Charging electric cars from solar
energy
Xusheng Liang
Elvis Tanyi
Xin Zou
Supervisor:
Dr. Erik Loxbo
Examiner:
Dr. Sven Johansson
Department of Electrical Engineering
Blekinge Institute of Technology
Karlskrona
Sweden
2016
Abstract
Until now vehicles heavily relied on fossil fuels for power. Now, these
vehicles are rapidly being replaced by electric vehicles and or plug-in hybrid
electric cars. But these electric cars are still faced with the problem of energy
availability because they rely on energy from biomass, hydro power and
wind turbines for electric power generation. The abundance of solar radiation
and its use as power source in electric cars is not only an important decision
but also a necessary condition for eradication of environmental pollution
This study presents a model for charging electric cars from solar energy.
Little focus on detailed technologies involved from solar energy capture to
battery charging but our main focus is how to provide a modified charging
parking lot in Karlskrona city-Sweden .With a surface area of 2900sq. m, we
were able to choose mono crystalline 1STH-350-WH as the right PV
modules. Based on the latitude of our design area, a computed result of 71
degrees angle positioning between solar panel and roof so as to maximise the
surface area and optimise the solar irradiance gathering. Based on the
maximum power output of approximately 294kW these PV modules
generate, we further analysed and selected SDP 30KW inverter, PWM
controller SDC240V-100A and the AGM (BAT412201080) lead acid
storage batteries. Also we provide different car charging method by choosing
the SAE J1772 standard as one of specifications for dedicated vehicle
charging and Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger. With the data
of the generating solar energy every day, charging time, consuming power,
we can estimate how many cars the system can handle, and how many
electrical vehicles can be charged. Then we can decide whether we need to
use the electrical power from the external power grid.
We finally concluded that, our model is able to generate at least 136kwh
daily energy output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output
throughout a year in theory and it can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at
once with an average full charging time of up to 6.2 hours. Our model for
charging of electric car batteries is not only supportive but efficient in terms
of extracting solar energy from sunlight to charge electric cars, thus making
the region an eco-friendly place.
Keywords:
AC Net, Converter, Controller, Electric Car,
Photovoltaic, Solar Energy, Solar Panel, Storage Battery, Solar Irradiance,
System design
2
3
Acknowledgements
We are heartily thankful to our supervisor Dr. Erik Loxbo whose
continuous critics, encouragements, guidance and support from the start of
our work till the final level. His support enabled us to understand not only
the research area but also the scope of our degree program in practical
perspectives.
Also we dully acknowledge the concern and time put in by some of our
programme mates, friends and closes ones to make it a success.
Finally we wish to acknowledge our program director (examiner)
DR. Sven Johansson and all the other teachers for both the theoretical and
practical skills they impacted on us and thus which enabled us in achieving
our task.
4
Contents
Abstract....................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements .................................................................... 4
Contents ...................................................................................... 5
List of figures.............................................................................. 7
List of tables ............................................................................... 8
List of symbols............................................................................ 9
List of acronyms ....................................................................... 11
1 Chapter: Introduction ...................................................... 12
2 Chapter: Background Theories ....................................... 14
2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study .................................................. 14
2.2 Review Based on System Design .................................................... 15
2.2.1 The Solar Panel System ............................................................. 16
2.2.2 The Micro Controller ................................................................. 17
2.2.3 Storage Bateries ......................................................................... 17
2.2.4 Solar Inverters ............................................................................ 18
2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net .................................................... 18
3
Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement ......................... 19
3.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................... 19
3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt .............................................................. 20
4
Chapter: Solution .............................................................. 21
4.1 Brief Description of the System Design ......................................... 21
4.2 Description of solar panel ............................................................... 22
4.2.1 Types of solar cells..................................................................... 22
4.2.1.1 Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI): ............................................ 22
4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells (TFPC/TFSC): ............ 24
4.2.1.3 The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics .................. 26
4.2.2 Calculation ................................................................................. 33
4.2.2.1 Illumination time ................................................................. 33
4.2.2.2 The PV modules Installation ............................................... 35
4.3 Description of controller ................................................................. 45
4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller ........................................ 45
5
4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers ................................................................. 45
4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm) ........................................... 45
4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller ...................... 46
4.4 Description of storage battery ......................................................... 53
4.4.1 Storage batteries ......................................................................... 53
4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery ........................................................... 53
4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery ........................................................ 54
4.4.4 Flow battery ............................................................................... 54
4.4.5 Connection of battery packs ....................................................... 60
4.5 Inverter ............................................................................................ 63
4.5.1 Description of inverter ............................................................... 63
4.5.1.1 String inverters .................................................................... 63
4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters .................................................................... 63
4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers ................................................................ 64
4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok ......................... 66
4.7 Description of vehical charger ........................................................ 67
4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle battery ............... 67
4.7.2 Selection of charging mode........................................................ 70
4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger ...................................................... 71
4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes. ................................... 75
4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power ........................................ 76
4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level
2 charging ............................................................................ 76
4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using general socket 79
4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement ......................................................... 80
4.8 Installation cost ............................................................................... 81
4.8.1 Installation cost of our system ................................................... 81
5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work ............................ 85
Reference .................................................................................. 86
6
List of figures
Figure 4-1 system structure ......................................................................... 21
Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45] ............................................... 22
Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46] .................................................. 23
Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47] ............................................................ 24
Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45] .................... 25
Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47] ................................................................. 26
Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our
Research Project, solar cell efficiencies[53] ............................................... 28
Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface ............ 40
Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx .......................................... 43
Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69] ................................... 50
Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77] ........................................................ 54
Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller ................... 62
Figure 4-13 string inverter[85] .................................................................... 63
Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85] ................................................................... 64
Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85] ................................................................ 64
Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network ................ 66
7
List of tables
Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our
Research Project, Compares of solar cell efficiency [54] ........................... 29
Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56]
[57] [58] ...................................................................................................... 31
Table 4-3 Illumination time ........................................................................ 34
Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth ............................................... 36
Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55].................................................. 39
Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55] ......................................... 41
Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal Surface
(kWh/m2/day)[63]. ..................................................................................... 42
Table 4-8 controller parameters .................................................................. 47
Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73] .... 52
Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy
Storage [80] [56] ........................................................................................ 56
Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification ..................................................... 61
Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic
Report[86] [87] [88] [89] ............................................................................ 65
Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116]................... 67
Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119]. ............. 73
Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120] ....................................... 74
Table 4-16 Standard power output in Sweden[121]. .................................. 75
Table 4-17 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122]. ...................... 76
Table 4-18 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level 2
charging[90]–[116] ..................................................................................... 78
Table 4-19 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power using
general power socket[90]–[116] ................................................................. 79
Table 4-20 Cost of system .......................................................................... 82
8
List of symbols
Symbol
PV
W
kW
V
Φ
δ
τ
h
γ
𝜏𝜃
T
n
Z
l
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝐶′𝑃𝑉
𝑉𝑃𝑉
𝐺′𝑃𝑉
Cw
d
D
F
K
Pm
QL
Quantity
Photovoltaic
Watt
kilowatt
Volt
Karlskona latitude
Declination angle
Hour angle
solar elevation
solar azimuth
sunrise and sunset hour angles
duration of sunshine
the number of days in a year
the installation inclination angle of the
PV array
the distance between the solar PV arrays
the output capacity of each PV array
each day
the value of the generation of all solar
PV arrays each day
the work voltage of the solar PV array
the generation of the all PV arrays
Capacity of battery pack
Continuous days without sunlight
depth of the storage batteries discharge
level
Amending coefficient of discharge
Loss between the battery and the
electrical appliance
Peak power
Energy quantity can be delivered to the
electrical appliance
9
Unit
N
J/s
1000 J/s
゜
゜
゜
゜
゜
゜
h
day
゜
cm
Ah
Ah
V
kWh
Wh
Number of
days
%
%
W
Wh
Tm
Peak sun hours
hours
10
List of acronyms
Acronym
AC
Unfolding
Alternating current
DC
Direct current
PV
Photovoltaic
11
1 Chapter: Introduction
This project based on Charging Electric Cars from Solar Energy was
carried out at the Blekinge institute of Technology Karlskrona-Sweden.
Presently, developing new types of energy conversion and storage
systems is becoming evident because of increasing human population and
thus greater reliance on energy-based devices for survival. Due to the rapid
increase in the world population and economic expansion geometrically, this
is bringing about rapidly diminishing fossil fuels and the continuously
growing environmental concerns as greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore
with the technological advancements in this modern era, more electronic
devices are being used to replace manpower thus leading to a further increase
in energy consumption.
Energy obtained from the suns radiations when in contact with the earth’s
atmosphere and or surface as irradiances is called solar energy. Presently,
this is known by humans to be the prime renewable energy in existence till
date, the energy produced in day is able of sustaining mankind even when
traditional energy sources gets finished. This readily available
environmentally friendly energy source can easily be obtain via series of
methods as photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, artificial photosynthesis,
solar heating and also solar architecture[1]. Research works have shown that
at the core of the sun, the solar energy is in form of nuclear energy brought
about by continues fusion between hydrogen and helium atoms each second.
Thus as a result of this, it radiates out close to 3.8×1026 joules of solar energy
each second[1].
With the free and abundant solar irradiances that provides enormous times
more energy to the Earth than we consume, photovoltaic processes ensures
that not only sustainable but greater efficiency and reliability to access
electrical power for charging electric cars anywhere around the world
without environmental pollution. With little upkeep, viable approach to selfcharging of electric cars wherever need via photovoltaic processes. Solar
energy thus provides a unique, simple and elegant method of harnessing the
suns energy to provide electric power to electric cars thus taking the world
much step closer to a greener community.
