mode o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h , l i k e S h o r e y ’ s , p a y s more a t t e n t i o n t o
s u r f a c e t h a n t o s u b s t a n c e ( e . g . i n f e r s fro m t h e p r e s e n c e o f
c e r t a i n e x p r e s s i o n s t o t h a t o f c e r t a i n a r g u e d d o c t r i n e s and
p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s ) c o u l d be c o n t e n t t o a r g u e on t h i s
s u b j e c t a s S h o r e y and h i s f o l l o w e r s d o .
6.
So M rs. S p r a g u e , p .
1$ .
7.
Hence T a y l o r ’ s d i s t i n c t i o n ( PMW 8 5 ) b e t w e e n ^
" m e r e l y v e r b a l " a m b i g u i t y b e t w e e n t h e two s e n s e s o f e \v a (
c i t e d a b o v e , an d a " m e t a p h y s i c a l " c o n f u s i o n (w h a t i s n o t =
" b la n k n o th in g " v s . what i s " o th e r th a n a g iv e n r e a l i t y " )
i s a s te p in th e r i g h t d ir e c tio n .
But T a y l o r n e v e r s u c ­
c e e d e d , i n my o p i n i o n , i n s h o w in g how t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n ­
f u s i o n i t s e l f m akes i t seem i m p o s s i b l e t o s p e a k f a l s e l y ; n o r
do I t h i n k t h a t t h e c o n f u s i o n i s t h e o n l y t h i n g p r e v e n t i n g
a (m o re ) c o r r e c t c o n c e p t i o n o f m e a n in g and t r u t h , a s T a y l o r
seem s t o t h i n k ( o p . c i t . p . 85* 3 89 -39 1* P l a t o :
th e S o p h ist
and t h e S ta te s m a n , p p. 66- 6 9 ).
8 . I n th e f o r e g o in g p a r a p h r a s e I have o m itte d th e
f l o u r i s h w h i c h some I n t e r p r e t e r s t h i n k D i o n y s o d o r u s a d d s a t,
t h e v e r y e n d , w h e re he a p p a r e n t l y a t t e m p t s t o r e d u c e ckvT
to n o t sp e a k in g a t a l l .
(So R o u s e , / S p r a g u e , J o w e t t ? ^ ajjid
M e r i d i e r , who t a k e 286b 6 , o Se ^
^ Y 0VTv t t 2 s cvv
c x v T ' t o c o n ta in th e re d u c tio n .)
I f t h i s i s th e c o r r e c t
r e a d in g o f th e l a s t s e n te n c e th e n D io n y so d o ru s p ro d u c e s t h i s
r e s u l t b y m eans o f t h e f a l l a c y o f secundum q u i d ( i . e . , b y
d e d u c i n g "X I s n o t s p e a k i n g " , w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n , fr o m "X
i s n o t sp e a k in g ab o u t Y "); I have o m itte d t h i s f i n a l s t e p In
t h e a r g u m e n t s i n c e i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r e a l l y d a m a g in g
c o n s e q u e n c e , a l s o s t a t e d b y D i o n y s o d o r u s (2 8 6 b 3 - 5 ) * i s t h a t
i n s u p p o s e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n one a c t u a l l y c h a n g e s t h e s u b j e c t .
The l a s t s t e p , i f I t i s r e a l l y t h e r e a t a l l , i s j u s t a d i a ­
le c tic a l flo u rish .
Ape I t , h o w e v e r , t a k e s t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e
i n s u c h a way t h a t t h i s l a s t s t e p i s a b s e n t frc^m t h e a r g u m e n t :
h e u n d e r s t a n d s s o m e t h i n g l i k e t o Tr^Yl** w i t h
(e a s ily
s u p p l i e d f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e ) , and t h e r e b y m akes t h e
c o n c lu s i o n o f th e argum ent c o rre s p o n d w ith th e c o n c lu s io n as
297
I have s t a t e d i t in th e t e x t .
However t h e f i n a l s e n t e n c e i s
ta k e n th e e s s e n c e o f th e argum ent re m a in s as I have g iv e n
it.
9.
That
i o\j o J \o \o r h e r e means ’’w hat ( h i s ) s e n ­
t e n c e o r s t a t e m e n t i s a b o u t ” and n o t ’’o b j e c t o f d i s a g r e e ­
m e n t” ( s o , a p p a r e n t l y , R ouse) o r " s u b j e c t o f d i s c u s s i o n ”
(Jso, a p p a r e n t l y , M e r i d i e r ' s ”d o n t i l s f a g i t ” and A p e l t f s
' v o n d e r d i e Rede i s t ” ) seem s t o me shown by t h e a p p e a r ­
a n c e o f t h e i d e n t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n a t C r a t . ij-32e 5 - 6 , w here
t h i s m e a n in g i s c e r t a i n l y I n d i c a t e d by t h e ^ c o n t e x t, and by
t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f <\ovo* ( s t a t e m e n t ) and TTpJwua j u s t b e l o w ,
E u th y d . 285e-286b.
10.
S uch a view seem s t o be i m p l i c i t i n v a r i o u s o f P r o ­
f e s s o r R y l e f s w r i t i n g s on P l a t o : c f . e . g . " P l a t o f s P a rm e n ­
i d e s " , SPM p p . 136 f f . and R. C. C r o s s ! s r e f e r e n c e s t o an
u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r o f h i s i n "Logos and Form s" p p . Ip33 f f *
11.
C f. J .
6I4, and S t e n z e l ,
M. E. M o r a v c s i k , "M eaning and B e i n g " p p . 6 2 P l a t o Ts Method o f D i a l e c t i c p . 126.
12.
C r a t y l u s Lj.3lt> 2 - c 1.
C o m p a ris o n o f t h i s p a s s a g e
w i t h o t h e r p l a c e s i n t h e C r a t . w here
a r e m ention ed
( 399 b , 14.21 b , e , 1^ 5 a , lj.26 e ) i n f a c t s u g g e s t s t h a t h e r e
d o e s n o t mean " v e r b s " b u t r a t h e r p h r a s e s , so t h a t
C r a t . l4-31 b - c w o u ld n o t be e v e n an a p p a r e h t p a r a l l e l t o t h e
S o p h i s t f s r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a s e n t e n c e h a v e b o t h a name and
a verb.
B u t e v e n i f i t d o e s h e r e m e n t i o n b o t h names and
v e r b s a s s e n t e n c e p a r t s i t d o e s n o t s h a r e t h e S o p h i s t 1s t h e ­
ory o f lo g o s.
F o r th e C r a t . , h a v in g m en tioned b o th p a r t s o f
t h e l o g o s c a n go on (l 432 e ) ~to g i v e an a c c o u n t o f t h e f a l s e ­
hood o f a l o g o s w h ic h u t i l i z e s o n l y o v o ja a t* : o b v i o u s l y no
e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f r o l e s has y e t been re c o g n iz e d .
I t w ould be i n c o n c e i v a b l e f o r P l a t o , a f t e r t h e e x p l i c i t t h e ­
o ry o f S oph. 2 6 le - 2 6 2 d , to speak o f a lo g o s as i f i t co n ­
t a i n e d o n l y n a m e s , a s C r a t . 3 8 5 c - d and l4-32 e d o , and t h e f u l l ­
e r s t a t e m e n t s o f I4.2l4.e-i 4.25 a and l431b - c do n o t h i n g t o m i t i g a t e
th e o m issio n t h e r e .
13 . One s h o u l d n o t h a v e t o p o i n t ®ut t h a t a t m o st one
p a s s a g e i n t h e m i d d l e p e r i o d d i a l o g u e s c l e a r l y s a y s any s u c h
t h i n g ( R e p . 5 9 6 a 6 - 7 ) , and i n o n l y one ( o r p o s s i b l y tw o )
o t h e r p l a c e s a r e Form s f o r common n o u n s a s s e r t e d a t a l l ( C r a t .
