Laxa, Aidaine Krishia C.
2POL1
Review of Related Literature
Philippine Liberal Feminism: Struggles and Strategies of Women Against
Sexism
The widely comprehensive discourses regarding the equality between men and women
have led to colossal advancement of liberal and feminist movements, considering the implications
these bring. This can include numerous discussions with significant relations with gender, society,
and politics by which hold extensive grounds in the academic debates. Most of the accounts are
targeting interdisciplinary approaches as to how feminism should be incorporated and practiced
into a more diverse scholarly political sphere. However, there may be overlapping curves in
forming a ground for liberal feminism which are to be asserted in this paper. This will encompass
its background and antecedents, contrasting disciplines, and varied analysis with situations and
examples from different states, especially the Philippines.
Liberalism and Feminism
The idea of liberalism is anchored to liberty, as it started with classical liberalism led by
John Locke. Liberty has been linked to property by the classical liberals for it was believed to be
connected to the ability of people to exercise and maintain freedom through obtaining private
property. However, this concept has been revised under the grounds of new liberalism. They
argued that the olden theme of liberalism failed to guarantee equal positive liberty. Therefore, it
has been believed to anchor with civil and political liberties. In accord with Freeman’s idea (2017),
discussing liberalism in politics is associated with the rule of law, guaranteed civil and political
liberties, constitutional government [with limited powers], and non-authoritarianism. The society
that liberal movements aim to be established is to bind people despite the differences in religion,
philosophy, and ethical doctrines. Then, people can freely express themselves and live according
to what they would want to. Liberalism, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2020), is a set of views that emphasize the importance of liberty and hold that a just state ensures
individual liberty. Liberal feminists support this ideal and function for the state, as well as women's
freedom. Liberalism is divided into two types due to a disagreement over how freedom should be
defined; this disagreement also splits liberal feminism.
Feminism, on the other hand, is a doctrine concerned with gender equalities. This has been
fueled by the social movements aiming to promote political and legal rights for women. It is rooted
in the challenges women faced from the past centuries, including the deprived right to vote and
participate in political activities. As stated in the New World Encyclopedia, feminism has had three
waves in its history. These waves are closely related to what liberal feminism thrives to achieve.
According to Caprino (2017), feminism pursues the idea of equality of gender but not the
“sameness” as most what most people understand. Thus, this misconception has impacted their
thinking, leaving some people to hate the idea. Feminism is both a philosophical commitment and
a political movement that seeks justice for women and the abolition of sexism in all forms,
according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2018). Feminist research, driven by a desire
for social justice, offers a diverse spectrum of perspectives on social, cultural, economic, and
political issues.
Liberal Feminism
There are various definitions of liberal feminism for scholars and researchers. Lewis (2019)
conformed to Jagger’s definition that described liberal feminism as a doctrine that concentrates
more on issues, challenges, and dilemmas in aiming for equality in the workplace, in education,
and political rights. Liberal feminism also focuses on how private life impedes or enhances public
equality. Bailey (2016) stated in her journal that this philosophy emerged from liberalism which
is centered on human beings’ capacity to rationalize and reason while integrating it to their natural
right. Hence, liberalism as per the world view, in between the 17th and 18th centuries, had
empowered freedom or liberty which was primarily applied to men, however. So, liberal feminists
promote the emphasis of having freedom equally for both men and women, as well as their rights.
Also, the author mentioned that the emergence of liberal feminism is owed to the strong
philosophical traditions intrigued by liberty and its extensions to women. The combination of the
two disciplinary spheres, feminism, and liberalism, the approach being discussed is rooted in the
overlapping curves of the two. While liberalism is concerned with freedom or liberty and feminism
talks about equality of sexes, it created a spot where these doctrines meet to deliver the idea that
women are entitled to the same privilege and rights being enjoyed by men. As an example, the
historical records that women were not allowed to have their property nor participate in the
political and social activities while their brothers, father, or spouses do have the right to, then the
demand is clear. Liberal feminism would have to demand that women can have those rights, as
well, and that patriarchal structures of the systems are hindering and marginalizing them when
they should not. Equality will only be met when society accepts that women and men cannot be
the same but should be equal. Adding Meier (2018), the use of the phrase "liberal democracy" to
characterize countries with free and fair elections, rule of law, and protect civil liberties
exemplifies liberalism as a defining quality of modern democracy.
