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OB Final notes doc all chapters detailed notes all chapters all
chapters
Introduction to Organizational Behaviour (McMaster University)
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Organizational Behaviour
(​second half of semester)
Week 7 - Chapter 7 and second half of Chapter 11 (beginning of mezzo)
Begins studying for final exam
Group Dynamics, Teamwork & Decision-Making
Groups (foundations principles)
1. What is a group?
a. Two or more people interacting ​interdependently​ to achieve a common ​goal
b. Starts with a vision → mission → strategy → goals → actions → roles → rules
2. Formal versus informal
a. Formal groups are established (intentionally designed) organizations to facilitate
the achievement of organizational goals
b. Informal groups emerge naturally in response to the common interests of the
organizational members
c. ex. Work on a project vs play on a softball team
d. Informal can become formal
3. Why form groups?
a. Means
i.
Groups can be an important mean/method/way of accomplishing the
desired outcome
b. Ends
i.
Groups can be a desired outcome themselves
c. Personal characteristics
i.
The reason that you join a group
ii.
“Birds of a feather flock together”
iii.
People join because they want to be similar or very different
BUNDLE NEXT 5
★Why are group stage models important?★
1. Understanding the stages that I will go through will help me in better performance
management
2. Maslow and Herzberg: it tells us that you can't move forward until you completed the
ones before
3. How they align with conflict: the perception of it varies how quickly they go through this
★What are the 2 types I need to know?★
Typical Stages of Group Development
1. Groups develop through a series of stages over time
2. Each stage presents the members with a series of ​challenges​ they must ​master​ in order
to achieve the next stage
3. Groups can ​vary​ in terms of how ​quickly​ they walk through the stages
★★★Stage Model of Group Development★★★
1. Forming
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2.
3.
4.
5.
a. What are we doing here? What are others like? What is our purpose?
b. Becoming acquainted
Storming
a. Conflict often emerges; sorting out roles and responsibilities is often at issue
b. Battling because you’re not aligned on goals, priorities and how to structure
(rules, norms, etc.)
Norming
a. Norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive
Performing
a. The group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment
Adjourning
a. Group disperses after achieving goals
Practical Learnings from the Stage Model
1. A good tool for ​monitoring and troubleshooting​ how groups are developing
a. For groups that are already formed and on the fly
2. Especially helpful for new groups to understand the process of developing together
3. Well-acquainted task forces and committees can short-circuit these stages when they
have a problem to work out Storming and Norming may not be necessary for some
organizational settings that are highly structured
a. The more strict the chain of command, the less autonomy for workers and room
for conflict
Punctuated Equilibrium Model
● A model of group development that describes how groups with ​deadlines​ are affected by
their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions
● Phase 1:
○ The first meeting to the midpoint of existence (precedence is set)
■ Agenda setting, introductions, very little visible progress is made
● Midpoint Transition:
○ The realization that progress needs to be made
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○
Exactly half-way in time between when the assignment was assigned and the
due date
○ In reality, it’s after half-way
○ “Oh my god” realization
● Phase 2:
○ Decisions and approaches are played out
○ For better or worse, decisions are made, approaches are adopted, and you play
the game
Practical Learnings from the Punctuated Equilibrium Model
● Prepare carefully for the first meeting
○ Try and accomplish more earlier
○ Helpful for procrastinators
● As long as people are working, do not look for radical progress during phase 1
○ People don’t make a move until they really have to
● Manage the midpoint transition carefully
○ Knowing that humans do this, why not nudge at the midpoint
● Be sure that adequate resources are available prior to phase 2
○ Should the boss make sure the tangible resources are in place?
● Resist deadline changes
○ As a manager, don’t adjust deadlines for the weaker links
○ Within your group, don’t budge on the deadline
●
Group Structure (BUNDLE) - What are the 4 primary elements that lead to effective group
structuring? Size, Diversity, Norms/Rules, Roles
1. Size
a. What is the ultimate group size?
i.
Depends on what you’re trying to accomplish
b. Ideal group size results in Size & Satisfaction; and Size & Performance
c. ★Depends on the Task (“form follow function”) (3 tasks that you are responsible
for):★
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i.
ii.
Additive Task - Group performance is ​dependent​ on the ​sum​ of the
performance of individual group members
1. Ex. building a house/renovation, estimate the potential speed
based on the individual workers’ speed
2. The bigger the group, the higher the productivity
3. There is a point of diminishing return when productivity decreases
because of too many people (ex. Too many cooks in a kitchen)
Disjunctive Task - Group performance is ​dependent​ on the performance
of the ​best​ group member
1. Ex. a research team looking for a single, minute, complicated,
hard-to-find error in a complex computer program or chemical
compound formula
a. The success of the team is reliant on the individual
competency of the best member
2. The larger the group, the more likely the group is to succeed
3. Hiring Strategies: Larger the number of people you hire, increases
the probability of your performance being superior. Can also hire
lots to get the high performance (gets rid of low performers).
Requires performers who have a special brain/ability
iii.
Conjunctive Task - Group performance is ​limited​ by the performance of
the ​poorest​ group member
1. The weakest link concept is the same as a conjunctive task
2. Ex. assembly line operations of humans are limited by the
weakest link (sequential interdependence)
3. About keeping the team as small as possible
4. Smaller groups produce higher performance
2.
Type of Task
Size
Performance
Additive Task
Increases
Increases
Disjunctive Task
Increases
Increases
Conjunctive Task
Increases
Decreases
a. As groups become larger, they suffer ​process losses ​(difficulties due to
motivating)
i.
Process losses - performance difficulties that result from the problems of
motivating and coordinating larger groups
1. Communication difficulties
2. Conflict resolution difficulties
3. Stress management difficulties
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ii.
4. Diversity management difficulties
How do we measure the actual performance of a group?
1. Actual performance = potential performance - process losses
iii.
iv.
v.
3. Diversity
a. Diverse groups might take longer to do their forming, storming and norming
b. Diverse groups sometimes perform better when the task requires cognitive,
creativity-demanding tasks and problem solving rather than routine work
i.
Recommend: do not put beautiful diverse brains on routine work, put
them on cognitive tasks
4. Norms (vs. Rules)
a. Collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the
behaviour of each other; informal; often unstated; collective about how to behave;
learned through osmosis
i.
Rules: formal; usually stated either verbally or in writing; define
boundaries of what is acceptable and expected in behaviours
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b. Four most common norms:
i.
Dress Norms/Appearance Norms - not dress codes; learned definitions of
casual, of formal; learned acceptance of tattoos/piercings
ii.
★Reward Allocation Norms★
1. Equity - we reward people based on their inputs (piece rate)
2. Equality - rewards are based on a pay grade/range, not input or
job title, reward everyone equally (in the pay range)
3. Reciprocity - you help me, I help you (quid pro quo)
4. Social responsibility - you reward those who truly need the reward
iii.
Performance Norms - norms about your performance inside the
organization
1. When you take a break or how long the break is
2. Expected work ethic can be shifted
3. Absenteeism consequences
iv.
Social Interaction - norms of behaviour outside the company (how you
behave outside of work but are still an employee of the organization)
1. Staff beer nights
2. Dating from within the organization
5. Roles
a. Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them
b. Someone’s responsibilities/tasks
c. Two roles in organizations: assigned (who does what, who is in charge)
emergent (over time roles develop, boss is away VP leads)
d. What is the difference between a job description and a job specification? (job
postings will have both)
i.
Job description: what roles, responsibilities, and tasks is the job expected
to complete?
ii.
Job specification: specifies the minimum qualifications necessary to be a
candidate for the job
1. E.g. minimum undergraduate degree, a minimum number of
languages, minimum certifications
e. Key Issues:
i.
Role Ambiguity
1. Lack of ​clarity​ around the job roles (what) and/or methods (how)
2. An organizational factor (some jobs are just more ambiguous than
others)
3. Could be something about the role occupant
ii.
Role Conflict
1. Incompatibility between one or more roles
2. Types of role conflict
a. Intrasender role conflict
i.
A single role sender provides incompatible role
expectations to a role occupant
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ii.
iii.
iv.
Eg. A manager might tell an employee to take it
easy and not work so hard, while delivering yet
another batch of reports that require immediate
attention.
b. Intersender role conflict
i.
Two or more role senders provide occupant with
incompatible expectations
c. Interrole conflict
i.
Roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible
expectations
ii.
For example, one person might fulfill the roles of a
functional expert in marketing, head of the market
research group, subordinate to the vice president of
marketing, and member of a product development
task force. This is obviously a busy person, and
competing demands for her time are a frequent
symptom of interrole conflict.
d. Person-role conflict
i.
Role demands call for behaviour that is
incompatible with the personality or skills of a role
occupant
ii.
Many examples of “whistle-blowing” are signals of
person–role conflict. The organization has
demanded some role behaviour that the occupant
considers unethical.
Status Effects
1. People pull rank
2. People pull social position in the hierarchy
3. People pull prestige comments
Consequences?
1. Job dissatisfaction
2. Lowering commitment
3. Stress up ↑
4. Turnover up ↑
Group Cohesiveness (BUNDLE)
● The degree to which a group is especially ​attractive​ (you want to be together) to its
members and you describe each other positively, regardless of actual performance
● Factors that increase or decrease cohesiveness
1. Threat & Competition
a. The external threat to the survival of your group causes you to
bond together
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b. Groups or partners come together to get something out of their
final success, so many groups are competing for the same thing
which increases cohesiveness between the partners
i.
E.g. best sales team gets a vacation
2. Success
a. Reciprocal with cohesion
b. Groups become more cohesive when they successfully
accomplish an important goal
●
3. Member diversity
a. Additive, more diverse members take longer to become cohesive
4. Size: Larger groups have a more difficult time becoming and staying
cohesive
5. Toughness of Initiation: Groups that are tough to get into tend to be more
attractive than those easy to join
Consequences of cohesiveness
○ More participation in group activities
○ More conformity (can be too much alike, leads to groupthink)
○ More success
■ In more cohesive groups, individual performance is similar to other group
members
■ Reciprocal relationship between success & cohesiveness
Question to Ponder: What influences can groups have on individuals (judgment and behaviour)?
● Group dynamics are one of the most powerful forces in social psychology
● Why do people do this?
○ They want to be liked
○ They don’t want to start conflict/rock the boat
● We will conform to group decisions even if we don’t believe what the group is saying
★​Social Loafing​★
● What is social loafing?
○ The tendency to ​withhold​ physical or intellectual effort when performing a group
task
○ Members exert ​less​ effort when working in teams than working alone
■ They are capable of exerting the effort but are purposely withholding effort
○ An example of a process loss
○ Social inhibition - group causes you to be less than your potential (a group can
be an example of social facilitation or social inhibition)
● How can we counteract social loafing?
○ Make individual performance more visible (tell them that loafing isn’t acceptable)
○ Make sure the work is interesting
○ Increase feelings of indispensability
○ Increase performance feedback
○ Reward group performance
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Teams (BUNDLE) (we are responsible for slides 4+5 on our own)
● What is a team?
○ Not all groups are teams but all teams were originally groups
○ A team is more than a group
○ A group becomes a team when there is:
■ A strong sense of shared commitment
■ Synergy​ (2+2=5)
○ Collective efficacy vs. Team reflexivity
■ Collective efficacy: each team member believes they can effectively
perform their task and the other team members believe in each other
■ Team reflexivity: circular relationship building; interdependence;
trust-building
● Types of teams (what are the 4 most common teams that you are going to be working
in?)
1. Process-improvement teams
a. E.g. Teams to improve the efficiency of producing a product or service
2. Self-managed teams
a. A team that has the opportunity to face challenges with supervision that
ranges on a continuum
b. Could have zero to minimal autonomy, moderate autonomy or high
autonomy
i.
How much is your boss involved?
c. What factors are critical to their success?
i.
Task:
1. Challenge - needs to be difficult enough but not impossible
2. Complexity - only put diverse brains on complex tasks
3. Interdependence - 2 types of interdependence problems:
sequential and reciprocal
ii.
Group Composition:
1. Stability - there has to be trust and understanding between
group members in order for there to be stability
2. Size - depends on the task; in general, a group should be
as small as is feasible to avoid process losses
3. Expertise - have enough SMEs
4. Diversity - you want members similar enough to work
together, yet diverse enough to bring a variety of
perspectives
iii.
