LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY NEUROTRANSMITTERS Acetylcholine MUSCLE ACTION, memory Increased arousal, ENHANCED COGNITION Norepinephrine Heart, intestines, ALERTNESS Increased arousal, suppressed appetite Dopamine Mood, sleep, LEARNING, MOTIVATION, MOVEMENT, and cognition INCREASED PLEASURE, suppressed appetite Serotonin Mood, sleep MODULATED MOOD, suppressed appetite Beta-endorphin PAIN, PLEASURE decreased anxiety, decreased tension Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) brain functions, sleep, produces CALMING EFFECT decreased anxiety, decreased tension Glutamate INCREASED LEARNING, ENHANCED MEMORY Example: Glutamic acid - GLUTAPHOS LOBES OF THE BRAIN FRONTAL Prefrontal Cortex - responsible for HIGHER LEVEL COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING Broca’s Area - LANGUAGE PRODUCTION PARIETAL processing information from the BODY’S SENSES Somatosensory cortex - processing SENSORY INFORMATION from across the body - touch, temperature, and pain TEMPORAL AUDITORY INFORMATION Auditory Cortex - MAIN AREA responsible for processing auditory information Wernicke’s Area - SPEECH COMPREHENSION OCCIPITAL VISUAL INFORMATION ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hypothalamus RELEASING AND INHBITING HORMONES such as oxytocin, growth hormone REGULATE HORMONE RELEASE from pituitary gland Pituitary Gland (Growth Hormone) RELEASING AND INHBITING HORMONES such as thyroid stimulating hormone REGULATE GROWTH and hormone release Thyroid Gland T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) REGULATE METABOLISM and APPETITE Pancreas Insulin (GLUCOSE RELEASE), glucagon (GLUCOSE STORAGE) Regulate BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS PARTS OF THE EYE 1. Cornea – TRANPARENT COVERING over the eye and is involved in FOCUSING LIGHT WAVES that enter the eye 2. Pupil – SMALL OPENING in the eye through which light passes Pupil DILATES: when light levels are LOW to allow more light to enter the eye Pupil CONSTRICT: when light levels are HIGH to reduce the amount of light that enters the eye 3. Iris – COLORED PORTION of eye 4. Retina – LIGHT SENSITIVE PORTION of the eye Fovea - INDENTATION on back of eye where lens will focus images, part of retina Pineal Gland Melatonin Regulate some BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS such as sleep cycles Adrenal Gland Epinephrine, norepinephrine STRESS RESPONSE, increase metabolic activities Ovaries and Testes (ANDROGENS) Estrogen, progesterone - mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction in females Testosterone - mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction in males SPECIALIZED TYPES OF PHOTORECEPTORS 1. Cones work best in BRIGHT LIGHT CONDITIONS sensitive to acute detail and provide tremendous spatial resolution directly involved in our ability to PERCEIVE COLOR 2. Rods work well in LOW LIGHT CONDITIONS involved in our vision in DIMLY LIT environments our perception of MOVEMENT on the periphery of our visual field DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY CIRCULATORY SYSTEM HEART INVOLUNTARY cardiac muscles; composition: 2 atria and 2 ventricles VENTRICLES - separated by INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM; muscles are THICKER than the atria 1. RIGHT VENTRICLE - “MOST ANTERIOR SURFACE”; RIGHT VENTRICULAR FAILURE – SYSTEMIC EDEMA 2. LEFT VENTRICLE - “APEX of the HEART”; LEFT VENTRICULAR FAILURE – PULMONARY EDEMA (LUNGS) LARGER and THICKER than right ventricle – it is responsible for PUMPING BLOOD to the rest of the body VALVES - prevent BACKFLOW of blood ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES 1. TRICUSPID VALVE (RIGHT) 2. BICUSPID/MITRAL VALVE (LEFT) SEMILUNAR VALVE 1. PULMONARY VALVE 2. AORTIC VALVE PULMONARY CIRCULATION DEOXYGENATED BLOOD travels to: INFERIOR/SUPERIOR VENA CAVA RIGHT ATRIUM TRICUSPID VALVE RIGHT VENTRICLE PULMONARY ARTERY LUNGS PULMONARY VEIN LEFT ATRIUM SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION OXYGENATED BLOOD travels to: LEFT ATRIUM BISCUPID/MITRAL VALVE LEFT VENTRICLE AORTA REST OF THE BODY INFERIOR/SUPERIOR VENA CAVA RIGHT ATRIUM BLOOD VESSELS - NETWORK that conveys blood all throughout the body; muscles made of SMOOTH MUSCLES capable of VASOMOTION