LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine
 MUSCLE ACTION, memory
 Increased arousal, ENHANCED COGNITION
Norepinephrine
 Heart, intestines, ALERTNESS
 Increased arousal, suppressed appetite
Dopamine
 Mood, sleep, LEARNING, MOTIVATION, MOVEMENT, and cognition

INCREASED PLEASURE, suppressed appetite
Serotonin
 Mood, sleep
 MODULATED MOOD, suppressed appetite
Beta-endorphin
 PAIN, PLEASURE
 decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
 brain functions, sleep, produces CALMING EFFECT
 decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Glutamate
 INCREASED LEARNING, ENHANCED MEMORY
 Example: Glutamic acid - GLUTAPHOS
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
FRONTAL
Prefrontal Cortex - responsible for HIGHER LEVEL COGNITIVE
FUNCTIONING
Broca’s Area - LANGUAGE PRODUCTION
PARIETAL
processing information from the BODY’S SENSES
Somatosensory cortex - processing SENSORY INFORMATION
from across the body - touch, temperature, and pain
TEMPORAL
AUDITORY INFORMATION
Auditory Cortex - MAIN AREA responsible for processing
auditory information
Wernicke’s Area - SPEECH COMPREHENSION
OCCIPITAL
VISUAL INFORMATION
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hypothalamus
 RELEASING AND INHBITING
HORMONES such as oxytocin, growth
hormone
 REGULATE HORMONE RELEASE from
pituitary gland
Pituitary Gland (Growth Hormone)
 RELEASING AND INHBITING
HORMONES such as thyroid stimulating
hormone
 REGULATE GROWTH and hormone
release
Thyroid Gland
 T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine)
 REGULATE METABOLISM and
APPETITE
Pancreas
 Insulin (GLUCOSE RELEASE), glucagon
(GLUCOSE STORAGE)
 Regulate BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS
PARTS OF THE EYE
1. Cornea – TRANPARENT COVERING over
the eye and is involved in FOCUSING
LIGHT WAVES that enter the eye
2. Pupil – SMALL OPENING in the eye
through which light passes
 Pupil DILATES: when light levels are LOW
to allow more light to enter the eye
 Pupil CONSTRICT: when light levels are
HIGH to reduce the amount of light that
enters the eye
3. Iris – COLORED PORTION of eye
4. Retina – LIGHT SENSITIVE PORTION of
the eye
Fovea - INDENTATION on back of eye where
lens will focus images, part of retina
Pineal Gland
 Melatonin
Regulate some BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS such
as sleep cycles
Adrenal Gland
 Epinephrine, norepinephrine
 STRESS RESPONSE, increase metabolic
activities
Ovaries and Testes (ANDROGENS)
Estrogen, progesterone - mediate sexual
motivation and behavior, reproduction in females
Testosterone - mediate sexual motivation and
behavior, reproduction in males
SPECIALIZED TYPES OF
PHOTORECEPTORS
1. Cones
 work best in BRIGHT LIGHT CONDITIONS
 sensitive to acute detail and provide
tremendous spatial resolution
 directly involved in our ability to PERCEIVE
COLOR
2.



Rods
work well in LOW LIGHT CONDITIONS
involved in our vision in DIMLY LIT
environments
our perception of MOVEMENT on the
periphery of our visual field
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HEART

INVOLUNTARY cardiac muscles; composition: 2 atria and 2 ventricles
VENTRICLES - separated by INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM; muscles are THICKER than the atria
1.
RIGHT VENTRICLE - “MOST ANTERIOR SURFACE”; RIGHT VENTRICULAR FAILURE –
SYSTEMIC EDEMA
2.
LEFT VENTRICLE - “APEX of the HEART”; LEFT VENTRICULAR FAILURE – PULMONARY
EDEMA (LUNGS)
LARGER and THICKER than right ventricle – it is responsible for PUMPING BLOOD to the rest of the
body