^8 Q a n d . some t h i n k , P haed o 103c f f . , c f . V l a s t o s , " P o s t ­
s c r i p t t o t h e T h i r d Man", SPM p . 2 9 0 n . ) .
B u t o l d dogmas
d ie hard.
298
11+. The e x a m p le I s b o r r o w e d fro m Chomsky, S y n t a c t i c
S t r u c t u r e s , p . 15.
15.
M o r a v c s i k seem s t o be t h e o n l y p e r s o n who h a s s e e n
th e p o in t a t a l l c l e a r ly : c f . h is
" B e in g and M ea n in g " p p .
61-65.
H i s w h o le a c c o u n t o f m e a n in g and f a l s e h o o d i n t h e
S o p h i s t ( p p . 5 ^ - 7 7 ) i s t h e m o st i n t e r e s t i n g , and on t h e
w h o le t h e b e s t , a n a l y s i s y e t p r o v i d e d .
16.
C o m m e n ta to rs h a v e h o w e v e r n o t g i v e n him c r e d i t f o r
even t h i s advance.
C o rn fo r d , f o r ex am p le, t h i n k s t h a t i t i s
o n l y t h e f a c t t h a t on h i s v ie w e v e r y s e p a r a t e word i s g i v e n
a d e s i g n a t i o n w h ic h m a rk s h i s a d v a n c e o v e r t h e s o p h i s t s .
C.
t h i n k s t h a t , as th e s o p h i s t s had th o u g h t t h a t a f a l s e s t a t e ­
m ent n e c e s s a r i l y h a d t o h a v e some m e a n i n g l e s s p a r t , some
p a r t w h ic h named n o t h i n g , a l l P l a t o n e e d s t o do i n o r d e r t o
r e f u t e th e m i s t o show how a l l s i g n i f i c a n t s e n t e n c e s , e v e n
f a l s e o n e s, have m e a n in g fu l p a r t s .
He t h i n k s t h a t t h e s o p h ­
i s t i s w o rried about th e a lle g e d ly f a ls e sta te m e n t "Theae­
t e t u s f l i e s " b e c a u s e t h o u g h he s e e s how " T h e a e t e t u s " h a s a
m e a n in g ( i t r e f e r s t o T h e a e t e t u s ) , he d o e s n o t s e e how
" flie s
d o e s ( s i n c e t h e r e i s no f l y i n g g o i n g on f o r i t t o
re fe r to ).
Hence he g i v e s t o P l a t o a t h e o r y ( p p . 3 1 3 - 3 1 7 )
w h i c h , w i t h o u t r e l y i n g u p o n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f p a r t s and
f u n c t i o n s i n a. l o g o s t o w h ic h t h e S t r a n g e r d e v o t e s s o much
a t t e n t i o n , p r o v i d e s a m e a n in g ( r e f e r e n c e ) f o r e a c h w ord o f
any s e n te n c e , even a f a l s e one.
T h i s i s a c h i e v e d by i n t r o ­
d u c i n g t h e t h e o r y o f Form s a s t h e m e a n in g s o f t h e c o n s t i t ­
u e n t w o rd s ( o r p e r h a p s o n l y t h e p r e d i c a t e - e x p r e s s i o n s ) o f a
sen ten c e.
(H ence h i s o f t - r e p e a t e d c l a i m t h a t w h a t i s e s s e n ­
t i a l t o P l a t o ' s s o l u t i o n o f t h e pro b lem o f f a ls e h o o d i s h i s
i n v o c a t i o n o f th e t h e o r y o f F o rm s.)
" T h e a e te tu s f l i e s "
t h u s h a s a m e a n in g :
" T h e a e t e t u s " nam es T h e a e t e t u s an d " f l i e s "
r e f e r s t o t h e Form o f F l y i n g , so t h e s e n t e n c e a s a w h o le
h a s a m eaning.
T h is i s supposed to s a t i s f y th e s o p h i s t.
B ut i t o b v io u s ly d o e s n ft .
For even su p p o sin g t h a t f o r th e
s o p h i s t " f l i e s " seem ed t o h a v e no m e a n in g u n l e s s i t r e f e r r e d
t o some c o n c r e t e a c t o f f l y i n g , t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f an a b ­
s t r a c t a c t o f f l y i n g , i n g i v i n g " f l y i n g " a m eaning, a l s o
m akes t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n t r u e .
I f each o f th e p a r ts
r e f e r s t o some t>v, t h e n t h e w h o le s e n t e n c e
t o ©*
and
is tru e .
The s o p h i s t f s p r o b l e m i s how t h e y c a n b e m e a n i n g ­
f u l an d y e t
|>n ovTK, and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
F orm s t o b e t h e m e a n i n g s o f some o f t h e w o rd s o f a s e n t e n c e
g e t s u s now here.
I n f a c t , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e a l w o rk o n l y now
b e g i n s : we m u s t show how t h e f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s a y s s o m e t h i n g
m e an in g fu l bu t f a l s e .
C ornford h im s e lf has b e l a t e d ly (p. 315)
299
t o b r i n g i n s u c h an e x p l a n a t i o n ( i n v o l v i n g t h e i d e a o f a
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s o f r e a l i t y r e f e r r e d t o ) b u t he
d o es so w ith o u t h a v in g p ro v id e d a p l a c e f o r i t i n h i s f o r ­
m a l a c c o u n t and w i t h o u t r e c o g n i z i n g e i t h e r i t s c r u c i a l im ­
p o r ta n c e f o r th e p roblem u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n o r th e o b v io u s ly
e s s e n t i a l p a r t i n h i s own e x p l a n a t i o n w h ic h t h e S t r a n g e r
g iv es i t .
As we s h o u l d e x p e c t , t h e n e c e s s a r y p a r t i s t h e
p a r t t h e S t r a n g e r e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s and t h e u n e s s e n t i a l
p a r t i s t h e p a r t w h ic h C o r n f o r d h a s t o i n v e n t f o r h im .
T a y l o r 1s a c c o u n t ( P l a t o :
t h e S o p h i s t and t h e S t a t e s m a n ,
p p . 66 f f . ) l i k e Cornford*~s d u t i f u l l y r e c o r d s t h e a n a l y s i s
o f t h e meaning o f a s e n t e n c e and t h e n p r o c e e d s t o i g n o r e i t .
M o r a v c s i k i s t h e o n l y w r i t e r known t o me who h a s f u l l y s e e n
t h e p o i n t o f t h e a n a l y s i s ( o p . c i t . , p p . 6 2 - 61}., 7 3 - 7 7 )*
17.
U s u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d " n o u n s " and " v e r b s ” , a s P l a t o * s
e x a m p l e s ( 262 b ) e n c o u r a g e one t o d o .
But th e f a c t t h a t
P l a t o o n l y m e n t i o n s n o u n s and v e r b s s h o u l d n o t be p e r m i t t e d
t o o b s c u r e t h e p o i n t he i s e v i d e n t l y m ak in g :
he c e r t a i n l y
d id n o t re g a rd "T h e a e te tu s i s snub-nosed" as m e a n in g le ss.
C f. n . 11 a b o v e .
18.
So C o r n f o r d ( PTK, p . 2 1 6 ) , T a y l o r ( P l a t o :
S o p h i s t an d t h e S t a t e s m a n , p . 67), R o ss ( p . I I 6 ) .
19.
" M eaning and B e i n g " , p p . 66
20.
Op. c i t . ,
th e
ff.
p . 71|.
21.
T h a t t h e "any* and a l l " m u st be s t r o n g l y em pha­
s i z e d i n t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d by
th e fo llo w in g v e r s io n o f th e u s u a l a n a ly s is (T a y lo r, P l a t o :
t h e S o p h i s t and t h e S t a t e s m a n , p . 6 7 ):
"Thus [ t h e f a l s e
p r o p o s i t i o n T a f f i r m s a b o u t h im *what i s n o t* a s t h o u g h i t
w ere.
