FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget – He was a Swiss psychologist and
genetic epistemologist.
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He is most famously known for his Theory
of Cognitive Development that looked at
how children develop intellectually
throughout the course of childhood.
THE 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development suggests that children move through
four different stages of mental development. His
theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence.
(HAL: Tinago natin ang isang bagay, ang teddy
bear sa kumot. Hindi niya iyon nakikita pero
alam niyang hindi yon tuluyang Nawala at nageexist pa rin.)
2.The Preoperational Stage
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Children begin to think symbolically and learn to
use words and pictures to represent objects.
•Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and
struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
•While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
Piaget believed that children take an active
role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world. As kids
interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.
3.The Concrete Operational Stage
•Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
• Their thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete
•Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• During this stage, children begin to thinking
logically about concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for
example
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning
from specific information to a general principle
•Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
4.The Formal Operational Stage
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
1.The Sensorimotor Stage
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins
to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
• Teens begin to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even
though they cannot be seen. This is called Object
Permanence.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a
general principle to specific information.
• They are separate beings from the people and
objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to
happen in the world around them
SCHEMA
• A schema describes both the mental and physical
actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world.
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• In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a
-Born in what was the Russian Empire
category of knowledge and the process of obtaining
-Severe anti-Semitism at the time
that knowledge.
-Quota system for Jews at universities; had to
• As experiences happen, this new information is
used to modify, add to, or change previously
enter a lottery
existing schemas.
-Vygotsky was lucky and allowed to go to
• For example, a child may have a schema about a
university, but banned from formally studying
type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might
philosophy
believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four
-Graduated from Moscow University with a law
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an
enormous dog. The child will take in this new
degree in 1917, but also studied history and
information, modifying the previously existing
philosophy
schema to include these new observations.
-Began seriously studying psychology at the
ASSIMILATION
Institute of Psychology in Moscow in 1924;
• The process of taking in new information into
our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective
because we tend to modify experiences and
information slightly to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and
labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal
into the child's dog schema.
became researcher there
EQUILIBRATION
• Piaget believed that all children try to strike a
balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for
new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration
helps explain how children can move from one
stage of thought to the next.
ACCOMMODATION
•Another part of adaptation involves changing or
altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves modifying existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information
or new experiences. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
1. All learning is social
• Knowledge is always socially constructed.
2. Culture shapes our learning and cognitive
development
• Culture ensures each new generation learns
from the previous
• Provides lens through which we see and make
sense of world
• What is valued in one culture may not be in
another
• Learning is tied to the culture and situation
where it was learned.
3. Challenge is important to learning
• Learning happens best within our ZPD
• A more knowledgeable other knows what will
challenge us.
4. Learning leads development
• Learning pushes us towards more advanced
cognitive development.
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
•
Known by any one of the following names or
variations of these names:
Sociocultural - learning is a social process tied to
and driven by our specific culture.
Sociohistoric - learning is a social process tied to
and driven by our our specific history (culture)
LEV VYGOTSKY
-Russian psychologist/developmentalist
Situative – learning is tied to the context or
situation (culture) where it was learned
VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
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FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
• Children can perform more challenging tasks
when helped by “more knowledgeable other”
• Adults convey to children (formally &
o Child’s actual development level – upper limits
informally) the ways their culture sees the
of tasks that learner can successfully perform
world
alone
o Adults share meanings they attach to objects,
o Child’s level of potential development – upper
events (culture)
limits of tasks that learner can successfully
o Adults should describe discoveries of previous
perform with help from more knowledgeable
generations, help connect children to their
other
history
o Learning is a social process
o We don’t have to “discover” what those
before us have learner
• Challenging tasks promote maximum
o Culture “shapes” our learning and
cognitive growth
development
o Child’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) –
o Learning is both social and culturally based
range of tasks a learner can perform with help,
and tied to the situation where it was learned.
but not alone
o Children learn little by performing tasks they
• Every culture passes down physical and
can already do alone
cognitive tools
o Develop by trying tasks they can do only with
o Physical Tools (pencil, scissors, computer,
help – within their ZPD
etc.) or cognitive (language, math, symbols,
o In teaching: some tasks should require more
etc.)
knowledgeable other, some should be worked
o These should be passed on to children to make
on together by students of equal ability
learning and development easier
o Each child has unique ZPD
o Again, see the social, cultural, and historic
connection
o Learning is connected with these tools –
• Play allows children to cognitively “stretch”
themselves
• Thought & language become increasingly
o “In play a child always behaves beyond his
interdependent in first few years of life
average age, above his daily behavior”
o For adults and older children, thought &
(Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102)
language are closely connected
o Play is valuable training for adult world and
o Separate functions for babies/toddlers;
culture
language a means to communicate not
o Play is often social in nature and each culture
thoughts.