VALVES - prevent BACKFLOW of blood
ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES
1. TRICUSPID VALVE (RIGHT)
2. BICUSPID/MITRAL VALVE (LEFT)
SEMILUNAR VALVE
1. PULMONARY VALVE
2. AORTIC VALVE
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD travels to: INFERIOR/SUPERIOR VENA CAVA  RIGHT ATRIUM 
TRICUSPID VALVE  RIGHT VENTRICLE 
PULMONARY ARTERY  LUNGS  PULMONARY VEIN  LEFT ATRIUM
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
OXYGENATED BLOOD travels to:
LEFT ATRIUM  BISCUPID/MITRAL VALVE  LEFT VENTRICLE  AORTA  REST OF THE
BODY  INFERIOR/SUPERIOR VENA CAVA  RIGHT ATRIUM
BLOOD VESSELS - NETWORK that conveys blood all throughout the body; muscles made of SMOOTH
MUSCLES capable of VASOMOTION

made up of: arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, and capillaries
VASOMOTION
 ability of the blood to CONTRICT (VASOCONSTRICTION) or DILATE (VASODILATION)
SINO – ATRIAL NODE (SA NODE) – “PACEMAKER of the heart”; regulates the RHYTHMIC
CONTRACTION of the heart; sends out an electrical impulse upper heart chambers (atria) contract
 PARTS: Bachmann Bundle, AV node; DISTRIBUTOR of SIGNALS - Bundle of His (AV Bundle),
Bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
ARTERIES
 convey blood (A)WAY from the heart
 “ARTeries ARe Thicker” in walls than veins – due to HIGH PRESSURE the blood carries from the
heart
 carries OXYGENATED BLOOD (BRIGHT RED in color)
 Exception for PULMONARY ARTERIES – carry DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
BACHMANN BUNDLE - INTER-ATRIAL CONDUCTION
 spreads the conduction from right side of the heart (where the SA node/pacemaker is originally
located) to the left side of the heart
VEINS
 convey blood (B)VACK to the heart
 carries DEOXYGENATED BLOOD (DARK RED TO BLUISH in color)
ATRIO-VENTRICULAR (AV) NODE - intensifies the conduction; conveys impulses from SA node, sends
an impulse into the ventricles
CAPILLARIES
 EXCHANGE of gases and waste materials happen
 SMALL – only a SINGLE FILE of RBCs can pass through


Heart chambers (ventricles) contract or pump.
SA node sends another signal to the atria to contract starts the cycle over again.
BLOOD CIRCULATION
1. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION (HEART TO BODY TISSUES) - transports OXYGENATED blood from
LEFT VENTRICLE to body tissues
2.
PULMONARY CIRCULATION (HEART TO LUNGS) -transports DEOXYGENATED blood from
RIGHT ATRIUM to lungs
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
NERVOUS SYSTEM


COMMAND CENTER of the body; 2 MAIN SYSTEMS: CNS and PNS
CELLS: NEURONS (nerve cells), GLIAL CELLS (supporting cells)
ACTION POTENTIALS - responsible for the TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS in neurons specifically, in the
NODES OF RANVIER
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM


mouth, teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, and rectum
breaks down FOOD MATERIALS ingested for ENERGY
SALIVARY GLANDS - secretes saliva; contains enzyme known as SALIVARY AMYLASE (Ptyalin)
SALTATORY CONDUCTION - CONDUCTION of an action potential from node to node; INCREASES the
velocity of NERVE TRANSMISSION in MYELINATED FIBERS; CONSERVES ENERGY for the AXON
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

brain and spinal cord; responsible for HIGH INTELLIGENCE BASED activities; stimulus for five
senses
1. BRAIN - MAIN ORGAN of the CNS
 PARTS: cerebellum, cerebrum, pons, medulla
CEREBELLUM - MOVEMENT and BALANCE; MOTOR COMMANDS
CEREBRUM - LEARNING and THINKING; VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT
PONS - connects the CEREBRAL CORTEX and the MEDULLA; CENTER of COMMUNICATION and
COORDINATION
MEDULLA - INVOLUNTARY FUNCTIONS; BRIDGE signals from spinal cord to brain parts
SALIVARY AMYLASE - catalyzes primary carbohydrate digestion
STOMACH CELLS
1. MUCIN NECK CELL
 secretes MUCIN, binds with water, activated into MUCUS
 protects against the ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT of the stomach
2. PARIETAL CELL
 secretes HCl, binds with pepsinogen, activated into PEPSIN
 maintains the acidity of the stomach
3.