B u t t h i s o n l y m eans t h a t i t a f f i r m s o f him 1s o m e t h i n g
t h a t i s , b u t i s d i f f e r e n t * fr o m w h a t i s . . . F l y i n g i s a
g e n u i n e a c t i o n ; t h e r e a r e c r e a t u r e s w h ic h f l y . . . b u t
[ f l y i n g ] i s d i f f e r e n t fr o m t h e a c t w h ic h he i s , ex h y p o t h e s i ,
i n f a c t now p e r f o r m i n g .
And t h i s i s e n o u g h t o make t h e
a s se rtio n fa ls e ."
But i t i s n * t :
t w i d d l i n g o n e * s th u m b s
i s a d i f f e r e n t a c t i o n fr o m s i t t i n g .
Does i t f o l l o w t h a t
T h e a e t e t u s , who i s s i t t i n g , i s n o t t w i d d l i n g h i s th u m b s ?
(The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a d d i t i o n " a n y and a l l ” , and t h e
f a c t t h a t n o th in g in P l a t o ’s account co rresp o n d sto i t
m i g h t i n f a c t l e a d one t o d o u b t w h e t h e r we c a n b e e x p e c t e d
t o p r o v i d e i t and i n t e r p r e t a s t h e u s u a l v iew d o e s . )
22.
E .g . th e f lu x th e o ry o f r e a l i t y ,
th e id e a t h a t
300
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e d e r i v a t i o n s o f w o rd s c a n l e a d t o
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f what t h e r e i s , c o n v e n tio n a lis m o f v a r io u s
s o r t s , a s w e l l a s t h e p r o b l e m s o f m e a n in g I s h a l l be
d isc u ssin g .
23.
C f. H e r m o g e n e s ’ c o m p l a i n t s on t h i s
score,
383 a
38 i^a 7 , lj.27d 3 - 7 .
21]..
E .g . by S h o rey (U n ity ,
pp.
5i]--55), M r s * S p r a g u e ,
25.
I t p r o b a b l y o n l y m eans " p h r a s e 11: c f .
n.
p . 17.
12 a b o v e .
2 6 . I h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d lj-32 d 11 —lp33 t> 5 a s s a y i n g som e­
t h i n g a b o u t t h e t r u t h and f a l s e h o o d o f s t a t e m e n t s ; i n my
v ie w f a l s e h o o d o f a l o g o s i s h e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e f a l s e
a t t r i b u t i o n o f nam es a r g u e d f o r a b o v e (lj.3 O-l4.3 i) > and an
a n a l o g y i s d ra w n b e t w e e n a f a l s e l o g o s , a s a b ad p i c t u r e o f
a f a c t , and a b a d nam e, a s a f a u l t y c o p y o f a t h i n g .
T h is
r e q u i r e s th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t once S o c r a te s d i s t i n g u i s h e s
b e t w e e n i n t r o d u c i n g a name and u s i n g i t (l4. 3 O-l4. 3 i ) He k e e p s
t h e tw o t h i n g s a p a r t , a t l e a s t t h r o u g h ij.33 b:
fo r as I con­
s t r u e l4.32e-l4-33/a > when S o c r a t e s s p e a k s o f a l o g o s a s s a y i n g
s o m e t h i n g kakCos he m eans t h a t i t s a y s s o m e t h i n g f a l s e , ^ n d
when h e s a y s t h a t a l o g o s may c o n t a i n jji'Yx
he m eans f a l s e n am es i n t h e s e n s e e x p l a i n e d i n lj.3 O-l4.3 i> v i z .
w ro n g ly a p p l i e d nam es.
But o th e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e s e
a d m itte d ly o b sc u re rem ark s a re p o s s i b le .
T hus i t m i g h t be
t h a t a f t e r I4.32 C, w h e re he t u r n s t o d i s c u s s n o t i n c o r r e c t u s e
b u t i n c o r r e c t f o r m a tio n o f nam es, S o c r a t e s d o es n o t r e t u r n
a t a l l to th e to p ic o f fa lse h o o d .
I n t h a t c a s e lj.32e-I|.33a
w i l l m e r e l y be e x t e n d i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f b a d l y made n a m e s ,
r e m a r k i n g t h a t i f some l e t t e r s o f a name a r e w ro n g , an d i t
n e v e r t h e l e s s re m ain s a copy o f th e t h i n g , th e n a f o r t i o r i
a l o g o s t h a t c o n t a i n s a name t h a t c o n t a i n s some i n c o r r e c t
l e t t e r s w i l l f a i l t o b e a s goo d a c o p y a s i t m i g h t h a v e
b e e n o f t h e t h i n g s i t n am es:
b u t t h i s w i l l h a v e no m ore
t o do w i t h f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s t h a n b a d l y i n t r o d u c e d nam es do
w i t h f a l s e nam es a s e x p l a i n e d i n l4.3 O-l 4.3 i .
A d iffe re n t in te r ­
p r e t a t i o n w o u l d ^ t a k e S o c r a t e s t o mean b y s e n t e n c e s w h ic h
s a y t h i n g s k<*kCJj s e n t e n c e s w h ic h a r e f a l s e , b u t w ou ld t a k e
him t o be m a k in g f a l s e h o o d d e p e n d e n t n o t ( a s i n lj.3 O-lj.3 i )
on t h e m i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f a name w i t h a p r e v i o u s l y f i x e d
m e a n in g b u t on t h e b a r e f a c t t h & t i t c o n t a i n s a b a d l y made
nam e.
On t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n S o c r a t e s i s s a y i n g i n lj-32 e
t h a t b e c a u s e nam es c a n h a v e i n c b r r e c t l e t t e r s t h e l o g o i
i n w h ic h t h e y o c c u r c a n h a v e i n c o r r e c t nam es ( v i z . a n y name
w ith any i n c o r r e c t l e t t e r s ) ; b u t , f o r g e t t i n g h i s d i s t i n c t i o n
301
b e t w e e n I n c o r r e c t u s e and I n c o r r e c t f o r m a t i o n , he now means
t o make l o g o i f a l s e by m ak in g them c o n t a i n an i n c o r r e c t l y
fo rm e d name.
Thus i f " h o r s e * i s a bad name f o r h o r s e s , any
s e n t e n c e i n w h ic h " h o r s e " i s u s e d i n t h e o r d i n a r y way w i l l
c o n t a i n a f a l s e name and so w i l l i t s e l f be f a l s e .
Now i t
seem s t o me t h a t e i t h e r o f t h e s e v ie w s i s p o s s i b l e (and t h e
l a t t e r c o u l d be e l a b o r a t e d t o make a r a t h e r f u l l t h e o r y o f
fa lse h o o d ).
B u t t h e y s h a r e one f e a t u r e w h ic h i n c l i n e s me
t o p r e f e r t h e one I h a v e a d o p t e d t o e i t h e r o f th em .
I n l\.32e
3-lj. S o c r a t e s s a y s t h a t ( a s he h a s e x p l a i n e d ) a name may c o n ­
t a i n y<v\ TT^C'v^kjwra
, and s i m i l a r l y a l o g o s may c o n ­
t a i n a |u^ TT^ojT'h kov ^ 0
<k .
Now on e i t h e r o f t h e two v ie w s
m entioned a ^
'irfo^K ov ovop* i s one w i t h some bad l e t t e r s ---one w h ic h
k<
m -tcu . And i t seems d o u b t f u l t o me t h a t i t
c a n mean t h i s .
I t i s c e r t a i n l y f a r more l i k e l y t h a t
ov/0|ji<rr<k h e r e m eans w h a t i t d o e s a t i | 31 b 2 - 5 , v i z . ,
names '
' w rongly a p p l i e d " .
And i n t h a t c a s e one i s j u s t i ­
f i e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g by "names w h ic h do n o t f i t " , names
w hich, as S o c r a t e s h a s e x p l a i n e d , a r e a p p l ie d ( l i k e p i c t u r e s )
t o t h i n g s t h e y do n o t r e s e m b l e .