Support:
1. Training - team needs the right education/certifications
(technical training, social training and general business
training)
2. Rewards - getting the right rewards (4 pay systems)
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3. Management - managers must not see autonomy as
threatening
d. E.g. Teams with full, reduced, or no supervision
3. Cross-functional
a. Teams with functional areas of expertise
b. E.g. Team with people from HR, marketing, accounting
c. The people are SMEs (Subject Matter Experts)
d. Factors that are critical to the success of cross-functional teams:
i.
Composition: All relevant specialties are necessary, and effective
teams are sure not to overlook anyone.
ii. Superordinate goals: are attractive outcomes that can be achieved
only by collaboration. They override detailed functional objectives
that might be in conflict (e.g., finance versus design)
iii. Physical proximity: Team members have to be located (sometimes
relocated) close to each other to facilitate informal contact.
iv.
Autonomy: Cross-functional teams need some autonomy from the
larger organization, and functional specialists need some authority
to commit their function to project decisions. This prevents
meddling or “micromanaging” by upper-level or functional
managers.
v.
Rules and procedures: Although petty rules and procedures are to
be avoided, some basic decision procedures must be laid down to
prevent anarchy.
vi.
Leadership: Because of the potential for conflict, cross-functional
team leaders need especially strong people skills in addition to
task expertise.
e. Factors that determine group effectiveness
i.
4. Virtual teams
a. In a virtual team, there is no one central gathering geographically
b. No physical face-to-face contact
c. Uses technology to communicate and collaborate across time, space and
different forms of boundaries
d. Can be miscommunication
e. E.g. Team that spans the globe, meetings in quarantine
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f.
Advantages of Virtual Teams:
i.
Around the clock: Globally, a virtual team is a 24-hour team that
never sleeps.
ii.
Reduced travel cost/time: Virtual teaming reduces travel costs
associated with face-to-face meetings.
iii.
Larger talent pool: Virtual teams allow companies to expand their
potential labour markets and to go after the best people, even if
these people have no interest in relocating. The nature of virtual
teams can also give employees added flexibility, allowing for a
better work–life balance, which is an effective recruiting feature.
g. Disadvantage of Virtual teams:
i.
Trust: is difficult to develop among virtual team members. People
typically establish trust through direct contact and socialization,
which are simply not available to virtual team members.
ii.
Miscommunication: risks can be particularly high on global virtual
teams, as attempts at humour or the use of unfamiliar terms can
lead to messages being misconstrued.
iii.
Isolation: casual interactions are not usually possible for virtual
teams, a lack that can lead to team members having feelings of
isolation and detachment.
iv.
Management issues: How can you assess individual performance,
monitor diligence, and ensure fairness when your team is
dispersed around the globe?
h. Lesson of Virtual Teams:
i.
Recruitment: Choose team members carefully in terms of attitude
and personality so that they are excited about these types of
teams and can handle the independence and isolation. Find
people with good interpersonal and intercultural skills, not just
technical expertise.
ii.
Training: For both technical and interpersonal skills
iii.
Personalization: Encourage team members to get to know one
another, either by encouraging informal communication using
technology or by arranging face-to-face meetings whenever
possible. Set aside time for chit-chat, acknowledging birthdays,
and so on.
iv.
Leadership: Should define goals clearly, set rules for
communication standards and responses, provide feedback to
keep team members informed of progress and the big picture,
resolve conflict, and evoke shared mental models.
Group Decision Making (BUNDLE)
● Why use groups in decision making?
○ Decision quality
■ Higher than individuals
■ More ideas
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○
●
Decision acceptance and commitment
■ Fully engaged
○ Diffusion of responsibility
■ Could lead to social loafing
■ Ability of members to share the burden of negative consequences of a
poor decision
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
1. Time
a. Decisions take longer with more people
b. Process losses
c. Harder and longer debates
2. Conflict
a. In-fighting
b. SMEs debating
c. Political wrangling over jurisdictions
3. Domination
a. When meetings are dominated by an individual or small coalition
b. Groups will never have synergy
4. ★Groupthink★
a. Conformity
b. Feeling pressure from group members
c. The capacity for group pressure to damage the ​mental efficiency​, ​reality
testing​ and ​moral judgment​ of decision making groups (like a cult)
i.
Mental efficiency: can’t hear or see the kinds of data you should
be looking at
ii.
Reality testing: old reality is gone
iii.
Moral judgment: what you used to think what was right and wrong
is completely different
d. Develops because of too much cohesiveness, concern for approval and
isolation of the group
e. In effect, unanimous acceptance of decisions is stressed over quality of
decisions
f. Symptoms?
i.
Illusion of Invulnerability
1. Members are overconfident and willing to assume great
risks
2. They ignore obvious danger signals
ii.
Rationalization
1. Problems and counterarguments that members cannot
ignore are “rationalized away”
2. That is, seemingly logical but improbable excuses are
given
iii.
Illusion of Morality
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1. The decisions the group adopts are not only perceived as
sensible; they are also perceived as morally correctTypes
o
iv.
Stereotypes of Outsiders
1. The group constructs unfavourable stereotypes of those
outside the group who are the targets of their decisions
v.
Pressure for Conformity
1. Members pressure each other to fall in line and conform
with the group’s views
vi.
Self-Censorship
1. Members convince themselves to avoid voicing opinions
contrary to the group
vii.
Illusion of Unanimity
1. Members perceive that unanimous support exists for their
chosen course of action
viii.
Mindguards
1. Some group members may adopt the role of “protecting”
the group from information that goes against its decisions
Approaches to Improving Decision-Making
1. Devil’s advocate
a. Someone officially appointed/assigned to identify and challenge weaknesses in a
proposed plan
2. Whistle blowing
a. Not appointed/assigned, meant to identify problems
3. Encouraging outliers/earning idiosyncratic credits
a. If outlier capability is good for the group, you earn credit for being odd
4. Disruptors
a. Positive disruptor/oppositional; cultural/not officially hired (genuinely believes
what they argue)
**Avoiding Groupthink Video**
How do we get diversity of thought?
● Devil’s advocates are not effective
○ Devil's advocate doesn’t actually believe what they’re arguing
○ Group knows devil’s advocate is playing a role
● Find a contrarian/someone with opposing views so they’re not just playing a role
★How do groups handle risk?★
● Risky Shift
○ The tendency for groups to make ​riskier​ decisions than the average risk initially
advocated by their individual members
○ Diffusion of responsibility
○ Security in numbers encourages the group to take greater risks
● Conservative Shift
○ The tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk
initially advocated by their individual members
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Contemporary Approaches to Improving Decision-Making
1. Evidence-Based Management
a. Making decisions through explicit evidence from multiple sources
2. Crowdsourcing
a. Outsourcing aspects of a decision-making process to a large collection of people
3. Analytics & Big Data
a. Use large datasets to find meaningful patterns and use that data to make
meaningful decisions
Week 8: Chapter 11 (Partial) and Chapter 8
Culture & Socialization
● Before starting a new job and then once inside the organization, how do you know what
types of things are expected and/or acceptable or not (e.g. attire, language, etc.)?
What is Organizational Culture?
● The shared beliefs, values, norms (way of being) and assumptions that exist in an
organization
○ Culture provides uniqueness and ​social identity​ to organizations
○ It represents a true “way of life” for organizational members (iceberg model,
culture is below the water line)
○ It tends to be fairly stable over time (unless there is a paradigm shift/change in
thinking)
○ We learn culture through osmosis
○ It can involve matters inside and outside the organization
○ It can have strong impact on organizational performance and member
satisfaction
●
Information dependance
○
●
Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act
Social Information processing theory
○
Information from others is used to interpret events and develop expectations
about appropriate and acceptable attitudes and behaviours
●
Effect dependance
○
Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment
Pre-Entry & At-Entry Issues
What do employees go through just before and just after getting employed?
1. ★★Realistic Job Preview (RJP)★★
a. A mechanism used by organizations to present both the desirable and the
undesirable aspects of a job and/or organization
b. Decreases reality shock
c. How does a company do this?
i.
Video presentation (Teal doesn’t believe this)
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ii.
Sit down and interview current job holders (can only work if boss says to
tell the truth)
iii.
Work simulation (transformative learning)
iv.
A day in the life of (job shadowing)
d. What are the results for the company?
i.
Increases likelihood of a fit
ii.
Weeds out the undecideds on both sides
iii.
Those with a more complete and accurate picture are more committed
and stay longer
2. Psychological Contract
a. When the individual accepts the job, they enter into a psychological contract (PC)
with the employer that consists of unwritten expectations on both sides
b. Eg. For example, an employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions
in return for hard work and loyalty.
c. ★Reciprocal obligations and promises★ - i give you that if I get this from you
(quid pro quo)
d. What is a PC breach?
i.
The perception that the organization has failed to fulfill one or more of its
promises
ii.
Can be breached by employee or employer (big deal)
iii.
Number 1 reason employees join unions is PC breaches
How do organizations develop early commitment in the new recruit?/What are the 4
components that help us more quickly get a recruit quickly committed?
1. Visibility
a. Commitment increases the more visible or observable you make a behaviour
b. Ex. introduce new employee to everyone, post about new employee online
2. Explicitness
a. Get the employee to feel like they cannot deny the behaviour
b. Ex. assign them tasks
3. Irreversibility
a. The more the behaviour cannot be revoked, a feeling that you can’t leave
4. Personal volition
a. Willpower of new recruit
★What is Socialization?★
● Process by which an employee begins to ​adapt​ to the values, norms and beliefs of the
organization and its members (culture)
○ Involves learning the organization’s climate and “learning to fit in”
○ ★Proximal and distal socialization outcomes★
■ Proximal (Short-term) Socialization Outcomes:
● Learning fast
● Quickly completing tasks
● Social integration (integrate better with critical people)
● Role conflict down
● Role ambiguity down
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■
● Quicker fit
Distal (Long-term) Socialization Outcomes
● Job satisfaction up
● Organizational commitment up
● Organizational identification
● OCB up
● Stress down
● Turnover down
○
★Teal wants us to know the difference between culture and climate★ (culture is more general,
climate is more tangible)
★What is Climate?★
● “Members’ shared perceptions of the ​contingencies​ between behaviours that occur in the
work environment and their consequences”
○ Learning what behaviours are expected, acceptable, unacceptable
○ Climate is about the X to Y contingencies
○ More tangible
(BUNDLE OF 2)
Strategic Importance of Socialization
Why should I spend money on a good socialization program?
● Uncertainty Reduction Theory
○ “Newcomers are motivated to reduce their uncertainty so that the work
environment becomes more predictable and understandable.”
● Sets the tone of employment relationship
● Clarifies expectations/how things are done
● Reduces anxiety for new employees
○ Will I fit in? Will I enjoy the job/coworkers/etc?
● Effects employee attitudes and behaviour
○ Job satisfaction, commitment
○ Job performance
● Socialization facilitates the social influence process and leads to greater ​identification
and ​involvement​ with organizational norms and roles
● Socialization helps employees move from compliance to internalization:
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○
Compliance - conformity to a social norm out of desire to acquire rewards or
avoid punishment
○ Identification - conformity to a social norm out of belief that those who promote
the norm are attractive or similar to oneself
○ Internalization - conformity to a social norm out of true acceptance of the beliefs,
values, and attitudes that underlie the norm
★Socialization vs. Orientation★ (​MC​ ​Question on the final​)
● Orientation marks the beginning of Socialization
● Orientation
○ Program that ​informs​ new employees about their job and company
○ Short-term (always ends), often formal
○ Employee Orientation Programs: programs designed to introduce new
employees to their job, the people they will be working with, stress coping, health
and safety issues, terms and conditions and the organization
○ Employee (Realistic) Orientation Program for Entry Stress (ROPES)
■ a set of learning techniques for ​early anxiety
● Socialization
○ A.K.A indoctrination
○ Process of employees ​adapting​ to organization (culture/climate)
○ Long-term (never ends) process (tactics), often informal
■ Never ends because new dynamics are always emerging, cultures adapt
○ Person-job fit - match of KSAs (Knowledge Strength Ability) to the job
○ Person-organization fit - match of person to culture (eg. I don’t like working late
nights with my co-workers)
○ Person-group fit - could be department, how much you fit with group
○ Organizational identification - defining yourself by the organization and their
values (I’m proud to work for this company!)
Stages of Socialization (BUNDLE)
1. Anticipatory (Pre-Arrival)
a. Employees ​begin​ with certain expectations about organization and job
b. May be unrealistic - if unmet, result in dissatisfaction, turnover, etc.
c. Not all anticipatory socialization will be accurate or useful
d. Organizations may vary in the extent to which it is encouraged
e. Realistic Job Preview (RJP) may be helpful
i.
