Introductory Management (MGT200)
Project Topic: Key skills required for the contemporary manager
Submitted By: Abdullah Ayman Mohamed Mohamed
Student ID:
Student Name:
210567
Abdullah Ayman Mohamed Mohamed
205283
Mohamed Mahmoud Ahmed Kamel
212213
Eyad Wael Hassan Eshba
212905
Esraa Alaa
213153
Mahmoud Haitham
Submitted to: Dr. Safwat Adel
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Table of Contents:
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………4
1.1. main key skills for a contemporary a manager…………………………………………4
2. Planning……………………………………………………………………………………….4
2.1 Planning process……………………………………………………………………………4
2.2. The Elements of Planning…………………………………………………………………5
2.2.1. Objectives………………………………………………………………………………..5
2.2.2. Actions………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2.3. Resources……………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2.4. Implementation………………………………………………………………………5
2.3. Planning in public policy…………………………………………………………………5
3. Problem solving………………………………………………………………………………6
3.1.Problem-solving strategies………………………………………………………………6
3.1.1. Being open-minded……………………………………………………………………6
3.1.2. Right attitude…………………………………………………………………………..6
3.1.3. Being analytical………………………………………………………………………..7
3.1.4. Asking the right questions…………………………………………………………….7
3.1.5. Get creative…………………………………………………………………………….7
3.2.Conclusion of problem solving……………………………………………………………7
4.Communication……………………………………………………………………………….7
4.1.Benefits of Effective Management Communication…………………………………….8
4.1.1. Improved Team Morale……………………………………………………………….8
4.1.2. A Culture of Effective Communication………………………………………………8
4.1.3. Clear Purpose and Direction…………………………………………………………..8
4.1.4. Higher Levels of Productivity…………………………………………………………8
4.1.5. Early Resolution of Problems…………………………………………………………8
4.1.6. Sustainable Savings…………………………………………………………………….8
5.Decision-making………………………………………………………………………………9
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5.1.Decision-Making Studies in Patient Management………………………………………9
5.2.Decision-Making in Organizations………………………………………………………9
5.3.Decision-making techniques………………………………………………………………9
5.3.1.Group…………………………………………………………………………………9
5.3.1.1.Voting-based methods………………………………………………………………10
5.3.2. Individual………………………………………………………………………………10
6.Delegation……………………………………………………………………………………11
6.1.The process of delegation…………………………………………………………………11
6.1.1.Allocation of duties……………………………………………………………………11
6.1.2.Delegation of authority………………………………………………………………11
6.1.3.Assignment of responsibilities…………………………………………………………12
6.1.4.Creation of accountability..……………………………………………………………12
6.2.Principles of delegation…………………………………………………………………12
6.2.1Principle of result expected…………………………………………………………12
6.2.2.Principle of parity of authority and responsibility…………………………………12
6.2.3.Principle of absoluteness of responsibility…………………………………………12
6.2.4.Principle of unity of command………………………………………………………12
6.2.5.The scalar principle……………………………………………………………………13
6.2.6.Principle of exception…………………………………………………………………13
7.mind map……………………………………………………………………………………14
8.Reference list…………………………………………………………………………………15
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1. Introduction:
Key skills required for the contemporary manager can be defined as certain attributes or abilities
that an executive should possess in order to fulfill specific tasks in an organization. They include
the capacity to perform executive duties in an organization while avoiding crisis situations and
promptly solving problems when they occur. Management skills can be developed through
learning and practical experience as a manager. The skills help the manager to relate with their
fellow co-workers and know how to deal well with their subordinates, which allows for the easy
flow of activities in the organization. Good management skills are vital for any organization to
succeed and achieve its goals and objectives. A manager who fosters good management skills is
able to propel the company’s mission and vision or business goals forward with fewer hurdles and
objections from internal and external sources.