27.
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o o b s e r v e t h a t b o t h h e r e and
t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p a r t o f t h e d i a l o g u e i t i s k n o w le d g e o f
o b j e c t s , and n e v e r o f t r u t h s w h ic h i s m e a n t .
C ornford
o c c a s i o n a l l y s l i p s i n t o t a l k o f k n o w le d g e o f t r u t h s ( c f .
PTK, p p . 1 3 7 - 8 ) , and e v e n comes c l o s e t o t r a n s l a t i n g t h e
same c o n c e r n i n t o P l a t o ' s t e x t ( 198 b l ) , b u t t h i s i s c e r ­
t a i n l y a m ista k e .
28.
Even t h i s k i n d o f m i s t a k e i s i n f a c t p o s s i b l e .
D r.
J e k y l l was Mr. Hyde, b u t he n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n ; i f he w e re
n o t , someone m ig h t s t i l l h a v e t h o u g h t t o h i m s e l f t h e v e r y
w o r d s " D r . J e k y l l i s Mr. Hyde .'" and b e e n wrong b u t n o t u n i n ­
te llig ib le .
T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s dufe, o f c o u r s e , t o t h e f a c t
t h a t t h o u g h a p r o p e r name d e s i g n a t e s an o b j e c t i t c a n be i n ­
t r o d u c e d on t h e b a s i s o f some d e s c r i p t i o n o r s e t o f d e s c r i p ­
tio n s.
Thus b e f o r e I d i s c o v e r ( o r t h i n k ) t h a t D r. J e k y l l and
Mr. Hyde a r e t h e same p e r s o n , Mr. Hyde i s f o r me a man o f a
c e r t a i n d e s c r ip tio n , w ith c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o c c u p a tio n s
e tc .
L i k e w i s e , m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s , f o r D r. J e k y l l .
What I
d i s c o v e r ( o r t h i n k I d i s c o v e r ) i s j u s t t h a t i t i s one and
t h e same man who m e e t s b o t h d e s c r i p t i o n s and e n g a g e s i n
b o th o c c u p a tio n s.
So e v e n when I h a v e two men i n mind and
g i v e th em t h e i r own p r o p e r nam es I n e e d n o t r e n d e r m y s e l f
u n i n t e l l i g i b l e b y s a y i n g t h a t t h e one i s t h e o t h e r .
But
i n g e n e r a l d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r names name d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e ,
and i f we assum e t h a t t h i s i s u n i v e r s a l l y s o , t h e n S o c r a t e s '
p rin c ip le is u n o b je c tio n a b le .
)
302
/
29* B u t n o t e 191d 5 ^ v v /o V jT ^ fv w h ic h d o e s n o t a p p e a r
to s o r t w e ll w ith p e r c e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e as th e so le so u rce
o f t h e i m p r i n t s on t h e wax:
t h o u g h no d o u b t someone c o u l d
o v e r - i n t e r p r e t i t s o a s t o make i t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t
su p p o sitio n .
30.
Hence n o t much w e i g h t s h o u l d be a t t a c h e d t o S o c r a t e s '
e x c u r s u s ( l 9 k c l - 195 b l ) on t h e ways i n w h ic h d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e q u a l i t y o f a p e r s o n f s wax b l o c k a f f e c t h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e
and t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t h e w i l l make m i s t a k e s and j u d g e
fa lse ly .
S i m i l a r l y one n e e d n o t be s u r p r i s e d t h a t t h e r e ­
m ark a t 197 d 7 -8 a b o u t t h e v a r i e t i e s o f b i r d s i n o n e ! s
a v ia r y h as n o t b een s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o n s tru e d as im p ly in g
some c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on P l a t o ' s p a r t o f t h e o b j e c t s o f know ­
l e d g e ( c f . C a m p b e l l , p . 199* C o r n f o r d PTK, p . 1 3 2 n . ) ; n o r
c a n t h e r e m a r k ( 198 a [}.-b 6 ) a b o u t how one man t e a c h e s a n ­
o t h e r h i s num bers, t h e r e b y s to c k i n g h i s a v i a r y w ith th e
k n o w le d g e o f t h e n u m b e r s , b e a r t h e w e i g h t w jiich C o r n f o r d
( p . 135 - 8 ) , m i s t r a n s l a t i n g
c\oi 8 ^Qv ( 198 b l ) ,
a t t a c h e s t o i t ( c f . a l s o S t o e l z e l , p p . 1 11-113* f r o m whom
C o r n f o r d seem s t o h a v e g o t t e n t h e i d e a ) .
A ll th e s e p assag es
a r e e l a b o r a t i o n s o f t h e m o d e ls f o r t h e i r own s a k e s and do
n o t fo rm
any p a r t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p ro b lem
about
f a l s e b e l i e f w h ic h P l a t o i n t r o d u c e s t h e s i m i l e s
to c l a r i f y
and s o l v e .
31.
I t i s a m u s in g t o o b s e r v e t h a t C o r n f o r d f i r s t a n ­
n o u n c e s ( p . 121j.) t h a t S o c r a t e s i n 193 b 9 f f * I s g o i n g t o
i l l u s t r a t e " t h e t h r e e c a s e s i n w h ic h m i s t a k e i s p o s s i b l e " ,
and t h e n ( p . 1 2 5 )* h a v i n g t r a n s l a t e d t h e p a s s a g e g i v i n g t h e
i l l u s t r a t i o n s , rem arks t h a t S o c r a te s has n o t i l l u s t r a t e d
one o f t h e t h r e e c a s e s and t h a t he w i l l go on i n 193 d 10 f f t o r e p e a t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f " t h e tw o c a s e s he h a s i l l u s t r a t e d "
32 .
C f.
P . F . S t r a w s o n I n d i v i d u a l s Ch.
33-
C f. 198d 1 - 8 .
3k-
C f . 199b 1 - 5 .
1.
35I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t h e r e a g a i n , a s a t 196 a - b ,
one i s n o t s u p p o s e d t o h a v e 12 i n mind when he h a s 7+5 i n
m in d ; h e g o e s i n h u n t o T 12 ( 199 b 2 - 3 ) o n c e h e a s k s h i m s e l f
how much 7 an d ~ 5 m ake.
36.
An i g n o r a n c e o f 11 , a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a r g u ­
m ent a b o v e s h o w s , i s s o m e t h i n g b y h a v i n g w h ic h i n a c t i v e u s e
one i s i n f a c t t h i n k i n g o f 11 b u t n o t k n o w in g i t f o r 11 : an
303
i g n o r a n c e i s j u s t t h e same a s a k n o w le d g e e x c e p t t h a t i f
one h a s t h e k n o w le d g e o f s o m e t h i n g t o h a n d he knows v/hat
t h i n g he i s t h i n k i n g o f .
C o r n f o r d i s t h e r e f o r e w rong t o
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e " p i e c e o f i g n o r a n c e " one i s s u p p o s e d t o
l a y h o l d o f i s t h e " f a l s e b e l i e f . . . t h a t £+ 7 = 11 " ( p . 138 ) .
C o r n f o r d f a i l s t o o b s e r v e t h a t i t i s k n o w le d g e o r i g n o r a n c e
o f o b je c ts th ro u g h o u t h e re t h a t i s in q u e s tio n , n o t p ro p ­
o s itio n s .
B u t he i s a t l e a s t c o n s i s t e n t , s i n c e he t h i n k s
t h e e - T r i f f r ^ ^ h no l e s s t h a h t h e
i<rr/v^o<r 6 vcu, a r e p r o p o s i t i o n a l i n fo rm ( p . 135)*
T h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no w a r r a n t
f o r t h i s in th e t e x t , how ever, th o u g h C o rn fo rd t r a n s l a t e s
some w a r r a n t i n t o i t a t 198 b 1.