Info about job demands and working conditions - both positive and
negative
ii.
Depends on the culture of the organization (if they actually tell the truth)
f. What could this look like? Is when one joins a new organization but can also be
when you switch departments, teams, etc
g. Organizational representatives are discussing the job with potential hires
h. Job fair
i. Informal discussions with employees
2. Encounter (immediately follows entry)
a. Employee has started new job
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b. Inconsistencies between expectations and realities emerge (dissonance)
c. Need info re: policies, procedures, etc.
i.
E.g. via Orientation Program
1. Organizational issues, policies, etc.
2. Benefits
3. Introductions
4. Job duties
d. Benefits of a good orientation program
i.
Shows organization values to employee
ii.
Reduces employee anxiety and turnover
iii.
Reduces start-up costs
iv.
Clarifies job and organizational expectations
v.
Improves job performance
3. Role Management (Settling in)
a. Inconsistencies start to get worked out
b. Employee begins to identify with organization
c. Transition from being an “outsider” to feeling like an “insider”
d. Often involves taking on new attitudes, values, and behaviours to ​align​ with
organization’s
e. Misalignment = dissatisfaction and turnover
Video: Socialization Tactics
● What are some of the socializations you can put yourself through?
● More cohesive workforce
● Institutionalized socialization consists of collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and
investiture tactics
● Individualized socialization consists of individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive,
and divestiture tactics
1. Collective vs. individual
a. Bullpen experience
b. Collective - putting several new hires through the same experiences
c. Individual - just one person put through the experiences at a time
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2. Formal vs. informal
a. Formal - tailored to newcomer(s)
b. Informal - everyone goes through the same thing
3. Sequential vs. random
a. Sequential - sequence of steps leading to a target role
b. Random - no sequence/order
4. Fixed vs. variable (timeframe)
a. Fixed - recruit is given a precise time that it takes for the given passage
b. Variable - no fixed time; less typical
5. Serial (experienced, role models) vs. disjunctive
a. Serial: experienced role models/members grooms the newcomers to assume a
similar position in the organization
b. Disjunctive - no role models
6. Investiture (affirm identity) vs. divestiture (strip self-confidence) (deadliest one of them
all)
a. Investiture - socialization process utilizes and builds upon the skills and attitudes
of the new recruit
b. Divestiture - strip away characteristics of the new recruit to rebuild into the person
they want (used in military, Proctor Gamble, and Mary Ash Cosmetics)
Institutionalized vs. Individualized Socialization
● Institutionalized Socialization
○ Formalized and structured program; reduces uncertainty and encourages new
hires to stick to status quo
○ Collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, divestiture
● Individual Socialization
○ Reflects relative absence of structure; encourages new hires to question status
quo and develop their own approach to the role
○ Individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive, investiture
★Mentoring★
● A ​mentor​ is an experienced or more senior person ​in​ (doesn’t necessarily have to be in)
the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and
creating opportunities to assist them during the early stages of their career
○ ★Career functions (coach, feedback)★
■ Sponsorship - like a reference, have my back, speak on my behalf
■ Coaching on strengths and weaknesses relative to my performance
■ Provide exposure and visibility with respect to critical people
■ Help with developmental assignments
○ ★Psychosocial functions (role model, counseling)★
■ Building self-esteem
■ Sense of identity
■ Coping capabilities
■ EI and CI
○ Formal mentoring programs
■ Matching a senior with a junior
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○
Developmental networks
■ A group of people who take an active interest in mentee’s career
○ Women and mentoring
■ Network specifically for women
○ Race, ethnicity and mentoring
■ Network specifically for BIPOC
● Comparison between the career and psychological mentoring functions
○ The psychologica​l career function is more strongly related to satisfaction
○ The mentoring​ career function is more strongly related to compensation and
advancement
What are the 3 quickest ways of Diagnosing a Culture?
1. Symbols
a. Use ​symbols to reinforce​ cultural values
b. Ex. signs, branding, social media, reputation management visuals
2. Rituals
a. Rites, rituals, and ceremonies can convey essence
b. Preamble to understanding subcultures
c. Ex. casual Fridays, Wal-Mart cheer
3. Stories
a. The folklore of organizations - stories about past organizational events - is a
common aspect of culture
b. Stories reflect common cultural themes
Recognizing Subcultures
● An organization can have several cultures or what are known as subcultures
● Subcultures are smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that
are based on differences in training, occupation, departmental or managerial goals
○ E.g. could be a different culture across different departments (overall McMaster
culture vs. DeGroote culture)
The “Strong Culture” Concept (BUNDLE)
● Strong Culture: an organizational culture with ​intense​ and ​pervasive​ beliefs, values and
assumptions
○ A strong culture provides great ​consensus​ (a widely shared philosophy)
concerning “what the organization is about” or what it stand for
■ E.g. WestJet Airlines
○ View people as a critical resource
● Weak cultures are fragmented and have less impact on organizational members
○ There may be a ​gap​ (dissonance) between the culture that leaders envisions and
the culture that employees experience
○ Lacks intensiveness, pervasiveness and consensus
A Culture of Care at Disney
● Connections with everyone, knows everyone
● Low power distance and collectivism
5 elements to strong culture:
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● Shared philosophy amongst all employees
● Strong cultures view their people as a critical resource
● Strong cultures have charismatic leaders and heroes – transformational leaders
excite employees, heroes turn companies around from failing to thriving
● Rituals and ceremonies
● Clear goals and expectations of where culture is going
○ Organizations don’t have to be big to have a strong culture
○ Strong cultures do not always result in blind conformity
○ Strong cultures associated with success
“Strong Culture” Concept Cont’d
● Does not always contribute to organizational success
● Assets/Advantages
○ Coordination
■ Facilitate communication and coordination
○ Conflict Resolution
■ Sharing core values can resolve conflicts
○ Financial Success
■ If the culture supports the mission, strategy and goals of the organization,
it gets translated into the bottom line
● Liabilities/Disadvantages
○ Resistance to Change
■ Damage a firm’s ability to innovate
■ If you’ve encouraged/promoted a strong culture and there is a sudden
paradigm shift
○ Culture Clash
■ Strong cultures can mix badly when a merger or acquisition occurs
■ Two strong cultures create conflict (in mergers or acquisitions)
○ Pathology
■ Beliefs and values support infighting, secrecy and dishonesty
■ Usually driven by ego
■ Governments could be an example
★7 of the Most Common Socialization Steps used in Strong Cultures★ (coming on final)
Very careful control of who they are finding as “matched employees”
1. Selection
a. Who they’re bringing in match their culture
b. New employees are carefully selected to obtain those who will be able to adapt to
the existing culture and realistic job previews are provided to allow candidates to
deselect themselves (eg. Self-selection)
2. Hazing
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a. Humility-inducing experiences
b. Leads to cohesiveness
c. Makes it difficult to enter but once they’re in, they want to stay
Training
a. “Training in the trenches”
b. Get people to roll up their sleeves right away
c. Giving people actual activities early on
Reward & Promotion (direct and indirect compensation)
a. Direct - monetary rewards
b. Indirect - perks, benefits, non monetary rewards
Exposure to Core Culture
a. Continuous reinforcement of values verbally and through behaviours
Organizational Folklore
a. Story-telling
b. Reflect common cultural themes
Role Models
a. Heroes, charismatic leaders, mentors, senior people that are more experienced
and MODEL the behaviour
★How can ​you​ be involved in your Socialization & Culture Adaptation?★
Proactive Socialization - The employee plays an active role on his/her socialization by:
1. Feedback seeking
a. Requesting information about your performance on a job/in a task
i.
E.g. being positively assertive in your own socialization
2. Information seeking
a. Everything you can ask about the job, department, division, organization,
stakeholders, etc.
3. General socializing
a. Participating in office events and attending social gatherings
i.
Ex. lunches, get-togethers, parties
b. Very important for building relationships
4. Relationship building
a. Initiating social interactions and building relationships with others in your
department
5. Boss-relationship building
a. Initiating social interactions and building a relationship with your boss
6. Networking
a. Socializing within your organization and outside of it
b. Going above and beyond relationship building (other departments)
7. Job change negotiation
a. Make attempts to change your job duties in a manner that can improve how you
perform your job and your relation to the job
Week 9: ​Leadership (Chapter 9)
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What is Leadership?
● The ​influence​ (what does influence mean?) that particular individuals exert on the goal
achievement of others in an ​organizational context
● What are the two major tasks of those who lead?
○ Level 1: ​managing​ those around them to get the day-to-day tasks done
■ All leaders have to be able to manage
○ ★Level 2: inspiring others to do the extraordinary★
● “The ​art​ of mobilizing others to want to ​struggle​ for shared aspirations” (Kouzes &
Posner)
● “There are three things required for success; ​integrity​, ​intelligence​ and ​energy​. If you are
missing the first, the other two will kill you” (Warren Buffet)
Formal vs. Informal
● Formal
○ Legitimacy
○ Assigned leadership role/position
○ Expected​ to influence
○ Given specific authority to direct employees
○ They hold the title but lack true influence
■ Influence - lasting impact, intrinsic motivation, inspiration
○ Ex. CFO, CIO, manager, supervisor
● Informal
○ No legitimate title (seemingly lower level participants)
○ Positive power always (no need for negative power)
○ Critical knowledge and/or experience
Leaders vs. Managers
● The role of the leader and the role of the manager are not the same
● Managers do things right, leaders do the right thing
● All leaders are managers but not all managers are leaders
● Is it possible to be a manager yet not have influence?
○ Yes, roles play a part in this
Simon Sinek Video
● We call someone a leader because they went first
● They have your back
● Leaders have authority to operate on a greater scale
● Leader can never feel safe until followers are safe
Transactional vs. Transformational
● On a continuum
● Transact​ional: leadership that is based on the straight forward exchange relationship
between the leader and followers
○ Motivate by ​exchanging​ rewards for services
■ Reinforcement theory
○ Manager-like role
○ Making sure working conditions are safe
○ Making sure people are compensated around some industry average
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○ Job design
○ Recognizes needs and makes sure you get them
○ Extrinsic motivation
● Transform​ational: leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true
commitment
○ Arouse intense feelings
○ Intellectual stimulation
○ Inspirational motivation
○ Rely on personal sources of power
○ Individualized consideration (low power distance)
■ Lots of one-on-one relationships
○ ★Charisma★
■ Always creative and innovative
■ Providing followers with a sense of meaning
■ Unbelievably confident in their followers’ capabilities
■ Translating their own confidence to followers’ self-confidence
○ Intrinsic motivation
○ Transform followers’ expectations so they can be more than they ever thought
they could be
○ Provides people with a sense of meaning
○ All transformational leaders have been about common purpose
○ 4 key dimensions of transformational leadership:
■ Intellectual stimulation (people stimulated to think about problems, issues,
and strategies in new ways)
■ Inspirational motivation (Communication of visions that are appealing and
inspiring to followers)
■ Individualized consideration (treat employees as a distinct individual,
show concern for their needs)
■ Charisma: Ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers
and thus having the potential for strong influence among them. Most
important dimension of transformational leadership
What are the 4 primary leadership development theories and approaches? (BUNDLE of 10)
★★★★table makes up about 80% of final exam questions from week 9★★★★
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What is universal leader influence? (boxes 1 and 2)
● Leaders are leaders because of some enduring aspect of their traits or their behaviours
● Regardless of situations
What is situation-contingent leader influence? (boxes 3 and 4)
● Leaders adjust their traits and behaviours to fit the demands of the situation
BOX 1:​ Universal TRAIT Approaches
Universal Leader Influence
● Belief that certain individuals are ​destined​ to be leaders regardless of the situation
○ A born leader
○ ★Highly associated with charisma★
○ Great Person Approach
● Traits associated with leadership effectiveness
○ Intelligence, energy and drive
○ Self-confidence (not arrogance)
○ Motivation to lead
○ Emotional stability
○ Honesty & integrity
● Limitations of the trait approach
○ Controversy - half of people believe in born leaders, half don’t
● Leadership Categorization Theory
○ Leadership comes from the perception of followers
○ The power of perception in leadership
BOX 2:​ Universal BEHAVIOUR Approaches
Situation-Contingent Leader Influence
● What leader ​behaviours​ lead to follower satisfaction and high performance?