1.1. Main key skills for a contemporary manager:





Planning
Problem solving
Communication
Decision making
Delegation
2. Planning:
Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It is the
first and foremost activity to achieve desired results. It involves the creation and maintenance of a
plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests
to measure someone’s capability of planning well. As such, planning is a fundamental property of
intelligent behavior. An important further meaning, often just called "planning", is the legal context
of permitted building developments. Also, planning has a specific process and is necessary for
multiple occupations (particularly in fields such as management, business, etc.). In each field there
are different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency and effectiveness. An important,
albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to forecasting. Forecasting can
be described as predicting what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future
should look like for multiple scenarios. Planning combines forecasting with preparation of
scenarios and how to react to them. Planning is one of the most important project management and
time management techniques (Hayek, 1994.). Planning is preparing a sequence of action steps to
achieve some specific goal. If a person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary
time and effort of achieving the goal. A plan is like a map. When following a plan, a person can
see how much they have progressed towards their project goal and how far they are from their
destination.
2.1 Planning process:
three-step result-oriented process for planning (J. Montana and H. Charnov. 2008):


choosing a destination.
evaluating alternative routes.
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
deciding the specific course of the plan.
In organizations, arranging can be gotten to be an administration handle, concerned with
characterizing objectives for a future course and deciding on the missions and assets to attain those
targets. To meet the objectives, supervisors may create plans such as a trade arrangement or
marketing arrangement. Arranging continuously incorporates a reason. The reason may include
the accomplishment of certain objectives or targets. Major characteristics of arranging in
organizations include Planning increments the proficiency of an organization. Planning diminishes
risks. Planning utilizes with the greatest effect the accessible time and resources The concept of
arranging in organizations includes recognizing what an organization needs to do by utilizing four
questions: "where are we nowadays in terms of our commerce or procedure arranging? Where are
we going? Where do we need to go? How are we progressing to get there?
2.2. The Elements of Planning:
The planning function requires to make decisions about four fundamental elements of plans
(Mintzberg, H. 1994):
2.2.1. Objectives:
Objectives are statements of future conditions, that a manager hopes to achieve. All sets of
objectives have three characteristics: priority, timing, and measurement. The prase priority of
objectives implies that at a given time, accomplishing one objective is more important than
accomplishing others. Time dimensions imply that an organization's activities are guided by
different objectives, depending on the duration of the action being planned. Compelling arranging
requires the estimation of targets. An assortment of estimations exists to measure destinations
within the eight regions recommends: advertise standing, developments, efficiency, physical and
money-related assets, productivity, director execution and duty, laborer execution, and state of
mind, social responsibility.
2.2.2. Actions:
Actions are the means, or specific activities planned to achieve the objectives. The terms strategies
and tactics refer to planned courses of action.
2.2.3. Resources:
Resources are constraints on the course of action. It also involves budgeting - identifying the
sources and levels of resources that can be committed to the courses of action. Management can
select the type of budget that best suits the planning needs of the organization.
2.2.4. Implementation:
Implementation involves the assignment and direction of personnel to carry out the plan. The three
approaches to implementation are authority, persuasion, and policy.
2.3. Planning in public policy:
Public policy (Abrams, M. The next fifteen years. Lecture given to the 1968 National Conference
of the Town and Country Planning Association. October 23 and 241968, London) planning
includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, and spatial planning. In many countries, the
operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as "planning" and the
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professionals who operate the system are known as "planners". It is a conscious as well as subconscious activity. It is "an anticipatory decision-making process" that helps in coping with
complexities. It is deciding the future course of action from amongst alternatives. It is a process
that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions. It is a selection of missions,
objectives, and "translation of knowledge into action." A planned performance brings better results
compared to an unplanned one. A manager's job is planning, monitoring, and controlling. Planning
and goal setting are important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization.
Planning includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation. Planning gives more
power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and
who should do it. This bridges the gap from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The
planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order. A well-planned
organization achieves faster goals than the ones that don't plan before implementation.
3. Problem solving:
Problem-solving is an essential skill. A good manager must have the ability to tackle and solve the
frequent problems that can arise in a typical workday. Problem-solving in management involves
identifying a certain problem or situation (Jerrold R. Brandell 1997) and then finding the best way
to handle the problem and get the best solution. It is the ability to sort things out even when the
prevailing conditions are not right. When it is clear that a manager has great problem-solving skills,
it differentiates him from the rest of the team and gives subordinates confidence in his managerial
skills.
3.1.Problem-solving strategies:
Problem-solving strategies are the steps that one would use to find the problems that are in the way
to getting to one's own goal. Some refer to this as the "problem-solving cycle"( Bransford, J. D.;
Stein, B. S 1993).