Sweden being one of those unlucky countries with very little(or no) fossil
fuel availability for extraction, coupled with the rapid increase in its
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population [2], and also active cars in circulation [3] the demand for
electricity so as to meet up the needs of the local masses is at an increase.
With our focus area Karlskrona in Blekinge Region-Sweden, located at
latitude/longitude: 56°09′41″N15°35′11″E, altitude: 18 m and also having
and an average annual temperature of 7.8 degrees centigrade [4] ,our
conceptual design based on harnessing solar energy to charge electric cars
will not only make the region eco-friendly but also increase the solar energy
availability but also encourage the masses to switch their choices from
traditional cars to electric cars using solar electric power.
The research work begins with a background study where related works
were reviewed. Then, in chapter three, we present the problem statement, our
objectives and main contributions. Furthermore, we present description of
our system design and implementations in chapter four. In chapter five, we
present our conclusion and (or) recommendations.
Finally we end the work with references, appendices and list of figures.
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2 Chapter: Background Theories
2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study
The negative impacts on climate change on humane lives is already being
experienced and felt in most parts of the word. This has led to leading global
economies (G 8) and other stakeholders stressing on the importance of
renewable energies and immediate reduction of environmental pollutants.
Other researchers argue that renewable energies do not completely stop
climate change [5] whereas some stress that it’s not the only option but a
necessary condition for a greener future [6].Apart from reducing climate
change effect, renewable energies also have greater preferences to other
energy sources. These renewable energy sources are not only reliable but also
provide greater security due to their continuous availability [7] relatively cost
effective than other traditional energy sources [8], and also creates more jobs
and improves economic growth relatively [9].
Research work on how electric cars can be charged using both solar and
wind energy has been going on in the past [10] [11].Here they based their
idea on obtaining the various energy sources mainly by forecasting which
depends on both time and weather of a particular location. That is they stated
that forecasting the future weather conditions will give them the idea on what
energy to generate and save for the car to use in future. But forecast based on
climatic conditions is mostly never accurate or exact. So, this might bring
about shortages or no energy to power the car. Building a design that
conceptually show how solar energy can be easily harnessed, stored and
utilise have not been fully researched on and also considered more realistic
to operate.
In the previous year’s series of authors have shared knowledge and ideas
on how electric cars can be charged via the use of electricity from the grid
which was generated from traditional energy sources as coal, fuel and
hydropower [12] [13]. As more electric vehicles use the grid for power
supply, it is decreases for power to be used for home consumption and other
activities. This brings about imbalance in distribution thus providing poor
power factor and power net instability. Though tighter controls are were put
in place [14], using solar energy with unlimited power supply will serve as
better option since electric cars will be encouraged more to be used and also
providing greener environment.
14
Also, a handful of researchers have presented scholarly papers on how to
use the optimal daytime charging strategy to charge electric cars using solar
energy [15] since the solar irradiance is at peak during the day, they try to
design an approach on how to fully maximize the energy falling on earth’s
surface at peak hours. It’s an eco-friendly approach of energy harnessing
using PV cells but they did not explain on how the excess energy will be
shared and how energy will be obtained during periods of little or no solar
irradiance. Our research work tries to explain how solar energy can be
harnessed from PV cells to charge electric cars from parking lots thus
providing room for excess energy storage during peak period and also energy
reuse during low periods.
Research on solar cells being integrated into electric vehicles to supply
solar energy has been carried out in the past as well [16] , though they argued
that the energy generated by the intergraded PV cells can be used only when
the battery’s capacity is below optimum. Though it’s a sustainable approach,
the capacity of the cars battery saturation point limits the solar energy capture
of the cars PV setup. Also since the car mostly in motion, to optimise the
energy capture will involve smarter and well advanced system embedded
into the car, thus costly to operate.to reduce this complexity and cost is
simply to use charging via solar panel from a parking lot which is easier and
more convenient.
Also some authors wrote on plug in hybrid electric cars [17] these cars are
seen to use (consume) both petrol and electricity at rates that are based on
the distance travelled and topology of the road. These cars not only increase
environmental pollution but also costly due to their dual engines type.
Furthermore since they are based on blended strategy in terms of their engine
designs faults by one engine reduces the efficiency of the car to travel longer
distances. The use of solar energy to charge electric cars is not only ecofriendly but secured.
2.2 Review Based on System Design
In this section we briefly state the framework and theories put forth by
other researchers in line with our thesis work.
15
The conceptual design we developed guided us to understand the
problems and thus providing a guide to solutions [18]. The design consisted
of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC
Net and car battery showing how their specific and unique choices were
linked to achieve our objective on charging electric cars using solar energy
we concentrated on how to design modified parking and charging lots.
Since this project describes conceptually how to charge a car using solar
energy, on this section on literature review we will dwell on research works
on each of the subsystems and how they are interrelated.
2.2.1 The Solar Panel System
The sun has been playing numerous roles in humane existence. Not only
supplying energy and light to earth but also used to understand how the other
areas of universe interact .With over 6.3*10^11 watts/sq. meter of solar
radiation produced constantly in the form of rays.as these rays spread from
the sun’s surface their intensity reduce and upon getting to planet earth the
rays becomes parallel in nature [19].
Though most of the rays are being scattered, diffracted and deflected upon
reaching earth’s surface [20] , it’s found that the total solar irradiance
(insolation) that actually absorbed by earth annually is close to 3.8 million
exajoule (EJ) [21] . Thus, solar energy doubles what is produced by all other
non-renewable energy sources annually [22].This brings the abundance of
solar irradiance reaching the earth’s surface for an hourly base unable to be
harnessed by humans and other living organism for a year [23].
Photovoltaic being the interest of study, some authors stressed that the
efficiently harnessed the solar intensity to provide the required solar energy
to drive electric cars heavily relies on; not only the weather condition but
location and time of day [24] the angle the solar irradiance makes with the
solar panels [25], the material (and its temperature properties) used to design
the PV panels [26], and also the aspect of PV surface area design [27] have
to be fully considered.
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2.2.2 The Micro Controller
Generating solar energy consist of harnessing the maximum irradiance at
true solar noon. When the solar intensity is maximum, the electric car battery
might be fully charged as well. To save this extra energy that is being
generated photovoltaic charge controllers are needed to redirect the energy
to storage battery cells. Series of microcontrollers used for photovoltaic were
reviewed by other scholars. They did stress that importance of on and off,
Pulse Width and Modulated (PWM) and Maximum Power Tracking micro
controllers for increasing the efficiency of solar power generation. Stating
that the on and off micro controllers operate both in series and shunt modes.
Series controllers basically stop further charging when load is fully charged
while shunt charge controller diverts excess electricity to other loads. On the
other hand, Pulse width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point
tracker (MPPT) technologies are more technologically sophisticated, and
also adjusting charging rates depending on the battery's level, to allow
charging closer to its maximum capacity [28].
2.2.3 Storage Bateries
Batteries in solar applications ought to meet the demands of unstable grid
energy, that is heavy charging and discharging cycles and also irregular full
recharging. There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique
requirements. Main subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies
reviewed by others include flow batteries [29], lithium ion batteries [30] and
lead acid batteries [31].Considerations for choosing a battery included the
storage capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that
retrieved [32], power transmission rate which is time required to extract the
energy stored [33], discharge time based on the maximum time the battery
takes to discharge [34],efficiency as in implying rate of energy released to
that stored as in [35], cycling capacity that’s the number of times that the
battery discharges as designed after successively recharged [36] , cost based
on both operational and investment expenses over the lifespan of the set
storage battery [36] ,disposal effects considering the environmental impact
of the storage battery after its life cycle completion [37] , and finally the selfdischarge rate of the battery in that the rate at which the battery discharges
while idling [38] .
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2.2.4 Solar Inverters
The energy harnessed by the solar panels is basically DC. For this to be
used in charging the electric cars or other automobile devices, it has to be
converted to AC current. Solar inverters converts these DC to AC before
charging begins, or the current being channelled to off grid electrical
networks. Thus they have special function in photovoltaic system based on
energy conversion and balanced.
The various types and specifications have been deeply researched on such
as string inverters where panels are placed parallel with central inverter [39],
micro inverters in which solar panels placed serially with separate inverters
[40] and also power optimizers similar to micro inverters but more involved
with monitoring. Power optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the
PV panel arrays so as to continually adjust and modify the load attached in
order the keep the system operational at its peak [40].
2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net
The converted AC current has to be supplied to the power grid or charging
units for the electric cars. Charging of electric cars here based on specify car
and battery types, charger specifications and also the specification of the
socket. In Sweden the standard is 230V, 16A but the power varies with
design setup. Our choice for the electric car battery charging unit based on
the standard set up by the required authorities. We also took measures on the
car design and power consumption rates. All these are based on the power
generated from the PV panels.
Based on our respective sub analysis of the different systems within
conceptual design, we do believe a well-integrated design linking
respective systems based on their optimum efficiencies will make
Karlskrona region not a greener but saver region to live in based
environmental polluting avoidance
18
the
the
the
on
3 Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement
3.1 Problem Statement
There has been rapid increase in levels of oceans due to faster rate of ice
melting in artic, coupled with fast desertification’s in other parts of the
earth’s surface as a result of continues increase in global climate as well.
Looking at the rapid increase in world population and further increase in
number of circulating cars, it’s found that more than 70% of environmental
pollution is caused by cars using traditional source of energy for power [41]
.With the climate change crises becoming a global issue, the continuous
awareness created by learning institutions, government bodies and other
stockholders have to be intensified and implemented [42].