○ Initiating Structure (Task Leader)
■ The degree to which a leader concentrates on goal attainment
■ A leader who is concerned with accomplishing a task by organizing,
planning and dividing labour
■ What leaders do
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○
●
Initiating Consideration (Social-emotional Leader)
■ The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal
concern for employees
■ A leader who is concerned about reducing tension, resolving
disagreements and maintaining morale
■ How leaders do it
Consequences
○ Employee motivation up
○ Job satisfaction up
○ Overall leader effectiveness up
BOX 3:​ Contingency TRAIT Approaches (BUNDLE)
Situation-Contingent Leader Influence - ​Trait ​approaches
● Fred Fiedler’s contingency model​: the association between leadership ​orientation
(traits) and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable the situation is for
exerting influence
○ Basic assumption: the nature of the situation determines which traits (orientation)
is most effective
○ Matching a leader to the situation
● 1. Leadership orientation
○ ★​Least Preferred Coworker Scale​★
■ LPC: a current or past coworker with whom a leader has had a difficult
time accomplishing a task
■ Based on answers, you are either lower LPC or higher LPC
● Lower LPC: task-oriented
● Higher LPC: people-oriented
● 2. Situational favourableness
○ Leader-member relations
■ The extent to which the group trusts and respects the leader and quickly
follows the leaders direction
○ Task structure
■ The degree to which a task is clearly specified and defined as opposed to
unstructured and ambiguous
○ Position power
■ The extent to which the leader has official power, the ability to influence
because of where they are in the hierarchy
● 3. The Contingency Model (Exhibit 9.2)
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Box 4A:​ Contingency BEHAVIOUR Approaches - Bob House
● House’s Path-Goal Model
○ This model is concerned with the situations under which various leader
behaviours are most effective
○ Leaders can and should adapt/adjust their styles to the situational demands
1. Leadership behaviour
a. Directive behaviour
i.
Constantly letting subordinates know what is expected of them
ii.
Giving specific guidelines on what the job entails and how to do the job
iii.
Scheduling work
iv.
Constantly setting standards and rules
b. Supportive behaviour
i.
Constantly showing concern for the well-being of subordinates
ii.
Treat people with a friendly, approachable and helpful way of being
c. Participative behaviour
i.
Consulting with your people
ii.
Asking for their suggestions
iii.
Allowing participation to improve productivity (gain sharing pay)
iv.
Fostering autonomy
d. Achievement-oriented behaviour
i.
Always helping to set challenging goals
ii.
Demanding/encouraging/fostering high levels of performance and
excellence
iii.
Ultimate confidence in people
2. Situational factors
a. Employee characteristics:
i.
Level of authoritarianism
1. Have the employees had a lot of authority/decision-making
power?
ii.
Locus of control
1. Are they internally or externally driven?
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iii.
Level of ability
1. How much experience do they have?
b. Environmental factors:
i.
Nature of task
1. How structured/ambiguous is the task?
ii.
Formal authority
1. What is the environment of the organization (strict chain of
command, hierarchical, informal, etc.)?
3. The Path-Goal Model
● If you apply the right leadership style you should receive the right outcome
● If someone uses the wrong leadership style, you need to consider the situational factors,
micro management will occur and problems can occur
Box 4B: ​Contingency BEHAVIOUR Approaches - Vroom-Jago’s Model
● Participative leadership​: let employees make work related decisions
● Should only apply when there is something to participate in
● Involves employees in work-related decisions especially when it impacts them
● Advantages:
○ Motivation
■ Job enrichment
■ Allows employees to set work goals and how to accomplish them
■ Employees feel they are contributing to productivity/decision making
■ Variety of tasks
■ Relies on high GNS
○ Quality
■ increases because of the synergy that is gained by making a group
decision
■ Employees have more ownership of the work, so quality increases
○ Acceptance
■ When you participate in making a decision, you will accept the decision
more because you were involved in making it
Disadvantages:
○ Time and energy
■ If a quick decision has to be made, then participation may not be
appropriate
■ You won't have the time to engage and find ideas/suggestions from other
○ Loss of power
■ Some leaders who are asked to be more participative may resist as they
see it as giving up their power and influence
○ Lack of receptivity or knowledge
■ Not everyone appreciates participative leadership because they may not
like the leader or have trust in their boss
■ Employees may be conditioned in being controlled all the time so they
may not want to make those decisions
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■
Some employees expect the leader to make decisions because they are
possible being paid more etc...
★​Vroom and Jago’s Situational Model of Participative Leadership​★
● Specifies ​when​ leaders should use participation behaviour leadership and to ​what extent
they should use it
● Model suggests various degrees of participation that a leader can exhibit
● ★​Range of behaviour on a continuum: AI, AII, CI, CII, GII (A = autocratic, C =
consultative, G = group)​★
○ AI​: take what you have and make your decision (low participation)
○ AII​: autocratic and group; obtaining necessary info from group, use that
information to make the decision yourself (low participation)
○ CI​: Meet with employees individually to retain ideas and suggestions to make a
decision on your own. Consulting with employees and asking for their ideas/
suggestion (moderate participation)
○ CII​: asking employees for ideas and suggestion, you are working together but a
decision is still make by yourself at the end (moderate participation)
○ GII​: Bringing everyone together, brainstorming together, reaching an agreement
as a team and that is the decision you move forward with (high participation)
● Model (Exhibit 9.5)
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Decision tree on page 338
● For exam know there is a decision tree
● Practical way to see what and how decisions are made
Disadvantage
● failure to consider employee personalities and not knowing who their employees are
What are the other leadership development skill areas that we are working on with leaders
today? (BUNDLE)
Alternative leadership approaches:
● Leaders-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
○ A theory of leadership that focuses on the quality of the relationship that
develops between a leader and an employee.
○ Develop as many high quality one-on-one relationships with employees so the
employees will put in a higher commitment
○ You can only do this if the leader leads with respect, fairness, honesty and trust
○ Ex. Disney video
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■ High LMX involves high degree of mutual influence and obligation as well
as trust, loyalty, open communication, and respect between a leader and
employee
■ Low LMX is characterised by low levels of trust, respect, obligation, and
mutual support
○ Social Exchange Theory: individuals who are treated favourably by others feel
obliged to reciprocate by responding positively and returning that favorable
treatment in some manner
●
Developmental Leadership
○ Working with organizational members as partners
○ Working with people instead of having employees work for you
○ Use persuasion and negotiation instead of command and directing
○ Training leaders to develop their people to be empowered
○ Uses ethos, pagos, logos
○ HBR: Does your leadership style scare your employees?
● Strategic Leadership
○ Ability to anticipate and strategize
○ Need to look to the future
○ Do you operate with a framework?
○ ★​HBR: Good leadership hinges on organizational intelligence​★
● Global Leadership
○ Cultural intelligence
○ How do we foster unbridled inquisitiveness in leaders?
○ See globally but operate locally (seeing the forest and the trees)
● Shared Leadership
○ Team phenomenon where leadership is distributed through various members at
various times
○ Leadership roles and influence that are distributed across leaders in a group
New and emerging approaches to Positive Leadership
★​Positive Leadership: Leadership that focuses on behaviours and interpersonal dynamics that
increase followers ​confidence​ and result in positive outcomes beyond task compliance​★
● Empowering leadership: Implementing conditions that enable power to be shared with
employees
○ Fostering autonomy
○ Encouraging subordinates to be self-managed
● Ethical leadership
○ Modeling what is considered to be normally appropriate behaviour
○ Make ethics a part of the workplace
○ Reward ethical behaviour
● Authentic Leadership
○ Being true to oneself, helping others do the same
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●
●
●
○ Taking action
○ Closely related to the study of integrity
★​Servant Leadership​★
○ Having a genuine concern to serve others
○ Going beyond your own interests
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
○ Have they got that self awareness and social awareness
Culture and Leadership
○ Implicit Leadership Theory: a theory that states that individuals hold a set of
beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and
behaviours that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership
○ 6 global leadership dimensions:
■ Charismatic/Value Based (inspires, motivates, expect high performance
outcomes from others)
■ Team Oriented (emphasizes team building and common goals)
■ Participative (managers involve others in making decisions)
■ Humane Oriented (supportive and considerate leadership, compassion,
generosity)
■ Autonomous (independent and individualistic leadership)
■ Self Protective (ensuring the safety and security of the individual)
■ Some of these attributes are culturally contingent
○ Global Leadership: A set of leadership capabilities required to function effectively
in different cultures and the ability to cross language, social, economic, and
political borders
●
●
●
★Gender and Leadership★
○ Identifications of all the humans facing barriers (including race, sexual
orientation)
Change Leadership
○ Are we training leaders to know how to help others walk through difficult
transitions?
Leadership and sustainability
○ Triple bottom line
○ Training leaders on TBL, do they know how to make decision that cross people,
profit and planet
Video Clip: Jim Collins on Leadership
● Leadership is not personality
● Charisma is nice to have but it is not necessary but it goes the long way if its authentic
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●
●
●
●
●
●
A leader is not about external things
A leader should not make their leadership about themselves
When a leader is doing something for the people, people will be more likely to respect
and follow that individual
Respect will be lost if people see that the leader is being a leader for the benefit of
themself
Critical question: why are you in it?
Channeling your ego into something bigger than yourself
Leadership Effectiveness Equation (BUNDLE of 8)
● Leader Effectiveness = L1 + L2 + GM + S
● Leader Traits (L1)
○ Individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability and
personality
○ Intelligence, energy, self-confidence, dominance, motivation to lead, honesty &
integrity, need for achievement
○ Big Five (extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
openness to experience)
○ Other Seven (locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, positive/negative
affectivity, proactive personality, self-efficacy, core self-evaluations)
● Leader Behaviours (L2)
○ Relationship-oriented behaviours (initiates consideration)
■ Inspires, makes work meaningful for people, provides emotional support
and encouragement, promotes principles and values, demonstrates
servant leadership, aligns and mobilizes people
○ Task-oriented behaviours (initiates structure)
■ Direction setting, high performance standards, hands-on guidance,
frequent feedback, stability of performance, asks tough questions, strong
customer orientation, adapts to the situation
● Group Member Characteristics (GM)
○ Task abilities/capabilities, intellectual ability, and personality
○ Intelligence, motivation, energy, self-confidence, dominance, need for
achievement
○ Big Five (extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
openness to experience)
○ Other Seven (locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, positive/negative
affectivity, proactive personality, self-efficacy, core self-evaluations)
● Situation (S)
○ Internal environments
■ Power, politics, culture, subcultures, how clear and routine tasks are, how
challenging tasks are, whether jobs are seen as frustrating and/or
dissatisfying, etc
○ External environments
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■
Economic, competitors, customers, suppliers, industry associations,
social, political, technological, etc.
Question to Ponder: Which component of the leadership effectiveness equation do you think is
the most significant? Why do you think this component is so important?
Week 10: Chapter 12
Power, Politics & Ethics (vs. Morals)
● ★​The capacity to ​influence​ others who are in a state of ​dependence​★
1. Social exchange (most important)
a. Resource dependency occurs when an individual needs something that
another person has
b. The person with the need is said to be dependent on the other guy
c. No power can happen unless that’s true
d. Power or influence occurs when the person gets what they want in
exchange for a change in their thinking or behaviour
e. This can get nasty (e.g. sexual harassment)
2. Perception
a. You have to perceive someone has true power to behave
b.
3. N-Pow (Need-Power; Need for Power)
a. McClelland in week 5
b. N-Pow negative: leader doesn’t care about you, one-way communication
c. N-Pow positive: leader is happy with work
What are the Foundational Five Bases (Types) of Individual Power (BUNDLE)
Structural Sources: Power an organization gives to a person
1. Legitimate Power
a. Power derived from a person’s position or job in an organization
b. Job description includes authority to control over behaviour of others
c. Given the right to give orders
d. Based on the belief that members accept this
e. E.g. President of the company
2. Reward Power
a. Power derived from the ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative
outcomes
b. Reinforcement theory
c. E.g. accepting overtime so your boss promotes you
3. Coercive Power
a. Power derived from the use of punishment and threat
b. Controlling people through fear
c. Most associated with workplace ineffectiveness
d. E.g. you arrive early because your boss will be mad
Personal Sources: No one gives them, they are developed
4. Referent Power
a. Power derived from being well-liked/respected by others
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b. Related to the concept of charisma
c. E.g. people will do you favours because they admire/respect you
5. Expert Power
a. Power derived from having special information or expertise that is valued by an
organization
b. Highly associated with employee effectiveness
c. Either information or status
i.
Information: knowledge, abilities you have
ii.
Status: credentials (degrees) you have
d. E.g. everyone goes to you with questions about a certain subject matter
How do people ​obtain​ power? (Kanter 1977; Pfeffer 1992)
● Doing the right things
a. Extraordinary activities
i.