CHIEF CELL
secretes PEPSINOGEN, binds with HCl, activated into PEPSIN
carry out CHEMICAL DIGESTION
2. SPINAL CORD - MAIN HIGHWAY for conduction of impulses
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

nerves, ganglia (neurons and synapses)
SYNAPSE - connects SENSORY AND MOTOR neurons
SENSORY NEURONS - SENSE STIMULI from environment; relays to the CNS for processing
MOTOR NEURONS -RESPONSE from stimuli
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (VOLUNTARY)
1. AFFERENT NEURONS - transmit IMPULSES AWAY from area to CNS
2. EFFERENT NEURONS - conductance of MOTOR REFLEXES from CNS to area
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (INVOLUNTARY)
1. SYMPATHETHIC (ADRENERGIC) NERVOUS SYSTEM - FIGHT OR FLIGHT response; ADRENALINE
hormones
2. PARASYMPATHETHIC (CHOLINERGIC) NERVOUS SYSTEM - REST AND DIGEST; release of
ACETYLCHOLINE
ACCESSORY ORGANS (DIGESTIVE SYSTEM)
LIVER - role in digestion by secreting bile detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs
GALL BLADDER - concentrate and store bile control the flow of bile into the small intestine
PANCREAS

moves food materials in mouth for mastication; tastes food ingested;

highly vascularized organ connected to the small intestine by the ampulla of Vater

it is considered both an endocrine gland that synthesizes hormones and an exocrine gland that
provides digestive enzymes to aid in digestion
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
BILIARY SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Three Types of Cells (ENDOCRINE function in the Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans)
α cells
 produce glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)
β cells
 responsible for making insulin; promote glycogenesis and thereby lowers glucose levels
δ cells
 produce gastrin and somatostatin (inhibits release of somatostatin (growth hormone)
Endocrine System - secretion of HORMONES
Hormones - LONG DISTANCE chemical signals which travel via BLOOD or LYMPH FLUID; maintains
HOMEOSTASIS – processing of maintaining PHYSIOLOGIC BALANCE’

Pancreatic Enzymes (EXOCRINE function)
1.

2.

3.

Amylase
breaks down starch and glycogen
Lipase
hydrolyzes fats to produce alcohols and fatty acids
Trypsin
proteolytic enzyme; functions in protein breakdown
DUCTS



IN THE LIVER: Common hepatic duct: right and left hepatic duct
IN THE GALLBLADDER: Cystic duct
COMMON BILE DUCT: common hepatic duct and cystic duct
GLANDS, SECRETIONS, AND FUNCTIONS
 TESTOSTERONE - TESTIS; MALE SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS / ORGANS
 ESTROGEN - OVARY; FEMALE SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS / ORGANS
 PROGESTERONE - OVARY; prep. of the UTERUS/ENDOMETRIUM in egg implantation in the
UTERINE WALL
THYROID GLAND - CELLULAR METABOLISM AND LIPID PRODUCTION
1. T3 (TRIIODOTHYRONINE)
2. T4 (THYROXINE)
ADRENAL GLAND
ADRENAL MEDULLA (FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE) - INCREASE OXYGEN AND GLUCOSE
CONCENTRATIONS; composed of CHROMAFFIN CELLS
1. Epinephrine/ADRENALINE
2. Norepinephrine/NORADRENALINE
ADRENAL CORTEX - composed of three distinct tissues: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and the the
zona reticularis
1.
BILE MOVEMENT


In the Liver: Bile goes to left + right hepatic ducts (intrahepatic duct) left + right hepatic ducts join to
form the
Common hepatic duct - Common hepatic duct joins cystic duct (in Gall bladder)
EMPTYING THE GALLBLADDER