Nowadays, with the global concern for greenhouse gases and
environmental pollution, electrical vehicles are being developed in quick
paces for both private and commercial purposes. At daily use of these cars,
users have to charge the battery of the car once they run out their battery in
the charge station. It takes not short time to fully charge their car. During
charging, user cannot only use their cars but the process creates an imbalance
in power distribution in the grid. Thus it causes poor power factor and power
net instability to other third parties using the grid. Furthermore, some electric
car owners still face the problem of charging their electric cars in some
charging station because of incompatibility between their car batteries and
the charging stations charger. Thus the question of how to charge electric
cars from solar energy has become an important and necessary link to solve
these environmental issues.
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3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt
The main aim of this research work is to provide a system model that can
be used to brainstorm both innovative ideas and solutions to current problems
in the research area and also to serve as eye opener for future research design
and development. Also, it can provide an efficient, effective and sustainable
system based on using photovoltaic as a better renewable energy source to
charge electric cars.
The main objective of our research work is to outline a conceptual design
based on how solar energy from sun (photovoltaic energy) can be used for
charging electric vehicles. We also wish to explore conceptually how
existing parking lots can be modified into solar energy charging points for
charging the cars.
Furthermore, we explored ways on how the PV panels will be placed on
the roof of the parking lot, choice of the various components to convert and
channel the harnessed solar energy to storage battery cell and to charging
points and also the specification of the charging system for both the car
battery and electric charger. Finally we explore how the design can be
implemented in Karlskrona in our study area.
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4 Chapter: Solution
4.1 Brief Description of the System Design
System designs are basically structured and modelled representation of
actual systems that show the various steps and components involved
achieving stated goals. These designs also guide researchers to understand
the problems and thus providing a guide to solutions as in [18]. Our design
is presented in Figure 4-2. consisted of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro
controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC Net and car battery).it clearly shows
how each of these subsystems are linked to each other furthermore in each
subsystem we clearly analyse the various product components and how our
specific choices were made to achieve our objective on charging electric
cars using solar energy.
The next part of the research work presents detailed analysis of each of
these subsystems.
AC Network
AC
Kwh
Solar Panel
DC
Charging
Controller
DC
Converter
DC Discharging
General socket
Storage Battery
SAE J1772 charge
Vehicle Charger
Figure 4-1 system structure
21
4.2 Description of solar panel
4.2.1 Types of solar cells
4.2.1.1
Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):
These cells produced initially in the 1950s and till date they are most
useful and dominant semiconductor material used nowadays in most
photovoltaic solar cells production [43]. Crystalline silicon solar cells
comprise of different forms but differentiated by their respective purity
degrees. That is, when the silicon molecules are well aligned ,it gives that
particular silicon a better preference over others because solar cells made of
that specie will effectively convert the solar energy into electricity [44].
Crystalline silicon consist of two types; mono and polycrystalline and String
Ribbon silicon cells.
Monocrystalline Silicon solar cells consist of cylindrical ingots and four
sites cut to make silicon wafers. This not only reduces cost but optimize the
performance of the ingots as well. Also, the crystals have a higher power
efficiency rate of up to 20%, smallness in sizes so space efficient and a longer
lifespan of above 25years[45].
Though they have significant edge over other silicon solar panels, they are
relatively costly, more fragile and extreme variation in weather temperatures
quickly affects its efficiency.
Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45]
On the other hand, polycrystalline (p-Si)/multi-crystalline silicon solar
cells (mc-Si) consist of squared ingot wafers. They are less fragile, lower
production cycle and slightly lower heat tolerance factor compared to
22
monocrystalline solar panels. But, they do have an efficiency of power
generation below 20%, a lower space efficiency and less attractive in terms
of market values.
Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46]
While String Ribbon solar cells is another form of multi crystalline silicon
cell production introduced by Evergreen Solar Company. Here high
temperature resistant wires are pulled through molten silicon to produce
polycrystalline ribbon of silicon crystals. It’s less costly than monocrystalline
because its production requires half the amount of silicon as compared to
monocrystalline manufacturing, but it’s inefficient and ineffective because
of lower power efficiency value compared to polycrystalline, and also due to
its lower space efficiency.
23
4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells
(TFPC/TFSC):
Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47]
This solar cell consist of: Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC), Copper
indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS), Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), Cadmium
Telluride (CdTe). They are basically the second generation of solar cells
obtained by the deposition of thin layer(s) of photovoltaic material on a
substrate. Its uniqueness includes simplicity in large scale production,
flexibly in terms of handling and space, and little impact on weather
extremities on its performances. Whereas, space installation is a factor, low
power output compared to monocrystalline cells coupled with shorter
lifespan makes it lower in terms of preference.
Cadmium Telluride(CdTe) is found to be the only thin-film solar panel
that has exceeded the cost efficiency of silicon solar panels with an efficiency
of solar panel being 9-11% [48] .it also has the smallest or lowest energy
payback time [48] .though it has high efficiency and lowest energy pack back
time, its high cost of obtaining the tellurium component and also high toxicity
of cadmium makes its preference uncertain [49].
Furthermore, Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), basically used in small scale
power harnessing, consist of low-cost substrate and very little silicon
material which is nontoxic. It absorbs wide ranges of light spectrum thus
functions well in almost all hours of days and irrespective of temperature
variations. But its power output is very small(though can be improved by
stacking) and also it has a shorter effective lifespan of less than a year [50].
24
Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS) having a lab efficiency of
above 20%, it uses an absorber consisting of copper, indium, gallium and
selenide.it is produced via a process of vacuum extraction and co-evaporation
and sputtering. Presently most promising with respect to the others [48]
Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45]
25
4.2.1.3
The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics
Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47]
These are a group of thin-film photovoltaic that uses both inorganic and
organometallic materials. Presently they still possess lower efficiencies and
lifespan still shorter as well. This includes;
Copper Zinc tin sulphide solar cell (CTZTS), Dye-sensitized solar cell,
Polymer solar cell, Quantum dot solar cell, Perovkite solar cell, amongst all
listed above, the Dye –sensitized solar cell has the highest solar conversion
efficiency with about 11% because they are built with only thin layers of
conductive plastic in front layer, thus this allows them to radiate some heat
away easily and quicker. Thus, suitable for lower internal temperatures[51].
Unlike fragile silicon cells that are protected from external surfaces via
glasses and which increases internal temperatures of the silicon cells causing
a drop in efficiency. Despite the proses of dye solar cells, the use of liquid
electrolyte leads to environmental temperature stability issues because at
extremely cold temperatures, the electrolytes freezes and power generation
stops while higher temperatures can cause the liquid expansion and
destruction of cell internal designs as well.
Base on figure 4-7 below that shows the comparism of solar cell
efficiencies and choice for our research project, we found that multi-junction
cells do have the highest energy efficiency conversion rates as compared to
the other cell types. But due to their high cost of production and
installations[52],we could not integrate into our system. Presently they are
mostly applied in astronomical applications as satellite launching. So, we are
left with a choice based on silicon, thin-film and third generation
photovoltaic cells as in table 4-1.
Table 4-1 shows a Comparism of solar cell efficiencies and choice for our
research project based on a confirmed terrestrial cell and sub module
efficiencies measured under the global AM1.5 Spectrum. From the table we
clearly found that silicon cells do have relatively higher cell efficiency and
fill factor as well.
Thus, it is a better choice for our research work.
Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our Research Project, solar cell
efficiencies[53]
Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our Research Project, Compares of solar cell
efficiency [54]
TITLE
CONFIRMED TERRESTRIAL CELL AND SUBMODULE EFFICIENCIES MEASURED UNDER THE GLOBAL
AM1.5 SPECTRUM (1000 W/M2) AT 25 °C (IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 GLOBAL).
CLASSIFICATION
EFFICIENCY (%)
AREA(SQ.CM)
VOC(V)
JSC(MA/SQ.CM)
FILL
FACTOR
(%)
SILICON:
Si(crystalline)
Si(multi-crystalline)
25.6 ± 0.5
20.8 ± 0.6
143.7 (da)
243.9 (ap)
0.740
0.6626
41.8
39.03
82.7
80.3
Si(thin transfer submodule)
Si(thin film minimodule)
111 V CELLS:
21.2 ± 0.4
10.5 ± 0.3
239.7 (ap)
94.0 (ap)
0.687
0.492
38.50
29.7
80.3
72.1
GaAs (thin film)
28.8 ± 0.9
0.9927 (ap)
1.122
29.68
86.5
GaAs (multicrystalline)
InP (crystalline)
THIN FILM CHALCOGENIDE:
CIGS (cell)
CIGS (minimodule)
CdTe (cell)
AMORPHOUS/MICROCRYSTALLINE
Si (amorphous)
Si (microcrystalline)
DYE SENSITISED:
Dye
Dye (minimodule)
18.4+-0.5
22.1 ± 0.7
18.4 ± 0.5
4.024.02
4.011
0.878
23.2
29.5
79.7
85.4
20.5 ± 0.6
18.7 ± 0.6
21.0 ± 0.4
0.9882 (ap)
15.892 (da)
1.0623 (ap)
0.752
0.701
0.8759
35.3
35.29
30.25
77.2
75.6
79.4
10.2 ± 0.3
11.4 ± 0.3
1.001 (da)
1.046 (da)
0.896
0.535
16.36
29.07
69.8
73.1
11.9 ± 0.4
10.0 ± 0.4
1.005 (da)
24.19(da)
0.744
0.718
22.47
20.46
71.2
67.7
29
Dye (submodule)
ORGANIC:
Organic thin-film
Organic (minimodule)
MULTIJUNCTION DEVICES:
InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs
a-Si/nc-Si/nc-Si (thin-film)
a-Si/nc-Si (thin-film cell)
8.8 ± 0.3
398.8 (da)
0.697
18.42
68.7
11.0 ± 0.3
9.5 ± 0.3
0.993(da)
25.05(da)
0.793
0.789
19.40
17.01
71.4
70.9
37.9 ± 1.2
13.4 ± 0.4
12.7+-0.4
1.047 (ap)
1.006 (ap)
1.000(da)
3.065
1.963
1.342
14.27
9.52
13.45
86.7
71.9
70.2
(da) = designated illumination area; (ap) = aperture area
30
Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]
TITLE
Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]
Classification
Cost
(/Wp)
Power
rating(W)
Vmp(V)
Imp(A)
Power
Number
Voltage
Tolerance
(%)
Cells
(Vmax)
Efficiency
(%/Years)
Temp
Coeff.