Non-routine positions
ii.
Excellent performance in unusual/non-routine activities
b. Visible activities
i.
They have an interest is power and therefore ​publicize​ their activities
c. Relevant activities
● Cultivating the right people
a. Develop informal relationships with the right people
i.
Outsiders, subordinates, peers, superiors
Cultivating Power in the Workplace Video
1. Figure out who has formal power
2. Figure out who has informal power
a. Lower level participants, gatekeepers (“secretary”)
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3. Get close to the people who have power
4. Get the people with power on your side (manipulative)
a. Flattery
b. Networking
c. Socializing
d. Unexploited resources
BUNDLE next 3 (what do I need to know about empowerment?)
Empowerment
What are 4 OB topics associated with empowerment?
1. Human Resource Management
2. Job design theory
3. Self-managed work team
4. Vroom-Jago’s situational model of participative leadership
★​Descriptions in an Empowered Culture:​★
1. Giving people the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve
organizational problems
2. Giving people the freedom and ability to make decisions and commitments
3. Puts power where it is needed to make it effective
4. People who are empowered have a strong sense of ​self-efficacy
A = Lack of Power
B = Empowerment
C = Abuse of Power
Degrees of Empowerment
● No discretion
○ Routine, repetitive, tasks assigned
○ Operate according to rules rather than initiative
● Participatory
○ Semi-autonomous work groups
○ Given some authority
● Self-Management
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○
○
Full decision-making power
Management has faith in employees carrying out organizational missions and
goals
Characteristics of Empowered People
1. Self-determination
a. Free to choose how to work
b. Not micromanaged
2. Sense of meaning
a. Their work is important to them
b. They care about what they’re doing
3. Sense of competence (Self-efficacy)
a. Confident about their ability to do their work well
b. Know they can perform
4. Sense of impact
a. Believe they can have influence on their work unit
b. Others listen to their ideas
Influence Tactics (match each of the five bases of power with an influence tactic)
1. Assertiveness
a. Ordering, nagging, setting deadlines
b. Used by Coercive Type
2. Ingratiation
a. Using flattery, acting friendly
b. Used by Referent Type
3. Exchange
a. Doing favours or offering to trade favours
b. Used by Reward Type
4. Upward Appeals
a. Making formal or informal appeals to superiors for intervention (also inspirational
and personal appeals)
5. Coalition Formation
a. Seeking united support from other organizational members
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b. Used by Referent Type
6. Rational Persuasion
a. Using facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas
b. Used by Expert Type
7. Self-promotion
a. touting one’s accomplishments, image enhancement, name-dropping
b. Used by Expert type
Who wants power?
● Those high on McClelland’s Need for Power (N-Pow)
○ People high on N-Pow want influence
○ Negative N-Pow - traditional/classical style, hierarchical
○ Positive - always consultative
● McClelland argues that the ​most effective​ managers (“Institutional Managers”):
○ Have high N-Pow
○ Use their power to achieve organizational goals
○ Adopt a participative or “coaching” leadership style
○ Are relatively unconcerned with how much others like them
● Comparison to “Personal Power Managers” and “Affiliative Power Managers”
1. Institutional Managers
a. High N-Pow
b. Use your power to achieve high ​organizational goals
c. Don’t care about how much they’re liked
d. Care about how much they’re respected
e. Uses their power for the good of the institution and not self gain
2. Personal Power Managers
a. High N-Pow
b. All about personal gain
i.
Fame, fortune, ego
3. Affiliative Power Managers
a. High N-Pow
b. Operate always because they want to be liked
● Institutional power holders are better at:
1. Giving people a sense of responsibility
2. Clarifying organizational priorities
a. Value driven, priority driven
3. Instilling team spirit
An Alternative View: How do subunits obtain power?
● Subunit power - the degree of power held by various organizational subunits, such as
departments
● Strategic Contingency Power Model
○ A view that sees power as something that accrues (builds up) to organizational
subunits that cope with critical organizational problems
i.
Ex. fire department/first responders gained power immediately following
9/11
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○
Strategic Contingencies: a critical factor that impacts organizational effectiveness
i.
Scarcity of resources
● Those who have plenty of resources
○ Money, lab space, a vaccine, support staff
ii.
Uncertainty
● Those subunits that are better at dealing with uncertainty will gain
power
iii.
Centrality
● Activities that are more central to the workflow of the problem
● Usually means closeness of expertise, knowledge
○ E.g. the firefighters are the only ones that could be the
closest
iv.
Substitutability
● A subunit will have relatively little power if others inside and
outside the organization can perform the same activities
BUNDLE NEXT 4
Organizational Politics
1. The pursuit of ​self interest​ in an organization, whether or not this self-interest
corresponds to organizational goals (conflict of interest)
2. Self-conscious and intentional (you know what you’re doing)
3. Would be countered it detected by those with different agendas (“Whistle Blowers”)
★​Developing Political Skills​★
● Political Skill:
○ The ability to understand others at work
○ Use that knowledge to influence others to enhance our personal and
organizational perspectives
● Observable Characteristics:
1. Social astuteness
a. You are tuned into others thoughts and feelings
2. Interpersonal influence
a. Persuasiveness, use it to meet the needs of the situations
3. Apparent​ sincerity
a. A good politician comes across sincere and genuine
4. Networking ability
a. Establishing good relationships with critical stakeholders and
stakeholder bodies
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●
Beware (of self and others who are doing this):
○ Machiavellianism (not an influence tactic)
■ A chosen style based on cynical beliefs about human nature
● You believe you can manipulate and take advantage of humans
● Big Machs - people use use machiavellianism
■ Defensiveness
● Known for defending and protecting yourself
● Reactive politics
● Scapegoating
● Self serving bias (external attribution)
★​9 perceptual errors that we as humans commit?​★​ (Test question)
How can I master Office Politics? (understanding office politics video)
1. Spot the influencer
a. Observe relationships
b. Watch people’s characteristics
2. Show your face
a. Build a reputation for being approachable
3. Build that reputation for approachability
a. open door policy
4. Be a trusted source of information
a. become a trusted source of info
HBR: What everyone should know about office politics
1. Boost your emotional intelligence
2. Get yourself a sponsor (especially women/people facing barriers)
Ethics (BUNDLE next ? slides)
Difference between Ethics/Business Ethics and Morals/Business Morals
Ethics/Business Ethics:
● ★​Systematic thinking in making decisions​★
● An acceptable set of standards/behaviours
● Established by a body
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● Standards of conduct/standards of right vs wrong in business settings
● What do you say you believe in?
● “Above the water line”
Morals/Business Morals:
● Embedded and personal
● Internal compass
● That which drives how you ​actually​ behave
● “Below the water line”
★​Ethical Conduct & Misconduct (ethos question coming on test)​★
● Ethical Conduct
○ Themes and associated behaviours
○ If you were observing a culture, what associated behaviours would you see?
i.
Repetitive pattern of honest and truthful communication
ii.
Fair/equitable treatment
iii.
Special consideration
● Helping long-term employees
● Giving preference to hiring minorities
● Giving business to a loyal and troubled supplier
iv.
Fair Competition
v.
Responsibility To Organization
vi.
Corporate Social Responsibility
vii. Respect For The Law
● Ethical Misconduct
○ Issues covered in corporate codes of ethics
○ Zero tolerance - no grey zone on particular issues (ex. Abuse, falsifying expense
reports, violation of environmental regulations
★​Bounded (biased, not perfect, flawed) Ethicality​★
● The psychological process by which people engage in behaviour that ​violates​ their own
ethical standards
● People are prone to ethical ​blind spots
○ They fail to process information that signal that a course of action might be
unethical
● People operating under bounded ethicality would likely act differently upon further
reflection
What are the 7 Most Common Causes of Unethical Behaviour
1. Gain
a. “Opportunity is the best predictor of behaviour”
b. “You can’t act on something you’re not presented with”
c. When there is something to gain, that’s when the true person comes out
d. What are the top gains?
i.
Fame
ii.
Fortune
iii.
Power (ego)
2. Performance pressure
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a. “I just had to”
b. ★”​There is a point at which goal challenge can be so extreme as to induce
unethical behaviour”​★
c. Your back is against the wall, and you choose that as your out
d. “I’m under so much stress, I had to” (still a choice you make)
3. Role conflict
a. Misunderstanding of roles/responsibilities/expectations
b. “I thought that’s what you meant”
4. Strong organizational identification
a. I ​had​ to help the company (want to help a division/organization)
5. Competition
a. ★​Scarce resources can cause sabotage to get the resources
6. Personality
a. Big Five plus Seven
i.
External locus of control
ii.
Cynical machiavellianism
iii.
★Strong economic values (look at money, not people)★
7. Organization Industry and Culture
a. Socialization, training, leadership types can encourage/allow unethical behaviour
HBR Article: “The 5 signs your organization might be headed for an ethics scandal”
● Groups that are far from others/isolated are dangerous if leadership has a baseline of
corruption
The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility
1. Economic
a. Required of business society (be profitable)
b. Making promises to shareholders and doing your best to honour them
2. Legal
a. Required of business by society (obey all laws, adhere to all regulations)
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3. Ethical
a. Expected of business by society (avoid questionable practices)
b. Goes above and beyond what is required
4. Philanthropic
a. Desired/expected of business by society (be a good corporate citizen)
b. Giving back to society
c. The ultimate, most supreme form of philanthropic activity is giving anonymously
Week 11: Chapter 13
What is Conflict?
● ★​A process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the
goal attainment of another​★
● Levels:
○ Int​ra​personal
■ Within person conflict
■ Primary symptom = stress
○ Int​er​personal
■ Conflict between 2 people
○ Int​ra​group
■ Conflict within a group, division, team, department
■ Also includes interpersonal and intrapersonal
○ Int​er​group
■ Between 2 groups, teams, organizations
Traditional (Classical) View of Conflict (BUNDLE of 2)
1. Negative, dysfunctional, detrimental
a. Because it’s going to be bad on productivity
2. Distracts managers
a. Belief that managers won’t be able to focus on their job
3. Managers motivated to eliminate or suppress conflict
a. Ends up making the conflict worse
b. What you resist persists
c. Employees may begin to sabotage other employees or tasks
Contemporary View of Conflict
1. Benefits of conflict are recognized
a. E.g. growth, change, identifying problems, hearing other perspectives
2. Realization that suppressing conflict can lead to further negative consequences
a. Catalyst for change
b. Reexamine your goals and reset priorities
c. Force managers/humans to face important issues they might’ve been avoiding
3. Conflict is seen as inevitable rather than avoidable
What are the Five Most Common Causes of Organizational Conflict? (can be in any level of
inter/intra)
1. Group identification and intergroup bias
a. Our goals are more important than their goals
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b. We vs. They
2. Interdependence
a. Sequential and Reciprocal (from bounded rationality)
3. Differences in power, status and culture
a. Power - some have power, others don’t
b. Culture - strong cultures (departments, groups) clashing
c. Status - higher status employees have more power than lower status employees
4. Ambiguity
a. Uncertainty of roles/responsibilities
5. Scarce resources
a. Distributive theory
b. Fighting over limited resources
Types of conflict
● 1. Relationship conflict (who)
○ Interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship,
not the task at hand
○ Ex. personality clashes, “I don’t like my boss/coworkers”
● 2. Task conflict (what)
○ Disagreements about the nature of work to be done
● 3. Process conflict (how)
○ Disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished
When there is conflict between two groups, what are the symptoms? (BUNDLE)
Conflict Dynamics - changes ​within​ each group
● Loyalty​ to group more important
● Increased concern for task accomplishment
● Autocratic leadership
● Group structure more rigid (rules, roles, norms)
● Group cohesiveness increases
Conflict Dynamics - changes ​between​ groups
● Information concealed (and/or information distorted, outright lying)
● Interaction/communication decreases (contact with the other side is often discouraged)
● Win-lose orientation rather than problem solving
● Increased hostility toward rival group (negative stereotypes of other group)
★​What are the 5 ​Approaches/Modes to Managing Conflict at an Int​er​personal Level? When do
we use it?​★ (at least 2 exam questions)
● No style is superior or the best
● Each style might have its place given the situation where the conflict occurs (situational
sensing)
● There are 5 styles for dealing with conflict
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●
●
X-Axis (Cooperativeness): the degree to which I give in to the other guy
Y-Axis (Assertiveness): the degree to which I give up on what I want
1. Competing:
a. A conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes
cooperation
b. Giving full priority to your own goals
c. When is it used?
i.