Stimulated by food in stomach + duodenum

Gall bladder contracts empties bile through cystic duct
Bile goes through common bile duct ampulla of vater goes to second portion of duodenum
2.
CORTISOL (GLUCOCORTICOID) - PRIMARY GLUCOCORTICOID; activates PHYSIOLOGICAL
STRESS RESPONSE; augments CONSTRICTION of BLOOD VESSELS; stimulates ANTIINFLAMMATORY PATHWAYS
ALDOSTERONE (MINERALOCORTICOID) - PRIMARY MINERALAOCORTICOID; REGULATES
balance of SALT and WATER IN THE BODY
PITUITARY GLAND
ANTERIOR LOBE
(ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
CORTICOTROPIN (ACTH)
SOMATOTROPIN (GH)
THYROTROPIN (TSH)
FOLLICLE STIMULATING
HORMONE (FSH)
PROLACTIN (PRL)
LUTENEIZING HORMONE (LH)
INTERSTITIAL CELL
STIMULATING HORMONE
(ICSH)
POSTERIOR LOBE
(NEUROHYPOPHYSIS)
OXYTOCIN
VASOPRESSIN
INTERMEDIATE LOBE
MELANOCYTE STIMULATING
HORMONE (MSH)
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND
PROLACTIN (PRL) - LACTATION IN BREASTFEEDING MOTHERS
CORTICOTROPIN /ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN (ACTH) - Cells of ADRENAL CORTEX, SKIN
PIGMENTATION
SOMATOTROPIN/GROWTH HORMONE (GH) - GROWTH in BODY TISSUES
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE/ THYROTROPIN - GROWTH OF THYROID CELLS, INCREASE IN
THYROID HORMONES (T3 AND T4) IN THE THYROID GLAND
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) - MATURATION OF EGG FOLLICLES in FEMALES,
DEVELOPMENT OF SPERMATOZOA IN MALES
PARATHYROID GLAND (PTH)
PARATHYROID HORMONE / PARATHORMONE
 INCREASES CALCIUM CONCENTRATIONS from bone tissue
CALCITONIN
 DECREASES SERUM CALCIUM CONCENTRATIONS
 promote UPTAKE of CALCIUM into BONE TISSUE
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
LUTENEIZING HORMONE (LH) AND INTERSITITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE (ICSH)
 RUPTURE OF MATURE EGG FOLLICLES
 PROGESTERONE/ANDROGEN PRODUCTION IN FEMALES
 ANDROGEN SECRETION IN MALES
HORMONES – provide specificity of tubular reabsorption for different electrolytes and water
1. SYNTHESIS/SECRETION
Aldosterone - IMPORTANT REGULATOR OF SODIUM REABSORPTION and secretion of potassium
and hydrogen ions
 STIMULATED BY: INCREASED extracellular Potassium, INCREASED Angiotensin II levels
DECREASED SODIUM, LOW BLOOD PRESSURE
 INCREASED ALDOSTERONE LEVELS – renal sodium and water retention
CORTICOTROPIN – RELEASING HORMONE
GROWTH HORMONE – RELEASING HORMONE
THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE
GONADOTROPIN – RELEASING HORMONE
Angiotensin II - BODY’S MOST POWERFUL SODIUM – RETAINING HORMONE
 INCREASED ANGIOTENSIN II LEVELS – DECREASED SODIUM, LOW BLOOD PRESSURE
 Helps return blood pressure and extracellular volume toward NORMAL – increasing/retaining
sodium and water reabsorption
2. INHIBITION
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/ Vasopressin - INCREASES WATER PERMEABILITY in the tubules to
CONSERVE WATER in dehydration; play a key role in controlling degree of dilution or concentration of
the urine
HYPOTHALAMUS
PROLACTIN INHIBITING FACTOR (DOPAMINE)
SOMATOSTATIN