Dimension (mm)
-0.48%/K
1652*1306*50
Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):
$1.05
350
42.98
8.13
3
60
1000
16.22/25
P-Si(JY250M)
$0.05
250
29.6
8.45
2
72
1000
15.3/25
1650*992*40
String Ribbon
(Evergreen 210
W, ES-A Series)
$1.05
210
18.1
11.05
5
-
600
13.4/25
1650.5*951.3*46
M-Si
(1SolTech
1STH-350-WH
(350W)
Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells(TFPC/TFSC): [59] [60] [61]
CIS/CIGS(BPM-F380 CIGS)
$1.76
380
31.5
12.06
5
75
1000
16.6/25
(-40
85ºC)
to
2598*1000*17mm
a-Si/(OYD-250)
$0.54
-0.6
250
38
8.54
3
60
1000
17/25
–40˚C
85˚C)
to
1640*990*40
31
CdTe(DM 77W
CdTe-2)
$0.86
80
16.8
4.58
-
8.25
-0.03
-
1000
12/25
-0.21(Pm)
1000
15.37/25
-0.45%/°C
1200*6000*6.8
The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics[62]
dye solar cell SISPM250W
$0.6
250
30.30
60
1650*990*50
156*156(cell)
32
Based on the data obtained from Table 4-2 above, we decided to
choose the silicon crystalline solar (Specifically 1STH-350-WH solar
panels) panel to design the solar panel. this is due to the fact that is has an
efficiency of more than 25% with over 41 J in terms of power generated
per square meter. Furthermore, with a fill factor of over 82 %( that is ratio
of the solar cells actual power output to its dummy output) over an area of
143.7 sq. metre. [27].
4.2.2 Calculation
4.2.2.1 Illumination time
Because of the high latitude in Karlskona, the disparity of duration of
sunshine is large, in order to increase the role of solar PV modules, we have
to know the illumination time by calculating the declination angle of the sun,
and calculate the solar elevation and the solar azimuth to decide the distance
between each PV panels, in order to make each component can exposure to
the sun fully and completely to increase utilization. Then according to the
karlskona latitude to adjust the inclination of the solar panels, make the
sunlight vertical irradiate on the solar PV modules as much as possible, to
make the radiation reaches the maximum, increase power output.
First, we seek the latitude of Karlskona the map. Karlskona latitude
Φ=56.16゜
Then, we collect declination angle of some few special dates and whole
summer.
According to those data, we can calculate the declination angle1,
δ = 23.45° × sin(360° ×
284+𝑛
365
)
Where n is the number of days in a year.
Then Sunrise and sunset hour angles,
cos τ𝜃 = − tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿
1
angle between the sun rays and earth equatorial plane
or
𝜏𝜃 = cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙)
𝜏𝜃 is the angle of sunrise or sunset; positive angle is at sunset, negative
angle is at sunrise.
Following other data, then we can calculate the duration of sunshine with
any season, any day length latitude.
Duration of sunshine
Τ=
2
2
cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙) =
𝜏
15°
15° 𝜃
Table 4-3 Illumination time
karls
kona
data
n(d
ay)
δ
(゜)
𝜏 (
cos𝜏𝜃 𝜃
゜)
the
angle
of
sunris
e(゜)
2010/3
/21
80
0.403
653
0.0
1
89.
44
-89.44
89.44
12
2010/6
/22
173
23.44
8046
0.6
5
130
.38
130.38
130.38
17
181
23.18
4489
0.6
4
129
.77
129.77
129.77
17
0.5
9
126
.42
126.42
126.42
17
0.5
0
120
.33
120.33
120.33
16
latit
ude
2010/6
/30
φ=
2010/7
/14
195
21.67
4617
56.16
2010/7
/29
210
18.67
0488
34
the
angle
of
sunset
(゜)
illumin
ation
time
(hour)
2010/8
/12
224
14.74
4488
2010/8
/27
239
9.599
3972
2010/9
/23
266
2010/1
2/22
356
1.008
871
23.44
457
0.3
9
0.2
5
113
.17
113.17
113.17
15
104
.66
104.66
104.66
14
0.0
3
88.
54
-88.54
88.54
12
0.6
5
49.
72
-49.72
49.72
7
Based on the Table 4-3, we know illumination time in one day; it will help
us to calculate the average power in the whole year.
4.2.2.2
The PV modules Installation
Next, in order to decide the distance between each PV panels, we should
know about solar elevation and solar azimuth.
First, hour angle τ = ωt
It is defined as: at noon when τ= 0, every 1 hour plus 15゜, morning is
positive, afternoon is negative. For example, at 10:00, t=2, τ=30゜, at
14:00, t=2, τ=-30゜
the solar elevation2,
sin ℎ = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜏
the solar azimuth3,
sin 𝛾 =
cos 𝛿 sin 𝜏
cos ℎ
2
the angle between center of the sun light direct to the ground and the local plant, solar
elevation angle is an important factor on the strength of the solar that ground can gain.
3
the angle between the projection of the sunlight on the ground plane and south of the local
meridian, it means that it represents the sun position, decided the direction of the incident sunlight.
35
Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth
36
n(day
)
δ(゜)
2010/3/2
1
80
0.40365
3
2010/6/2
2
173
data
karlsko
na
latitude
φ=
2010/6/3
0
2010/7/1
4
2010/7/2
9
181
195
210
23.4480
46
23.1844
89
21.6746
17
18.6704
88
56.16
2010/8/1
2
224
14.7444
88
37
time
12:0
0
14:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
16:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
16:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
16:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
τ
(゜)
h(゜)
0
0.000
0
26.01
3
57.31
7
60.01
5
50.40
8
57.05
3
50.40
8
35.67
6
49.04
5
55.54
3
49.04
5
34.45
6
46.30
8
52.53
7
46.30
8
32.00
0
42.69
2
48.60
9
33.8209
-30
0
-30
30
0
-30
-60
30
0
-30
-60
30
0
-30
-60
30
0
γ(゜)
0
66.6459
46.1759
2
0
46.1759
78.5652
45.1667
6
0
45.1668
77.4679
43.3150
5
0
43.3151
75.3814
41.1580
8
0
2010/8/2
7
2010/9/2
3
2010/12/
22
239
266
356
9.59939
72
1.00887
1
23.4445
7
14:0
0
16:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
16:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
10:0
0
12:0
0
14:0
0
-30
-60
30
0
-30
-60
0
-30
42.69
2
28.93
1
37.90
0
43.46
1
37.90
0
24.40
9
32.84
8
27.89
1
41.1581
73.1604
38.6853
6
0
38.6854
69.7061
0
34.4632
27.5062
7
30
6.433
0
10.40
1
0
-30
6.433
27.5063
Different latitude, the sun irradiation direction angle of the sun to the
ground is different, in order to obtain much more solar irradiance, the
inclination of the PV array is different. It can be roughly achieved the
installation inclination angle of the PV array depended on the local latitude:
When =0~25, the installation inclination angle of the PV array is Z=;
When =26~40, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =
∅ + (5°~10°);
When =41~55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =
∅ + (10°~15°);
When =>55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ = ∅ +
(15°~20°).
The latitude in Karlskona is ∅ = 56.16°
Oblique angle Z=Φ+15゜=71゜
38
Because the oblique angle is too large, if we install it in a horizontal plane,
it will be unstable, so we decide to mount it on the roof with the angle of 30
゜.
Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55]
Manufacturer
1SolTech
Model
1STH-350-WH
Length
(in.)
65.0
Width
(in.)
51.4
Now, we use the size of the solar PV module is 1STH-350-WH, its width
is 51.4inch, is about 130.556cm.
Before the installation, we should splice the solar PV modules into the
solar PV array.
We decide the total area of the roof of our car park is 50 * 58M, since the
inclination angle is 41゜ , in order to prevent the solar phalanx broken for
the large volume, I design to place on 10 * 4 solar phalanx, each phalanx
consists of 3*7 solar PV modules.
Considering about the 3*7 PV array is large, so we decide to put all of
them on the roof, not to build them up, and use longer wires to connect with
series and parallel.
So W = 130.556cm. Using this data and the installation inclination angle of
the PV array we can know the actual height of the solar panel H′.
H ′ = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 = 130.556𝑠𝑖𝑛71° = 123.4431𝑐𝑚
In order to make solar panels radiate heat, solar panels will be elevated
10cm
H = H′ +
10
= 134.9905𝑐𝑚
𝐶𝑂𝑆(30°)
In order to make sure the solar panels can work well whole year, we adopt
the data of solar elevation angle and azimuth angle on winter solstice
(December 22) at noon, because this time the solar elevation is the lowest in
whole year, at this time if the sunlight can shine on the PV modules shows
that whole year achieve the requirement.