When you have a lot of power
ii.
When you are sure of your facts
iii.
When the situation is truly win-lose
iv.
When you’re sure you’ll never see the person again
v.
Emergency situations
2. Avoiding:
a. A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness on what I
want and low cooperation on what the other person wants
b. When is it used?
i.
Short-term stress reduction measure (e.g. time out)
ii.
When you think the issue is trivial (projection error)
iii.
When you don’t have enough research
iv.
When there’s hostility and a need for cool down
3. Collaborating:
a. A conflict-management style that maximizes both assertiveness and
cooperation (full blown satisfaction)
b. Two parties going into a situation believing it to be win-win
c. When is it used?
i.
Problem-solving orientation/exercise
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ii.
When the conflict is not intense
iii.
When you have lots of time
4. Compromising
a. A conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of
assertiveness and cooperation
b. Satisficing on an individual level is like compromising on an interpersonal
level
c. When is it used?
i.
Scarce resources
5. Accommodating
a. A conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party
without asserting their own interests/position
b. When is it used?
i.
When you’re wrong
ii.
When the issue is more important to the other person
iii.
To build goodwill
Video: How to deal with conflict
● Conflicts can be formed by external influences
● Ask yourself the following questions:
○ What is it and why is there a conflict in the first place?
■ Thinking about the conflict can help you come up with a solution
■ “Seek first to understand then to be understood”
○ What’s really important?
○ What are your priorities?
○ Is your point of view in line with the other members of the team
○ Are you being true to your principles?
○ Stephen Covey: how much of the emotions should we put into the resolution of
conflict
● Teams working in harmony perform better
How to Manage Conflict
1. Too much and too little is bad, some is ok (looks like a parabola)
a. When there is too little conflict, people are bored, apathetic or underwhelmed
b. When there is too much conflict, people are overwhelmed, overstimulated,
confused
2. Emphasize common goals
a. When there is confusion and conflict amongst people, remind them of goals
b. “What is the end of the tunnel that we’re shooting for?”
3. Reduce differentiation
a. As much differentiation as possible
b. Need to reduce when there’s too much
4. Improve communication and understanding
a. HBR Article: Should you share your feelings during a work conflict?
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b. How do I improve my understanding of people and what they’re feeling, and how
do I know how much emotion I should let out?
c. Is this amount of emotion that I am letting into my communication serving us
well?
5. Clarify rules and procedures
a. Get more structure into the resolution of conflict
★Managing Conflict ​with​ Negotiation: (BUNDLE)★
1. What is Negotiation?
a. Decision-making process among ​interdependent parties​ who do not share
identical preferences
b. Attempt to ​prevent or resolve​ conflict and come up with satisfactory resolution for
both parties
c. Interdependent or intergroup
d. What are the 3 most common negotiations that you’re going to find yourself in
during your career?
i.
Salary negotiation
ii.
Union management negotiation (collective bargaining)
iii.
Violation in the workplace (you and HR)
2. Distributive Negotiation:
a. Win-lose negotiation (fixed amounts, a limited set of resources)
b. Single-issue negotiation
c. Tactics
i.
Threats & Promises: hint at punishment if other doesn’t comply, hint at
reward if other complies
ii.
Firmness Versus Concessions: remaining firm to your goals, concessiongiving into others wants
iii.
Persuasion: assert good reputation and assert fairness from your
standpoint
d. My Gain = Your Loss
e. Always firmness, assertiveness, persuasion, concessions
3. Integrative Negotiation
a. Win-win negotiation
b. Mutual problem solving (increases assets between parties
c. 4 descriptors of behaviour we see of Integrative Negotiation
i.
Nice information exchange
ii.
Framing differences as opportunities
iii.
Voluntarily cutting costs
iv.
Increasing resources
4. Third party involvement
a. Intervene between negotiating parties
b. Mediation (help facilitate negotiated agreement)
c. Arbitration (authority to dictate terms of settlement)
d. What are 3 types of third party intervention?
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i.
Conciliation
1. Mandatory in unions before strikes
2. The ministry of labour will bring in a third party
ii.
Mediation
1. Help facilitate negotiated agreement
2. Voluntary
3. One or both parties want intervention
iii.
Arbitration
1. Mandatory
2. Used by essential services (paramedics, firefighters) that cannot
strike
3. Authority to dictate terms of settlement
5. Types of Arbitration
a. Conventional (choose any outcome)
b. Final offer (each party makes a final offer, pick best one)
★The Stress Process (intrapersonal Conflict)★
Moderators:
1. Individual differences (e.g. personality, ability, thinking styles)
2. Organizational factors
3. Extra-organizational factors (e.g. family and/or outside support)
*know the difference between stressors, stress and stress reactions*
Stressors:
● Factors that create demands on the individual
● Stressors can be both internal and external (act on you or in you)
● E.g. workload, lack of control, role incongruence, work/non-work life balance,
expectations
● See next slide
Stress:
● Experience​ and ​perception​ of demands from the environment
● E.g. ​evaluation​ to threats to self, coping capability, available resources
● D​p​ > R​p​ = S​d
○ D = Demand
○ R = Resources (time, money, ability to deal/resiliency)
○ S = Stress
○ p = perceived
○ d = distress (bad stress)
Strain/Stress Reactions:
● Outcomes of stress involve immediate physical/physiological responses (e.g. heart),
psychological responses (e.g. anxiety), and behavioural (e.g. drug/alcohol use)
● See slide titled “Outcomes”
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Stressors
● Organizational Stressors (external first):
○ Work overload
■ Paid overtime vs. unpaid overtime
■ Role overload, too much work
○ Heavy responsibility (e.g. doctors, nurses)
■ Responsibility is suggesting that you have a level of decision making that
weighs heavy on your heart
■ Heavy responsibility on workers and their ​hearts
○ ★Poor job design★
■ Job scope (breadth + depth) is too high (too much to do) or too low
(bored) (can be both)
○ Role conflict; role ambiguity; role boundary management
■ Role conflict - incompatible role expectations (don’t have the
skills/abilities)
■ Role ambiguity - uncertainty about what you have to do, how you have to
do it and who you do it with
■ Role boundary management - the line between personal and professional
life that’s being crossed
○ Interpersonal conflict
■ Conflict up, across, down or out
■ Includes bullying, abusive leadership/supervision and cyberbullying
○ Psychological environment stressors
■ Psychological contract breach (“you promised me something but you
lied!”)
■ Job insecurity (“other people got fired; am I next?”)
■ Organizational design (changing processes, changing teams; “what’s that
going to do to me?”)
■ Organizational injustice (“that’s not fair! that’s inequitable!”)
○ Physical environment stressors
■ Health and safety factor (e.g. poor lighting)
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○
●
Techno-stress
■ (moving from in-person to online) (stress from having to use and master
workplace information and communication technologies)
Work/Non-work Stressors (Work/Family):
○ Time conflict (time required for my work activities is interfering with my non-work
activities) (can be vice-versa)
○ Strain conflict (when stress in one area in our life spills over to over areas)
Biggest Mistakes in Managing Work-Related Stress (video)
1. Dwelling on the job or lack of a job
2. Not checking in (processing) with self or others (e.g. family, friends, therapist)
3. Avoiding non-job activities
★Outcomes★
● Psychological (emotional side) Reactions:
○ People use different defense mechanisms to cope
○ Rationalization, projection, anxiety, helplessness, etc.
● Physiological Reactions:
○ High blood pressure, sweatiness, heart palpitations, dizziness, more cortisone,
etc.
● Behaviour Reactions:
○ Attempts to cope (e.g., shopping, exercise, drug/alcohol use, etc.)
What are the Symptoms of Burnout?
1. Emotional exhaustion
a. Lack of energy, difficulty emoting
b. Compassion fatigue: no longer able to empathize
c. Not showing emotions
2. Cynicism/depersonalization
a. Indifferent attitude to work
b. Treating individuals as objects / callousness
c. Strict adherence to rules and regulations
3. Reduced professional accomplishment
a. Lower self-efficacy
b. No longer see value of extra effort
4. General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.)
a. How industries see burnout
b. Starts with a change (death, diagnosis), leads to resistance, leads to
balance/imbalance (not finding a solution, getting help)
i.
Chronic imbalance leads to burnout
c. 3 stage process
i.
Alarm Reaction - gives us a burst of energy
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ii.
Resistance - when things go back to normal after the stressor has gone
away, then our bodies return to normal
iii.
Exhaustion - after an extended period of stress, our bodies are depleted
of energy
What are the 4 primary reasons why companies are spending money on burnout prevention?
1. Job dissatisfaction
2. Occupational injuries and illnesses
3. Decision-making, cognitive abilities, task performance
4. Absenteeism, turnover
*Look at handout on avenue*
Important to Remember:
● S+T=R
○ How we think determines how we behave
● Dp>Rp=Sd
○ Perception of everything is greater than perception of resources leads to
sickness (“Outcomes”)
● “Flight” or “Fight” or “Freeze”
○ How we react to stress
○ Flight - avoid, run away
○ Fight - deal with problem head-on
○ Freeze - unresolved imbalance, not knowing what to do, doing nothing
● Distress, Normal Stress and Eustress
○ Distress - negative stress, non-motivating, sickening, imbalance, overwhelming
○ Normal Stress - neutral stress, neither positive nor negative
○ Eustress - useful stress, positive, stimulating, motivating
○ The goal is everyday to try and shift as much negative into neutral or positive
● Frequency, Intensity, Duration (coaching questions)
○ Allow you to get data to help a person in trouble
○ Frequency - How often does the imbalance occur? How often are you like this?
○ Intensity - How severe/great is the imbalance (life or death)?
○ Duration - For how long does the imbalance last?
Are certain types of people more prone to stress than others? (BUNDLE) - Personality Variables
Personality
● Personality can affect both the extent to which potential stressors are perceived as
stressful and the types of stress reactions that occur
Locus of control
● People’s beliefs about the factors that ​control their behaviour
● Externals are more likely to feel anxious in the face of potential stressors
○ E.g. The world is against me, feel like they have no control
● Internals are more likely to confront stressors directly
○ E.g. I can get through this, focus on what they can do
Type A Behaviour Pattern
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●
●
●
●
A personality pattern that includes aggressiveness, ambitiousness, competitiveness,
hostility, impatience, and a sense of time urgency.
On a continuum
Type A:
○ Can’t relax, constantly busy, impatient, may develop workaholism
○ Workaholism: “addiction” to work in which one has an internal compulsion to
work, thinks persistently about work, and works excessively.
Type B:
○ Easy-going, patient, relaxed
○ Better work/non-work life balance
Negative and Positive Affectivity
● Negative
○ The propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a
negative light
■ E.g. pessimistic, moody
○ People high in NA report more stressors in the work environment and feel more
subjective stress
● Positive
○ View world in a positive light
■ E.g. happy go lucky, always smiling, optimistic
★Reducing or Coping with Stress★
● Problem solving about stress management
● Increasing resources helps decrease stress
1. Job redesign
a. Can you change any of the 5 core job characteristics that will lower stress?
b. Job scope - is there anything is job breadth or depth that can help?
2. Social support
a. Having close ties with people that are not associated with your organization
3. Human resource policies
a. Policies with offerings coming from the organization
b. Ex. student advisory services, student accessibility services, health services
c. ★EAP (Employee Assistance Program) or EFAP (Employee Family Assistance
Program)★
d. Changing work schedule (e.g. flex hours)
4. Stress management programs
a. Trainings/workshops/seminars being developed in house or externally that are
available to people in the organization
5. Work-life balance programs
a. Companies putting money into subsidizing fitness/wellness programs
Reducing or Coping with Stress - Mindfulness
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●
●
●
Mindfulness​: “A state in which people are highly ​aware​ of and ​attentive​ to what is
happening in the present.”
Associated with positive health and wellbeing
Outcomes:
○ Less sensitive to stressors
○ Less inclines toward negative mood
○ Faster to recover from stressful events
Week 12: Chapter 14
Pulling it Altogether for Total Organizational Consulting Perspective
● PETS
○ P - People (Weeks 1-11; Micro & Meso OB)
○ E - Environment (Macro OB)
○ T - Technology (Macro OB)
○ S - Strategy and Structure (Macro OB)
● Used for current and desired states
What is Organizational ​S​tructure? (PET​S​)
● The manner in which an organization ​divides​ its labour into specific tasks and achieves
coordination​ among these tasks
● Form follows function
● To ​achieve its goals​, an organization has to do two very basic things:
1. Divide​ labour among its members
2. Coordinate​ what has been divided
What are the 6 Structural Elements in all organizations?