3.1.1. Being open-minded:
Possibilities might be high that the leading cause of the problem that you are facing is something
else. So, you have to keep an open mind about accepting that the actual reason is different from
the one you thought at first, which provides you with more options for answers and solutions.
Being open-minded also gives you good leverage in understanding a more wide range of problems.
It also allows you to observe and notice the significant changes in an organization, eventually
affecting the long run. This is a skill that needs to be furnished with time to connect and
communicate for better engagement.
3.1.2. Right attitude:
Approaching the problems needs a strategy and the right attitude. If you do not have the right idea
and knowledge about what has given rise to the situation, then you won’t be able to tackle it. You
must keep your attitude positive about accepting how the situation came into play and how you
will implement the solutions. Try not to panic when you try to solve a problem. Instead, try to calm
yourself, organize a team meeting, and come up with clarifications about the situation. As a leader,
when you have the right and confident attitude, you can only expect a positive response from your
team, and you will be able to instill good morale.
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3.1.3. Being analytical:
Good problem-solving abilities need excellent analytical skills. And to enhance your analytical
skills, you need to be more patient and observant about everything going around in the organization
.With time and practice, the analytical skills can be sharpened so that you can tackle problems with
much more authority and proper facts .This skill set is beneficial for both employers and employees
as it will widen your already acquired skills.
3.1.4. Asking the right questions:
Now, this is one thing you need to be good at to pinpoint the direct cause of the problem you are
facing at work. And you can only get better at it with practice. Try to indulge yourself in solving
problems often and asking the right questions to help others in the team. When you become more
proficient in it with time, you are more likely to ask valid questions closer to the problem. And try
not to focus more on the questions that are more driven towards the problem. Rather try to question
the solutions so that the problem-solving process becomes manageable. Increasing productivity
and boosting morale.
3.1.5. Get creative:
There has been a significant increase in research surrounding creative and innovation leadership
(Dinh, Jessica E.; Lord, Robert G.; Gardner, William L.; Meuser, Jeremy D.; Liden, Robert C.;
Hu, Jinyu (February 2014)). Creativity has no boundaries, and it is one of the essential skills that
one can have. When you have that creative edge in your team, problem-solving becomes much
easier as creative thinkers can find suitable ways out of the box. Well, that can motivate you to get
creative and come up with your new ideas. It might not be easy, but it is a gradual process. You
have to become more open to ideas and benefit from the endless possibilities of being more
creative.
3.2.Conclusion of problem solving:
Well-defined problems allow for more initial planning than ill-defined problems (Schacter, D.L.
et al. (2009)). Problems can become your Achilles heels in the path of progress. Be it in your
everyday life or the work-life. It can hinder your growth if you do not have the necessary skills to
tackle the problem well. But skills can be learned, and with time, you can hone those skills. It all
comes down to the fact of how much you are invested and eager to learn continuously. Persevere
and become a problem solver so that you can put in place effective problem-solving abilities in
your organization.
4.Communication:
Possessing great communication skills is crucial for a manager. It can determine how well
information is shared throughout a team, ensuring that the group acts as a unified workforce. How
well a manager communicates with the rest of his/her team also determines how well outlined
procedures can be followed, how well the tasks and activities can be completed, and thus, how
successful an organization will be.
Communication involves the flow of information within the organization, whether formal or
informal, verbal or written, vertical or horizontal, and it facilitates smooth functioning of the
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organization. Clearly established communication channels in an organization allow the manager
to collaborate with the team, prevent conflicts, and resolve issues as they arise. A manager with
good communication skills can relate well with the employees and thus, be able to achieve the
company’s set goals and objectives easily. (direct science).
4.1.Benefits of Effective Management Communication:
4.1.1. Improved Team Morale:
A team kept in the dark, with no regular updates from their manager or platform to discuss their
concerns will become unmotivated and unproductive. Having regular one-to-one conversations
with your team, or at least nurturing a team culture where you are available for a chat when needed,
reassures your team that you’re working with them. Improves Team Morale.
4.1.2. A Culture of Effective Communication:
If you’re communicating clearly and often, listening actively, and asking relevant questions, you
are planting the seeds for others to behave in a similar style. Scheduling a group communication
skills workshop is a fantastic way to create consistent practices and skills within the team.