At this time, according to the Table 4-4, we know:
39
h = 10.39527°
L = H/tanh =
134.9905
= 735.8473𝑐𝑚
tan(10.39527°)
γ = 0°
D = Lcosγ = L = 735.8473cm
Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface
a = Wcos71° = 42.50488cm
ℒ = a + D = 778.3522cm
ℒ𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
b + ℓ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛30° + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ = 216.716𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
b = Wcos41° = 98.532cm
ℓ = 216.716 − 98.532 = 118.1841cm
So, at the end, we calculate the distance between the solar PV arrays is
about 1.18m.
40
For the fixed installation in northern hemisphere, as long as setting in
about south 20゜, the power generation capacity will not be affected any
more. Considering about using in winter, the solar panels can be set south 20
゜, the peak of the solar generation will appear in the afternoon, and this will
help increasing the generation in winter.
In conclusion, we will set the PV modules on a roof with 30゜, the
installation inclination angle is 41゜, west 20゜, and the distance between
the PV array is1.18m.
The capacity of solar modules
Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55]
Manufacturer
1SolTech
Model
1STH-350-WH
Rated
power
@ STC
(W)
350
41
Rated
power
@
PTC
(W)
309.1
Max.
power
voltage
(Vmp)
42.98
Max.
power
current
(Imp)
8.13
Table 4-6 is the parameter of the solar PV module 1STH-350-WH, according
to our design about 3*7 solar PV modules, we can calculate how many
energy each solar PV array provide.
Frist, we should know about the output capacity of each PV array each day
(Cop ), it’s the product of the lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in
a year and the maximum power current.
Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal
Surface (kWh/m2/day)[63].
Lat
56.16
Lon
15.58
22year
Avera
ge
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annua
l
Avera
ge
0.6
0
1.2
8
2.5
0
3.8
8
5.1
5
5.2
8
5.1
2
4.3
3
2.8
0
1.4
3
0.7
4
0.4
6
2.80
The lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in a year is 0.46 kWh⁄𝑚2
𝐶𝑜𝑝 = 0.46h × 8.13A = 3.7398A ∙ h
42
Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx
Figure 4-9 presents the connection pattern of each phalanx, the output
voltage, output current and electric quantity can be calculated according this
structure.
Then, we can calculate the generation of one solar PV array each day，
the output power on each day multiply 3(parallel number) is the value of the
generation of all solar PV arrays each day (C′PV ),
𝐶′𝑃𝑉 =
𝐶𝑜𝑝 × 3
= 11.23063𝐴 ∙ ℎ
1.11 × 0.9
43
Where, 1.11 is the efficiency of charge the battery by solar PV modules;
0.9 is correction factors of the loss of PV modules caused by the attenuation
of the solar PV modules and dust.
So, all PV arrays can provide 12𝐴ℎ every day.
A ∙ h is the unit of the storage battery, so now we should count the voltage
of the PV array to converted Ah into kWh.
Then, we will calculate the work voltage of the solar PV array (𝑉𝑃𝑉 ), it is
the product of the maximum of power voltage and series number.
𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 42.98𝑣 × 7 = 300.86𝑣
The value of the work voltage of the solar PV array is 301V.
At the end, we can know the power of one solar PV array (𝑃𝑃𝑉 ),
𝐺𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶′𝑃𝑉 × 𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 3378.848𝑊 ∙ ℎ = 3.378𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ
And we have 10*4 solar PV arrays in the roof, so they will provide about
′
𝐺𝑃𝑉
= 40 × 𝑃𝑃𝑉 = 135.154𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ
At the end, we calculated the generation of the all PV arrays is 136 kWh
every day.
44
4.3 Description of controller
4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller
Microcontrollers or solar battery regulators are electronic devices used to
regulate the flow of electric current or voltage between to electric batteries.
Its basic functions involved preventing complete discharge or over charging
of batteries so a main tool in protecting batteries life. The term charge
controller or regulator may be referred to either a standalone device or an
integrated circuit attached to the battery system.
There are basically three sets of solar battery micro controllers; MPU
controllers, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Controller, and Maximum
Power Point Tracking Controller.
4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers
These are the first generation of PV charge controllers performing one
way operations. They involve the Series regulators, shunt charge controllers
and the simple charge controller. Series regulators mainly disable further
current from flowing into batteries when fully charged while shunt charge
controllers diverts excess electricity from a fully charged battery to auxiliary
load (loads). Furthermore, simple charge controllers basically stop to charge
a battery when they exceed their specified voltage level and they further reenable the charging process when the battery voltage gets below their
specified minimum voltage levels [28] .some of the benefits of using on and
off controller is that it’s very simple to operate, efficient with little heating,
and also it operation help saves battery life since it prevent over and under
charging of the battery. Recharging of battery by this controller is slower as
compared to PWM controllers.
4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm)
PWM basically uses higher voltage spikes in forwarding the charged
current from the solar panels to the storage batteries. Some designs have
output voltage pre-set so that they can be set for the particular battery in use.it
also recharges batteries faster than on and off controllers.
45
One of the problems using the PWM controller is that most 12V units need
at least 8V at the battery before they can function properly.so if a storage
battery has been discharged below that value it will be difficult for the PWM
controller to transfer the power irrespective of the amount being generated
by the solar panels. Also some micron rollers have internal heat sink that
reduces the total power from solar panels to storage batteries.
4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller
It’s a micro controller set up to allow high voltage PV modules to charge
batteries with lower voltage capacities. The controller indirectly hides the
batteries from the PV solar modules thus supporting the batteries to operate
at their optimum.in extreme climatic conditions, this controller still extract
the most energy from the PV modules. Also it can operate efficiently even
when it is separated some distance from the panels .The prime problem is
that, in very low light levels such as early mornings or when sun sets, the
controller might relay little or no power to the storage batteries.
46
Table 4-8 controller parameters
paramet
er
type
price
rated
voltage
maximum
charging
current
Floode
Selfconsu
Full char
Low-
mptio
ge cut
voltage cut
n
MPU controller [64] [65]
SC4060/ $168
≤
48V
≤50A
50A
.00
25MA
Sc4120/
≤
48V
≤100A
100A
50mA
pulse width modulated controller [66] [67]
WS12V/24
$28.
<=30m
C2460(5
Vauto
50A
00
A
0A)
work
12V/24
$60.
KT1215
Vauto
15A
<5mA
00
work
12/24V
auto
$26.
≤
SR-50
matic
50A
00
45mA
volt
age
working
d
tempera
chargin
ture
g
Temp.
compensati
on
voltage
54.8V
43.2V
54．8V
43．2V
-25℃
~+45℃
-25℃
~+45℃
54.8V
54.8V
-3MV/℃
/CELL
-3mv/℃
/cell
[68] [69]
13.7V /
27.4V
10.5~11V /
21V~22V
-25℃
~+55℃
17V /
34V
-3mv/℃
/cell
13.2V
12.6V
-35℃
~+55℃
13.8V
NO
13.7/27.
4V
recogniz
e tacit
ly
12.6/25.2V
recognize
tacitly
-40℃
~+60℃
13.8V/
27.4V
-3mv/°
C/cell
$2,5
≤10
00.0 240v
100A
mA
0
maximum power point tracking controller[70]
≤
20mA(
12V/24
Tracer4
$169
12V)
Vauto
40A
210A
.00
≤
work
16mA(
24V)
12V/24
V
1.4
IT4415N
$422 /36V/4
45A
～
D
.60 8V
2.2W
auto
work
SDC240V
-100A
I-PeSMART12V/24V
/48V(40
A)
DC14V~
DC100V
$150 /DC30~
.00 DC100V
/DC60~
DC100V
40A
≤
40mA
＞285V±
2
210V
25℃ ～
+60℃
405.0V
-3mv/°
C/cell
11.1V
-25℃
~+45℃
13.8V
-3mV/℃/2V
11.1V
-25℃
~+55℃
13.8V
-3mV/℃/2V
-25℃
~+55℃
refer
the
charge
voltag
e of
the
batter
y
14.2V（the top
temperatur
e-25℃）
*0.3
[71] [72]
14.6V
110V
48
10.5V
49
Following the Table 4-8 controller parameter, we choose the PWM
controller SDC240V-100A, because the output voltage is higher than other
controller, it is suitable for our batteries. There are three stages charging
function to protect battery: constant current; constant voltage and flooded
charging.
Besides the basic function of controller, likes input short-circuit
protection; input overcurrent protection, batteries and PV array reverse
polarity protection, the controller has the function of restricting maximum
input power of the PV array, make sure the array can’t be overload under any
condition; it also can protect the batteries overcharge and over-discharge.
Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69]
Table 4-9 gives the detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller.
51
Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73]
Model
SDC240V-100A
Rated battery voltage
240V
Rated current of solar energy panel
100A
Rated current of each solar energy panel
25A
Maximum voltage of solar energy panel
440V
Rated Power of the Solar Panel
24KW
Number of solar energy panel array
4 circuits
Method of working
Working continuously
Function
Charging and control
State display
LED
Protection class
IP30
Temperature:-10-40 ℃
Operating environment
Humidity≤80%
Stopping charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel
＞285V±2
Resuming charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel
＜270V±2
Stopping charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel
＞290V±2
Resuming charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel
＜270V±2
Connection cable of provided battery(㎡)
＞20mm²
Maximum no-load self-consume （MA）
300mA
Voltage drop between solar energy panel and accumulator
2V
﹤1000 m
Applicable altitude
Product size
585*585*980mm
52
4.4 Description of storage battery
4.4.1 Storage batteries
For the impact of the solar energy to be felt, the storage batteries used in
the respective solar applications and systems need to meet the demands of
unstable grid energy. Thus, solar storage batteries are considered to be key
components in stand-alone renewable energy systems so as to continuously
store the supply energy harnessed during peak and low periods respectively.