PITUITARY GLAND: STIMULATES; HYPOTHALAMUS: RELEASES
THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE - MODULATE NEURONAL ACTIVITY in the brain and spinal cord
GONADOTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE: FSH and LH
SOMATOSTATIN - INHIBITS SOMATOTROPIN (GROWTH HORMONE), glucagon, and GI hormones
PANCREATIC ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
GLUCAGON (ALPHA CELLS)
 maintains BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration/RELEASE
INSULIN (BETA CELLS)
 stimulates GLUCOSE UPTALE/STORAGE
 defective/insufficient in DIABETES
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
HEMOSTASIS
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
BLOOD CLOTTING - endothelium is exposed to the blood; platelets aggregate and eventually rupture
Sliding filament theory

describes the mechanism that allows muscles to contract
VASCULAR INJURY - HEMOSTASIS will occur:
1. VASCULAR SPASM/VASOCONSTRICTION
2. PRIMARY HEMOSTASIS – formation of PLATELET PLUG
3. SECONDARY HEMOSTASIS – coagulation cascade; blood clotting or coagulation reinforces the platelet
plug with FIBRIN MESH/CLOT
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
MUSCLE FIBERS
 stimulated by nerve impulse
 initiates RELEASE of Ca2+ ions
FIBRIN MESH
 Formed from the release of THROMBOPLASTIN (convert prothrombin to thrombin with help of Ca2+
ions)
 THROMBIN – convert fibrinogen to FIBRIN
Ca2+ ions
 bind to troponin located on actin filament
 causes TROPOMYOSIN on actin filament is DISPLACED
 when tropomyosin is displaced and undergoes conformation change – MYOSIN BINDING SITE on
actin filament is EXPOSED
BONE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
HEAD OF MYOSIN FILAMENT
 bound to ADP and a Phosphate from previous muscular contraction
 releases phosphate and binds to ACTIN on its MYOSIN BINDING SITE
OSSIFICATION OR OSTEOGENESIS - process of BONE FORMATION by OSTEOBLASTS; distinct from
CALCIFICATION - takes place in the ossification of bones
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION - bone development from FIBROUS MEMBRANES; SPONGY
BONE
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION - bone development from HYALINE CARTILAGE
ACTIN AND MYOSIN FILAMENTS
 glide past one another powered by energy stored in head of myosin
 as actin and myosin filament glide, ADP bound on the myosin head is RELEASED
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE (GROWTH PLATE) – region between diaphysis and epiphysis; responsible for the
lengthwise growth in long bones
GLIDING OF ACTIN AND MYOSIN
 STOPPED when ATP binds to MYOSIN HEAD
 this separates the bond between actin and myosin
 ATP is decomposed into ADP and phosphate. MYOSIN HEAD resumes its starting position.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
Cycle continues again
IMMUNITY

Ability of your immune system to defend against infection and disease
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
1. HUMORAL - Serum Abs produced by plasma cells; bodily fluids, free- floating serum Abs bind to Ags and
assist with elimination
2. CELL MEDIATED - acquired through T cells from someone who is immune to taraget disease or infection;
carried out by cytotoxic T cells (CD8+)
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
NUCLEIC ACID
ENZYMES
CLASS TYPES OF REACTION
DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

absence of –OH group (increase stability of DNA)

DOUBLE STRANDED, DOUBLE HELICAL (HELIX)

Strands are ANTIPARALLEL and COMPLEMENTARY: 2 (3’)and 2 (5’)

Contains BASES, partnerned based on FAVORAL CONFIGURATIONS
1. PURINES – ADENINE and GUANINE
2. PYRIMIDINES – THYMINE and CYTOSINE
CELLULAR TRANSPORT
1.


ACTIVE TRANSPORT
NEED ATP; LOW TO HIGH; against natural flow
Transport protein: door
2.


PASSIVE TRANPORT
NO ATP NEEDED; NATURAL FLOW: HIGH SOLUTE CONC. TO LOW SOLUTE CONC.
Transport protein: lock and key
OSMOSIS (WATER) - LOW SOLUTE CONC. TO HIGH SOLUTE CONC.
CELLULAR TONICITY
1.



