Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction to Aerial Robotics
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Dr. Ajit Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research And Management
November 3, 2021
1 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Syllabus
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Module 1: Introduction
History, Application, Types of vehicle, Subsystems
• Module 2: Basic Aerodynamics
Overview, Basic Aerodynamic Equations,Aircraft
Polar,The Real Wing and Airplane, Induced Drag, The
Boundary Layer, Flapping Wings, Total Air-Vehicle Drag
• Module 3: Flight Mechanics
Climbing Flight, Range for a Propeller-Driven Aircraft,
Range for a Jet-Propelled Aircraft, Endurance for a
Propeller-Driven Aircraft, Endurance for a Jet-Propelled
Aircraft, Gliding Flight, Stability, Control, and Autopilots.
2 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Syllabus
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Module 4: Propulsion
Thrust Generation, Powered Lift, Sources of Power, The
Two-Cycle Engine, The Rotary Engine, The Gas Turbine,
Electric Motors, Sources of Electrical Power
• Module 5: Loads and Structures
Loads, Dynamic Loads, Materials, Sandwich Construction,
Skin or Reinforcing Materials, Resin Materials, Core
Materials, Construction Techniques
• Module 6: Regulations
Classification, Certification, Registration, and Operation,
Remote Pilot, Research and development, Traffic
Management, Insurance and Drone promotions.
3 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Course grading system
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Design Project
• Homework
• Mid-term Exam
• End-term Exam
4 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Aerial Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
”An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or uncrewed aerial vehicle,
commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human
pilot, crew or passengers on board”. - Wiki
Subsystems
5 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1783 – The First UAV
• Hot-air balloons were the first aircraft to not require a
human pilot.
• Joseph-Michel and Jacques- Étienne Montgolfier hosted
the first public demonstration of an unmanned aircraft, a
hot-air balloon in Annonay, France.
1849 – The First Military Use of UAVs
• Austrian artillery lieutenant Franz von Uchatius invents
the balloon bomb.
• Field Marshall von Radetsky used the balloons to attack
Venice, but they were mostly ineffective.
1858 – First Aerial Photograph
• Gasper Felix Tournachon takes the first aerial photograph
from a hot-air balloon in Paris, France.
6 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1896 – First Camera on a UAV
• Alfred Nobel, famous for the invention of dynamite,
launches a rocket with a camera on it.
• Nobel’s experiment marks the first time cameras were
placed on an unmanned system.
1898 – The First Radio-Controlled Craft
• Nikola Tesla displays his radio-controlled boat for a crowd
in Madison Square Garden.
• The craft could respond to directional signals sent to it by
Tesla and could also flash its lights. Some of the audience
members thought Tesla was a magician or had the power
of telekinesis. Others believed a trained monkey was inside
the small boat.
7 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1915 – British Use of Aerial Reconnaissance Photos
• During the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, British forces used
aerial photography to build a map of the German front.
• The photographs were layout on top of one another and
are one of the earliest examples of an orthomosaic.
1917 – First UAV Torpedo the Kettering Bug
• Charles Kettering invented the unmanned Kettering Aerial
Torpedo, nicknamed the “Bug” in Ohio.
• The Bug used a system of pre-set internal pneumatic and
electrical controls to stabilize the aircraft. When the Bug
reached a pre-determined distance, the engine would stop,
wings would detach, and the Bug would fall from the sky.
• It carried 180 pounds of explosives.
8 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1935 – The First Modern Drone is Developed
• When the Royal Air Force’s commenced in 1918, the UK
needed effective methods for training pilots.
• Target practice was typically accomplished by towing
gliders behind crewed aircraft. However, that method
failed to provide a realistic simulation for engaging enemy
fighters in live combat.
• In response, the De Havilland DH.82B Queen Bee aircraft
was used a low-cost radio-controlled drone developed for
aerial target practice. It is considered by many to be the
first modern drone.
9 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
History
1936 – US Drone Program Begins
• U.S. Admiral William Harrison Standley witnessed a test
flight of the Queen Bee in 1936.
• After returning to the U.S., he placed Lieutenant
Commander Delmar Fahrney in charge of developing a
program similar to the UK’s.
• It is believed that Fahrney first used the term “drone” for
the U.S. platform as a tip of the hat to the UK’s Queen
Bee.