There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique requirements. Main
subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies earlier reviewed included
flow batteries[74], lithium ion batteries [75] and lead acid batteries[76].
Also, choice for the battery comprised of parameters such as; the storage
capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that retrieved [32],
power transmission rate [33], discharge time [34], battery efficiency [35],
cycling capacity [36], cost of the storage battery [36],disposal/environmental
effects[37], and finally the self-discharge rate of the storage battery[38] . A
brief presentation of each of these subgroups is presented below.
4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery
Also known as valve regulated (VRLA) battery, it comprises of; Gel,
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) and flooded lead acid models.
Flooded lead acid has a higher replacement/maintenance and disposal risk
factor because of constant refilling of the evaporated electrolytes. But AGM
and gel are recombinant in that they require little or no maintenance and
filling since there is minimal evaporation of the electrolytes making them
environmentally safer. Being cheaper than lithium Ion batteries, and also
high capacity, higher efficiency and cycle life, lead acid storage battery
performance makes them a better choice for solar energy standby.
53
Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77]
4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery
Presently the most common storage battery used in modern technology
especially in smartphones. Its various forms consist of Iron phosphate,
Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese storage models. Unlike lead acid storage battery
types, they basically require low maintenance, low self-discharging, higher
energy and capacity densities, and thus they can provide higher current
outputs.
Despite the above benefits, they are more expensive, higher aging rates, and
they require a lot of protection in terms of voltage/ current balances [78].
4.4.4 Flow battery
Flow battery for solar energy storage is consisted of basically redox
vanadium and hybrid models. Still considered as an emerging form for solar
energy storage and cost assumed to be cheaper than lithium acid in near
future[79].
Flow batteries are considered to deliver optimal power supply since its
electrolytes and electro- active materials are stored externally and separately.
Though there is separation of reactive components, externally there is high
cost of construction and environmental risk of spillage.
54
So from the tabular analysis as seen on Table 4-10 below and our
investigations, AGM(BAT412201080) lead acid storage battery was selected
for our research work
55
Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy Storage [80] [56]
Parameters/
Model
Ene
rgy
eff
Price
($/kwh
)
(%)
Capacit
y
(A
/20h)
Depth
of
dischar
ge
Volta
ge
(V)
Temp
sensi
tivit
y
Energ
y/
weigh
t
ratio
Design
life
(years
)
Cyc
le
lif
e
30-50
12
800
.0100
0.0
1
20 ℃
+70
℃
35.040.0
30-80
7.0 10.0
200
Cyc
les
@
100
%
25 ℃
+60
℃
4-
(%)
(best
degre
e )
(wh/k
g)
Pow
er/
wei
ght
rat
io
(w/
kg)
Energy/v
ol ratio
(wh/l)
Selfdischarge
(%)
Dispo
sal
Lead acid batteries
T105-RE
Flooded
AGM(BAT41220
1080)
4
70.092.0
152
225
92
387
220
12
1
2
180
Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work
42
70.0
80.0
3.04.0
-
<
2
High
safety
measures
ISO
9001 quality
standard
Parameters/
Model
Ene
rgy
eff
Price
($/kwh
)
(%)
GEL(BPG1224T)
90
150180
Capacit
y
(A
/20h)
Depth
of
dischar
ge
Volta
ge
(V)
150
(20
hours
rate
(7.5A
10.8V))
(%)
1
30-80
2
Design
life
(years
)
Cyc
le
lif
e
10.0 15.0
45.6
Temp
sensi
tivit
y
(best
degre
e )
Energ
y/
weigh
t
ratio
(wh/k
g)
Pow
er/
wei
ght
rat
io
(w/
kg)
Energy/v
ol ratio
(wh/l)
-
-
-
80.0120.0
1400
>300
Selfdischarge
(%)
Dispo
sal
<2
Moderat
e safety
measure
180A
(LFP
-CB
12,8
/60)
High
safety
measures
lithium ion batteries [81] [82] [76]
Iron
phospate(BAT
512600500)
92
7
9
7
60
3.2-3.3
12
.8
6
200
0Cycles
@ 80%
57
45 ℃
+70
℃
Parameters/
Model
Ene
rgy
eff
(%)
Nickel,Cobal
t,Manganese
>91
Price
($/kwh
)
9
7
0
Capacit
y
(A
/20h)
20
Volta
ge
(V)
Depth
of
dischar
ge
(%)
2.7-4.2
Design
life
(years
)
4
8
Cyc
le
lif
e
0.751.9
Temp
sensi
tivit
y
(best
degre
e )
55
Energ
y/
weigh
t
ratio
(wh/k
g)
Pow
er/
wei
ght
rat
io
(w/
kg)
140.0
150.0
260450
10
Energy/v
ol ratio
(wh/l)
5
Selfdischarge
(%)
Dispo
sal
80%
Moderate
safety
measure
1525
<150
W
environmen
tally
friendly &
recyclable
-
(+/)
405V
DC
&(+/
>97%
recycle
rate, Liion low
-
Flow batteries[83] [84]
Redox(vanedi
um cellcube
FB 10-100)
80
no
price
assume
rental
100kw
h
48V DC
Hybrid(UPS
Premium
DSP0.9
Hybrid 10500kVA)
>94
no
price
assume
rental
6.0
to
300
12
5
10
0
0
2030
5 320.
0
unlimit
ed
-40℃
~+50
℃
10.0
-20.0
2500
0℃ ~
+40℃
-
18
(0.9
power
factor
)
Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work
58
Parameters/
Model
Ene
rgy
eff
(%)
Price
($/kwh
)
Capacit
y
(A
/20h)
Volta
ge
(V)
Depth
of
dischar
ge
(%)
Design
life
(years
)
Cyc
le
lif
e
Temp
sensi
tivit
y
(best
degre
e )
Energ
y/
weigh
t
ratio
(wh/k
g)
Pow
er/
wei
ght
rat
io
(w/
kg)
Energy/v
ol ratio
(wh/l)
Selfdischarge
(%)
-)
300V
DC
59
Dispo
sal
safety
level
4.4.5 Connection of battery packs
In order to figure out the connection pattern of batteries, we have to refer
the specification of the controller, the PV modules, how they connect
together and produce how much power.
There are formulas describes the relationship between the solar panels
phalanx and the storage battery pack. We will figure out the connection
pattern base the formulas below.
𝑄𝐿 𝑑𝐹
𝐾𝐷
𝑄𝐿 𝐹
𝑃𝑚 =
𝐾𝑇𝑚
𝐶𝑤 =
Cw is the battery pack capacity with the unit Wh; QL is the energy quantity
which can be deliver to the electrical appliance; d is the number of continuous
days without sunlight and we assume d=2 here; F is the amending coefficient
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
of discharge (𝐹 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦); K is the loss between the battery and
the electrical appliance; D is the depth of the storage batteries discharge level,
we suppose D=80% in our utilization of batteries; Pm is the peak power of
each PV phalanx, a PV phalanx consists of 3×7=21 PV modules with 350W
maximum power, thus
𝑃𝑚 = 350 × (3 × 7) = 7350𝑊;
Tm is the Peak sun hours, Tm=2.8 hours in average throughout a year
according Table 4-7.
According the two formulas above, we obtain that:
𝑃𝑚 𝑇𝑚 𝑑
𝐷
The storage battery pack should have the capacity for a PV phalanx bigger
than:
𝐶𝑤 =
𝐶𝑤 =
𝑃𝑚 𝑇𝑚 𝑑 7350 × 2.8 × 2
=
= 51450 𝑊ℎ
𝐷
80%
The voltage of each battery pack is same with the system voltage, 240V.
Therefore we need
240 ÷ 12 = 20
Batteries connected in series to raise the voltage in the battery pack. 12V is
the voltage of each battery.
In the meanwhile, the capacity of each battery pack should be bigger than
𝐶𝑤 51450𝑊ℎ
=
≈ 214.38 𝐴ℎ
𝑈
240
Table 4-11 describes the specification of different types of AGM batteries.
And the capacity of the BAT412201080 is 220Ah, which is bigger than
214.38Ah, conforming our requirement of conserving the daily energy output
of a PV phalanx. Therefore we do not need to connect the batteries in parallel
in each battery pack to raise the capacity of each battery pack.
C=
Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification
12 Volt Deep Cycle AGM
General Specification
Article
number
Ah
V
lxwxh
mm
Weight
kg
CCA
@0°F
RES
CAP
@80°F
BAT406225080
240
6
320x176x247
31
1500
480
BAT212070080
8
12
151x65x101
2,5
BAT212120080
14
12
151x98x101
4,1
BAT212200080
22
12
181x77x167
5,8
BAT412350080
38
12
197x165x170
12,5
BAT412550080
60
12
229x138x227
20
450
90
BAT412600080
66
12
258x166x235
24
520
100
BAT412800080
90
12
350x167x183
27
600
145
BAT412101080
110
12
330x171x220
32
800
190
BAT412121080
130
12
410x176x227
38
1000
230
BAT412151080
BAT412201080
165
220
12
12
485x172x240
522x238x240
47
65
1200
1400
320
440
Technology: flat plate AGM
Terminals: copper
Rated capacity: 20 hr discharge
at 25°C
Float design life: 7-10 years at
20 °C Cycle design life:
400 cycles at 80% discharge
600 cycles at 50% discharge
1500 cycles at 30% discharge
According the features that each controller has 4 circuits connecting with
the battery packs, the rate current and rated voltage is 25A and 240V of each
circuit, the input current and the input voltage for each battery is also 25A
and 240V.
