Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction to Aerial Robotics Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Dr. Ajit Kumar Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research And Management November 3, 2021 1 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Syllabus Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Module 1: Introduction History, Application, Types of vehicle, Subsystems • Module 2: Basic Aerodynamics Overview, Basic Aerodynamic Equations,Aircraft Polar,The Real Wing and Airplane, Induced Drag, The Boundary Layer, Flapping Wings, Total Air-Vehicle Drag • Module 3: Flight Mechanics Climbing Flight, Range for a Propeller-Driven Aircraft, Range for a Jet-Propelled Aircraft, Endurance for a Propeller-Driven Aircraft, Endurance for a Jet-Propelled Aircraft, Gliding Flight, Stability, Control, and Autopilots. 2 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Syllabus Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Module 4: Propulsion Thrust Generation, Powered Lift, Sources of Power, The Two-Cycle Engine, The Rotary Engine, The Gas Turbine, Electric Motors, Sources of Electrical Power • Module 5: Loads and Structures Loads, Dynamic Loads, Materials, Sandwich Construction, Skin or Reinforcing Materials, Resin Materials, Core Materials, Construction Techniques • Module 6: Regulations Classification, Certification, Registration, and Operation, Remote Pilot, Research and development, Traffic Management, Insurance and Drone promotions. 3 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Course grading system Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Design Project • Homework • Mid-term Exam • End-term Exam 4 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle ”An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or uncrewed aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew or passengers on board”. - Wiki Subsystems 5 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1783 – The First UAV • Hot-air balloons were the first aircraft to not require a human pilot. • Joseph-Michel and Jacques- EĢtienne Montgolfier hosted the first public demonstration of an unmanned aircraft, a hot-air balloon in Annonay, France. 1849 – The First Military Use of UAVs • Austrian artillery lieutenant Franz von Uchatius invents the balloon bomb. • Field Marshall von Radetsky used the balloons to attack Venice, but they were mostly ineffective. 1858 – First Aerial Photograph • Gasper Felix Tournachon takes the first aerial photograph from a hot-air balloon in Paris, France. 6 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1896 – First Camera on a UAV • Alfred Nobel, famous for the invention of dynamite, launches a rocket with a camera on it. • Nobel’s experiment marks the first time cameras were placed on an unmanned system. 1898 – The First Radio-Controlled Craft • Nikola Tesla displays his radio-controlled boat for a crowd in Madison Square Garden. • The craft could respond to directional signals sent to it by Tesla and could also flash its lights. Some of the audience members thought Tesla was a magician or had the power of telekinesis. Others believed a trained monkey was inside the small boat. 7 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1915 – British Use of Aerial Reconnaissance Photos • During the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, British forces used aerial photography to build a map of the German front. • The photographs were layout on top of one another and are one of the earliest examples of an orthomosaic. 1917 – First UAV Torpedo the Kettering Bug • Charles Kettering invented the unmanned Kettering Aerial Torpedo, nicknamed the “Bug” in Ohio. • The Bug used a system of pre-set internal pneumatic and electrical controls to stabilize the aircraft. When the Bug reached a pre-determined distance, the engine would stop, wings would detach, and the Bug would fall from the sky. • It carried 180 pounds of explosives. 8 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1935 – The First Modern Drone is Developed • When the Royal Air Force’s commenced in 1918, the UK needed effective methods for training pilots. • Target practice was typically accomplished by towing gliders behind crewed aircraft. However, that method failed to provide a realistic simulation for engaging enemy fighters in live combat. • In response, the De Havilland DH.82B Queen Bee aircraft was used a low-cost radio-controlled drone developed for aerial target practice. It is considered by many to be the first modern drone. 9 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems History 1936 – US Drone Program Begins • U.S. Admiral William Harrison Standley witnessed a test flight of the Queen Bee in 1936. • After returning to the U.S., he placed Lieutenant Commander Delmar Fahrney in charge of developing a program similar to the UK’s. • It is believed that Fahrney first used the term “drone” for the U.S. platform as a tip of the hat to the UK’s Queen Bee. 1937 – U.S. Navy Develops a Radio-Controlled UAV Torpedo • The first radio-controlled UAV was the Curtiss N2C-2. • The N2C-2 received its commands from an operator located in a crewed aircraft that flew alongside the Curtiss. While this limited the UAV’s effectiveness, it was a significant step in the development of radio-controlled UAV technology. 