1. Division of Labour/Job specialization
a. Labour must be divided because everyone cannot do everything
b. Two dimensions: ​vertical​ and ​horizontal
i.
Vertical Job Specialization/Division of Labour (tall vs. flat)
1. Assigning authority for planning and decision making
2. “Who gets to tell whom what to do?”
3. Autonomy & Control
a. Domain of authority is decreased as the number of levels
in the hierarchy increases
4. Communication
a. With more levels, communication and coordination are
harder to achieve
ii.
Horizontal Division of Labour
1. ★Groups the basic tasks that must be performed into jobs and
then into departments so that the organization can achieve its
goals★
2. Two big consulting issues:
a. Implications for job design and degree of coordination
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i.
No job design reanalysis
ii.
Not enough coordination across categories
iii.
Mass confusion as horizontal division increases
b. Differentiation
i.
As horizontal division increases, so does
differentiation
ii.
Tendency for managers in specific functions or
departments to differ in terms of goals, styles, etc.
2. Departmentation/Differentiation (BUNDLE OF 12)
a. Functional Departmentation
i.
Employees with closely related skills and responsibilities are assigned to
the same department (e.g. Marketing, Finance, Production, HR).
ii.
Works best in small to medium sized work organizations.
iii.
Advantages:
1. Efficiency (resources can be allocated more efficiently)
2. Enhanced communication (jargon)
3. Enhanced career ladders & training opportunities
4. Easier to measure and evaluate performance
iv.
Disadvantages:
1. High degree of differentiation between departments
2. Leads to poor coordination and slow response to organizational
problems
3. Conflict between departments
b. Product Departmentation
i.
Departments are formed on the basis of a particular ​product​, product ​line
or ​service​ (eg. shampoo division)
ii.
More complex than Functional Departmentation
iii.
As an organization grows, Product Departmentation is preferable to
Functional Departmentation
iv.
Advantages:
1. Better coordination and communication among functional
specialists who work on particular product/product line
2. Can be evaluated as profit centers
3. Can serve the customer better
v.
Disadvantages:
1. Economies of scale are threatened
a. Not sharing knowledge/resources/technologies across the
lines
b. Not getting maximum efficiencies
c. Matrix Departmentation
i.
Employees remain members of a functional department while ​also
reporting to a product or project manager.
ii.
Attempts to capitalize on strengths of other forms.
iii.
Most famous examples: IBM, Procter and Gamble, BMW
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iv.
v.
Advantages:
1. Provides a degree of ​balance​ between the demands of the
product or project and the people who do the work
2. Flexible
a. People can be moved around as project flow dictates and
as new projects are added without restructuring
3. Better communication among the representatives of the various
functional areas
Disadvantages:
1. Managers (product and functional) may not see eye to eye
2. Can create conflict (role conflict and stress) because employees
must report to both product/project and functional managers.
3. Leader priorities can conflict
Succeeding in a Matrix Environment Video:
1. Functional, cross functional, project/product leaders all at the same time
2. Meant to be fluid and responsive, however there is peril (promise and peril)
3. Biggest issue = human side
4. More ambiguity, less or no structure, more ambiguity, lack of clarity
HBR: Making Matrix Organizations Actually Work
● Limit breadth and depth
d. Geographic Departmentation
i.
Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization’s products or
services in a specific geographic territory/region
ii.
Advantages:
1. Shortens communication channels
2. Caters to regional tastes
3. Some local control to clients and customers
iii.
Disadvantages:
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1. Parallel those for product departmentation.
e. Customer Departmentation
i.
Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization’s products or
services to a specific ​customer group
ii.
Advantages:
1. Better service to customers through specialization
iii.
Disadvantages:
1. Parallel those for product departmentation
f.
Hybrid Departmentation:
i.
A structure based on some mixture of functional, product, geographic, or
customer departmentation
ii.
Hybrids attempt to capitalize on the strengths of various structures while
avoiding the weaknesses or others.
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iii.
Hybrid combines functional and divisional, but instead of using a grid,
hybrid divides its activities into departments, that can be functional or it
can be divisional
iv.
Allows the utilization of resources and knowledge in each function, while
maintaining product specialization in different divisions
3. Coordinating/Integrating Divided Labour
a. Direct Supervision
i.
Chain of command
ii.
Oldest and most traditional form of coordinating humans
b. Standardization of Work Processes
i.
Routinization of tasks
ii.
Rules and regulations
iii.
Some jobs are best coordinated by keeping the tasks clear, routine, and
rules and regulations enforced
iv.
Bad for high GNS
c. Standardization of Outputs
i.
Physical or economic standards
ii.
Budgets keep people in line
iii.
Ensure departments are all pulling their weight
d. Standardization of Skills
i.
Technicians and professionals
e. Mutual Adjustment
i.
Relies on informal communication to coordinate tasks
ii.
The least formal of all coordinating mechanisms
f. Liaison Roles
i.
A person in ​one​ department is assigned to achieve coordination with
another department(s)
ii.
E.g. university librarian coordinates with other libraries/fields
g. Task Forces
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i.
Temporary​ groups set up to solve coordination problems across several
departments
ii.
E.g. to gain more efficient operations - product design to assembly
h. Integrators
i.
Organization members permanently assigned to facilitate coordination
between departments
ii.
E.g. product managers
4. Span of Control/Flat vs. Tall
a. Span of Control
i.
Number of subordinates supervised by a manager
ii.
Closeness of supervision
iii.
Narrow - few people to supervise
iv.
Wide - many people to supervise
b. Flat vs. Tall
i.
Flat - few levels, typically wide
ii.
Tall - many levels in hierarchy, typically narrow
5. Formalization
a. Extent to which work roles are highly defined by an organization
b. A very formalized organization tolerates little variability in the way its members
perform tasks
6. Centralization
a. Extent to which decision making power is ​localized​ (not necessarily geographical)
in a particular part of an organization
b. Decentralization: decision making power is dispersed down the hierarchy and
across departments
7. Complexity
a. Extent to which an organization divides labour vertically, horizontally and
geographically
b. Describes multitude of cuts across all 6 structural elements
Organic vs. Mechanistic Structure (BUNDLE)
On a continuum
● Mechanistic
○ Org structures characterized by tallness, specialization, centralization and
formalization
○ Narrow roles
○ Rules, regulations, routine tasks
○ Policies and procedures are clearly stated
● Organic
○ Org structures characterized by flatness, low specialization, low formalization and
decentralization
○ Flexible, fluid
○ Responsive to demands in the environment
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Organic vs. Mechanistic Structure: Which is better?
● More mechanistic structures are called for when an organization’s environment is more
stable​ and its technology is more ​routine
○ E.g. assembly line
● Organic structures work better when the environment is ​uncertain​, the technology is ​less
routine​, and innovation is important
○ E.g. customized products
● Many organizations have more than one structure
● Structures can and should change over time
Contemporary Structures
1. ★Network organization★
a. Liaisons between specialist organizations
b. Rely strongly on market mechanisms for coordination
c. E.g. Daimler Chrysler car seats are supplied by an upstream firm, whose
research is done by another upstream firm
2. ★Virtual organization★
a. A network of continually evolving independent organizations that share skills,
costs, and access to one another’s markets
b. E.g. every book publisher have authors, marketers, distributors revolve around
them
3. ★Modular organization★
a. An organization that performs a few ​core​ functions and ​outsources non-core
functions to specialists
b. E.g. Nike/Reebok concentrate on design and marketing but own few production
plants
4. ★Holacracy★
a. A flat decentralized structure made up of ​self-managing​ teams called ​circles​ in
which employees have multiple roles and responsibilities
b. Full self management
c. E.g. Zappos
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5. ★Ambidextrous Organization★
a. An organization that can ​simultaneously​ exploit ​current​ competencies and
explore ​emerging​ opportunities
b. Manufacturing current products and new products
c. E.g. Johnson & Johnson
External ​E​nvironment (P​E​TS)
● Events and conditions surrounding an organization that ​influence​ its activities
● What are all the things in the environment that could be ​threats​? That are ​pressures​?
That are ​knocks​?
● Ex. 9/11, pandemic/COVID, change in legislation, loss of a critical customer
★Organizations as Open Systems★
What is the difference between a closed systems perspective and an open systems
perspective?
● Organizations can be described as open systems that take inputs from the external
environment, transform some of them, and send them back into the environment as
outputs
● Closed systems are like Icarus; don’t pay attention to environment and believe they
won’t be affected by outside forces
● Open systems perspective are what we need to have
○ No room for arrogance
● Objective environment and perceived environment (definitions later)
What are the 7 Components that make up an Organization’s External Environment? (BUNDLE)
1. The Economy
a. E.g. recessions lead to downsizing; change in pricing structure in economic
growth
2. Customers
a. Demand should drive how products are designed
3. Suppliers
a. Could change cost structure
4. Competitors
a. New competitors enter the market
5. Social/Political Factors
a. Social - change in demographics affects how job structures are designed
b. Political - change in legislation
6. Technology (“T” in PETS)
a. New technologies being driven outside organization
7. Interest Groups
a. A party/organization with some vested interest in how a company is managed
b. Provides beneficence (generosity and leniency that come from interest groups)
(BUNDLE)
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Critical Question: How can an organization use their organization structure as a strategic
response to their environment?
Resource Dependence
● The dependency of organizations on environmental inputs, such as capital, raw
materials, and human resources, as well as outputs such as customers
● Organizations vary in how resource dependent they are (high to low)
● The degree of resource dependency is a function of environmental uncertainty
● Note: “Principle of Loose Coupling”
○ Dissonance between the objective and perceived environment
Environmental Uncertainty E → S
● A condition that exists when the external environment is vague, difficult to diagnose and
unpredictable
● What makes an organization’s environment uncertain?
○ Rate of change/stability (y-axis)
■ Whether the 7 components of the environment are stable or unstable
● Stable: components in the environment stay fairly stable over time
● Unstable/dynamic: things are changing very often, unpredictable
○ Complexity (x-axis)
■ Number of environmental cues you have to pay attention to (simple vs
complex)
Duncan’s Model for Assessing Environmental Uncertainty
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S​trategy (PET​S​)
● The process by which top executives seek to ​cope​ with the constraints and opportunities
that an organization's environment poses
● Strategy formulation involves determining the vision, mission, strategy, goals and
objectives, actions of the organization
● No single correct strategy and often a company will use more than one
Environment, Strategy & Organizational Effectiveness
1. Objective Organizational Environment
2. Perceived Organizational Environment (perceived resources & uncertainty)
3. Strategy Formulation
4. Strategy Implementation
5. Organizational Effectiveness
Strategies for managing environmental dependencies
How do we use a strategic response to reduce environmental dependencies?
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1. Anticipation (limited aggressiveness)
a. Scanning
i.
Collecting information about the environment and its possible upcoming
actions
b. Forecasting
i.
Using predictive statistical modelling
2. Negotiation (intermediate aggressiveness)
a. Lobbying
i.
Organizational representatives make a case for either coping or ways of
reducing dependency with a regulatory body
b. Interlocking directorates
i.
Purposely having influential people serve on multiple boards with similar
players to push policy
ii.
Not illegal
c. Public relations activities/Establishing Legitimacy
i.
Building reputation
ii.
Goodwill generation
iii.
Corporate social responsibility
3. Control (most aggressive)
a. Contracts & Buffers
i.
Obtaining/gaining enforceable promises from consumers, customers or
suppliers
b. Vertical & Horizontal Integration
i.
Vertical - acquire/merge with a supplier
ii.
Horizontal - acquire/merge by entering a different market to diversify risk
c. Mergers and Acquisitions
i.
Merge - to join
ii.
Acquisition - to purchase
d. Strategic alliances
i.
Actively creating cooperative relationships between legally separate
organizations
e. Joint ventures
i.
Two or more organizations form an alliance to create a new entity
Week 13: Chapter 15
What is so good about change?
● Fosters creativity
● Stimulates new thinking
● Squashes status quo
● Pushes people to grow
● Keeps us from becoming redundant
What does change feel like?