61
Table 4-19 present the connection of the batteries and the connection
between the battery packs and the controller.
......
.
......
.
Controller
......
.
battery
220Ah, 12V
......
.
20
Battery pack
240V, 220Ah
Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller
Since there are ten controllers handling all the electric energy output from
the PV phalanxes, and each controller controls four battery packs charging
and discharging. We need 10×4 = 40 battery packs to conserve the energy
generated by the PV phalanxes. In other word, There are 40×20 =800
batteries in our system to conserve the energy.
62
4.5 Inverter
4.5.1 Description of inverter
Based on electricity generated by solar cells, there are three basic inverters
or converters which convert the DC electricity from the solar panel to AC
electricity that can be used to charge the cars both at home sockets or
charging stations these converters includes, the string inverters or centralised
inverters, micro inverters and power optimizers.
4.5.1.1 String inverters
Involves arranging the solar panels parallel into sets of strings that relay
the power they harnessed into a single inverter. Here the panels produce
equal total power at higher voltages. This reduces cost of wiring and lesser
internal losses of the harnessed energy leading to improved efficiency [39].
Figure 4-13 string inverter[85]
4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters
Unlike string inverters, micro converters the DC electricity of each solar
panel to the AC per panel- that is each panel is attached to a micro inverters
and output of the several micro inverters are combined and fed into the
electric grid of the home or load. Here any failure of one of the panels as a
result of shadings, debris or snow lines does not affect the functionality of
the other panels because each micro inverter harnesses maximum power [39].
Though individual micro inverters generally have lower efficiency
values as compared to string inverters, their combined efficiency is
increased due to the fact that every inverter / panel unit acts independently.
Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85]
4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers
Similar to micro inverters in that both systems attempt to isolate individual
panels in order to improve the performance of the entire system. Power
optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the pane arrays so as to
continually adjust and modify the load attached in order the keep the system
operational at its peak. This process is known as maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) by use of a Smart Module [40].
Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85]
64
Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic
Report[86] [87] [88] [89]
Title
Comparison of inverter
Type
Power
Efficiency
(%)
Module
Voc
Module
Ioc
Cell modules
Fronius
6.6Primo 8.2 12.7K
inverter
97
650
38
4 strings
SDP
30KW
inverter
94
240
136
4
99.5
1000
15
Up to
(W)
1-200K
P350
350
Power
optimizer
25 strings
To conclude based on our analysis on Table 4-12 above, we will adopt the
SDP 30KW inverter due to its rated output power compatible to the energy
produced by our solar panels and also output frequency range in line with
that specified with the vehicle charger selected.
We determine to use micro inverter in our research work because of its
higher power output rate and also more flexible in that additional solar panels
can be added, and monitoring done to access our power harnessing and
consumption rates.
65
4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok
AC Network
kwh
......
General socket
SAE J1772 charge
Vehicle Charger
Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network
Since the high latitude at Karlskrona, the solar radiation in the Karlskrona
is much less than the districts at low latitude. Moreover, the illumination time
is very short in the winter, PV module acquire little irradiation at these time.
It cannot afford the daily requirement of the charging. We adopt the use of
electricity from general AC power grid, in case the PV modules cannot
provide enough electricity for daily charge by user.
jointed straightway to the AC network and separate the general power
circuit with the photovoltaic energy generation circuit. That is to say only
SAE J1772 chargers in our system will use the energy generated by the PV
modules; the energy the general sockets use is from the general AC network.
Figure 4-16 presents a rough and simple structure of the use of the energy
from AC network. At this case, when the storage batteries are detected in low
level by controller and are about to run out of their energy, the system will
turn off some unused SAE J1772 chargers to prevent either battery charge
breaking off or batteries over discharging. Meanwhile, the system will notice
the user to use the general socket to charge their vehicles.
66
4.7 Description of vehical charger
4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle
battery
In order to implement our charging system, we study several electrical
vehicles, their batteries and how they are charged. Table 4-13 below gives
the basic information about these.
Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116].
Model
Renault Fluence
Z.E.
Tesla Model S
P90D
Battery
type
lithium-ion
Charger
Adapter
3.5kW AC
onboard charger
10A 220V240V
household
charger;
Optional Zoe's
Chameleon
charger (43 kW)
11 kW AC
onboard charger
lithium-ion
120 kW DC fast
charger
67
Capacity(
kW h)
22
SAE J1772
SAE J1772
public
chargers.
Adapters to
IEC 60309
5 PIN Red
16A/3phase (400
V) or IEC
60309 3
PIN Blue
32A/singlephase (240
V) or some
other kinds
of domestic
adapter or
general
adapters
90
based on
regions.
Optional
CHAdeMO
charger.
Super
charger.
Toyota Prius
Plug-in Hybrid
lithium-ion
3.3kW AC
onboard charger
120v
household
outlet;
8.8
SAE J1772
BMW i3
lithium-ion
7.4kW AC
onboard charger
DC fast charger
SAE J1772
Optional
Combo DC.
22
120V cord
plugs into
any
household
outlet;
Chevrolet Spark
EV
lithium-ion
3.3kW AC
onboard charger
240V
chargers;
21.3
DC fast charger
Mitsubishi iMiEV
3.3kW AC
onboard charger
lithium-ion
44kW DC fast
charger
68
DC Fast
Chargecapable
(SAE
Combo)
adapters for
domestic
AC sockets
(110-240
V);
15 A 240 V
AC (3.6
16
kW)[2] on
the SAE
J1772-2009
inlet,
Nissan Leaf
lithium-ion
3.6 kW AC
onboard charger
DC fast charger
Kia Soul EV
Fiat 500e
Mercedes BClass Electric
Ford Focus
Electric
lithium-ion
lithium-ion
lithium-ion
lithium-ion
6.6kW AC on
board charger
DC fast charger
6.6kW AC
onboard charger
10kW AC onboard
charger
6.6kW AC
onboard charger
optional
Chademo
(max 44
kW 480 V
DC[3]);
Standard
SAE J17722009
connector
120/240
volts AC
JARI highvoltage DC
connector(5
00 volts DC
125A,
CHAdeMO
)
SAE J1772
27
CHAdeMO
SAE J1772
24
120-volt
charging
cable;
28
SAE J1772
120V
convenienc
e charge
cord
240V Home
Charging
Station
69
24
23
Volkswagen EGolf
lithium-ion
3.6kW AC
onboard charger
DC fast Charger
SAE-J1772
charging
cable in
conjunction
with a
standard
domestic
mains
socket;
24.2
Combined
Charging
System;
The table above lists the present popular electrical vehicles battery data.
The capacity of these vehicle batteries is approximately 43kWh.
4.7.2 Selection of charging mode
According to Table 4-13, most electrical vehicle provides several kinds of
charging mode. All these electrical vehicles generally support connecting
household electric socket charging and SAE J1772 standard charging or DC
fast charging. Among these charging modes, the DC fast charging is latest.
It is supported by several vehicles, mode. In this mode, the charging rate has
been raised to two to three times than AC charging. It realized that charging
battery up to 80% in an hour. There are three main types of DC fast charging
standard: CHAdeMO, Combined Charging Standard and Tesla’
Supercharger. However, although this DC charging technology has high
efficiency, its consuming power rate is too high. If we implement the fast DC
charging in our system, according the present CHAdeMO standard charger
at least providing 40 kW power[117], we need to place more than 114 PV
modules with 350w maximum power output to provide 40 kW power for one
DC charger. And the total number of our PV modules in our system is 840.
With the
350×840×2.8
1000
= 823.2kWh theoretical daily energy output, it can
only support a DC charger work for about
other way, we can only deploy
350×840
1000
70
823.2
40
= 20.58 hours each day. In
÷ 40 ≈ 7 DC fast chargers and
provide enough power only if the PV modules work at the STC6. Obviously,
it is not realistic to equip the DC charging in our system. Our system cannot
handle so much power to the DC fast charger. In the table, it indicates all the
vehicles support the SAE J1772 standard charging and general household
socket charging. Therefore this two charging mode will be employed in our
system. Regarding the general power socket in Sweden, we have to have one
kind of power output conformed the Swedish standard and another kind
conformed the SAE J1772 standard. Order to simplify the structure of our
system, the energy the general socket use comes from the general AC power
grid instead of coming from the PV modules. And using the general socket
to charge vehicle is an alternative charging option in our system, it make the
charge tasks still available when the system run out all of the energy in the
storage batteries and there is no output from the PV modules in the same time.
4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger
“SAE J1772 (IEC Type 1) is a North American standard for electrical
connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the SAE7 International and has
the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE
Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler". It specifies the requirements
of the charging system in many aspects, such as physic, electric,
communication protocol, and performance[119]. Since this standard
charging had been developed since early and has advantages such as price
comparing to other standards, it has been used widely, most electrical vehicle
in the market.
In order to integrate this charging pattern in our solar charging system, we
have studied the electricity parameter of SAE J1772 standard and create the
required condition to install this charger. There are two level of charging of
SAE J1772 standard.