10 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle History 1941 – Actor Reginald Denny invents the Radio Plane • The Radio Plane was a radio-controlled target plane. • After forming his company, Denny produced target drones for the military and was responsible for numerous drone technology innovations. By the time the Northrop Corporation bought the company in 1952, Denny’s company had produced almost 70,000 target drones for the US Army. Subsystems 1943 – The Beginnings of First-Person View (FPV) Flight • Boeing and the U.S. Airforce developed the BQ-7, which operated on a crude FPV system. • Old bombers were effectively stripped of non-essential equipment and loaded with explosives. • The BQ-7 was virtually ineffective in war, and the pilots that bailed out had a high rate of death or capture. 11 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1973 – Israel Develops UAVs for Surveillance and Scouting • The Mastiff and the IAA Scout series of UAVs represented a leap in the capabilities of drones. • Military commanders were able to increase their situational awareness with these platforms significantly. 1982 – Battlefield UAVs • The Battle of Jezzine represented the first battle where drones made a considerable difference in the engagement’s outcome. • Israel employed their drones to outmaneuver the Syrian Airforce and win the battle with minimal casualties. The legitimacy of UAVs in warfare was established. 12 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1985 – US Significantly Scales Up Drone Production • By the conclusion of the Vietnam War, the U.S. was ready to scale up its drone program. • The successes of Israel’s UAV program in the early 1980s made it clear that drones would have a growing role on the battlefields of the future. 1986 – The RQ2 Pioneer Drone is Developed • The U.S. and Israel jointly develop what will become one of the most successful UAV platforms to date. • The system was an upgraded IAI Scout drone and featured significant payload improvements. During the Gulf War, some Iraqi forces even surrendered to a Pioneer UAV. 13 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 1991 – UAVs Fly 24/7 During the Gulf War • For the first time in a major conflict, at least one drone was airborne from the conflict’s start until its conclusion. 1996 – The Predator Drone is Developed • With the help of UAV giants like Abraham Karem, the U.S. develops the Predator drone. This platform brought weaponized drones to the battlefield like never before. Probably more than any other UAV, the Predator created the public image of drones striking targets around the world. 14 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 2006 – UAVs Permitted in US Civilian Airspace for the First Time • Following the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, the FAA allowed UAVs to fly in civilian airspace for search and rescue and disaster relief operations. • Predator drones with thermal cameras were able to detect the heat signatures of humans from up to 10,000 feet away. Around this time, the consumer drone industry began to really take shape. • While DJI had yet to become the marketplace giant it is today, companies like Parrot, DJI, 3DR, and many others were looking to take military UAV technology and repurpose it. The potential for industrial and consumer UAV markets was more than enough for many businesses to invest in the technology. 15 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems History 2010 – Parrot Controls a Drone with a Smartphone • At CES, French drone manufacturer Parrot unveiled its AR Drone. • The UAV was a small quadcopter fit for consumer use. An app on a smartphone was all the pilot needed to operate the drone safely. 2013 – DJI Produces the First Phantom Drone • While the company was founded in 2006, the iconic Phantom series was not released until 2013. • This drone began the modern camera-equipped drone craze. Within just a few years, DJI would hold a commanding position in the consumer drone market, with almost 80 percentage of consumer drones in operation manufactured by DJI or one of their subsidiaries. than enough for many businesses to invest in the technology. 16 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems History 2013 – Major Companies Look to Start Drone Delivery • FedEx, UPS, Amazon, Google, Uber, and countless other delivery companies recognize drone benefits as a delivery platform. Testing of various UAV concepts and work with regulatory agencies around the world begins. 2014 – Use of Drones Rapidly Grows in Industry and with Consumers • Since 2014, UAVs have continued to expand in capabilities and use cases. As more industries explore how drones can make their work safer and more cost effective, growth is expected to rapidly surge in the coming years. By 2030, the entire UAV market is set to be worth 92 billion dollor.2010 – Parrot Controls a Drone with a Smartphone. • At CES, French drone manufacturer Parrot unveiled its AR Drone. The UAV was a small quadcopter fit for consumer use. An app on a smartphone was all the pilot needed to operate the drone safely. 17 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics History Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 2020 – Pandemic Alleviation • From quarantine and social distancing enforcement to mass disinfection and medical supply delivery assistance, drones have been a staple during the coronavirus outbreak. • Now, more than ever before, regulations are being adjusted to provide fast-track authorizations for promising use-cases. It’s impossible to predict the long-term impact of these developments, but one thing is certain: the pandemic has helped countries around the world imagine the potential that drones hold for society. 