(O d d ly e n o u g h he t a k e s
t o o a o t c o TT€f» 199 e 5 w i t h
j when he m i g h t h a v e e k e d
o u t h i s c a s e by t a k i n g i t , a s D i e s d o e s , w i t h
|*ot r a n s l a t i n g "now g e t t i n g a k n o w le d g e and now an i g ­
n o r a n c e a b o u t t h e same t h i n g " . ;
I t is easy to th in k th a t
t h e (r it *
ja* i
m u s t be k n o w le d g e o f t r u t h s a b o u t
t h e n u m b e rs ; b u t o n c e one s e e s ( a s C o r n f o r d o f c o u r s e d o e s
n o t : c f . h i s com m ents p p . 117-118 on t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f f a l s e ­
hoo d a s ciAAoSof /<*) t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y o f
m e a n in g b e i n g p u r s u e d h e r e f a l s e h o o d o f w h a t e v e r s o r t m ust
r e d u c e t o m i s t a k i n g one o b j e c t f o r a n o t h e r , t h e e m p h a s i s on
k n o w le d g e o f an o b j e c t w h ic h d o e s n o t come down t o a l o t o f
k n o w le d g e o f t r u t h s a b o u t i t i s s e e n t o be b o t h a p p r o p r i a t e
and n e c e s s a r y t o t h e a r g u m e n t .
37.
PLE, p . 3 7 . C f. a l s o R o b i n s o n , "Form s and E r r o r "
p . 5 , who s e e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t b u t i s w i l l ­
i n g t o b e l i e v e i t was a " s l i p " on P l a t o f s p a r t .
The r e c o g ­
n i t i o n t h a t t h i s argum ent s o r t s i l l w ith t h e o ld k n ow ledgeF o r m s /b e l i e f - e m p i r i c a l w o r l d d i c h o t o m y g o e s b a c k t o t h e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y a t l e a s t : S t o e l z e l (p . 1 1 3 n .) m e n tio n s ,
and a t t e m p t s t o r e b u t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o t h i s e f f e c t by
S c h u b a r t and von S t e i n .
3 8 . I t i s w o rth p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h i s f a c t w recks
C h e r n i s s 1 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e second h a l f o f th e d i a lo g u e .
He t h i n k s (" E co n o m y " , SPM p p . £ - 6 ) t o show t h e a r g u m e n t o f
t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e d i a l o g u e t o be a c o h e r e n t and w e l l a r g u e d d e f e n s e o f t h e o l d v i e w , s u c c i n c t l y a r g u e d i n T im .
£ l d - e , t h a t i f k n o w le d g e and t r u e o p i n i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t
t h e n t h e r e a r e Forms ( t h e o b j e c t s w i t h w h ic h k n o w le d g e i s
co n cern ed ).
The a r g u m e n t s o f T h e a e t e t u s 2 0 1 a - c and 2 0 8 e 210 a f i t t o g e t h e r t o show t h a t ( a ) k n o w le d g e an d t r u e b e l i e f
a r e d i s t i n c t and ( b ) s i n c e k n o w le d g e i s n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h
t r u e b e l i e f t r u e b e l i e f c a n n o t be a n " e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t " o f
k n o w le d g e e i t h e r , s o t h a t k n o w le d g e m u s t h a v e d i f f e r e n t o b ­
j e c t s fro m t h e o b j e c t s o f b e l i e f .
By so i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
30i|
s e c o n d a r g u m e n t C h e r n i s s m akes i t s c o n c l u s i o n d e p e n d e n t u p o n
t h a t o f t h e f i r s t ; b u t a s we h a v e now s e e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n
o f t h e f i r s t ( t h a t k n o w le d g e i s n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t r u e b e ­
l i e f ) i s d e p e n d en t upon th e assu m p tio n t h a t n o t a l l o b j e c t s
o f k n o w le d g e a r e F o rm s .
N e i t h e r a r g u m e n t n o r t h e sum o f
t h e two c a n , t h e n , b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s s h o w in g t h a t t r u e b e ­
l i e f and k n o w le d g e m u st b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n s u c h a way t h a t
b e l i e f and k n o w le d g e h a v e d i f f e r e n t " o b j e c t s " .
Of c o u r s e
t h i s d o e s n o t show t h a t P l a t o d i d n o t I n t e n d t o be a r g u i n g
a s C h e r n i s s r e p r e s e n t s h im ; b u t s i n c e one r e a s o n f o r a c c e p ­
t i n g t h a t he d i d so a r g u e i s ( a s C h e r n i s s o b v i o u s l y b e l i e v e s )
t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s o c o n s t r u e d i s a g o o d , c l e a r and c o h e r e n t
one, i t i s w o rth p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t i t i s n o t .
The a r g u m e n t
o f th e T h e a e te tu s m a n i f e s t l y does n o t prove th e " e p is te m o lo g ic a l n e c e s s ity o f th e I d e a s ."
39.
pp.
113 -m .
NOTES TO CHAPTER VI
1.
R u n c im a n , PLE p p .
th in k s th a t th ese clo sin g
l i n e s o f S o c r a t e s * e x p o s i t i o n do n o t fo r m p a r t o f t h e d re a m
t h e o r y , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e d re a m n o w h e re c o n t e m p l a t e s
g i v i n g an e x p l a n a t i o n o f l o g o s a s a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n o f
k no w led g e.
B u t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o t a k e t h i s r a d i c a l l i n e .
The d re a m c a n be p r o p o s i n g a t h e o r y o f l o g o s a s s o m e t h i n g
t o be ad ded t o t r u e b e l i e f a s w e l l a s e n u n c i a t i n g a n e c e s ­
s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f k n o w led g e .
( i t s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t
t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n R un cim an t h i n k s t h e d re a m i s p r o ­
d u c i n g [ t h a t " a c o m b i n a t i o n o f nam es i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e ­
r e q u i s i t e o f s i m p l e s b e c o m in g e i t h e r o p i n a b l e o r k n o w a b l e " ,
p . ijii] i s m i s g u i d e d .
S im p le s a r e i n th e c l e a r e s t p o s s i b l e
way ( 202 b 5 - 6 ) s a i d t o b e u n k n o w a b le ; w h a t i s known when
t h e i r nam es a r e p u t t o g e t h e r i s n o t t h e s i m p l e s t h e m s e l v e s
b u t t h e co m p lex es t h e y a r e p a r t s o f . )
2.
One may g r a n t , a s I h a v e d o n e , i n w h a t p r e c e d e s , t h a t
t h e d re a m i s p a r t l y ( a n d p e r h a p s b y i n t e n t i o n p r i m a r i l y ) a
t h e o r y o f e x p l a n a t i o n and n o t one o f l a n g u a g e o r s e m a n t i c s ;
n e v e r t h e l e s s i t c o n t a i n s t h e tw o r o o t i d e a s o f t h e a t o m i s ­
t i c th e o r y , (a ) d e s ig n a t io n as th e fu n d a m e n tal l i n g u i s t i c
a c t ( 201 e 2 - 202 a 2 ) , and ( b ) t h e i d e a t h a t t o s a y s o m e t h i n g
i s t o s t r i n g nam es t o g e t h e r (2 0 2 b 2 -5* 7> c f . 205d 8 ) .
On
a l l t h i s s e e b e l o w p p . 251 f f .
305
3.
E n d o r s e d b y C h e r n i s s , ’’P h i l o s o p h i c a l Economy” , SPM
p . 7 and a r g u e d b y C o r n f o r d , PTK p p . Il\2 f f .
l±.
"Form s and E r r o r ” , p p . H4. - I 6 . R o b i n s o n f s own p o s i ­
t i v e v ie w ( t h a t P l a t o i n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n shows t h a t h i s
v ie w t h a t k n o w le d g e a l w a y s i n v o l v e s l o g o s , t h o u g h he c o n ­
t i n u e s t o a c c e p t i t , i s i n c o h e r e n t so f a r a s he c a n t e l l )
seem s t o me n o t v e r y p r o m i s i n g .