6
“Standard Test Conditions (STC) are specified in standards such as IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and
UL 1703; specifically the light intensity is 1000 W/m2, with a spectrum similar to sunlight hitting the
earth's surface at latitude 35°N in the summer (airmass 1.5), the temperature of the cells being
25 °C”[118].
7 Society of Automotive Engineers
71
Table 4-14 below gives descriptions of these two levels of charging.
72
Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119].
Voltage
Phase
Peak current
Power
AC Level 1
120 V
Single phase
16 A
1.92 kW
AC Level 2
240 V
Split phase
32 A (2001)
80 A (2009)
7.68 kW
19.20 kW
Nowadays, almost all the electrical vehicle supports the SAE J1772 level
2 charging mode, and level 2 charging rate is much higher than level 1
charging. Therefore we will integrate this charging mode in our system based
on the specification indicated in
73
Table 4-14.
In order to implement our charging electrical network, we have chosen a
certain type of charger, Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger.
Table 4-15 below gives specification of this type of charger.
Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120]
General
Charging Power
32 Amp (7.7kW max)
Product Dimensions
19.7"L x 8.9"W x 5.3"D
Product Weight
Installation
Hardwired (3 foot service whip provided)
Supply Circuit
208/240V, 40A
Frequency:
60 Hz
Warranty
3 years
Charge Cable Length
25 feet
Vehicle Connector Type
Lockable SAE J1772
Accessories Included
SAE J1772 Connector Holster, Wall Mount
Enclosure
Fully Sealed NEMA 4
Environment Rating
Indoor/Outdoor rated
Operating Temperature
-22°F to 122°F (-30°C to +50°C)
Certifications
ETL, cETL
According this specification, we can build up an eligible electrical circuit
to service the HSC-40 charger.
74
4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes.
In Sweden, the general power socket conforms CEE 7/3 standard8, the
general plug conforms CEE 7/49 standard. They together have been called
"Schuko" and Type F. This Schuko connection system is symmetrical and
unpolarised which means that it does not matter whether you put the plug
into the socket reversely. The CEE 7/3 standard socket is also compatible
with the CEE 7/16 standard plug and CEE 7/17 plug which are belong to type
C. Table 4-16 and Table 4-17 below present the standard power output and
plug specification in Sweden.
Table 4-18 Standard power output in Sweden[121].
Voltage
230V
Frequency
50Hz
Accepting Plug Type
C,F
8
CEE 7/3 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the
Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE).
9 CEE 7/4 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the
Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE).
75
Table 4-19 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122].
IEC
Wor
ld
Plug
s
Typ
e
C
-
F
Standar
d
Rating
Earth
ed
Polaris
ed
Fuse Insulat
d
ed
pins
Socket
accepts
Europl
ug
CEE
7/16
(Europl
ug)
CEE
7/17
plug
CEE 7/3
Socket
CEE 7/4
Socket
2.5
A
250
V
NO
NO
NO
YES
N/A
16
A
250
V
NO
NO
NO
NO
N/A
16
A
250
V
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
Base on the specification in the tables above, we will use Type F (CEE
7/4) socket as one of our charging socket. And it will provides 230V power
output, maximally allows 16A current flow.
4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power
4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using
SAE J1772 level 2 charging
Regarding the SAE J1772 charging, we also study the charging time of
the electrical vehicle listed in Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.,
76
Table 4-20 below gives data of these.
77
Table10 4-20 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772
level 2 charging[90]–[116]
Model
Renault Fluence
Z.E.
Tesla Model S
P90D
Toyota Prius
Plug-in Hybrid
BMW i3
Chevrolet Spark
EV
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
Nissan Leaf
Kia Soul EV
Fiat 500e
Mercedes B-Class
Electric
Ford Focus Electric
Volkswagen E-Golf
Capacity(
kW h)
Power
(kW)
Curren
t(A)
Charging time
(hour)
22
3.5
14.6
7.5
90
6.6
27.5
14
8.8
3.3
13.8
2.25
22
7.4
30.8
3.5
21.3
3.3
13.8
7
16
24
27
24
3.3
3.6
6.6
6.6
13.8
15.0
27.5
27.5
6
8
4
4
28
10
41.7
3.5
23
24.2
6.6
3.6
5.4
27.5
15.0
4
8
6.0
According this table, we can obtain the average charging power with using
SAE J1772 charging is 5.4kW; the consuming power is 6.5 hours in average.
However, as our option of charger maximum power is 7.7kW, the Mercedes
B-Class Electric cannot charge at its maximum charge rate 10kW. Instead its
maximum charge power becomes 7.7kW. Since of these and it is hard to
measure the increasing time when Mercedes B-Class charge at this power
10 The data in this table is not accurate. The practical data varies caused by many factors such
as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered from the internet.
78
rate, we recalculate the average consuming power and average charging time
by removing the data about this vehicle.
We obtain the results that the consuming power of charging is about 4.9
kW and the average fully charging time for each vehicle is about 6.2 hours.
4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using
general socket
Regarding using the general power socket to charge the electrical vehicle,
we have studied the charging time in several types of vehicle listed in Table
4-13. Table 4-21 below gives the data of these.
Table11 4-21 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power
using general power socket[90]–[116]
Model
Renault Fluence
Z.E.
Tesla Model S
P90D
Toyota Prius
Plug-in Hybrid
BMW i3
Chevrolet Spark
EV
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
Nissan Leaf
Kia Soul EV
Fiat 500e
Capacity(
kW h)
Power
(kW)
Curren
t(A)
Charging time
(hour)
22
2.3
10
11
90
2.9
13
30
2.7
12
9.5
2.3
10
12
8.8
22
21.3
16
24
27
24
11 The blank cell means the data is missing. The data in this table is not accurate. The practical
data varies caused by many factors such as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered
from the internet.
79
Mercedes B-Class
Electric
Ford Focus Electric
Volkswagen E-Golf
28
23
24.2
2.3
10
13
According this table, we can obtain the average charging time with
general socket is 15.1 hours; the consuming power is 2.5kW in average.
4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement
According the result of daily electric output quantity Pm•Tm=350×840×
2.8 = 823.2kWh and the 4.9kW average consuming power of charging, we
can acquire that 823.2kWh/4.9kW=168 hours total charging time. In order to
approach the maximum quantity requirement of users, we suppose that each
charger can work at least 6.2 hours. In this case we can deploy 168/6.2≈27
chargers at our system. In other word, if 27 vehicles need to be charged in
the same time, our system still assures that the 27 vehicle can be acquired
fully charging service. Otherwise if there are less than 27 hour vehicle
charging at the same time, each charger service hours will relatively increase.
And this reckon is theoretical, it neglects the loss between the PV modules
823.2𝑘𝑊
and the charger and other influencing factor.4.9𝑘𝑊×6.2ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 ≈ 27
80
4.8 Installation cost
4.8.1 Installation cost of our system
Base on the number and the price of each component we use, we can
approximately estimate the total cost of our system. Table 4-22 Lists most of
the components we use at our system and the cost of them.
81
Table 4-23 Cost of system
Capacity
135KW
Daily Power
Consumption
Solar radiation 2.8hours 823.2KWH
System Voltage
240V
Type
1STH-350-WH
$1.05/panel
Pmax
350W
840 panels
Vmp
42.98V
Imp
8.13A
SPEC
350w
$6,000.00
Wave form
Sinc wave
2 inverters
Output voltage
60v
Output frequency
50Hz~60Hz
Inverter efficiency
98.80%
Rated voltage
240V
$2,500.00
Rated current
100A
10 controllers
$882.00
Solar panel
Inverter
Controller
$12,000.00
$25,000.00
Control mode
PWM
Protection
Smart charging and
discharging;
three stages charging function
to protect battery.
Battery Type
AGM(BAT412350080)
$118/battery
Voltage
12v
800 batteries
Capacity
38(A/20h)
Type
SAE J1772
$565.00
Supply Circuit
240V, 40A
27 chargers
Charging power
32 Amp (7.7kW max)
General socket
Type
F CEE 7/4 socket
$3.00
Distribution Box
Specification
2 inputs; 2 outputs
20
Cable
Specification
1.0mm2
Solar Mounting
System
Inclined Roof Mounting Type
Storage battery
Vehicle charger
83
$94,400.00
$15,255.00
$81.00
Total
$147,618.00
84
5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work
Striving for a greener and eco-friendly future depends on how much
actions we put in so as to reduce and while not stop those humane behaviours
based on car usage that increases the level on environmental pollution.
Efficient harnessing of solar energy involved choosing efficient
components that provide the required energy capacity to charge the electric
cars. With a surface area of 2900m2, 840 1STH-350-WH PV modules at 71
degrees inclination, it generated approximately at least 136kwh daily energy
output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output throughout a year in
theory.
Combining 10 SDC240-100A micro controllers, 2 SDP30Kw inverters,
800 AGM (BAT412350080) storage batteries from our system model, we
can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at once with an average full charging
time of up to 6.2 hours. All these are achieved due to the fact that we use the
SAE J1772 standard charging. Additionally general power sockets provide
230V power output in case more energy is needed. This energy is obtained
from the general AC power grid and the average charging time 15.1 hours
with this alternative charging method. Also, this method of charging
consumes 2.5kW power in average.
Since the solar energy generation and charging occurs during the day, thus
using photovoltaic to charge electric cars means most of the electric vehicle
charging will have to take place during working hours, which will have
significant impact on reducing carbon emissions during the day which is the
main humane concern. With this piece of work we do hope it serves as a
starting point for other research work in this area.
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