determines what is acceptable play
o Thought and language intertwine around 2
(think in words) and self-talk emerges to guide
child through a task
CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF
o Self-talk turns into inner Speech – mentally
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: SOCIAL
guiding oneself
CONSTRUCTION
o A culture’s language is a tool passed on to
o Scaffolding – guidance or structure the more
new generation (cultural and historical
knowledgeable other provides to help the learner
connection)
perform tasks in his/her ZPD
•
o
o
o
o
o
Complex mental processes begin as social
activities, gradually evolve into independent,
internal mental activities
As children discuss events/objects with a “more
knowledgeable other”, begin to incorporate this
talk into their own thinking
Internalization – process through which social
activities evolve into internal mental activities
(ex: self-talk to inner speech)
Peers and older children can also be “more
knowledgeable others”
Discussions, debates, arguments teach children
that there are multiple ways to see same
situation; process becomes internalized
All learning is social
o
Scaffolds should be used until leaner has
internalized behavior than fade away.
•
Examples of scaffolding in school:
o
o
o
o
Outlines, guidelines, checklist
Hints, guiding questions, reminders
Strategies, plans
Modeling, demonstrating
•
When a child, through support and guidance,
participates in adult activities
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Gradual entry into adult world: begins with child
on fringe of activity until eventually child plays
more central role
o Think of young child helping adult cook: allowed
to stir and measure at first; as child gets older he is
gradually allowed to do more
o Participation is mediated, scaffolded, modeled, and
supervised by adult
•
o
o
o
o
Guided Participation in classroom:
Scientific experiments
Writing letters to local paper, government, etc.
Search the internet
Any activity which is beyond the child’s world
•
A mother sitting with her toddler singing, “Baa,
baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir, yes
sir ....” at this point the mother pauses and the
child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!”.
•
Cognitive Apprenticeship: Mentor provides
guidance to novice about how to think about a task
o
Teacher talks with student about task/problem,
analyze problem, decide on best approach
Teacher models effective ways of thinking about
situation, coaches student through task, provides
scaffolds.
o
•
•
•
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY’S VIEW ON
MOTIVATION
How is this Guided Participation?
o
o
o
o
•
Mother guided the child through song, aware of the
child’s ZPD
Mother knew the child can’t sing the song by
himself, so she provided a scaffold by starting the
song for him
Mother modeled how the song should be sung
Eventually, the child will internalize the process and
be able to sign whole song alone
A 5-year old lost her security blanket & asks her
father for help. The father asks her where she
last saw the blanket; the child says , “I can’t
remember.” The father then asks a series of
questions – “Did you have it in your room?
Outside?” To each question the child answers
“No”. When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I
think so” and finds the blanket in the car.
•
•
o
o
•
o
o
o
How is this guided participation?
o
o
o
o
Father guided child through process, aware of her
ZPD
Father modeled the thinking process of an adult
Each question the father asked was a scaffold
Eventually the child will internalize this behavior, at
first through self-talk, and then inner speech
•
Apprenticeship: Intensive form of guided
participation, novice works with an expert to learn a
task in a particular domain;
o
Much structure & guidance to slowly introduce
novice to work
Gradual fading to give novice independence and
responsibility
Trades: plumber, electrician; Professional:
internship, student teaching, law clerk, medical
intern
o
o
Rather than assess what students can do alone,
assessing what they can do with scaffolding –
Assess students’ ability
Dynamic Assessment provides info about the
child’s thinking process and ability to learn,
allowing teacher to better guide future
instruction
Not to be used all the time, but can be helpful
We’re motivated by a particular situation
(situated motivation)
We’re motivated to become part of a group that
we see as desirable (soccer team, honor society,
skateboarders, etc.)
We become part of the group by participating in the
group’s activities, culture, language, behavior
Our identity is tied to the groups we participate in
(soccer player, smart kid, skateboarder, etc.)
We often join the group through peripheral
participation (start on the fringe/edge of group)
Observe group & its culture: language, activities,
dress, behavior, etc.
Practice aspects of the culture (may be
apprenticeship learning)
Work to become integrated into the group; full
community participation; group passes on
knowledge to the novice
Triarchic theory of Intelligence by Robert
J. Stenberg
•
•
•
STENBERG proposed his theory in 1985 as an
alternative to the idea of the general intelligence
factor. The general intelligence factor, also known
as g, is what intelligence test typically measures. It
refers only to “academic intelligence.”
He argued that practical intelligence—a person’s
ability to react and adapt to the world around
them—as well as creativity are equally important
when measuring an individual’s overall intelligence.
He also argued that intelligence is not fixed but
rather comprises a set of abilities that can be
developed.