HYPERTONIC
SOLUTE OF SOLUTION is greater than solute inside the cell
H20 moves out the cell
Shrink
ANIMAL CELL – shrivel
PLANT CELL - plasmolysed
2.



HYPOTONIC
SOLUTE OF THE CELL is greater than solute in the solution
H20 moves inside the cell
Swell, burst
ANIMAL CELL – lysed
PLANT CELL – turgid; it does not burst because of two reasons:
a) lysosomes - large water storage b) cell wall made up of
3.


ISOTONIC
Solute of solution is equal to solute of solution
H20 moves but no NET MOVEMENT
RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID

presence of –OH group (less stability)

SINGLE STRANDED

Contains BASES
1. PURINES – ADENINE and GUANINE
2. PYRIMIDINES – URACIL and CYTOSINE
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

MAIN GOAL: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
REPLICATION
REPLICATION ENZYMES
1. HELICASE
 INITIATION OF dsDNA; UNZIPS dsDNA at the ORI SITE
2. TOPOISOMERASE
 relieves TENSION ANS STRESS ON UNZIPPED DNA STRAND preventing them from
SUPERCOILING (buhol)
3. SINGLE STRAND BINGING PROTEIN
 Prevents UNZIPPED STRANDS of the DNA from reattaching again
4. PRIMASE
 Provides RNA primers in order to INITIATE REPLICATION
 Supplies RNA PRIMERS in the OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS to be later joined by the LIGASE
5. DNA polymerase III
 5’to 3’DIRECTION – DNA synthesis
 Bacterial enzyme replication
6. DNA polymerase I
 5’to 3’direction – nucleotide synthesis
7. LIGASE
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.
LECTURE NOTES ON BIOLOGY
1.
2.
3.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – carries and delivers AMINO acids; coded in CODONS in the mRNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – PRIMARY COMPONENT OF RIBOSOMES; responsible for reading the
sequences of amino acids and linking these together
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – serves as template for the formation of AMINO ACID SEQUENCES
(PROTEINS)
TRANSLATION

process of forming AMINO ACID SEQUENCES (PROTEINS) from an mRNA template
START CODON: AUG (METHIONINE)
STOP CODON: UAA, UAG, UGA
UAC – E
AAG – PHENYL ALANINE
GCU - ALANINE
TRANSCRIPTION

Utilizes only a SMALL PORTION of the DNA as TEMPLATE

Main enzyme for nucleotide synthesis: RNA POLYMERSASES

Final result: single stranded RNA
INHERITANCE
AUTOSOMAL INHERITANCE
1. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT – dominant onditions are expressed; ONE COPY of mutant allele; CLUE:
affected individuals in ALL
2. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE – TWO COPIES of the aberrant allele; CLUE: SKIPPED GENERATIONS
SEX LINKED INHERITANCE
GENETICS
GENE – BASIC UNIT OF HEREDITY
ALLELE – ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF A GENE
DOMINANT – CAPITAL; ONLY ONE dominant allele is needed to express the trait
RECESSIVE – SMALL CAPS; alleles are BOTH recessive to express the trait
GENOTYPE – GENETIC CONSTITUTION of an individual
PHENOTYPE – expressed characteristic; depends on the genotype
HOMOZYGOUS – SAME ALLELES (homozygous dominant/recessive; AA or aa)
HETEROZYGOUS – DIFFERENT alleles (Aa)
PUNNET SQUARE - offspring
2 genes: TEGI – TAKE EACH GENE INDEPENDENTLY
NONMENDELIAN GENETICS
1. CODOMINANCE – both traits from parents are manifested
Example: blood type AB
2. MULTIPLE ALLELES – more than 2 alleles
Example: blood type ABO
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
O: UNAFFECTED FEMALE
 : UNAFFECTED MALE
O – O: SPOUSE
O -  : OFFSPRINGS
SHADED: AFFECTED
HALF SHADED: CARRIER HETEROZYGOTE
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF MY REVIEW NOTES ON BIOLOGY. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE WORDS OR INFORMATION THAT I HAVE INCLUDED IN THIS MATERIAL.