1937 – U.S. Navy Develops a Radio-Controlled UAV
Torpedo
• The first radio-controlled UAV was the Curtiss N2C-2.
• The N2C-2 received its commands from an operator
located in a crewed aircraft that flew alongside the
Curtiss. While this limited the UAV’s effectiveness, it was
a significant step in the development of radio-controlled
UAV technology.
10 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
History
1941 – Actor Reginald Denny invents the Radio Plane
• The Radio Plane was a radio-controlled target plane.
• After forming his company, Denny produced target drones
for the military and was responsible for numerous drone
technology innovations. By the time the Northrop
Corporation bought the company in 1952, Denny’s
company had produced almost 70,000 target drones for
the US Army.
Subsystems
1943 – The Beginnings of First-Person View (FPV) Flight
• Boeing and the U.S. Airforce developed the BQ-7, which
operated on a crude FPV system.
• Old bombers were effectively stripped of non-essential
equipment and loaded with explosives.
• The BQ-7 was virtually ineffective in war, and the pilots
that bailed out had a high rate of death or capture.
11 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1973 – Israel Develops UAVs for Surveillance and
Scouting
• The Mastiff and the IAA Scout series of UAVs represented
a leap in the capabilities of drones.
• Military commanders were able to increase their
situational awareness with these platforms significantly.
1982 – Battlefield UAVs
• The Battle of Jezzine represented the first battle where
drones made a considerable difference in the engagement’s
outcome.
• Israel employed their drones to outmaneuver the Syrian
Airforce and win the battle with minimal casualties. The
legitimacy of UAVs in warfare was established.
12 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1985 – US Significantly Scales Up Drone Production
• By the conclusion of the Vietnam War, the U.S. was ready
to scale up its drone program.
• The successes of Israel’s UAV program in the early 1980s
made it clear that drones would have a growing role on
the battlefields of the future.
1986 – The RQ2 Pioneer Drone is Developed
• The U.S. and Israel jointly develop what will become one
of the most successful UAV platforms to date.
• The system was an upgraded IAI Scout drone and featured
significant payload improvements. During the Gulf War,
some Iraqi forces even surrendered to a Pioneer UAV.
13 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
1991 – UAVs Fly 24/7 During the Gulf War
• For the first time in a major conflict, at least one drone
was airborne from the conflict’s start until its conclusion.
1996 – The Predator Drone is Developed
• With the help of UAV giants like Abraham Karem, the
U.S. develops the Predator drone. This platform brought
weaponized drones to the battlefield like never before.
Probably more than any other UAV, the Predator created
the public image of drones striking targets around the
world.
14 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
2006 – UAVs Permitted in US Civilian Airspace for the
First Time
• Following the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina,
the FAA allowed UAVs to fly in civilian airspace for search
and rescue and disaster relief operations.
• Predator drones with thermal cameras were able to detect
the heat signatures of humans from up to 10,000 feet
away. Around this time, the consumer drone industry
began to really take shape.
• While DJI had yet to become the marketplace giant it is
today, companies like Parrot, DJI, 3DR, and many others
were looking to take military UAV technology and
repurpose it. The potential for industrial and consumer
UAV markets was more than enough for many businesses
to invest in the technology.
15 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
History
2010 – Parrot Controls a Drone with a Smartphone
• At CES, French drone manufacturer Parrot unveiled its AR
Drone.
• The UAV was a small quadcopter fit for consumer use. An
app on a smartphone was all the pilot needed to operate
the drone safely.
2013 – DJI Produces the First Phantom Drone
• While the company was founded in 2006, the iconic
Phantom series was not released until 2013.
• This drone began the modern camera-equipped drone
craze. Within just a few years, DJI would hold a
commanding position in the consumer drone market, with
almost 80 percentage of consumer drones in operation
manufactured by DJI or one of their subsidiaries. than
enough for many businesses to invest in the technology.
16 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
History
2013 – Major Companies Look to Start Drone Delivery
• FedEx, UPS, Amazon, Google, Uber, and countless other
delivery companies recognize drone benefits as a delivery
platform. Testing of various UAV concepts and work with
regulatory agencies around the world begins.