18 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 19 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Civil Application • Aerial photography: Film, video, still, etc. • Agriculture: Crop monitoring and spraying; herd monitoring and driving • Coastguard: Search and rescue, coastline and sea-lane monitoring • Conservation: Pollution and land monitoring • Customs: and Excise Surveillance for illegal imports • Electricity: companies Powerline inspection • Fire Services and Forestry: Fire detection, incident control • Fisheries: Fisheries protection 20 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Civil Application • Gas and oil supply companies: Land survey and pipeline security • Information services: News information and pictures, feature pictures, e.g. wildlife • Lifeboat Institutions: Incident investigation, guidance and control • Local Authorities: Survey, disaster control 21 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Civil Application • Meteorological services: Sampling and analysis of atmosphere for forecasting, etc. • Traffic agencies: Monitoring and control of road traffic • Oil companies: Pipeline security • Ordnance Survey: Aerial photography for mapping • Police Authorities: Search for missing persons, security and incident surveillance • Rivers Authorities: Water course and level monitoring, • flood and pollution control: Survey organisations Geographical, geological and archaeological survey • Water Boards: Reservoir and pipeline monitoring 22 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Military (Navy) • Shadowing enemy fleets • Decoying missiles by the emission of artificial signatures • Electronic intelligence • Relaying radio signals • Protection of ports from offshore attack • Placement and monitoring of sonar buoys and possibly other forms of anti-submarine warfare 23 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Military (Army) • Army • Reconnaissance • Surveillance of enemy activity • Monitoring of nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC) contamination • Electronic intelligence • Target designation and monitoring • Location and destruction of land mines 24 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Application Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Military (Air Force) • Long-range, high-altitude surveillance • Radar system jamming and destruction • Electronic intelligence • Airfield base security • Airfield damage assessment • Elimination of unexploded bombs 25 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Examples of UAV Systems • Very Small UAVs • Small UAVs • Medium UAVs • Large UAVs 26 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Figure: Very small UAV 27 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Figure: Small UAV 28 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Figure: Medium UAV 29 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Figure: Large UAV 30 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Types of Vehicle Classification based on Landing, Aerodynamics and weight Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 31 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Types of Vehicle classification based on weight and range Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 32 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Commercial Drones Available in Global Market Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 33 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Types of Vehicle Module 1 Commercial Drones Available in Global Market Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems 34 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Subsystems Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Figure: UAV Subsystems 35 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Control Station (CS) Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Control station is the control centre of the operation and the man–machine interface. • It is also usually, but not always, the centre in which the UAV mission is pre-planned, in which case it may be known as the mission planning and control station (MPCS). • From the CS, the operators ‘speak’ to the aircraft via the communications system up-link in order to direct its flight profile and to operate the various types of mission ‘payload’ that it carries. • Similarly, via the communications down-link, the aircraft returns information and images to the operators. 36 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Control Station (CS) Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • The information may include data from the payloads, status information on the aircraft’s sub-systems (housekeeping data), and position information. • The launching and recovery of the aircraft may be controlled from the main CS or from a satellite (subsidiary) CS. • The CS will usually also house the systems for communication with other external systems. • These may include means of acquiring weather data, transfer of information from and to other systems in the network, tasking from higher authority and the reporting of information back to that or other authorities. 