The t h e o r y o f s i m p l e s and
c o m p l e x e s e x p o u n d e d i n t h e d re a m h a s t o be a t t r i b u t e d f i r m ­
l y t o P l a t o i n o r d e r f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o h a v e any
c h a n c e o f b e i n g r i g h t ( s i n c e i t m u st h a v e P l a t o a r g u i n g
t h a t t h e r e a r e some t h i n g s o f w h ic h t h e r e i s k n o w le d g e b u t
no l o g o s ) ; and I d o u b t t h a t P l a t o c a n h e r e be f i r m l y a d o p t ­
i n g an y t h e o r y o f l o g o s o r an y t h e o r y o f c o m p l e x e s .
C f.
H a c k f o r t h " P l a t o n i c F o rm s . . . ” , p . 5 7.
5 . D i ^ s o f f e r s an a r g u m e n t a} o n g t r a d i t i o n a l l i n e s t o
show how t h i s m i g h t be d o n e ( " L ’ l d e e de l a s c i e n c e d a n s
P l a t o n " , A u t o u r d e P l a t o n I I . lj.65-W>9. )
6 . C f. C o r n f o r d PTK p p .
1 6 2 - 3 , a s a g a i n s t p.
C h e r n i s s " P h i l o s o p h i c a l Econom y” , SPM p . 7 .
158;
7.
Hence C o r n f o r d ’ s r e m a r k s a t t h e end o f h i s d i s c u s ­
s i o n a r e u n i n f o r m a t i v e a t b e s t , and o b f u s c a t o r y a t w o r s t .
He w r i t e s :
"The P l a t o n i s t w i l l d ra w t h e n e c e s s a r y I n f e r e n c e .
T r u e k n o w le d g e h a s f o r i t s o b j e c t s t h i n g s o f a d i f f e r e n t
o rd er
n o t s e n s i b l e t h i n g s , b u t i n t e l l i g i b l e F o rm s.
. . .
S u ch o b j e c t s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y u n i q u e ; t h e y do n o t become and
p e r i s h o r change i n any r e s p e c t .
B ut a s n o t h i n g I n t h e
p r e c e d i n g a r g u m e n t s , o r C o r n f o r d 1s c o m m en tary on th e m , h a s
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c h a n g i n g n e s s and t e m p o r a l i t y o f s e n s i b l e
t h i n g s c a u s e s th e f a i l u r e o f th e a tte m p t t o d e f in e logos
f o r th em so a s t o p e r m i t k n o w le d g e o f th e m , t h e s e f e a t u r e s
o f F o rm s, t h o u g h no d o u b t c e n t r a l t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f
Forms I n g e n e r a l , do n o t t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a n y r e l e v a n c e t o
th e Is s u e s r a is e d .
C o rn fo rd s h o u ld c e r t a i n l y have e x p la in e d
how t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Form o f J u s t i c e , s a y , I s e t e r n a l and
u n c h a n g i n g p e r m i t s one t o g i v e a l o g o s o f i t w h ic h i s n o t
open t o th e k in d s o f o b j e c t i o n s r a i s e d a g a i n s t th e d e f i n i ­
t i o n s o f logos a c t u a l l y p ro p o se d .
8 . I do n o t c l a i m e v e n t o u n d e r s t a n d a t a l l w e l l t h e
supposed f o u r th s e n s e .
At one p o i n t ( p . 154-) i t a p p e a r s t o
b e d e f i n i t i o n t h r o u g h h i g h e r c o n c e p t s , a t a n o t h e r ( p p . llj. 1 2) I t a p p e a r s t o b e s o m e t h i n g n o t g i v e n o f an i n d i v i d u a l
(w h e th er th in g o r c o n c e p t) b u t, r a t h e r , o f a b e l i e f o r a
j u d g e m e n t , t h o u g h t h e n I t i s n o t a s e n s e w h ic h any one
c o u l d s u p p o s e was a p p r o p r i a t e e i t h e r ( e . g . ) t o t h e su n o r
to th e J u s t I t s e l f .
C f. R o b i n s o n , "Form s and E r r o r " ,
p p. 1^-15.
306
9.
" P l a t o ' s P a r m e n i d e s " , SPM p p .
an d S y l l a b l e s " , p . L\4 3 .
136 f f . ,
"L e tte rs
1 0 . 207 a 5 - 7 and 208 d 1-3 seem q u i t e a m b ig u o u s , and t h e
e x a m p l e s o f T h e a e t e t u s an d h i s nam e, t h o u g h t h e y seem t o
le a n to w a rd s lo g o s as a sim p le l i s t , a r e h a r d ly d e c i s i v e .
11.
C f. f o r e x a m p le C r a t . 14.25 a 1 - 3 , 14.31 b 2 - c 2 ( w h e r e ,
I h a v e a r g u e d a b o v e , p . 187 and n . 2 5 , t h e i n c l u s i o n o f
a s w e l l a s ovo^aatx i s i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l ) and S o p h.
263 d 1 —24- (w h e re v i r t u a l l y t h e same f o r m u l a i s u n d e r s t o o d
d i f f e r e n t l y , c f . p p . I 67 f f . ) .
I n t h e s e , and o t h e r , p l a c e s ,
i t i s a l w a y s a s t a t e m e n t w h ic h i s s a i d t o be a c o m b i n a t i o n ,
o r an i n t e r m i n g l i n g , e t c . , o f nam es ( o r names and v e r b s ) .
12.
I t s h o u l d b^ c a r e f u l l y n o t e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d c o n ­
c e p tio n of a
t r e a t s L t a s s o m e t h i n g o v e r and ab o v e
t h e e l e m e n t s and a s i t s e l f a p a r t l e s s s i m p l e t h i n g .
The
s u p p o s i t i o n i s n o t ( a s R y l e , " P l a t o ' s ' P a r m e n i d e s ' " , SPM
p p . 137 - 138 , t h i n k s ) t h a t a c o m p le x may c o n s i s t o f l e t t e r s
p l u s an o r d e r o f a r r a n g e m e n t , w h ic h i s t h e n a s much a s i m p le (th o u g h a sim p le o f a d i f f e r e n t k in d ) as th e l e t t e r s .
The new s i m p l e t h i n g ^ b e in g i n t r o d u c e d on t h i s s e c o n d u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g o f a C T v X M ^ i s n o t s o m e t h i n g o f w h ic h t h e s y l l a b l e
c o n s i s t s ; i t i s t h e s y l l a b l e i t s e l f ( c f . 205c 1 - 2 ) .
There
i s n o w h e re i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n a n y a l l u s i o n , so f a r a s I
c a n s e e , t o a n y n o t i o n o f an " o r d e r o f a r r a n g e m e n t " (Ryle)
t h a t h a s t o be a d d e d i n w i t h t h e l e t t e r s t o make a sylla­
b le .
( A r i s t o t l e ' s d i s c u s s i o n i n M e t . Z.10L|.lb 1 1 -3 3 i s t o
be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e T h t . ' s d i s c u s s i o n . )
13.
Of c o u r s e t h e P a r m e n i d e s t r e a t s t h e one a s s i m u l ­
t a n e o u s l y b o t h o f t h e s e , w h e r e a s i n t h e T h t . t h e two c o n ­
c e p tio n s are a lte r n a tiv e s .
But t h i s does n o t m a tte r f o r
my p u r p o s e s .
H4 . The u s e o f e x a m p l e s i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f l e t t e r s a s
an e x a m p le o f E x a m p le :
th e i d e n t i t y o f l e t t e r s in d i f f e r e n t
s y l l a b l e s an d a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i d e n t i t y m u st b e s e e n
i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s t a t e s m a n an d t h e
,
u s e o f w e a v i n g a s an e x a m p l e .
W h a tsis i t t o r e c o g n iz e
( i f , c f . 278 e 9 , t h i s i s t h e < tto i^^T o v w h ic h i s b e i n g l e a r n e d )
o r <ruv( K£«hka{ and < A *k a iT ik^ ( i f , c f . 282 b , t h e s e a r e b e i n g
l e a r n e d ) , f i r s t i n w e a v i n g an d t h e n i n s t a t e s m a n s h i p ?