2014 – Use of Drones Rapidly Grows in Industry and with
Consumers
• Since 2014, UAVs have continued to expand in capabilities
and use cases. As more industries explore how drones can
make their work safer and more cost effective, growth is
expected to rapidly surge in the coming years. By 2030,
the entire UAV market is set to be worth 92 billion
dollor.2010 – Parrot Controls a Drone with a Smartphone.
• At CES, French drone manufacturer Parrot unveiled its AR
Drone. The UAV was a small quadcopter fit for consumer
use. An app on a smartphone was all the pilot needed to
operate the drone safely.
17 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
History
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
2020 – Pandemic Alleviation
• From quarantine and social distancing enforcement to
mass disinfection and medical supply delivery assistance,
drones have been a staple during the coronavirus outbreak.
• Now, more than ever before, regulations are being
adjusted to provide fast-track authorizations for promising
use-cases. It’s impossible to predict the long-term impact
of these developments, but one thing is certain: the
pandemic has helped countries around the world imagine
the potential that drones hold for society.
18 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
19 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Civil Application
• Aerial photography: Film, video, still, etc.
• Agriculture: Crop monitoring and spraying; herd
monitoring and driving
• Coastguard: Search and rescue, coastline and sea-lane
monitoring
• Conservation: Pollution and land monitoring
• Customs: and Excise Surveillance for illegal imports
• Electricity: companies Powerline inspection
• Fire Services and Forestry: Fire detection, incident control
• Fisheries: Fisheries protection
20 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Civil Application
• Gas and oil supply companies: Land survey and pipeline
security
• Information services: News information and pictures,
feature pictures, e.g. wildlife
• Lifeboat Institutions: Incident investigation, guidance and
control
• Local Authorities: Survey, disaster control
21 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Civil Application
• Meteorological services: Sampling and analysis of
atmosphere for forecasting, etc.
• Traffic agencies: Monitoring and control of road traffic
• Oil companies: Pipeline security
• Ordnance Survey: Aerial photography for mapping
• Police Authorities: Search for missing persons, security
and incident surveillance
• Rivers Authorities: Water course and level monitoring,
• flood and pollution control: Survey organisations
Geographical, geological and archaeological survey
• Water Boards: Reservoir and pipeline monitoring
22 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Military (Navy)
• Shadowing enemy fleets
• Decoying missiles by the emission of artificial signatures
• Electronic intelligence
• Relaying radio signals
• Protection of ports from offshore attack
• Placement and monitoring of sonar buoys and possibly
other forms of anti-submarine warfare
23 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Military (Army)
• Army
• Reconnaissance
• Surveillance of enemy activity
• Monitoring of nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC)
contamination
• Electronic intelligence
• Target designation and monitoring
• Location and destruction of land mines
24 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Application
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Military (Air Force)
• Long-range, high-altitude surveillance
• Radar system jamming and destruction
• Electronic intelligence
• Airfield base security
• Airfield damage assessment
• Elimination of unexploded bombs
25 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Examples of UAV Systems
• Very Small UAVs
• Small UAVs
• Medium UAVs
• Large UAVs
26 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Figure: Very small UAV
27 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Figure: Small UAV
28 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Figure: Medium UAV
29 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Figure: Large UAV
30 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Types of Vehicle
Classification based on Landing, Aerodynamics and weight
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
31 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Types of Vehicle
classification based on weight and range
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
32 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Commercial Drones Available in Global Market
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
33 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Types of Vehicle
Module 1
Commercial Drones Available in Global Market
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
34 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Subsystems
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Figure: UAV Subsystems
35 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Control Station (CS)
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Control station is the control centre of the operation and
the man–machine interface.
• It is also usually, but not always, the centre in which the
UAV mission is pre-planned, in which case it may be known
as the mission planning and control station (MPCS).
• From the CS, the operators ‘speak’ to the aircraft via the
communications system up-link in order to direct its flight
profile and to operate the various types of mission
‘payload’ that it carries.
• Similarly, via the communications down-link, the aircraft
returns information and images to the operators.
36 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Control Station (CS)
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• The information may include data from the payloads,
status information on the aircraft’s sub-systems
(housekeeping data), and position information.
• The launching and recovery of the aircraft may be
controlled from the main CS or from a satellite
(subsidiary) CS.