made up of: arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, and capillaries VASOMOTION ability of the blood to CONTRICT (VASOCONSTRICTION) or DILATE (VASODILATION) SINO – ATRIAL NODE (SA NODE) – “PACEMAKER of the heart”; regulates the RHYTHMIC CONTRACTION of the heart; sends out an electrical impulse upper heart chambers (atria) contract PARTS: Bachmann Bundle, AV node; DISTRIBUTOR of SIGNALS - Bundle of His (AV Bundle), Bundle branches, Purkinje fibers ARTERIES convey blood (A)WAY from the heart “ARTeries ARe Thicker” in walls than veins – due to HIGH PRESSURE the blood carries from the heart carries OXYGENATED BLOOD (BRIGHT RED in color) Exception for PULMONARY ARTERIES – carry DEOXYGENATED BLOOD BACHMANN BUNDLE - INTER-ATRIAL CONDUCTION spreads the conduction from right side of the heart (where the SA node/pacemaker is originally located) to the left side of the heart VEINS convey blood (B)VACK to the heart carries DEOXYGENATED BLOOD (DARK RED TO BLUISH in color) ATRIO-VENTRICULAR (AV) NODE - intensifies the conduction; conveys impulses from SA node, sends an impulse into the ventricles CAPILLARIES EXCHANGE of gases and waste materials happen SMALL – only a SINGLE FILE of RBCs can pass through Heart chambers (ventricles) contract or pump. SA node sends another signal to the atria to contract starts the cycle over again. BLOOD CIRCULATION 1. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION (HEART TO BODY TISSUES) - transports OXYGENATED blood from LEFT VENTRICLE to body tissues 2. PULMONARY CIRCULATION (HEART TO LUNGS) -transports DEOXYGENATED blood from RIGHT ATRIUM to lungs DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY NERVOUS SYSTEM COMMAND CENTER of the body; 2 MAIN SYSTEMS: CNS and PNS CELLS: NEURONS (nerve cells), GLIAL CELLS (supporting cells) ACTION POTENTIALS - responsible for the TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS in neurons specifically, in the NODES OF RANVIER DIGESTIVE SYSTEM mouth, teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum breaks down FOOD MATERIALS ingested for ENERGY SALIVARY GLANDS - secretes saliva; contains enzyme known as SALIVARY AMYLASE (Ptyalin) SALTATORY CONDUCTION - CONDUCTION of an action potential from node to node; INCREASES the velocity of NERVE TRANSMISSION in MYELINATED FIBERS; CONSERVES ENERGY for the AXON CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM brain and spinal cord; responsible for HIGH INTELLIGENCE BASED activities; stimulus for five senses 1. BRAIN - MAIN ORGAN of the CNS PARTS: cerebellum, cerebrum, pons, medulla CEREBELLUM - MOVEMENT and BALANCE; MOTOR COMMANDS CEREBRUM - LEARNING and THINKING; VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT PONS - connects the CEREBRAL CORTEX and the MEDULLA; CENTER of COMMUNICATION and COORDINATION MEDULLA - INVOLUNTARY FUNCTIONS; BRIDGE signals from spinal cord to brain parts SALIVARY AMYLASE - catalyzes primary carbohydrate digestion STOMACH CELLS 1. MUCIN NECK CELL secretes MUCIN, binds with water, activated into MUCUS protects against the ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT of the stomach 2. PARIETAL CELL secretes HCl, binds with pepsinogen, activated into PEPSIN maintains the acidity of the stomach 3. CHIEF CELL secretes PEPSINOGEN, binds with HCl, activated into PEPSIN carry out CHEMICAL DIGESTION 2. SPINAL CORD - MAIN HIGHWAY for conduction of impulses PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM nerves, ganglia (neurons and synapses) SYNAPSE - connects SENSORY AND MOTOR neurons SENSORY NEURONS - SENSE STIMULI from environment; relays to the CNS for processing MOTOR NEURONS -RESPONSE from stimuli SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (VOLUNTARY) 1. AFFERENT NEURONS - transmit IMPULSES AWAY from area to CNS 2. EFFERENT NEURONS - conductance of MOTOR REFLEXES from CNS to area AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (INVOLUNTARY) 1. SYMPATHETHIC (ADRENERGIC) NERVOUS SYSTEM - FIGHT OR FLIGHT response; ADRENALINE hormones 2. PARASYMPATHETHIC (CHOLINERGIC) NERVOUS SYSTEM - REST AND DIGEST; release of ACETYLCHOLINE ACCESSORY ORGANS (DIGESTIVE SYSTEM) LIVER - role in digestion by secreting bile detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs GALL BLADDER - concentrate