However, as with any cultural shift in a team or business, it will be the leadership commitment
that sustains the change. Inspire By Example.
4.1.3. Clear Purpose and Direction:
Your regular updates will drive the direction of the team’s actions. As a result of your
communications, the team will understand exactly what is expected of them. There will be less
confusion and more action. Clear Purpose and Direction.
4.1.4. Higher Levels of Productivity:
More purposeful action leads to a higher level of productivity. Your culture of communicating
clearly and active listening will create streamlined processes, and better accuracy in all activities.
4.1.5. Early Resolution of Problems:
No manager likes to encounter challenging situations within their team. Unfortunately, it is
unavoidable, even in the most harmonious of teams. The ability to identify potential areas of
conflict or poor performance early on, and lead these difficult conversations with ease and
professionalism can ensure that the issue is resolved with minimum disruption. Early Resolution
of Problems.
4.1.6. Sustainable Savings:
If you glance back at the benefits above, you’ll see that all are contributing to less time and
resources wasted, happier workers, and a mentality of productivity. Your team and in turn, your
business - will save time and costs, with a culture that is both sustainable and rewarding
(professional development).
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5.Decision-making:
In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decision making) is regarded
as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several
possible alternative options, it could be either rational or irrational. Decision-making process is a
reasoning process based on assumptions of values, preferences and beliefs of the decision maker.
[ Herbert Alexander Simon (1977)]. Every decision making process produces a final choice, which
may or may not prompt action.
5.1.Decision-Making Studies in Patient Management:
Decision analysis provides a method to help the physician choose a course of action consistent
with his personal judgments, to relate his preferences to costs, and to act more systematically.
Decision analysis uses personal probabilities and deals with the relation of values and costs of
patient management procedures. The physician is able to introduce intuitive judgments directly
into the decision problem by using a numerical scale to express his uncertainty about a symptom
or a diagnosis. His preference for consequences of diagnoses and treatments can be numerically
scaled as utility values.( Lee B. Lusted, M.D).Signal-detection theory has been used to develop
performance criteria for radiologists' assistants and radiologic systems. The essential feature of the
analysis, an operating characteristic curve, is a means for separating the detectability of a signal, a
sensory process, from all other factors involved in the decision process.( Google Scholar)
5.2.Decision-Making in Organizations:
project governance provides the management structures, policies, processes, roles and
responsibilities which help ensure that



Organizations choose projects which support their business strategy.
The objectives of business investment are translated into the right project objectives,
activities and tasks
The project management structures and processes are in place such that implementation
can be managed in line with objectives and business expectations.
All of this is fundamentally about the organizational capability to make the right decisions at key
points in the life of a project — where what is ‘right’ is a complex and uncertain matter on which
multiple stakeholders will hold many different views. The effectiveness of project governance can
therefore be seen in terms of how it supports organizational decision making around projects.
(Alderman, N., Ivory, C., McLoughlin, I. and Vaughan, R., 2005.).
5.3.Decision-making techniques:
Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories: group decision-making
techniques and individual decision making techniques. Individual decision-making techniques can
also often be applied by a group.
5.3.1.Group:
Consensus decision-making tries to avoid "winners" and "losers". Consensus requires that a
majority approve a given course of action, but that the minority agree to go along with the course
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of action. In other words, if the minority opposes the course of action, consensus requires that the
course of action be modified to remove objectionable features.
5.3.1.1.Voting-based methods:
Majority: Requires support from more than 50% of the members of the group. Thus, the bar for
action is lower than with consensus. See also Condorcet method.
Plurality: Where the largest faction in a group decides, even if it falls short of a majority.
Score voting (or range voting): Lets each member score one or more of the available options,
specifying both preference and intensity of preference information. The option with the highest
total or average is chosen. This method has experimentally been shown to produce the lowest
Bayesian regret among common voting methods, even when voters are strategic. Verma, Dem
(2009) It addresses issues of voting paradox and majority rule. See also approval voting.
Quadratic voting: Allows participants to cast their preference and intensity of preference for each
decision (as opposed to a simple for or against decision). As in score voting, it addresses issues of
voting paradox and majority rule.