• The CS will usually also house the systems for
communication with other external systems.
• These may include means of acquiring weather data,
transfer of information from and to other systems in the
network, tasking from higher authority and the reporting
of information back to that or other authorities.
37 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Payloads
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
The type and performance of the payloads is driven by the
needs of the operational task. These can range from:
• relatively simple sub-systems consisting of an unstabilised
video camera with a fixed lens having a mass as little as
200 g, through
• a video system with a greater range capability, employing
a longer focal length lens with zoom facility,
gyro-stabilised and with pan and tilt function with a mass
of probably 3–4 kg, to
• a high-power radar having a mass, with its power supplies,
of possibly up to 1000 kg.
38 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Payloads
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Some, more sophisticated, UAV carry a combination of
different types of sensors, within a payload module or
within a series of modules.
• The data from these several sensors may be processed and
integrated to provide enhanced information, or information
which could not be obtained using a single type of sensor.
• For example, images from an optical (light) colour video
camera, from a thermal (heat) imaging camera and
possibly a radar scanner system, may be fused together.
Thus the thermal image and radar image may add
information hidden to the optical image.
39 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Payloads
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• The optical colour image will add discrimination,
resolution and contrast not available from the reduced
contrast of the thermal image or the lower resolution of
the radar image.
• Also, the reduction in performance of one sensor under
differing light or atmospheric conditions of precipitation or
pollution, may be compensated for by the complementary
sensors.
• The images, or other data, obtained by these systems are
processed into a form in which they can be transmitted via
the down-link to the control station or other destination as
appropriate.
40 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• The type and performance of the air vehicle/aircraft is
principally determined by the needs of the operational
mission.
• The task of the aircraft is primarily to carry the mission
payload to its point of application, but it also has to carry
the subsystems necessary for it to operate.
• These sub-systems include the communications link,
stabilisation and control equipment, power plant and fuel,
electrical power supplies; and basic airframe structure and
mechanisms needed for the aircraft to be launched, to
carry out its mission, and to be recovered.
41 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Other significant determinants in the design of the aircraft
configuration are the operational range, airspeed and
endurance demanded of it by the mission requirement.
• The endurance and range requirement will determine the
fuel load to be carried.
• Achievement of a small fuel load and maximised
performance will require an efficient propulsion system and
optimum airframe aerodynamics.
42 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• The speed requirement will determine more fundamentally
whether a lighter-than-air aircraft, or a heavier-than-air
fixed-wing, rotary-wing, or convertible aircraft
configuration, is used.
• A long endurance and long range mission for military
surveillance will predominately require a high-aspect ratio
fixed-wing aircraft operating at high altitude.
• It will be necessary for it to take off from a long paved
runway to achieve the high lift-off speed demanded by the
high wing-loading required for low aerodynamic drag.
43 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles) may be required
to operate at high speed. They are likely to have low
aspect ratio wings and either take off from a long runway
or be air-launched.
• The majority of potential civilian uses of UAVs will require
the air vehicle to fly at speeds lower than 50 kt (70
km/hr) for much of its mission; and many will need an
ability of the aircraft to hover (e.g. for powerline
inspection) or greatly benefit from a hover capability (e.g.
incident control by police and fire services).
44 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Several military roles will either need, or greatly benefit
from, the ability to hover or fly very slowly, e.g. naval
decoying, army NBC monitoring and laser target
designation and air force base security and the detection
and elimination of unexploded bombs (UXB).
• In addition any application, military or civilian, where
operation from off-board ship or from restricted sites is
required will probably benefit from a vertical take-off and
landing capability in the aircraft. Provided that the
aircraft is not required to have a top speed of more than,
say, 150 kt (210 km/hr), then a helicopter configuration
offers the most efficient hover and low-speed performance.
Also, within its speed range, because of its high
rotor-blade loading it is the most insensitive of all aircraft
types to air turbulence.
45 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Compounded helicopter configurations add wings and/or a
propulsive system to a basic helicopter in order to reduce
the thrust required from the rotor and enable the aircraft
to achieve higher speeds.
• The addition of a wing can give a helicopter a speed of
over 200 kt.