37 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Payloads Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems The type and performance of the payloads is driven by the needs of the operational task. These can range from: • relatively simple sub-systems consisting of an unstabilised video camera with a fixed lens having a mass as little as 200 g, through • a video system with a greater range capability, employing a longer focal length lens with zoom facility, gyro-stabilised and with pan and tilt function with a mass of probably 3–4 kg, to • a high-power radar having a mass, with its power supplies, of possibly up to 1000 kg. 38 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Payloads Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Some, more sophisticated, UAV carry a combination of different types of sensors, within a payload module or within a series of modules. • The data from these several sensors may be processed and integrated to provide enhanced information, or information which could not be obtained using a single type of sensor. • For example, images from an optical (light) colour video camera, from a thermal (heat) imaging camera and possibly a radar scanner system, may be fused together. Thus the thermal image and radar image may add information hidden to the optical image. 39 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Payloads Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • The optical colour image will add discrimination, resolution and contrast not available from the reduced contrast of the thermal image or the lower resolution of the radar image. • Also, the reduction in performance of one sensor under differing light or atmospheric conditions of precipitation or pollution, may be compensated for by the complementary sensors. • The images, or other data, obtained by these systems are processed into a form in which they can be transmitted via the down-link to the control station or other destination as appropriate. 40 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • The type and performance of the air vehicle/aircraft is principally determined by the needs of the operational mission. • The task of the aircraft is primarily to carry the mission payload to its point of application, but it also has to carry the subsystems necessary for it to operate. • These sub-systems include the communications link, stabilisation and control equipment, power plant and fuel, electrical power supplies; and basic airframe structure and mechanisms needed for the aircraft to be launched, to carry out its mission, and to be recovered. 41 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Other significant determinants in the design of the aircraft configuration are the operational range, airspeed and endurance demanded of it by the mission requirement. • The endurance and range requirement will determine the fuel load to be carried. • Achievement of a small fuel load and maximised performance will require an efficient propulsion system and optimum airframe aerodynamics. 42 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • The speed requirement will determine more fundamentally whether a lighter-than-air aircraft, or a heavier-than-air fixed-wing, rotary-wing, or convertible aircraft configuration, is used. • A long endurance and long range mission for military surveillance will predominately require a high-aspect ratio fixed-wing aircraft operating at high altitude. • It will be necessary for it to take off from a long paved runway to achieve the high lift-off speed demanded by the high wing-loading required for low aerodynamic drag. 43 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles) may be required to operate at high speed. They are likely to have low aspect ratio wings and either take off from a long runway or be air-launched. • The majority of potential civilian uses of UAVs will require the air vehicle to fly at speeds lower than 50 kt (70 km/hr) for much of its mission; and many will need an ability of the aircraft to hover (e.g. for powerline inspection) or greatly benefit from a hover capability (e.g. incident control by police and fire services). 44 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Several military roles will either need, or greatly benefit from, the ability to hover or fly very slowly, e.g. naval decoying, army NBC monitoring and laser target designation and air force base security and the detection and elimination of unexploded bombs (UXB). • In addition any application, military or civilian, where operation from off-board ship or from restricted sites is required will probably benefit from a vertical take-off and landing capability in the aircraft. Provided that the aircraft is not required to have a top speed of more than, say, 150 kt (210 km/hr), then a helicopter configuration offers the most efficient hover and low-speed performance. Also, within its speed range, because of its high rotor-blade loading it is the most insensitive of all aircraft types to air turbulence. 45 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Compounded helicopter configurations add wings and/or a propulsive system to a basic helicopter in order to reduce the thrust required from the rotor and enable the aircraft to achieve higher speeds. • The addition of a wing can give a helicopter a speed of over 200 kt. • A fully compounded helicopter (with a wing and propulsive system) has reached a speed in excess of 300 kt (550 km/hr), but at considerable cost in reduction of payload and endurance. 46 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Convertible’ aircraft configurations attempt to achieve a viable compromise between the requirement to take off and land vertically and have a long endurance. • This is achieved by lifting off with the rotor(s) horizontal, but tilting them into a vertical plane to become propellers for cruise flight with the weight of the aircraft being borne upon wings. • These configurations suffer a payload weight penalty compared with either a helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft. 47 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics The Air Vehicle Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Another rotary-wing configuration of interest is the autogyro, which attempts to dispense with the transmission system of the helicopter in the interest of reducing complexity, but it suffers in that it cannot hover. • However, it is able to fly considerably more slowly than can fixed-wing aircraft. 