Texture is…
… Under normal circumstances, we expect of a
text that it should be coherent
(i.e. have continuity of sense)
and cohesive
(i.e. display connectivity between its surface
elements), …
… Under normal circumstances, we expect of a
text that it should be coherent
(i.e. have continuity of sense)
and cohesive
(i.e. display connectivity between its surface
elements), …
1
What is coherence?
• “more than a series of grammatical
sentences lined up one after another”
(Bardovi-Harlig 1990: 45)
• an overall focus / unity of ideas
• development of ideas
• continuity of sense
• appropriate paragraphing
2
How to create coherence:
•
•
-
Logical bridges
Maintaining a clear line of thought
Verbal bridges
Use of pronouns, synonymous words and
transitional words
- Repetition of key words
3
Practical Steps for Coherence
Can each sentence be link to the sentence that follows or
one that follows shortly thereafter?
In order to answer this question, do the following:
-Begin from the second sentence in your writing;
-Circle the word or phrase in the second sentence that links
it to a word or phrase in the first sentence;
-Draw a circle around the word or phrase in the first
sentence that forms the connection;
•
Draw a line between the two circles;
•
Then show the connection between the second and
third sentence in a similar manner; and
•
Continue on through the entire piece of writing noting
the links between sentences, between paragraphs and
between sections of the writing.
Copyright©1998, English Language Centre, HKPU. All rights reserved.
4
Study the excerpt below. What techniques have
been used to make the paragraph flow/coherent?
Litigation is the most costly and time-consuming
way of resolving business disputes. Every year
billions of dollars and hours are spent on
litigation. It is estimated that yearly, Hong Kong’s
top companies spend an average of 5000 hours
on such matters and an average of $10 million.
This situation is certainly not ideal for most
companies …
5
6
When the link is unclear or not there, it may be
because there is a break in the coherent flow
of your writing.
If this happens, you will need to revise. This may
involve:
• Adding or changing a transition or conjunction;
• Repeating a key term or phrase;
• Making a referent clearer;
• Creating parallel structures; and
• Changing tenses and time words.
7
What is cohesion?
• Cohesion refers to connections between sentences.
(surface forms of text: e.g. use of pronouns,
connectives, etc.)
• In a cohesive paragraph, each sentence is related to
the next, and separate sentences work together to
make a unified whole.
• Cohesive sentences and paragraphs seem to grow
and depend on each other.
• Sentences and paragraphs that are not cohesive
seem disjointed and often leave the reader confused.
8
Recognizing Cohesive Paragraphs
Lacks Cohesion:
Captain James Cook discovered the island of Hawaii in 1779. Mauna Kea,
on Hawaii, is the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Cook might have noticed
the many mountains on the island as he sailed into Kealakekua Bay. The
island also has five major volcanoes. Mauna Loa, another mountain on the
island, is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Kilauea is the most
active volcano on earth. It continues to enlarge the land that makes up this
largest island in the Hawaiian chain. The volcano sends forth lava
continuously (The Longman Writer’s Companion 32).
• What makes this paragraph awkward or "bumpy?"
9
Cohesive:
In 1779, Captain James Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay and
discovered the island of Hawaii. As he entered the bay, did Cook
notice the many mountains on the island? Perhaps he noticed
Mauna Kea, the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Perhaps he spotted
one or more of the five major volcanoes. One of these, Mauna Loa,
is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Another, Kilauea is
the most active volcano on earth. It sends forth lava continuously.
In addition, it keeps adding to the landmass of what is already the
largest island in the Hawaiian chain.
(The Longman Writer's Companion 32)
 What makes this paragraph cohesive?
Do you notice any words that signal the reader and allow them to
follow along?
10
What Can We Do to Build Cohesion
Within Paragraphs?
• Use Reader Expectation.
11
Reader Expectation
 Have you ever finished someone's sentence or known
what he or she was going to say before he or she said it?