In addition, Herouach (2019) stated that liberal feminists argue to the belief of people that women
are less capable intellectually and physically, by nature. And that this doctrine has been driven by
liberalism and individualism. Hence, the universal arguments of liberal feminists have targeted
and pushed through ideas regarding (1) women’s rights should be legitimized, (2) stereotypes and
prejudices should be dissolved, and (3) biological characteristics (sex) should not determine
psychological and social gender. After the several paradigmatic shifts, waves, and movements,
some of the demands of liberal feminists have come into place. Laws were legislated to regulate
the activities and rights women are entitled to enjoy. Nevertheless, the world seems to have a
problem with stereotypes and prejudices because it is still evident that judgment fosters as its
implications reveal it. For example, the people tend not to vote for women for the political seat,
believing that men are more capable.
Culture of Patriarchy and Sexism in the Philippines
Medina, et. al, (2015) discussed the severity of patriarchal culture in the Philippines as the
framework in investigating its effects on human rights. They argued that Christianity has been one
of the roots of the patriarchal beliefs and practices of the Filipinos. The researchers included
examples, including the school practice of teaching males to be "manly" and girls to be "feminine."
Within the church, the most prominent example of such division has been the restriction of males
to pastoral and administration roles of the Christian community, and females have frequently been
banned even from minor liturgical functions like candle lighting and extinguishing. Men were
always in charge of the ecclesiastical government.
Sexism has several definitions as the paradigms shift so Zehnter, et. al, (2021) denoted that
it is commonly defined as biased and discriminatory attitudes, beliefs, and actions directed at a
person based on their sex and/or gender. According to Evangelista (2017), the traditions of the
Philippines that can be considered sexist were handed down due to the colonial influences which
practice sexism. Women are frequently inferior to men in many countries, and this mentality has
often been passed down from their forefathers. Due to cultural expectations, women's roles are
often degraded. Spanish influences in the past viewed women as housewives and nurturers of their
families, particularly their children. Women were supposed to stay at home and look after their
children while their husbands went to work to support the family. These attitudes have evolved
with time, and while women's responsibilities have expanded significantly, remnants of this
society still exist. Even though gender roles have shifted dramatically in recent years, men and
women still have certain expectations and responsibilities. Some tasks are only done by males,
whereas others are only done by women. Sexism was reduced after recognition of the roles of
women and their protection through the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines.
Closely relating to misogyny, Kaul (2021) argues that individual political leaders'
misogyny, is more than just hate of physical women or women who defy authority; it also
exemplifies the legitimization of violence against that (body, community, identity, or issue) that is
framed as "feminine" in general or feminist in particular. When the "feminine" adhere to male
dominance and sexism, it is lauded, but demonized when it defies sexist-gendered norms. We can
detect a link between the individual misogyny of authoritarian leaders in democratic settings and
the projects of nervous and insecure nationalisms that are at the heart of right-wing politics in this
sense of gender interpreted as a power relationship.
Relations and Application of Liberal Feminism to Leadership, Political Activities, and
States
In consonance with Iannello (2010), leadership is a term that women strive to claim as their
own. For centuries, women have been deprived and challenged to have a seat of power or be in the
office to lead and serve the people. Conforming to Grunberg, et al, (2017), it is important to
understand the variables that are relevant to effective leadership. They also stated that gender is
one to be examined as to how it can be related to leadership. However, according to Gorska (2016),
it is difficult to evaluate to what extent gender affects the ability of people to lead.