48 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Navigation Systems Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • It is necessary for the operators to know, on demand, where the aircraft is at any moment in time. It may also be necessary for the aircraft to ‘know’ where it is if autonomous flight is required of it at any time during the flight. • This may be either as part or all of a pre-programmed mission or as an emergency ‘return to base’ capability after system degradation. • For fully autonomous operation, i.e. without any communication between the CS and the air vehicle, sufficient navigation equipment must be carried in the aircraft. 49 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Navigation Systems Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • In the past, this meant that the aircraft had to carry a sophisticated, complex, expensive and heavy inertial navigation system (INS), or a less sophisticated INS at lower cost, etc., but which required a frequent positional update from the CS via the communications link. • This was achieved by radio tracking or by the recognition of geographical features. • Nowadays, the availability of a global positioning system (GPS) which accesses positional information from a system of earth-satellites, has eased this problem. The GPSs now available are extremely light in weight, compact and quite cheap, and give continuous positional update so that only a very simple form of INS is now normally needed. 50 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Navigation Systems Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • The accuracy is further improved by the use of differential GPS for nonautonomous operation, i.e. where communication between aircraft and CS is virtually continuous, or where there is a risk of the GPS system being blocked. • Other means of navigation are possible fall-back options. 51 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Navigation Systems Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Radar tracking: Here the aircraft is fitted with a transponder which responds to a radar scanner emitting from the CS, so that the aircraft position is seen on the CS radar display in bearing and range. • Radio tracking: Here the radio signal carrying data from the aircraft to the CS is tracked in bearing from the CS, whilst its range is determined from the time taken for a coded signal to travel between the aircraft and the CS. • Direct reckoning: Here, with the computer-integration of velocity vectors and time elapsed, the aircraft position may be calculated. If the mission is over land and the aircraft carries a TV camera surveying the ground, its position can be confirmed by relating visible geographical features with their known position on a map. 52 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Launch, Recovery and Retrieval Equipment Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Launch equipment: This will be required for those air vehicles which do not have a vertical flight capability, nor have access to a runway of suitable surface and length. This usually takes the form of a ramp along which the aircraft is accelerated on a trolley, propelled by a system of rubber bungees,by compressed air or by rocket, until the aircraft has reached an airspeed at which it can sustain airborne flight. 53 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Launch, Recovery and Retrieval Equipment • Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required for aircraft without a vertical flight capability, unless they can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a wheeled or skid-borne run-on landing. It usually takes the form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft, and which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing zone. In addition, a means of absorbing the impact energy is needed, usually comprising airbags or replaceable frangible material. An alternative form of recovery equipment, sometimes used, is a large net or, alternatively, a carousel apparatus into which the aircraft is flown and caught. • Retrieval equipment: Unless the aircraft is lightweight enough to be man-portable, a means is required of transporting the aircraft back to its launcher. 54 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Communications The principal, and probably the most demanding, requirement for the communications system is to provide the data links (up and down) between the CS and the aircraft. The transmission medium is most usually at radio frequency, but possible alternatives may be by light in the form of a laser beam or via optical fibres. The tasks of the data links are usually as follows: Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • Uplink (i.e. from the CS to the aircraft): - Transmit flight path tasking which is then stored in the aircraft automatic flight control system (AFCS). - Transmit real-time flight control commands to the AFCS when man-in-the-loop flight is needed. - Transmit control commands to the aircraft-mounted payloads and ancillaries. - Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft INS/AFCS where relevant. 