 If so, it is because what he or she said before set up a
series of expectations for you. Conversely, have you
ever had to stop someone who was talking to you and
ask him or her to explain what he or she just said?
 Most likely, your confusion was the result of the
speaker’s failure to fulfill an expectation he or she had
set up.
12
Reader Expectation
•When we are reading, we usually cannot ask the writer
to explain an idea further. Therefore, when we are
writing, we MUST keep reader expectation in mind.
•We must occasionally stop writing and put ourselves in
our reader's shoes to determine whether our writing
makes sense.
•One very easy way to do this is to read your writing out
loud and listen to it as though you are the reader.
13
Reader Expectation
• A reader's expectations come from what was written
before.
• As readers, we expect the writer to stay on task and
follow through.
• When the writer does not do this, the writing may
seem incohesive. It is writing with roadblocks.
• The reader cannot read on, because he or she has
become confused.
14
Reader Expectation
In 1779, Captain James Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay
and discovered the island of Hawaii. As he entered the bay,
did Cook notice the many mountains on the island?
Perhaps he noticed Mauna Kea, the tallest mountain in the
Pacific. Perhaps he spotted one or more of the five major
volcanoes. One of these, Mauna Loa, is a dormant volcano
that last erupted in 1984. Another, Kilauea is the most
active volcano on earth. It sends forth lava continuously.
In addition, it keeps adding to the landmass of what is
already the largest island in the Hawaiian chain.
In what way does the presence of the question change the
expectation set up by the opening sentence?
15
Other ways to achieve cohesion—the link of one sentence to the next:
1. Repetition.
In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a
word from sentence A.
2. Synonymy.
If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word
you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'
3. Antonym.
Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create
sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually
share more elements of meaning than you might imagine.
16
4. Pro-forms.
Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit
reference back to a form mentioned earlier.
•
A pro-form is a type of function word or expression that stands
in for another word, phrase, clause or sentence where the
meaning is recoverable from the context to avoid repetitive
expressions
•
Pro-forms are divided into several categories, according to
which part of speech they substitute:
-A pronoun substitutes a noun or a noun phrase: it, this.
-A pro-adjective substitutes an adjective or a phrase that functions
as an adjective: so as in "It is less so than we had expected."
-A pro-adverb substitutes an adverb or a phrase that functions as
an adverb: how or this way.
-A pro-verb substitutes a verb or a verb phrase: do. (e.g. Sam
approaches his marriage the same way he does his job.)
-A pro-sentence substitutes an entire sentence or subsentence: that
as in "That is true."
17
(www.wikipedia.com)
5.
Collocation.
Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect
one sentence to another.
6.
Enumeration.
Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between
ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that
are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and
distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of sentence
cohesion, discussed in (7) below.
7.
Parallelism.
Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most
overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating
cohesion.
8.
Transitions.
Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with
particular logical relationships. (Worksheet)
© 1995, 2010 Daniel Kies. All rights reserved.
18
What is unity?
• how well sentences and paragraphs stay
focused on the topic sentences and thesis
statement
• no irrelevant (off the point) details and that
the tone of the writing remains consistent.
19
Paragraph without Unity Writing Model (Digressive
elements)
It has been said that history repeats itself. Who first
said this quote is not important. Although
circumstances may change, and they frequently
do, and the cast of characters will differ, human
response to crisis situations remains consistent over
time. The lessons gained from past events should
affect present decisions. (gap) People rarely change
their behaviors based upon past experience.
Sometimes they do, but not often do they
change their actions. Indeed, it sometimes seems
as if people are willing to challenge the influence of
the past when they repeat mistakes or
misjudgments. Why people would want to
challenge the influence of the past remains
unknown.
20
Paragraph with Unity Writing Model
It has been said that history repeats itself.
Although circumstances may change, and the
cast of characters will differ, human response to
crisis situations remains consistent over time.
The lessons gained from past events should
affect present decisions, but people rarely
change their behaviors based upon past
experience. Indeed, it sometimes seems as if
people are willing to challenge the influence of
the past when they repeat mistakes or
misjudgments.