and store bile control the flow of bile into the small intestine PANCREAS moves food materials in mouth for mastication; tastes food ingested; highly vascularized organ connected to the small intestine by the ampulla of Vater it is considered both an endocrine gland that synthesizes hormones and an exocrine gland that provides digestive enzymes to aid in digestion DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY BILIARY SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Three Types of Cells (ENDOCRINE function in the Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans) α cells produce glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) β cells responsible for making insulin; promote glycogenesis and thereby lowers glucose levels δ cells produce gastrin and somatostatin (inhibits release of somatostatin (growth hormone) Endocrine System - secretion of HORMONES Hormones - LONG DISTANCE chemical signals which travel via BLOOD or LYMPH FLUID; maintains HOMEOSTASIS – processing of maintaining PHYSIOLOGIC BALANCE’ Pancreatic Enzymes (EXOCRINE function) 1. 2. 3. Amylase breaks down starch and glycogen Lipase hydrolyzes fats to produce alcohols and fatty acids Trypsin proteolytic enzyme; functions in protein breakdown DUCTS IN THE LIVER: Common hepatic duct: right and left hepatic duct IN THE GALLBLADDER: Cystic duct COMMON BILE DUCT: common hepatic duct and cystic duct GLANDS, SECRETIONS, AND FUNCTIONS TESTOSTERONE - TESTIS; MALE SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS / ORGANS ESTROGEN - OVARY; FEMALE SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS / ORGANS PROGESTERONE - OVARY; prep. of the UTERUS/ENDOMETRIUM in egg implantation in the UTERINE WALL THYROID GLAND - CELLULAR METABOLISM AND LIPID PRODUCTION 1. T3 (TRIIODOTHYRONINE) 2. T4 (THYROXINE) ADRENAL GLAND ADRENAL MEDULLA (FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE) - INCREASE OXYGEN AND GLUCOSE CONCENTRATIONS; composed of CHROMAFFIN CELLS 1. Epinephrine/ADRENALINE 2. Norepinephrine/NORADRENALINE ADRENAL CORTEX - composed of three distinct tissues: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and the the zona reticularis 1. BILE MOVEMENT In the Liver: Bile goes to left + right hepatic ducts (intrahepatic duct) left + right hepatic ducts join to form the Common hepatic duct - Common hepatic duct joins cystic duct (in Gall bladder) EMPTYING THE GALLBLADDER Stimulated by food in stomach + duodenum Gall bladder contracts empties bile through cystic duct Bile goes through common bile duct ampulla of vater goes to second portion of duodenum 2. CORTISOL (GLUCOCORTICOID) - PRIMARY GLUCOCORTICOID; activates PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS RESPONSE; augments CONSTRICTION of BLOOD VESSELS; stimulates ANTIINFLAMMATORY PATHWAYS ALDOSTERONE (MINERALOCORTICOID) - PRIMARY MINERALAOCORTICOID; REGULATES balance of SALT and WATER IN THE BODY PITUITARY GLAND ANTERIOR LOBE (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS) CORTICOTROPIN (ACTH) SOMATOTROPIN (GH) THYROTROPIN (TSH) FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) PROLACTIN (PRL) LUTENEIZING HORMONE (LH) INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE (ICSH) POSTERIOR LOBE (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) OXYTOCIN VASOPRESSIN INTERMEDIATE LOBE MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH) DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY ENDOCRINE SYSTEM PITUITARY GLAND PROLACTIN (PRL) - LACTATION IN BREASTFEEDING MOTHERS CORTICOTROPIN /ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN (ACTH) - Cells of ADRENAL CORTEX, SKIN PIGMENTATION SOMATOTROPIN/GROWTH HORMONE (GH) - GROWTH in BODY TISSUES THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE/ THYROTROPIN - GROWTH OF THYROID CELLS, INCREASE IN THYROID HORMONES (T3 AND T4) IN THE THYROID GLAND FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) - MATURATION OF EGG FOLLICLES in FEMALES, DEVELOPMENT OF SPERMATOZOA IN MALES PARATHYROID GLAND (PTH) PARATHYROID HORMONE / PARATHORMONE INCREASES CALCIUM CONCENTRATIONS from bone tissue CALCITONIN DECREASES SERUM CALCIUM CONCENTRATIONS promote UPTAKE of CALCIUM into BONE TISSUE RENAL PHYSIOLOGY LUTENEIZING HORMONE (LH) AND INTERSITITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE (ICSH) RUPTURE OF MATURE EGG FOLLICLES PROGESTERONE/ANDROGEN PRODUCTION IN FEMALES ANDROGEN SECRETION IN MALES HORMONES – provide specificity of tubular reabsorption for different electrolytes and water 1. SYNTHESIS/SECRETION Aldosterone - IMPORTANT REGULATOR OF SODIUM REABSORPTION and secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions STIMULATED BY: INCREASED extracellular Potassium, INCREASED Angiotensin II levels DECREASED SODIUM, LOW BLOOD PRESSURE INCREASED ALDOSTERONE LEVELS – renal sodium and water retention CORTICOTROPIN – RELEASING HORMONE GROWTH HORMONE – RELEASING HORMONE THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE GONADOTROPIN – RELEASING HORMONE Angiotensin II - BODY’S MOST POWERFUL SODIUM – RETAINING HORMONE INCREASED ANGIOTENSIN II LEVELS – DECREASED SODIUM, LOW BLOOD PRESSURE Helps return blood pressure and extracellular volume toward NORMAL – increasing/retaining sodium and water reabsorption 2. INHIBITION Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/ Vasopressin - INCREASES WATER PERMEABILITY in the tubules to CONSERVE WATER in dehydration; play a key role in controlling degree of dilution or concentration of the urine HYPOTHALAMUS PROLACTIN INHIBITING FACTOR (DOPAMINE) SOMATOSTATIN PITUITARY GLAND: STIMULATES; HYPOTHALAMUS: RELEASES THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE - MODULATE NEURONAL ACTIVITY in the brain and spinal cord GONADOTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE: FSH and LH SOMATOSTATIN - INHIBITS SOMATOTROPIN (GROWTH HORMONE), glucagon, and GI hormones PANCREATIC ISLETS OF LANGERHANS GLUCAGON (ALPHA CELLS) maintains BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration/RELEASE INSULIN (BETA CELLS) stimulates GLUCOSE UPTALE/STORAGE defective/insufficient in DIABETES DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY HEMOSTASIS MUSCULAR CONTRACTION BLOOD CLOTTING - endothelium is exposed to the blood; platelets aggregate and eventually rupture Sliding filament theory describes the mechanism that allows muscles to contract VASCULAR INJURY - HEMOSTASIS will occur: 1. VASCULAR SPASM/VASOCONSTRICTION 2. PRIMARY HEMOSTASIS – formation of PLATELET PLUG 3. SECONDARY HEMOSTASIS – coagulation cascade; blood clotting or coagulation reinforces the platelet plug with FIBRIN MESH/CLOT MUSCULAR CONTRACTION MUSCLE FIBERS stimulated by nerve impulse initiates RELEASE of Ca2+ ions FIBRIN MESH Formed from the release of THROMBOPLASTIN (convert prothrombin to thrombin with help of Ca2+ ions) THROMBIN – convert fibrinogen to FIBRIN Ca2+ ions bind to troponin located on actin filament causes TROPOMYOSIN on actin filament is DISPLACED when tropomyosin is displaced and undergoes conformation change – MYOSIN BINDING SITE on actin filament is EXPOSED BONE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT HEAD OF MYOSIN FILAMENT bound to ADP and a Phosphate from previous muscular contraction releases phosphate and binds to ACTIN on its MYOSIN BINDING SITE OSSIFICATION OR OSTEOGENESIS - process of BONE FORMATION by OSTEOBLASTS; distinct from CALCIFICATION - takes place in the ossification of bones INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION - bone development from FIBROUS MEMBRANES; SPONGY BONE ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION - bone development from HYALINE CARTILAGE ACTIN AND MYOSIN FILAMENTS glide past one another powered by energy stored in head of myosin as actin and myosin filament glide, ADP bound on the myosin head is RELEASED EPIPHYSEAL PLATE (GROWTH PLATE) – region between diaphysis and epiphysis; responsible for the lengthwise growth in long bones GLIDING OF ACTIN AND MYOSIN STOPPED when ATP binds to MYOSIN HEAD this separates the bond between actin and myosin ATP is decomposed into ADP and phosphate. MYOSIN HEAD resumes its starting position. IMMUNE RESPONSE Cycle continues again IMMUNITY Ability of your immune system to defend against infection and disease TYPES OF IMMUNITY 1. HUMORAL - Serum Abs produced by plasma cells; bodily fluids, free- floating serum Abs bind to Ags and assist with elimination 2. CELL MEDIATED - acquired through T cells from someone who is immune to taraget disease or infection; carried out by cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY MOLECULAR BIOLOGY NUCLEIC ACID ENZYMES CLASS TYPES OF REACTION DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID absence of –OH group (increase stability of DNA) DOUBLE STRANDED, DOUBLE HELICAL (HELIX) Strands are ANTIPARALLEL and COMPLEMENTARY: 2 (3’)and 2 (5’) Contains BASES, partnerned based on FAVORAL CONFIGURATIONS 1. PURINES – ADENINE and GUANINE 2. PYRIMIDINES – THYMINE and CYTOSINE CELLULAR TRANSPORT 1. ACTIVE TRANSPORT NEED ATP; LOW TO HIGH; against natural flow Transport protein: door 2. PASSIVE TRANPORT NO ATP NEEDED; NATURAL FLOW: HIGH SOLUTE CONC. TO LOW SOLUTE CONC. Transport protein: lock and key OSMOSIS (WATER) - LOW SOLUTE CONC. TO HIGH SOLUTE CONC. CELLULAR TONICITY 1. HYPERTONIC SOLUTE OF SOLUTION is greater than solute inside the cell H20 moves out the cell Shrink ANIMAL CELL – shrivel PLANT CELL - plasmolysed 2. HYPOTONIC SOLUTE OF THE CELL is greater than solute in the solution H20 moves inside the cell Swell, burst ANIMAL CELL – lysed PLANT CELL – turgid; it does not burst because of two reasons: a) lysosomes - large water storage b) cell wall made up of 3. ISOTONIC Solute of solution is equal to solute of solution H20 moves but no NET MOVEMENT RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID presence of –OH group (less stability) SINGLE STRANDED Contains BASES 1. PURINES – ADENINE and GUANINE 2. PYRIMIDINES – URACIL and CYTOSINE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY MAIN GOAL: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS REPLICATION REPLICATION ENZYMES 1. HELICASE INITIATION OF dsDNA; UNZIPS dsDNA at the ORI SITE 2. TOPOISOMERASE relieves TENSION ANS STRESS ON UNZIPPED DNA STRAND preventing them from SUPERCOILING (buhol) 3. SINGLE STRAND BINGING PROTEIN Prevents UNZIPPED STRANDS of the DNA from reattaching again 4. PRIMASE Provides RNA primers in order to INITIATE REPLICATION Supplies RNA PRIMERS in the OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS to be later joined by the LIGASE 5. DNA polymerase III 5’to 3’DIRECTION – DNA synthesis Bacterial enzyme replication 6. DNA polymerase I 5’to 3’direction – nucleotide synthesis 7. LIGASE DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL. LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY 1. 2. 3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – carries and delivers AMINO acids; coded in CODONS in the mRNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – PRIMARY COMPONENT OF RIBOSOMES; responsible for reading the sequences of amino acids and linking these together Messenger RNA (mRNA) – serves as template for the formation of AMINO ACID SEQUENCES (PROTEINS) TRANSLATION process of forming AMINO ACID SEQUENCES (PROTEINS) from an mRNA template START CODON: AUG (METHIONINE) STOP CODON: UAA, UAG, UGA UAC – E AAG – PHENYL ALANINE GCU - ALANINE TRANSCRIPTION Utilizes only a SMALL PORTION of the DNA as TEMPLATE Main enzyme for nucleotide synthesis: RNA POLYMERSASES Final result: single stranded RNA INHERITANCE AUTOSOMAL INHERITANCE 1. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT – dominant onditions are expressed; ONE COPY of mutant allele; CLUE: affected individuals in ALL 2. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE – TWO COPIES of the aberrant allele; CLUE: SKIPPED GENERATIONS SEX LINKED INHERITANCE GENETICS GENE – BASIC UNIT OF HEREDITY ALLELE – ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF A GENE DOMINANT – CAPITAL; ONLY ONE dominant allele is needed to express the trait RECESSIVE – SMALL CAPS; alleles are BOTH recessive to express the trait GENOTYPE – GENETIC CONSTITUTION of an individual PHENOTYPE – expressed characteristic; depends on the genotype HOMOZYGOUS – SAME ALLELES (homozygous dominant/recessive; AA or aa) HETEROZYGOUS – DIFFERENT alleles (Aa) PUNNET SQUARE - offspring 2 genes: TEGI – TAKE EACH GENE INDEPENDENTLY NONMENDELIAN GENETICS 1. CODOMINANCE – both traits from parents are manifested Example: blood type AB 2. MULTIPLE ALLELES – more than 2 alleles Example: blood type ABO PEDIGREE ANALYSIS O: UNAFFECTED FEMALE : UNAFFECTED MALE O – O: SPOUSE O - : OFFSPRINGS SHADED: AFFECTED HALF SHADED: CARRIER HETEROZYGOTE DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.