In
w h a t c o n s i s t s the., i d e n t i t y o f ©■£paTK-/a i n t h e tw o? L e t t e r s
a r e e v i d e n t l y n o t b e i n g t h o u g h t o r a s s i m p l e e l e m e n t s i n an y
sense.
307
15.
I n " P l a t o ’ s ’ P a r m e n i d e s ’ " SPM p p . 137-138* t h e u n ­
p u b l i s h e d p a p e r r e f e r r e d t o b y R .C . C r o s s (" L o g o s and Form s
i n P l a t o " , p p . Ij.3lj.-I4.3 5 ) , and " L e t t e r s and S y l l a b l e s " , p . ljlj-3.
16.
Hence I r e j e c t Runciman* s i d e a ( PLE p p . lj.7-ij.8) t h a t
P l a t o i s a r g u i n g a g a i n s t t h e d re a m t h e o r i s t t o t h e p o s i t i v e
c o n c l u s i o n ( w h ic h h e t h e r e a f t e r r e g a r d e d a s an a c c o m p l i s h e d
d o c t r i n e ) t h a t t h e r e m u st be k n o w le d g e o f s i m p l e s .
For
t h i s t o f o l l o w P l a t o w ou ld h a v e h i m s e l f t o be f i r m l y com­
m i t t e d t o t h e d r e a m ’ s (a n d S o c r a t e s ’ ) v iew o f s i m p l e s and
com plex es.
And i t i s t o o much t o s a y t h a t he a c c e p t e d t h i s
v ie w .
I t i s c e r t a i n l y t o o much t o s a y , a s R uncim an d o e s ,
t h a t b o t h T h e a e t e t u s ,?.nd P h i l e b u s r e g a r d i t a s n e c e s s a r y
t h a t t h e r e d io u ld be k n o w le d g e o f s i m p l e s , on t h e g ro u n d t h a t
t h e y b o t h a d m i t k n o w le d g e o f l e t t e r s ( t h o u g h d i f f e r i n g a s t o
w h a t k n o w le d g e o f s u c h a s i m p l e comes t o ) .
F or as soon as
t h e P h i l e b u s s e e s t h a t k n o w in g a l e t t e r i n v o l v e s kn o w in g
how i t c a n com b ine w i t h o t h e r s i t no l o n g e r t r e a t s l e t t e r s
a s s i m p l e s i n an y s e n s e i n w h ic h t h e T h e a e t e t u s a r g u e s f o r
k n o w le d g e o f s i m p l e s .
17.
T h eta.
"TH" o f c o u r s e s t a n d s f o r t h e s i n g l e G re e k l e t t e r
18 ^ C f. 2£9c J: TfcAA* . .. <*£ Sv' 3
< n - o i) ( S 3 o >
v io v
r ( j-
G'vJj w j^ h 202e 1 - 2 ,
\<ft<
ro « A A ft-
19.
R y le h a s made much o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n
l e t t e r s a s s o u n d s and l e t t e r s a s c h a r a c t e r s , a r g u i n g t h a t
when P l a t o u s e s t h e l e t t e r s - s y l l a b l e s a n a l o g y he m u st h a v e
p r i m a r i l y i n mind l e t t e r s a s s o u n d s ( c f . ’’L e t t e r s and
S y lla b le s").
R y l e ’ s r e a s o n f o r t h i n k i n g so i s J u s t t h a t
t h e p o i n t he t a k e s P l a t o t o be m ak in g b y t h e u s e o f t h e
a n a lo g y i s o n ly c o r r e c t , o r c o r r e c t w ith o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n ,
o f s p o k e n l e t t e r s and n o t o f w r i t t e n .
F o r t h e w r i t t e n "T"
i s a d i s c r e t e and s e p a r a b l e p a r t o f t h e w o rd s i n w h ic h i t
a p p e a r s , r e c o g n i z a b l e and t e a c h a b l e on i t s own; w h e r e a s
t h e so u n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y ”T" d o e s n o t t u r n up on i t s own
and i s n o t a s e p a r a t e and d i s c r e t e p a r t o f t h e s p o k e n w ord .
And a c c o r d i n g t o R y l e , P l a t o ’ s p o i n t i n a p p e a l i n g t o t h e
l e t t e r and s y l l a b l e a n a l o g y " i n e x p o u n d i n g h i s l o g i c a l o r
s e m a n t i c v i e w s " ( p . ij.3 1 )* i s t o show t h e " i n d 6 p e n d e n t v a r i a b i l i t y - w i t h o u t - s e p a r a b i l i t y o f t h e m e a n in g s o f p a r t s
o f s e n t e n c e s " ( p . iq.5l)• w o r d s , s i n c e t h e y a r e p a r t s o f
s e n t e n c e s , h a v e m e a n in g d e r i v a t i v e l y fro m t h e m e a n in g s o f
t h e s e n t e n c e s i n w h ic h t h e y o c c u r , and t h e r e f o r e a s m e a n in g ­
f u l e l e m e n t s a r e a s p e c t s and n o t p a r t s :
th ey are " d is tin g u is h a b le s, not d e ta c h a b le s;
a b s t r a c t a b l e s , n o t e x t r a c t a b l e s " ( p . k3&)
308
And j u s t a s t h e o n l y I n d e p e n d e n t l y e x i s t i n g l i n g u i s t i c u n i t s
a r e c o m p le te s t a t e m e n t s , so t h e a n a lo g y P l a t o r e l i e s upon
t o make t h i s p o i n t s h o u l d t a k e l e t t e r s a s s o u n d s , w h e re t h e
e l e m e n t s h a v e no i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e , r a t h e r t h a n a s c h a r a c ­
t e r s , w h e re t h e y o b v i o u s l y do e x i s t s e p a r a t e l y .
T hat P la to
d oes n o t have l e t t e r s as p h o n e tic ele m e n ts r a t h e r th a n w r i t ­
t e n c h a r a c t e r s s p e c i a l l y i n m ind i s c l e a r fr o m many p a s s a g e s
( e . g . , T h t . 2 0 6 a ) and h a s b e e n shown b y G a l l o p ( P h i l . R e v .
1963 p p . 36 I4. - 3 6 9 ) .
a ls o f a i l s to n o tic e t h a t P l a t o 's
" l o g i c a l and s e m a n t i c a l v i e w s " w e re d i f f e r e n t i n C r a t y l u s
and T h e a e t e t u s fr o m S o p h i s t , P o l l t l c u s and P h l l e b u s , s o t h a t
t h e u s e o f t h e a n a l o g y s h o u l d n o t i n a n y c a s e be u n i f o r m . )
The a b s e n c e o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p h o n e t i c e l e m e n t s and
w r itte n c h a r a c te r s su g g e sts th a t R y le ’s e s tim a tio n o f th e
p o in t P la to u s e s th e an a lo g y t o i l l u s t r a t e in h i s l a t e r d i a ­
lo g u es i s f a u l t y .
I t h i n k P la to n e v e r w ish es t o deny t h a t
le tte rs
w h e th e r p h o n e tic o r w r i t t e n
c a n b e m et w i t h on
t h e i r own, n o r t h a t w o rd s and t h e i r m e a n i n g s e x i s t e x c e p t
as p a r ts o f se n te n c e s o r p ro p o s itio n s .
H is p o i n t i s , r a t h e r ,
t h a t t o know one o f t h e s e t h i n g s i s n o t t o know m e r e l y w h a t
one m i g h t l e a r n b y l o o k i n g v e r y c l o s e l y a t i t 8ls i t a p p e a r s
i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t t o know a b o u t i t w h a t k i n d s o f f u n c t i o n s
i t p e r f o r m s and how i t d i f f e r s fr o m o t h e r s i m i l a r t h i n g s
p e rfo rm in g d i f f e r e n t f u n c ti o n s .