• A fully compounded helicopter (with a wing and propulsive
system) has reached a speed in excess of 300 kt (550
km/hr), but at considerable cost in reduction of payload
and endurance.
46 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Convertible’ aircraft configurations attempt to achieve a
viable compromise between the requirement to take off
and land vertically and have a long endurance.
• This is achieved by lifting off with the rotor(s) horizontal,
but tilting them into a vertical plane to become propellers
for cruise flight with the weight of the aircraft being borne
upon wings.
• These configurations suffer a payload weight penalty
compared with either a helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft.
47 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
The Air Vehicle
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Another rotary-wing configuration of interest is the
autogyro, which attempts to dispense with the
transmission system of the helicopter in the interest of
reducing complexity, but it suffers in that it cannot hover.
• However, it is able to fly considerably more slowly than
can fixed-wing aircraft.
48 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Navigation Systems
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• It is necessary for the operators to know, on demand,
where the aircraft is at any moment in time. It may also
be necessary for the aircraft to ‘know’ where it is if
autonomous flight is required of it at any time during the
flight.
• This may be either as part or all of a pre-programmed
mission or as an emergency ‘return to base’ capability
after system degradation.
• For fully autonomous operation, i.e. without any
communication between the CS and the air vehicle,
sufficient navigation equipment must be carried in the
aircraft.
49 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Navigation Systems
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• In the past, this meant that the aircraft had to carry a
sophisticated, complex, expensive and heavy inertial
navigation system (INS), or a less sophisticated INS at
lower cost, etc., but which required a frequent positional
update from the CS via the communications link.
• This was achieved by radio tracking or by the recognition
of geographical features.
• Nowadays, the availability of a global positioning system
(GPS) which accesses positional information from a system
of earth-satellites, has eased this problem. The GPSs now
available are extremely light in weight, compact and quite
cheap, and give continuous positional update so that only
a very simple form of INS is now normally needed.
50 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Navigation Systems
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• The accuracy is further improved by the use of differential
GPS for nonautonomous operation, i.e. where
communication between aircraft and CS is virtually
continuous, or where there is a risk of the GPS system
being blocked.
• Other means of navigation are possible fall-back options.
51 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Navigation Systems
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Radar tracking: Here the aircraft is fitted with a
transponder which responds to a radar scanner emitting
from the CS, so that the aircraft position is seen on the
CS radar display in bearing and range.
• Radio tracking: Here the radio signal carrying data from
the aircraft to the CS is tracked in bearing from the CS,
whilst its range is determined from the time taken for a
coded signal to travel between the aircraft and the CS.
• Direct reckoning: Here, with the computer-integration of
velocity vectors and time elapsed, the aircraft position may
be calculated. If the mission is over land and the aircraft
carries a TV camera surveying the ground, its position can
be confirmed by relating visible geographical features with
their known position on a map.
52 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Launch, Recovery and Retrieval
Equipment
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Launch equipment: This will be required for those air
vehicles which do not have a vertical flight capability, nor
have access to a runway of suitable surface and length.
This usually takes the form of a ramp along which the
aircraft is accelerated on a trolley, propelled by a system of
rubber bungees,by compressed air or by rocket, until the
aircraft has reached an airspeed at which it can sustain
airborne flight.
53 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Launch, Recovery and Retrieval
Equipment
• Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required
for aircraft without a vertical flight capability, unless they
can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a
wheeled or skid-borne run-on landing. It usually takes the
form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft, and
which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing
zone. In addition, a means of absorbing the impact energy
is needed, usually comprising airbags or replaceable
frangible material. An alternative form of recovery
equipment, sometimes used, is a large net or, alternatively,
a carousel apparatus into which the aircraft is flown and
caught.
• Retrieval equipment: Unless the aircraft is lightweight
enough to be man-portable, a means is required of
transporting the aircraft back to its launcher.
54 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Communications
The principal, and probably the most demanding, requirement
for the communications system is to provide the data links (up
and down) between the CS and the aircraft. The transmission
medium is most usually at radio frequency, but possible
alternatives may be by light in the form of a laser beam or via
optical fibres. The tasks of the data links are usually as follows:
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• Uplink (i.e. from the CS to the aircraft):
- Transmit flight path tasking which is then stored in the
aircraft automatic flight control system (AFCS).