Delphi method: Is a structured communication technique for groups, originally developed for
collaborative forecasting but has also been used for policy making. Landeta, Jon (2006-06-01).
Dotmocracy: Is a facilitation method that relies on the use of special forms called Dotmocracy.
They are sheets that allows large groups to collectively brainstorm and recognize agreements on
an unlimited number of ideas they have each wrote. Diceman, Jason (2010)
Participative decision-making: Occurs when an authority opens up the decision-making process
to a group of people for a collaborative effort.
Decision engineering: Uses a visual map of the decision-making process based on system
dynamics and can be automated through a decision modeling tool, integrating big data, machine
learning, and expert knowledge as appropriate.
5.3.2. Individual:
Decisional balance sheet: listing the advantages and disadvantages (benefits and costs, pros and
cons) of each option, as suggested by Plato's Protagoras and by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin,
Benjamin (1975).
Expected-value optimization: choosing the alternative with the highest probability-weighted
utility, possibly with some consideration for risk aversion. This may involve considering the
opportunity cost of different alternatives. See also Decision analysis and Decision theory.
Satisficing: examining alternatives only until the first acceptable one is found. The opposite is
maximizing or optimizing, in which many or all alternatives are examined in order to find the best
option. Acquiesce to a person in authority or an "expert"; "just following orders".
Anti-authoritarianism: taking the most opposite action compared to the advice of mistrusted
authorities.
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Flipism: e.g. flipping a coin, cutting a deck of playing cards, and other random or coincidence
methods – or prayer, tarot cards, astrology, augurs, revelation, or other forms of divination,
superstition or pseudoscience.
Automated decision support: setting up criteria for automated decisions.
Decision support systems: using decision-making software when faced with highly complex
decisions or when considering many stakeholders, categories, or other factors that affect decisions.
6.Delegation:
Delegation is one of the core concepts of management leadership. is the assignment from a
manager to a subordinate to carry out specific activities. It is the process of distributing and
entrusting work to another person (Schermerhorn, J., Davidson, P., Poole, D., Woods, P., Simon,
A., & McBarron, 2017).
6.1.The process of delegation
According to Dr. Kanthi Wijesinghe, Senior Lecturer, National Institute of Education, "Delegation
begins when the manager passes on some of their responsibilities to a subordinate. Responsibility
is the work assigned to an individual."( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy.
(2018)). Delegation is strongly dependent on a supervisor's ability to communicate, motivate and
understand individual preferences and differences (Treher, E., Piltz, D., & Jacobs, S. (2011)). The
process of delegation involves ensuring that a task and appropriate employee have been selected.
The process of delegation requires ‘preparation, initiation, implementation, and closure’."( Rani,
S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)). The tasks assigned to an individual
should not include those which are a traditional part of their role. While a manager is able to
delegate authority to carry out a give task, ultimate responsibility is not transferred. This means
that delegation involves a process of sharing, which may include ‘authority, power, influence,
information, knowledge, or risk’."( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018))
. This builds trust and morale between managers and subordinates. The internal and external
environment of an organisation is often characterised by many interfering factors. Some of these
include ‘too much urgency, inexperience, and lack of trust’."( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran,
N., Kuppusamy. (2018)). In order to minimise the effect of these factors, a clear delegation
protocol should be developed and followed within an organisation.
The process of delegation does not not always follow a conformed structure, nor is it
straightforward, however there are a number of key aspects which are generally involved. The
generalised process of delegation involves some combination of the following:
6.1.1.Allocation of duties:
the delegator communicates to their subordinate the task which is to be performed. Resources are
provided and a time limit is informed.
6.1.2.Delegation of authority:
In order for the subordinate to perform the task, authority is required. The required authority is
granted to the employee when the task is delegated.
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6.1.3.Assignment of responsibilities:
When authority is delegated, the subordinate is assigned with the responsibility of this task. When
someone is given the rights to complete a task, they are assigned with the corresponding obligation
to perform. Responsibility itself cannot be entirely delegated; a manager must still operate under
equal responsibility to the delegated authority.
6.1.4.Creation of accountability:
At the completion of the delegation process, it is essential that the manager creates accountability,
meaning that subordinates must be answerable for the tasks which they have been authorized to
carry out.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).