W h ereas R y le t h i n k s
and
w ish es P la to to t h i n k
t h a t s y l l a b l e s as in d ep en d e n t e x i s ­
t e n c e s a r e p r i o r t o l e t t e r s , w h ic h n e v e r o c c u r e x c e p t i n
s y l l a b l e s , P l a t o i n f a c t s e e s th e m a s i n t e r c o n n e c t e d and
n e i t h e r i n R y l e ' s way p r i o r t o t h e o t h e r .
20.
C f . R o b i n s o n , "Form s and E r r o r " , p p . 1 7 - 1 9 ( r e p l i e d
t o by H a c k f o r t h , " P l a t o n i c F o r m s " , p . 5 8 ) .
But n o tic e t h a t
I h a v e n o t s a i d t h a t t h e Form s a r e n o t r e l e v a n t t o a n y and
a l l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h a t k n o w le d g e i s , b u t o n l y t h a t t h e y
a r e n o t n e c e s s a r y t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n r a i s e d
by th e T h e a e te tu s .
21.
C f . w h a t t h e P o l i t i c u s s a y s ( 2 7 7 a - 2 8 7 a ) a b o u t -^
T'Sv
( 2 ? 8 d 1)':
t h i s p a s s a g e d e s e r v e s much
c lo s e r ^ a tte n tio n th an i t u s u a lly re c e iv e s .
One o f t h e s e
<rTo/X^K I s ( I t h i n k , c f . n o t e llj. a b o v e )
w h ic h
o c c u r s b o t h i n w e a v i n g and i n s t a t e s m a n s h i p .
Knowing
Xr^(a a s i t o c c u r s i n w e a v i n g i s no s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n :
cf.
2 8 l b 7 -d 3 . L i k e w i s e h a v i n g g o t t e n t o know
in
t h e c a s e o f w e a v i n g s e r v e s a s a g u i d e t o g e t t i n g t o know
i n t h e c a s e o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p ( c f . 287 b f f . ) i n
n o t h i n g l i k e t h e way h a v in g p r a c t i s e d p i c k i n g o u t a man
fr o m a g r o u p o f t h r e e o t h e r s h e l p s one t o p i c k him o u t
fr o m a g r o u p o f 2 0 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CITED
Certain periodicals and collections are referred to in the
Bibliography by abbreviation, as follows:
AJP
CQ
PR
SPM
American Journal of Philosophy
Classical Quarterly
Philosophical Review
Studies in Plato's Metaphysics, ed. R.E. Allen,
New York 19^5*
Bischoff, H. "Die drei A ovjol des Theaitet", Hermes 74 ( 1 9 3 9 ) .
Brochard, V. De l'erpeur, Paris 1897*
"Protagore et Democrite", Etudes de phllosophie anclenne
et de phllosophle moderne, Paris 1912.
Campbell, L. The Theaetetus of Plato, ed. 2, Oxford 1883 .
Cherniss, H.F. Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the
Academy, Baltimore 1944"^
"The Philosophical Economy of the Theory of Ideas", AJP
57 (1936); reprinted in SPM.
"The Relation of the Timaeus to Plato's Later Dialogues",
AJP 78 (1957); reprinted in SPM.
Review of R. Robinson, Plato's Earlier Dialectic, AJP
68 (1947).
Chomsky, N. Syntactic Structures, 's-Gravenhage 19&2.
C o r n f o r d , F. M~ P l a t o ' s C o s m o lo g y , London 1937*
Plato's Theory of Knowledge, London 1935Cross, R.C.
"Logos ai^d ^orms in Plato", Mind 63 (1954).
Dies, A. Platon:
Theetete (vol. 8 , pt. 2 of Oeuvres
Completes, Sude), ed. 3 , Paris 1955*
"L'ldee de la science dans Platon", Autour de Platon,
vol. I I , Paris 1927.
Gallop, D. "Plato and the Alphabet", PR 72 (1963 ).
G r o t e , G.
P l a t o a n d t h e O t h e r C om panions o f S o c r a t e s , v o l .
I I , London 1865.
Gulley, N. Plato's Theory of Knowledge, London 1962 .
Hackforth, R” "Platonic Forms In the Theaetetus", CQ n. s.
7 (1957).
—
Horn, F. Platonstudlen, 2te Reihe, Vienna 1904.
J a c k s o n , Hi
" P l a t o 's L a te r T heory o f I d e a s " , J o u r n a l o f
P h i l o l o g y 1882-1882.
Lutoslawski, W. The Origin and Growth of Plato's Logic,
London 1 8 9 7 .
Moravcsik, J.M.E.
"Being and Meaning in the Sophist", Acta
Phllosophlca Fennlca, Fascicle 14 (19&2"K
310
Owen, G .E .L .
"The P l a c e o f t h e T im a e u s I n P l a t o f s D i a l o g u e s " ,
CQ n . s . 3 ( 1 9 5 3 ) ; r e p r i n t e d I n SPM.
'"T P r o o f i n t h e
9 The J o u r n a l o f H e l l e n i c
S t u d i e s 77 p a r t 1 ( 1 9 5 7 ) ; r e p r i n t e d i n SFMT
R o b i n s o n , ft.
"F orm s and E r r o r i n P l a t o f s T h e a e t e t u s " , PR 59
(1950).
—
R o s s , W.D.
P l a t o f s T h e o r y o f I d e a s , O x fo r d 1951*
R u n c im a n , W.G~
P l a t o f s P a t e r E p l s t e m o l o g y , C a m b rid g e 1 9 6 2 .
" P la to * s P a rm e n id e s ", H arv ard S tu d i e s i n C l a s s i c a l
P h i l o l o g y 6 I4. ( 1 9 5 9 ) ; r e p r i n t e d I n SPftL
R y l e , G"]
" L e t t e r s and S y l l a b l e s i n P l a t o " 7 PR 69 ( i 9 6 0 ) .
" P l a t o f s P a r m e n i d e s " , Mind I4.8 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; r e p r i n t e d i n
SPM.
S h o r e y , P.
De P l a t o n l s I d e a r u m D o c t r l n a , M unich 18814..
In tr o d u c tio n In P la to :
t h e R e p u b l i c (L o e b C l a s s i c a l
L i b r a r y ) , L ondon 1 9 3 0 .
" R e c e n t P l a t o n i s m i n E n g l a n d " , AJP 9 ( 1 8 8 8 ) .
"The T im a e u s o f P l a t o " , AJP 10 ("188 9 ) .
The U n i t y o f P l a t o Ts T h o u g h t , C h i c a g o 1903Skemp, J . B .
P l a t o 1s S t a t e s m a n , London 195 2.
S p r a g u e , M r s . R . K.
P l a t o ' s Use o f F a l l a c y , London 1 9 6 2 .
S te n z e l, J.
P l a t o ' s M ethod o f D i a l e c t i c , t r . D . J . A l l a n ,
O x fo r d 1 9 4 0 .
S t o e l z e l , E.
D ie B e h a n d l u n g d e s E r k e n n t n l s p r o b l e m s b e l
P l a t o n , fta lT e I 9 O8 .
S tr a w s o n , P .F .
I n d i v i d u a l s , London 1 959 .
S u s e m ih l, F.
D ie G e n e t l s c h e E n t w l c k e l u n g d e r P l a t o n l s c h e n
P h i l o s o p h i e , I , L e i p z i g 1B55.
T a y l o r , A. E.
A C om m entary on P l a t o ' s T i m a e u s , O x fo r d 1 9 2 8 .
P la to :
t h e Man and h i s Work, London 1 9 2 6 .
P la to :
t h e S o p h i s t an d t h e S t a t e s m a n , L ondon 1 9 6 1 .
V l a s t o s , G.
" P o s t s c r i p t t o t h e T h i r d M an"7 PR 65 ( 1 9 5 6 ) ;
r e p r i n t e d i n SPM.
W a rb u rg , M. Zwel F r a g e n zum K r a t y l o s , B e r l i n 1929*