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Language In Brief
Language In Brief
Language
Language is a rule-governed behavior. It is defined as the comprehension and/or use of a spoken (i.e.,
listening and speaking), written (i.e., reading and writing), and/or other communication symbol
system (e.g., American Sign Language).
Spoken and written language are composed of receptive (i.e., listening and reading) and expressive
(i.e., speaking and writing) components.
Spoken language, written language, and their associated components (i.e., receptive and expressive)
are each a synergistic system comprised of individual language domains (i.e., phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics, pragmatics) that form a dynamic integrative whole (Berko Gleason, 2005).
Descriptions of the five language domains follow:
Phonology—study of the speech sound (i.e., phoneme) system of a language, including the rules
for combining and using phonemes.
Morphology—study of the rules that govern how morphemes, the minimal meaningful units of
language, are used in a language.
Syntax—the rules that pertain to the ways in which words can be combined to form sentences in a
language.
Semantics—the meaning of words and combinations of words in a language.
Pragmatics—the rules associated with the use of language in conversation and broader social
situations.
The five basic language domains are part of a continuum which spans to higher order language skills,
such as discourse, which is impacted by skills in the pragmatics domain.
Higher order language skills include inferencing; comprehension monitoring; interpretation of complex
language, such as jokes and puns; and use of text structure knowledge. Metalinguistic awareness is
requisite for the development of higher order language skills and is defined as "the ability to think about
and reflect upon language" (Gillon, 2004, p. 10). Metalinguistic awareness includes phonological
awareness, morphological awareness, syntactic awareness, semantic awareness, and pragmatic
awareness. Metalinguistic skills are also critical for self-regulation and self-monitoring.
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Language In Brief
Spoken Language
Written Language
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Phonology
ability to identify and
distinguish phonemes
while listening (i.e.,
phonological
awareness)
appropriate use of
phonological patterns while
speaking
understanding of
letter-sound
associations
while reading
(i.e., phonics)
accurate
spelling of
words
while
writing
Morphology
understanding
morphemes when
listening
using morphemes correctly
when speaking
understanding
grammar while
reading
appropriate
use of
grammar
when
writing
Syntax
understanding
sentence structure
elements when
listening
using correct sentence
structure elements when
speaking
understanding
sentence
structure while
reading
using
correct
sentence
structure
when
writing
Semantics
listening vocabulary
speaking vocabulary
reading
vocabulary
writing
vocabulary
Pragmatics
understanding of the
social aspects of
spoken language,
including
conversational
exchanges
social use of spoken
language, including
production of cohesive and
relevant messages during
conversations
understanding
point-of-view,
needs of the
audience, etc.
conveying
point-ofview,
intended
message,
etc.
(includes
discourse)
See ASHA’s resource titled Developmental Norms for Speech and Language for more information.
Language Acquisition and Use
Language learning and use are determined by the interaction of biological, cognitive, psychosocial, and
environmental factors. Language evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts.
Communication difference/dialect is a variation of a linguistic symbol system used by a group of
individuals that reflects and is determined by shared regional, social, or cultural/ethnic factors (ASHA,
1993).
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Language In Brief
Effective use of language for communication requires an understanding of human interaction, including
nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural roles.
Relationship Between Spoken Language and Written
Language
Phonological awareness underlies the ability to manipulate speech sounds (i.e., phonemes) in spoken
words. It has been found to contribute notably to reading and writing development (Al Otaiba, Puranik,
Zilkowski, & Curran, 2009; Lemons & Fuchs, 2010; Scarborough, 1998). Components of phonological
awareness include syllable awareness (e.g., one syllable in "cap" vs. two syllables in "again"), onsetrime awareness (e.g., onset: cap vs. rime: cap), and phoneme awareness (e.g., "cap" contains three
phonemes: /k/ + /æ/ + /p/)
When instruction in phonological awareness is paired with knowledge of letter names (i.e., graphemic
awareness), then phonics, a core written language skill for reading and writing development, is being
addressed.
See ASHA’s Practice Portal pages on Spoken Language Disorders and Written Language Disorders for
more information.
Language Disorder
A language disorder is an impairment in comprehension and/or use of a spoken, written, and/or other
communication symbol system (e.g., American Sign Language). The disorder may involve the form of
language (phonology, morphology, syntax), the content of language (semantics), and/or the function of
language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination (ASHA, 1993). In some cases,
augmentative/alternative communication may be required for individuals demonstrating impairments in
gestural, spoken, and/or written modalities. (ASHA, 1993).
Language disorders may persist across the lifespan, and symptoms may change over time (Bashir,
1989). Further, a language disorder can be a distinct diagnosis or may occur within the context of other
conditions.
A regional, social, or cultural/ethnic variation of a symbol system should not be considered a disorder of
speech or language (ASHA, 1993).
Relationship Between a Language Disorder and Social
Communication Disorder
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Language In Brief
Children with language disorders may also present with social communication difficulty since social
communication comprises social interaction, social cognition, pragmatics, and language processing.
More information about social communication can be found on ASHA’s Social Communication
Disorder Practice Portal site.
References
Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C., Zilkowski, R., & Curran, T. (2009). Effectiveness of early phonological
awareness interventions for students with speech or language impairments. Journal of Special
Education, 43(2), 107–128.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (1993). Definitions of communication disorders and
variations [Relevant Paper]. www.asha.org/policy/.
Bashir, A. S. (1989). Language intervention and the curriculum. Seminars in Speech and Language,
10(3), 181–191.
Berko Gleason, J. (2005). The development of language (6th ed.). Pearson Education.
Gillon, G. T. (2004). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. Guilford Press.
Lemons, C.J., & Fuchs, D. (2010). Phonological awareness of children with Down syndrome: Its role in
learning to read and the effectiveness of related interventions. Research in Developmental Disabilities,
31(2), 316–330.
Scarborough, H. S. (1998.). Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities: Phonological
awareness and some other promising predictors. In B. K. Shapiro, P. J. Accardo, & A. J. Capute
(Eds.). Specific reading disability: A view of the spectrum (pp. 75-119). York Press.
© 1997-2021 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
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