55 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Communications • Downlink (i.e. from the aircraft to the CS:): - Transmit aircraft positional data to the CS where relevant. -Transmit payload imagery and/or data to the CS. - Transmit aircraft housekeeping data, e.g. fuel state, engine temperature, etc. to the CS. - Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft INS/AFCS where relevant. The level of electrical power, complexity of the processing and the antennae design and therefore the complexity, weight and cost of the radio communications will be determined by: • the range of operation of the air vehicle from the transmitting station; • the sophistication demanded by transmission-down of the payload and housekeeping data; • the need for security 56 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Interfaces Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • All these elements, or sub-systems, work together to achieve the performance of the total system. • Although some of them may be able to operate as ‘stand-alone’ systems in other uses, within the type of system described, as sub-systems they must be able to operate together, and so great attention must be paid to the correct functioning of their interfaces. • For example, although the communications radio sub-system itself forms an interface between the CS and the air vehicle, the elements of it installed in both the CS and air vehicle must operate to the same protocols and each interface with their respective parent sub-systems in a compatible manner. 57 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Interfaces Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • It is likely that the UAV system may be operated by the services (both military and civilian) in different countries which may require different radio frequencies or security coding. • Therefore it should be made possible for different front-end modules to be fitted into the same type of CS and air vehicle when the UAV system is acquired by various different operators. This requires the definition of the common interfaces to be made. 58 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Interfaces • A UAV system exists in order to carry out a task. It is unlikely that the task may ‘stand alone’. That is, it may require tasking from a source external to the system and report back to that or other external source. • A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a specific area for specific information and to report back to corps and/or other users through a military information network. • This network may include information coming from and/or being required by other elements of the military, such as ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space-satellites, or indeed, other UAV systems. The whole then becomes what is known as a ‘system of systems’ and is known as networkcentric operation. 59 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems Interfaces • A UAV system (UAS) operating alone is usually known as a ‘stove-pipe system’. A representative architecture of a ‘system of systems’ which may include not only other UASs of similar or different types, but also include other operational elements such as naval vessels, mobile ground units or manned aircraft that provide information or mount attack missions. • Similarly, in civilian operations such as fire patrol, the operators in the CS may be tasked from Fire Brigade Headquarters to move the air vehicle to new locations. • It will be necessary therefore to provide, probably within the CS, the equipment required to communicate with the external sources and record/display data received and sent. provide, probably within the CS, the equipment required to communicate with the external sources and record/display data received and sent. 60 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Transportation Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems • A UAV system is often required to be mobile. Therefore transport means must be provided for all the sub-systems discussed above. • This may vary from one vehicle required to contain and transport a UAV system using a small, lightweight vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft which needs no launch, recovery or retrieval equipment and is operated by say, two crew, to a system using a large and heavier ramp-launched aircraft which needs all the sub-systems listed, may have to be dismantled and reassembled between flights, and may require, say, ten crew and six large transport vehicles. • Even UAV systems operating from fixed bases may have specific transport requirements. 61 / 62 Introduction to Aerial Robotics Module 1 Syllabus Course grading system Introduction History Application Types of Vehicle Subsystems System Environmental Capability • From the initiation of the concept of the system, it is important to recognise the impact that the environment in which it is to operate will have on the design of all elements of the system, including the provision of an acceptable working environment for the operating and support members of the crew. • A system which has been designed with only low-altitude, temperate conditions in mind, will fail in more extreme conditions of altitude, temperature, solar radiation, precipitation and humidity. • It is also necessary to recognise the impact that the UAV system may have on the environment. This can be very significant, though with different accent, in both civilian and military roles. It is therefore necessary to consider all of these aspects carefully at the outset of the system design. 62 / 62