On a feminist case for leadership, Sinclair (2014) discussed the interest of women in
leadership that arose together with the second wave of feminism that features the documents of
women’s experiences in organizing and influencing the public. However, there were two areas that
the feminists wanted to break; the scholarly thinking that leadership roots by nature in business
and politics and the skills of women to lead the communities and schools. This has led to bringing
the feminist perspective to leadership.
To denote the flourishment of feminism in Asia and the Middle East, Jayawaderna (2020)
presented how the Third World responded to women’s movements. The author outlined the traces
of causes and conditions as the feminist movements fostered in Asia and the Middle East,
considering that religious beliefs, ideologies, economic statuses, and colonial histories are just
some of the struggles of this doctrine. From these political dilemmas, women’s participation arose,
noting that some countries like Korea, Japan, Iran, Turkey, Egypt, India, Sri Lanka, China,
Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines had shown significant similarities in experiences due to
their historical backgrounds yet cleared out to have several differences as well. The comparative
study between states, especially in the third world, is to reveal that they were subjected to the
manipulation of imperialist powers through aggression and domination, knowing that these states
had been colonized. Since most of the colonizers came from the West where feminism was rooted,
the influences flew in the mark of agitation which concerns the struggles and interests of women.
Particularly in Southeast Asia, according to Bong (2016), feminist activism reimagines the
global vision and the practice of women’s rights. The author highlighted some political activities
and movements in Southeast Asia, including the following; (1) Vietnam Women’s Union which
was founded in 1930, (2) GABRIELA Philippines founded in 1984, (3) Foundation for Women in
Thailand of 1984, (4) Joint Action Group for Gender Equality of Malaysia formed around 1985,
and (5) AWARE Singapore the same year.
Peracullo (2019) denoted that the Philippines ranked 8th last 2018 and consistently gains a
spot within the top 10 on the Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum. In the
Philippine condition of liberal feminism, Asia Society Philippines listed some areas where
recognition for women is evident. The first one is justice, there are existing laws in the Constitution
and the supporting statues, protecting women from domestic violence and some other forms of
injustice that a woman might experience. In education, academic institutions have been open for
all genders since the American regime. Also, National Statistics revealed that the Philippines
establishes a healthy sphere of gender equality in terms of academic competition. In economics,
the business world and industries are evidently dominated, still, by men, however, the rise of
women’s businesses also fosters. Additionally, some companies prefer hiring females for they are
believed to be consistent professionals with good work ethics. Lastly, in politics, women do have
the right to suffrage as they enjoy the eligibility to run for public offices, as well.
Hega, et. al, (2017) denoted the struggles, advances, and challenges of feminism in the
Philippines and argued to the previous note that the hurdles remain to be seen even with law
protections due to the poor implementations. Thus, it can result in challenging overall
improvement in the lives of the women in the country. According to Philippine Institute for
Development Studies (2017), Filipino women remain underrepresented in the highest public
offices in the government and positions in the industry. And that there is a need to increase
participation of women in governance in both public and private sectors to widen the
representation. Despite all of these, Orleans (2020) believed that the continuous efforts of nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and those of community-based organizations managed to
achieve empowerment and impacts in providing opportunities for women in terms of leadership,
growth, and independence.
Some states continue promoting liberal feminism. In Ethiopia, according to Enyew and
Mihrete (2018), liberal feminism has incompatibility and inapplicability due to the Ethiopian
government system which is Developmental Democratic State. On that note, this system is
anchored in regulating, shaping, and controlling the economy and there are independent political
spheres. So, the ideology of liberals and liberal feminism itself is not compatible with the strategies
of a developmental state.
Chaguri and Paniz (2019), findings of their study revealed a collaborative effort to create
new narratives of visibility about women's engagement in conflicts, changing their role toward an
effective contribution symmetrically equal to men's. At least two movements have been
undertaken to this end: (1) the expansion of spaces for gender debates in research, archives, and
museums on war contexts by making visible women's activities and demands; and (2) the
production of distinct narratives - theoretical, musicological, literary, and visual - about war,
allowing observers to see how discussions on gender issues emerge only when women's
participation is mobilized.
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