Subtheories of Three Intelligences:
PRACTICAL ------- CONTEXTUAL
CREATIVE ------- EXPERIENTIAL
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COMPONENTIAL ------ COMOPONENTIAL
What is Intelligence?
CONTEXTUAL SUBTHEORY
Intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s
environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one
functions in their everyday circumstances, including
one’s ability to
a) Adapt to one’s environment
b) Select the best environment for oneself, or
c) Shape the environment to better fit one’s needs
and desires
(EX: During a recitation, a student incorporates
situations that he/she experience at home.
At various points throughout recent history, researchers
have proposed some different definitions of intelligence.
While these definitions can vary considerably from one
theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to
suggest that intelligence is the ability to:
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Learn from experience
Recognize problems
Solve Problems
LEARN FROM EXPERIENCE
The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an
important component of intelligence.
RECOGNIZE PROBLEMS
EXPERIENTIAL SUBTHEORY
There are two categories of creative intelligence: novelty
and automatization. Novelty concerns how a person
reacts the first time they encounter something new.
Automatization concerns how a person learns to
perform repeated tasks automatically.
(EX: During class discussion, two students of Mrs.
Gomez were fighting and punching each other. Mrs.
Gomez might be shock but she can solve the situation
because it is not her first time t0o experience this in
her class. She can apply what she learned from the
former fight between the student.)
To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify
possible problems in the environment that need to be
addressed.
SOLVE PROBLEMS
People must then be able to take what they have learned
to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have
noticed in the world around them.
Problem Solving Skills
-Teamwork
-Negotiation
-Positive Mindset
COMPONENTIAL SUBTHEORY
-Logic
This is related to analytical intelligence, which is
essentially academic intelligence. Analytical
Intelligence is used to solve problems and is the kind of
intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ Test.
-Strategic
(EX: math test, computations, problem solving)
INTELLIGENCE
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Is one of the most talked about subjects in
psychology, there is no standard definition of what
exactly constitutes intelligence.
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
Intelligence involves some different mental abilities
including logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and
planning.
While psychologist often disagree about the definition
and causes of intelligence plays a significant role in
many areas.
These areas include decisions regarding how much
funding should be given to identify children who need
additional academic help.
How Psychologists Define Intelligence?
-
The ability to learn
The ability to recognize problems
The ability to solve problems
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
What makes intelligence controversial?
The term “intelligence quotient” or IQ, was first coined
in the early 20th century by a German Psychologist
named William Stern.
Intelligence, has been a controversial topic throughout
psychology’s history. Despite the substantial interest in
the subject, there is still considerable disagreement about
what components makeup intelligence.
ALFRED BINET – psychologist, developed the very
first intelligence tests to help the French government
identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic
assistance.
In addition to questions of exactly how to define
intelligence, the debate continues today about whether
accurate measurements are even possible.
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Binet was the first to introduce the concept of
mental age or a set of abilities that children of a
certain age possess.
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INTELLIGENCE TESTING
Intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool
that has led to developing many other tests of skill and
aptitude.
However, it continues to spur debate and controversy
over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be
involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very
way we define intelligence.
Alfred Binet and his collaborator, Theodore Simon,
invented the first intelligence test. It consisted of 30
items of increasing complexity. Results were measured
against a mental age.
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE BY CHARLES E.
SPEARMAN
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Spearman was well known as the pioneer of factor
analysis as a statistical technique to reduce and
interpret data.
He was the first psychologist who used the
application of mathematical models for analyzing
and interpreting the complexities present in human
mind.
Spearman conducted a study to prove this theory
through which he observed and inferred that people
with higher levels did well on series of mental
aptitude tests whereas people with lower intelligence
did not perform well enough on all these tests.
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE also known as g factor,
refers to a general mental ability that, according to
Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including
verbal, spatial, numerical and mechanical.
THURSTONE’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
THEORY
-Intelligence is defined as a combination of mental
capabilities and competencies that include the
following abilities:
1. To learn from experiences
The Theory of Primary
Mental Abilities
Thurstone (1938) proposed a theory of primary
mental abilities. Although this theory is not widely
used today, the theory forms the basis of many
contemporary theories, including two
contemporary theories discussed later, those of
Gardner (1983) and Carroll (1993). It is also the
basis for many contemporary group tests of
intelligence.
Thurstone (1938) analyzed the data from 56
different tests of mental abilities and concluded that
to the extent that there is a general factor of
intelligence, it is unimportant and possibly
epiphenomenal. From this point of view there are
seven primary mental abilities:
•
•
•
•
•
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Verbal comprehension
Verbal fluency
Number
Perceptual speed
Inductive reasoning
Spatial visualization
VERBAL COMPREHENSION
This factor involves a person’s ability to understand
verbal material. It is measured by tests such as
vocabulary and reading comprehension.