● Overwhelming
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●
●
●
●
●
Out of comfort zone
Powerless
Fear
Conflicted
Dissonance
★​Why​ do Organizations Change?★
● External​ sources of pressure
○ E.g. “E” (environment) & “T” (technology) issues; global competition;
deregulation; advanced technologies causing changes in structure and strategy
● Internal​ sources of pressure
○ E.g. “P” (people) issues; lower productivity; internal conflict; strikes; high
absenteeism and turnover causing changes in structure and strategy
Strategic and Structural Change Responses
What​ Organizations Can Change
● Goals and Strategies
○ E.g. new products
● Technology
● Job Design
● Structure
● Process
● Culture
○ Values and beliefs
● People
○ E.g. hiring/firing; performance management
Three important points about the areas that organizations can change:
● Change in one area very often calls for changes in other areas
○ E.g. change policy affects how things are done elsewhere
● Change in most areas require serious attention be given to people
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●
○ E.g. often resist change
Change requires employees to learn new skills and change their attitudes
○ E.g. learn new computer software
Definition of Change?
● A variation or alteration passing from one state or form to another
● A disruption of expectations
● The important change is not the physical equipment, technology change, rather it’s what
happens inside a person’s head
Change vs. Transition
● Change
○ A moment in time; usually organizationally driven
■ Organization
■ External
■ Immediate
■ Process/Structural
■ Beginning
■ No resistance
● Transition
○ How you process the change
■ Individual
■ Internal
■ Takes Time
■ Behavioural
■ Ending
■ Resistance
★​What are the 5 Most Common Psychological Dynamics of Change? (​How​ we change)​★
1. Sense of loss
2. Lack of clarity; uncertainty
3. Self preservation
a. WIFM principle: “What’s in it for me?”
4. Personal (in the gut then to head)
a. When the change comes, in the gut (initial shock)
b. Try to get to the head (planning ahead, looking for next steps)
5. Loss in performance
Stages of Transition: Individual Change (BUNDLE next 6 slides) (Change process)
● Change is a personal journey in 3 stages (K. Lewin)
1. Unfreeze
a. Either proactive or reactive
i.
Most unfreezing is reactive
b. Caused by a crisis or a threat
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i.
Dramatic shift in the environment
c. The recognition that some current state of affairs is unsatisfactory
d. Employee attitude surveys, customer surveys, and accounting data are
often used to anticipate problems and initiate change before crises are
reached
2. Change
a. The implementation of a program or plan to move the organization or its
members to a more satisfactory state
b. Change efforts can range from minor to major
3. Refreeze
a. The condition that exists when newly developed behaviours, attitudes, or
structures become an ​enduring​ (sustainable) part of the organization
b. The effectiveness of the change is examined and the desirability of
extending change further can be considered.
Adapting to Changing Times Video:
● Protectionism
● Waiting too long to respond to a crisis
● By operating with protectionism, you're going to sign your death warrant
● Staying in old patterns
★These Issues Represent Problems that must be overcome if the process is to be effective★
1. Diagnosis
a. Identify potential problems and possible changes that need to happen
b. Collecting information on the potential problem
c. ★Hire a change agent/organizational change consultant★
i.
Change agent: diagnoses and recommends changes to organizations by
applying behavioural sciences (1BA3 is a behavioral science)
2. Resistance
a. Cannot ignore people who resist
b. Overt or covert (active or passive) failure by organizational members to support
the change effort
i.
Overt/Active - upfront about their resistance to change
ii.
Covert/Passive - hides their discomfort, pretends everything is fine; could
lead to sabotage
3. Evaluation, Institutionalization
a. In order to make this process successful, we need to ask “Did the changes
accomplish what was intended?”
i.
Did it get us the reactions we wanted?
ii.
Did the change get our people to learn what we wanted them to learn?
iii.
Did we get the behavioural changes we hoped to get?
iv.
Did we get the outcomes we wanted? e.g. Customer satisfaction, lower
turnover
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Causes of Resistance
● Related to HBR Article
● Transformational leaders are most adept at overcoming resistance
1. Politics and self-interest
a. Concern that their position in the organization will be compromised with
change
2. Low individual tolerance for change/ambiguity
a. Tied to personality; some have high tolerance, others have low tolerance
3. Lack of trust
a. Don’t trust the people at the top and their agenda or motive of those
wanting to implement the change
4. Different assessments of the situation
a. Belief that the situation doesn’t warrant the proposed change
5. Strong emotions
a. Change brings out emotion in people making them feel uncomfortable
leading to resistance (ie. seeing it as a loss right away)
6. Strong organizational identification
a. People who identify strongly with an organization strongly resist change
7. A resistant organizational culture
a. People who have worked for a company where the culture had been
rewarded a certain way, there will be resistance
Time and Resistance
● There are considerable differences in how people react to change over time
○ Champions
■ Welcome change from the beginning and maintain change-supportive
perceptions over time
○ Doubters
■ Resist change from the get-go and persist in their resistance
○ Converts
■ Resistant at first but come to see the value of change
○ Defectors
■ Have initial change-supportive perceptions but become resistant over
time
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*Exhibit 15.5*
Major Change Challenges (NOT ON EXAM)
Organizational Development (BUNDLE)
● Organizational development (OD) is a ​planned​, ongoing effort to change organizations to
be more effective and more human
● Using the knowledge of behavioural science to foster a culture of repeated
organizational self examination
● If you are in the OD area, your primary focus is on interpersonal and group skills
● ★​Four classic OD interventions:​★
1. Team Building
a. Group dynamics, decision making and teamwork
2. Survey Feedback
a. Collecting and utilizing survey data (from various different sources)
3. Total Quality Management (TQM)
a. Focusing on the quality of an organization’s products and services
b. In opposition to Taylorism
4. Reengineering
a. Looking at the redesign of organizational processes
● Does Org Development Work?
○ Most OD techniques have a positive impact on productivity, job satisfaction or
other work attitudes
○ OD seems to work better for supervisors/managers than for blue-collar workers
■ Related to high vs. low GNS
○ Changes that use more than one technique seem to have more impact
■ Multiple hurdle effect/impact
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The Innovation Process (BUNDLE)
● Changed in a roundabout way
● Intrapreneurial culture
● ★​Innovation is the process of developing and implementing new ideas in an
organization​★
● Innovation requires:
○ Creative ideas and creative people
○ People who will fight for new ideas
○ Good communication
○ The proper application of resources and rewards
● Three most common types of innovation:
○ Managerial innovations
○ Product innovations
○ Process innovations
● Creativity refers to the production of novel but potentially useful ideas
● Idea champions are people who see the kernel of an innovative idea and help guide it
through to implementation
○ The role of idea champion is often an informal and emergent role
○ It involves sponsorship and support
Disruptive Innovation Video:
● Big companies focus on sustaining innovation and profit
● Disruptor improves its product by making it simpler and cheaper
● Creates new markets and reshapes existing ones
● ★​Contemporary structural form: ambidextrous​★
★​The Knowing-Doing Gap​★ (BUNDLE)
● Many managers ​know​ what to do, but have considerable trouble ​implementing​ this
knowledge in the form of action
● Why does the knowing-doing gap happen?
1. The tendency for some organizational cultures to reward short-term talk rather
than longer-term action
2. Many organizations foster internal competition that is not conducive to the
cooperation between units that many changes require
3. When managers do manage to make changes, they sometimes fail because
techniques are adopted without understanding their underlying philosophy
Change Fatigue
● What is Change Fatigue?
○ Too many change initiatives
■ People constantly asking for change
○ Distrusting change coming from top
■ Distrusting people at the top and their agenda
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○
Paralysis by analysis
■ Attached to micromanaging
■ Too many times that we’ve gotten stuck in the weeds
■ Spending too much time on the small pieces/analysis and not moving on
○ Resulting from “lipstick on the bulldog”
■ Can’t make something look better than it is
■ Don’t sugar coat change
HBR: “Leaders who do things right know how to listen”
● Change fatigue is the most frequently cited problem with change initiatives
Sigmoid Curve
● Organizations/individuals tend to make changes at point A; when things start going
wrong
○ Blue line (A) - outcome if change happens at point A
● They ​should​ make changes at point B
○ People will argue that “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it”
●
B - when you decide to start making changes before things get bad (spidey sense,
catching it before you fall)
○ If we start making changes at B’s we will start to minimize the cost
○ Dotted line - outcome if change happens at point B
■ “One step back to go two steps forward”
Organizational Change Roles
● Change Initiators
○ This is the direction we are going
● Change Implementers
○ Take people and go in that direction
● Change Facilitators
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●
○ Help with people transitioning
Change Recipients
○ You have to receive change all the time
“All learning is change, but not all change is transformation.” - J. Mezeirow, 2000
FINAL EXAM REVIEW
Group Dynamics, Teamwork, and group decision making
● Each group of 7 has about 15 questions on it
● Formal vs. informal group
● Means ends and personal characteristics
● Two models!!
○ Forming, storming, norming, performing and being able to recognize it or what
are the critical behaviours in each of these stages
○ Punctuated equilibrium
● 4 structural components of an effectively functioning group
● Difference between additive conjunctive and disjunctive tasks
● Know process losses
● Surface diversity, deep diversity and the pros and cons
● Huge chunk on 4 norms
● Roles
● Cohesiveness - definition and what cohesion could be evidenced by, what are the ways
we can increase cohesion (there are 5… threat, success, …)
● Social loafing
○ Free rider effect
○ Sucker effect
● Teams:
○ Synergy
○ 4 types of teams - make sure you can recognize them
● Decision-making
○ Difference between risky and conservative shift
○ Deviance disruption
○ Whistle blowing
○ Devil’s advocate
○ Ways of stimulating new decision-making
○ 2 HBR Articles (ASH experiment,
Culture and Socialization (All of Chapter 8)
● RJP and psychological contract
● How you develop commitment in a new recruit
● Know difference between culture, subculture, and climate
● Proximal and distal socialization outcomes
● One model and one set of tactics
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●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
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Revisit stage model
Orientation vs. socialization
○ Company history, employee benefits,structure, etc. versus live and dynamic,
informal, organizational identification
Diagnosing a culture
○ symbols, rituals, and stories
Advantages and disadvantages of a strong culture organization
Pathological cultures
7 socialization steps
Proactive socialization!
Revisit man of the people video
○ Pay attention to the language used
Video on socialization over time
○ Pay attention to tactics used
2 HBR Articles
Leadership?
● Get a good definition of leadership
● Formal vs. informal
● Difference between manager and leader
● Transformational vs. transactional
● 4 boxes
○ Initiating structure and initiating consideration
○ Box 3 and 4 lots of questions
● Least preferred coworker scale
● Situational favourness?
● Leader behaviours and situational factors you need to measure to figure out which
behaviour to exhibit
● Employee characteristics
● Bob House
○ Vroom and Jago - participative leadership, A1A2C1C2 (autocratic, consultative,
group)
● Contemporary (leader member exchange)
● New and emerging approaches to leadership
○ Servant, ethical, authenticity, leadership
○ Not in the 4 boxes
● L1+L2 + Gm + Sb
● Simon Sinek Video
● Jim Collins video
● HBR Article: Does your leadership style scare your employees?
○ Developmental leadership and effective persuasion and fostering positive
emotion and credibility
Power, Politics, and Ethics
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Definition of power
Understand social exchange
TON of questions on 5 bases of power
Tying influence tactics to power bases
Canter Model
Empowerment
○ Degrees of empowerment
MccLelland - NPow
○ The 3 types
Subunit power and why do people get it
○ Strategic contingencies
What is political skill
What are the characteristics of someone playing politics
Himax
Machiavellianism (not an influence tactic)
Business ethics vs. business morals
Bounded ethicality!!
7 causes of unethical behavior
4 components of the triangle
○ Archie Caroll
Networking and political skillbuilding
Conflict and Stress (Chapter 13)
● What is conflict
○ Conflict stimulation!!!
● Causes of organizational conflict (who,what,how)
● LOTS on XY axis that produces 5 modes of interpersonal conflict resolution?
● Negotiation
○ Difference between distributive and integrative
● Stressor, stress, stress response
● Difference between physiological, psychological, and behavioral stress reaction
● Burnout!
○ Causes
○ What it looks like
○ Why companies spend money on it
● Distress, normal stress, flight fight freeze
● Ways of reducing or coping with stress
○ How do we problem solve
● Job redesign, social support, human resource policies
● Mindfulness
○ HBR
Chapter 14
● Structural, environmental, and strategic
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Structure
○ Know difference between mechanistic and organic
○ 6 structural elements
Ambidextrous
Environmental threats vs pressures
Knox
Sociopolitical or political changes
Loose coupling
Duncan model
Interest groups and beneficence
Strategies
○ 3 groupings: anticipation, negotiation, control
Why do organizations change and what is it that they can change
3 stage model
Issues in change process
Covert vs. overt
7 causes of resistance
Time and resistance slide
Change fatigue
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