© 2010 EzineArticles.com - All Rights Reserved Worldwide.
21
Compare these two texts
Text 1
Over the last few years, there has been a
noticeable decline in the standard of
English in Hong Kong. In universities and
the workplace, this decline is evident.
Casual visitors to Hong Kong also say it
is apparent. Hong Kong needs to prosper
next century, which won’t happen if the
decline is not reversed.
22
Text 2
• Over the last few years, there has been a
noticeable decline in the standard of English
in Hong Kong. This decline is evident in
universities and in the workplace. It is also
apparent to the casual visitors to Hong Kong.
This decline must be reversed if Hong Kong
is to prosper in the next century.
Identify features that help improve the
cohesion and coherence of the paragraph.
23
Text 2
• Over the last few years, there has been
a noticeable decline in the standard of
English in Hong Kong. This decline is
evident in universities and in the
workplace. It is also apparent to the
casual visitors to Hong Kong. This
decline must be reversed if Hong Kong
is to prosper in the next century.
24
How will you improve the coherence of
the following paragraph?
(1) I was accepted and started work. (2) My
experience had been derived chiefly from books.
(3) I was not prepared for the difficult period of
adjustment. (4) I soon became discouraged with
myself and so dissatisfied with my job that I
was on the point of quitting. (5) My employer must
have sensed this. (6) He called me into his office
and talked to me about the duties of my position
and the opportunities for advancement. (7) I
realized that there was nothing wrong with me or
the job and I decided to stay.
25
Identify the words/phrases
that help connect the ideas.
I was accepted, and started to work. Until that time my
experience had been derived chiefly from books, and
unfortunately those books had not prepared me for the
difficult period of adjustment that every inexperienced
secretary must face in a new position. Consequently I soon
became so discouraged with myself and so dissatisfied
with the job that I was on the point of quitting. I think my
employer must have sensed this, for he called me into his
office and talked to me both about the duties of my position
and the opportunities it offered for advancement. That talk
helped me considerably. From then on, I realized that there
was nothing wrong with me or the job that experience could
not cure, and I decided to stay.
26
Beginning :
Topic sentence that is directly connected to the thesis
Middle :
Several sentences that explain and illustrate the topic
sentence
End :
A conclusion that draws together the point made
in the paragraph
27
Topic sentence:
• Sometimes owning a car in a big city can give you a lot
of trouble.
Supporting Ideas (in descending order of importance):
• During the week when the traffic is heavy and congested,
you cannot simply abandon the car in the middle of the
road or get out like you would in a taxi.
• Even on a day of light traffic at weekends when the
roads are usually empty, you will often encounter
another problem—full car parks. It is especially the case
in most metropolis where parking spaces are often in
short supply due to high land prices.
Concluding Sentence:
• In a big city, therefore, it is more economical and
sometimes more convenient to use public transport.
28
Sample Student Paragraph
Topic: Should secondary schools introduce
compulsory comprehensive sex education
programmes?
I come from a local girls’ school and I do not have much
contact with boys. Many of my classmates are afraid of
talking with a boy. This has resulted in our poor
communication and interpersonal skills, and it may be an
obstacle to our future employment or relationships.
However, the sex education programme at our school just
teaches us some basic knowledge about puberty. We
cannot learn anything about how to communicate with the
opposite sex, which should be included in the programme.
And whenever our teachers talk about something related to
sex, they try to avoid the topic. All of us should have open
discussions about sex. This should not be a taboo anymore
29
as it was in the past.
Useful website:
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/Para
graph%20Writing%20Exercises.htm
30
Acknowledgements and bibliography:
• Nicole J. Tavares Faculty of Education
The University of Hong Kong
• The First Year Writing Studio (2005
Bate)
• http://dit.dru.ac.th/home/023/writing_ce
ntre/index.html
• http://ezinearticles.com/?How-toImprove-Writing-Unity&id=1687789
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