- Transmit real-time flight control commands to the AFCS
when man-in-the-loop flight is needed.
- Transmit control commands to the aircraft-mounted
payloads and ancillaries.
- Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft
INS/AFCS where relevant.
55 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Communications
• Downlink (i.e. from the aircraft to the CS:):
- Transmit aircraft positional data to the CS where
relevant.
-Transmit payload imagery and/or data to the CS.
- Transmit aircraft housekeeping data, e.g. fuel state,
engine temperature, etc. to the CS.
- Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft
INS/AFCS where relevant.
The level of electrical power, complexity of the processing and
the antennae design and therefore the complexity, weight and
cost of the radio communications will be determined by:
• the range of operation of the air vehicle from the
transmitting station;
• the sophistication demanded by transmission-down of the
payload and housekeeping data;
• the need for security
56 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Interfaces
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• All these elements, or sub-systems, work together to
achieve the performance of the total system.
• Although some of them may be able to operate as
‘stand-alone’ systems in other uses, within the type of
system described, as sub-systems they must be able to
operate together, and so great attention must be paid to
the correct functioning of their interfaces.
• For example, although the communications radio
sub-system itself forms an interface between the CS and
the air vehicle, the elements of it installed in both the CS
and air vehicle must operate to the same protocols and
each interface with their respective parent sub-systems in
a compatible manner.
57 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Interfaces
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• It is likely that the UAV system may be operated by the
services (both military and civilian) in different countries
which may require different radio frequencies or security
coding.
• Therefore it should be made possible for different
front-end modules to be fitted into the same type of CS
and air vehicle when the UAV system is acquired by
various different operators. This requires the definition of
the common interfaces to be made.
58 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Interfaces
• A UAV system exists in order to carry out a task. It is
unlikely that the task may ‘stand alone’. That is, it may
require tasking from a source external to the system and
report back to that or other external source.
• A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV
system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a
task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a
specific area for specific information and to report back to
corps and/or other users through a military information
network.
• This network may include information coming from and/or
being required by other elements of the military, such as
ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space-satellites, or
indeed, other UAV systems. The whole then becomes
what is known as a ‘system of systems’ and is known as
networkcentric operation.
59 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
Interfaces
• A UAV system (UAS) operating alone is usually known as
a ‘stove-pipe system’. A representative architecture of a
‘system of systems’ which may include not only other
UASs of similar or different types, but also include other
operational elements such as naval vessels, mobile ground
units or manned aircraft that provide information or
mount attack missions.
• Similarly, in civilian operations such as fire patrol, the
operators in the CS may be tasked from Fire Brigade
Headquarters to move the air vehicle to new locations.
• It will be necessary therefore to provide, probably within
the CS, the equipment required to communicate with the
external sources and record/display data received and
sent. provide, probably within the CS, the equipment
required to communicate with the external sources and
record/display data received and sent.
60 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Transportation
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
• A UAV system is often required to be mobile. Therefore
transport means must be provided for all the sub-systems
discussed above.
• This may vary from one vehicle required to contain and
transport a UAV system using a small, lightweight vertical
take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft which needs no
launch, recovery or retrieval equipment and is operated by
say, two crew, to a system using a large and heavier
ramp-launched aircraft which needs all the sub-systems
listed, may have to be dismantled and reassembled
between flights, and may require, say, ten crew and six
large transport vehicles.
• Even UAV systems operating from fixed bases may have
specific transport requirements.
61 / 62
Introduction
to Aerial
Robotics
Module 1
Syllabus
Course
grading
system
Introduction
History
Application
Types of
Vehicle
Subsystems
System Environmental Capability
• From the initiation of the concept of the system, it is
important to recognise the impact that the environment in
which it is to operate will have on the design of all
elements of the system, including the provision of an
acceptable working environment for the operating and
support members of the crew.
• A system which has been designed with only low-altitude,
temperate conditions in mind, will fail in more extreme
conditions of altitude, temperature, solar radiation,
precipitation and humidity.
• It is also necessary to recognise the impact that the UAV
system may have on the environment. This can be very
significant, though with different accent, in both civilian
and military roles. It is therefore necessary to consider all
of these aspects carefully at the outset of the system
design.
62 / 62