6.2.Principles of delegation:
There are a number of guidelines, in the form of principles, which are essential to understanding
and implementing the process of delegation. The principles of delegation include:
6.2.1Principle of result expected:
The authority delegated to an individual subordinate needs to be adequate to ensure their ability to
accomplish the results expected of the task (Marvin, S. (2011)). Prior to delegation, the manager
needs to know the purpose of such delegation and the results which they expect from it.( Rani, S.,
Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).This means that goals, standards of
performance and targets need to be clearly outlined to direct the actions of the subordinate to
completion of the task (Marvin, S. (2011)).
6.2.2.Principle of parity of authority and responsibility:
This principle outlines the concept that authority and responsibility co-exist and must go hand-inhand ( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).This means that the authority
which is delegated to an employee must be consistent and equal to that of their responsibility
(Marvin, S. (2011)). "Responsibility without authority is meaningless"(Marvin, S. (2011)). Each
individual in an organization requires the necessary authorities in order to effectively carry out
assigned tasks; disparity should not exist between the responsibility imposed on and the authority
granted to an employee in order to carry out a task (Marvin, S. (2011)).
6.2.3.Principle of absoluteness of responsibility:
The principle of absoluteness of responsibility states that delegation of responsibility is not
possible.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).Superiors are unable to
relinquish, through the process of delegation, responsibility for the tasks and activities assigned to
their subordinates, for they are the ones who delegated this authority and assigned the duty(Marvin,
S. (2011)). Responsibility is absolute, with a manager remaining accountable for the actions of
their subordinates.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).
6.2.4.Principle of unity of command:
According to the principle of unity of command, employees should only have one supervisor, who
they report to, are granted authority by and receive orders from.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C.,
Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).This employee should be solely accountable to their direct
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supervisor. This is associated with increased employee efficiency and less role conflict within an
organization(Marvin, S. (2011)).
6.2.5.The scalar principle:
The scalar principle asserts that there are clear and formal lines of hierarchal authority within an
organization.[8] This hierarchy reflects the flow of authority and responsibility. It clearly outlines
to managers and subordinates, who has the power to delegate authority and to whom they are
answerable to.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).
6.2.6.Principle of exception:
This principle asserts that employees should be given complete freedom to fulfill their
responsibilities within the purview of their authority.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran, N.,
Kuppusamy.( 2018)).Managers should therefore refrain from interfering with the day-today work
of their subordinates, even if minor mistakes are recognized.( Rani, S., Renugadevi, C., Ravindran,
N., Kuppusamy. (2018)).This level of control leads to more efficient results. In some exceptional
cases, managers are able to interfere on matters deviating significantly from the norm; in this case
the authority delegated to the subordinate may even be withdrawn (Marvin, S. (2011)).
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objectives
Implementation
Planning
7.Mind map:
Resources
Being open-minded
Actions
Key skills
Right attitude
Problem solving
Being analytical
required for a
contemporary
Asking the right questions
manager
Team Morale
Get creative
Clear Purpose
Communication
Productivity
Studies in Patient
Resolution of Problems
Management
Individual
Decision making
In Organizations
Principle of parity of authority
Decision-making
and responsibility
techniques
absoluteness of responsibility
Principle of unity of command
The scalar principle
Delegation
Group
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Principle of exception
8. Reference list




(Abrams, M. The next fifteen years. Lecture given to the 1968 National Conference of
the Town and Country Planning Association. October 23 and 241968, London)
(Barron's Management book fourth edition, Authors: Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H.
Charnov 2008)
(Hayek, F. 1944/1994. Chicago: University of Chicago).
(Mintzberg, H. "Strategic Planning." Harvard Business Review, Jan.-Feb. 1994):

Alderman, N., Ivory, C., McLoughlin, I. and Vaughan, R., 2005. Sense Making as a
Process within Complex Service-Led Projects. International Journal of Project
Management, 23 (5), pp. 380–5.

Bransford, J. D.; Stein, B. S (1993). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving
thinking, learning, and creativity (2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.





Decision. Prentice-Hall.
Diceman, Jason (2010). Dotmocracy Handbook. Jason Diceman. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9781451527087.
Dinh, Jessica E.; Lord, Robert G.; Gardner, William L.; Meuser, Jeremy D.; Liden,
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