VERBAL FLUENCY
This ability is involved in rapidly producing words,
sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured
by tests such as one that requires the examinee to
produce as many words as possible beginning
with a particular letter in a short amount of time.
NUMBER
This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic
computation and in solving simple arithmetic word
problems.
2. Apply the knowledge gained from experiences
3. Formulate new understandings
4. Solve novel problems
“Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the
capacity to make impulses focal at their early,
unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is
therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is
an inhibitory process (Thurstone, 1924/1973 p.
159).”
PERCEPTUAL SPEED
This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid
recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured
by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of
As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring
recognition of which of several pictures at the right
is identical to the picture at the left.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
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This ability requires generalization— reasoning
• Gardner simply viewed it differently. He
from the specific to the general. It is measured by
defined intelligence as:
tests, such as letter series, number series, and
word classifications, in which the examinee must
1. The capacity to create solutions to life’s
indicate which of several words does not belong
problems.
with the others.
2. The ability to acquire new knowledge to gather
understanding on a topic.
SPATIAL VISUALIZATION
3. A skillset that is useful to the community,
whether it be a product or a service.
This ability is involved in visualizing shapes,
rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit
together. An example of a test would be the
presentation of a geometric form followed by
• Gardner also had some additional beliefs:
several other geometric forms. Each of the forms
o All humans have all nine unique intelligences,
that follows the first is either the same rotated by
potentially more which have yet to be
some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the
researched.
first form in rotation. The examinee has to indicate
o Everyone possesses all nine intelligences in
which of the forms at the right is a rotated version
various amounts.
of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.
o Each individual is made up of a unique
combination of all nine intelligences.
o These intelligences are uniquely arranged in
each individual’s brain and may or may not
• Today, Thurstone’s theory is not used as
work collaboratively together.
often in its original form, but it has served as
o Students can experience greater success if
a basis for many subsequent theories of
learning tasks were directly related to their
intelligence, including hierarchical theories
developed intelligences.
and modern theories such as Gardner’s
o Intelligences can be developed or weakened,
(1983). Thus, to the extent that a theory is
ignored or strengthened with practice.
judged by its heuristic value, Thurstone’s has
been one of the most important in the field.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner, (born July 11, 1943, Scranton,
Pennsylvania, U.S.), American cognitive
psychologist and author, best known for his theory
of multiple intelligences.
First presented in Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences (1983) and subsequently
refined and extended in Multiple Intelligences: The
Theory in Practice (1993),
Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for
the 21st Century (1999), and Multiple Intelligences:
New Horizons (2006), Gardner’s theory inspired
teachers, school leaders, and special educators to
embrace the notion that there are many ways to be
intelligent.
Multiple Intelligences
LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
-well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings and rhythms of words
LOGICAL -MATHEMATICAL
INTELLIGENCE
-ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and
capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns
SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
-capacity to think in images and pictures, to
visualize accurately and abstractly
BODILY- KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
-ability to control one’s body movements and to
handle objects skillfully
•
When Gardner published his Multiple
Intelligence Theory, many were in
disagreement. Prior to the 1980’s, the
educational field believed that intelligence
was already determined at birth. Researchers
used short-answer tests to assess one’s
intelligence, and it was unheard of to assume
that one’s cognitive capacity could grow. In his
theory,
MUSICAL INTELLIGENCES
-capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and desires of others
INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
-capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes
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NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE
-ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals
and other objects in nature
EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE
-sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions
about human existence such as, “What is the
meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get
here?”
What's the point?
=Gardner (2013) asserts that regardless of which
subject you teach—“the arts, the sciences, history,
or math”—you should present learning materials in
multiple ways.
Gardner goes on to point out that anything you are
deeply familiar with “you can describe and convey
... in several ways. We teachers discover that
sometimes our own mastery of a topic is tenuous,
when a student asks us to convey the knowledge in
another way and we are stumped.” Thus, conveying
information in multiple ways not only helps
students learn the material, it also helps
educators increase and reinforce our mastery of
the content.
Another point...
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used
for curriculum development, planning instruction,
selection of course activities, and related assessment
strategies. Gardner points out that everyone has
strengths and weaknesses in various intelligences,
which is why educators should decide how best to
present course material given the subject-matter and
individual class of students. Indeed, instruction
designed to help students learn material in
multiple ways can trigger their confidence to
develop areas in which they are not as strong. In the
end, students’ learning is enhanced when instruction
includes a range of meaningful and appropriate
methods, activities, and assessments.
In Conclusion
Gardner himself asserts that educators should not
follow one specific theory or educational innovation
when designing instruction but instead employ
customized goals and values appropriate to
teaching, subject-matter, and student learning
needs. Addressing the multiple intelligences can
help instructors pluralize their instruction and
methods of assessment and enrich student
learning.
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