TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
SPECIAL ISSUES IN TRAINING AND EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
After reading and discussing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the potential legal issues that relate to training.
2. Develop a program for effectively managing diversity.
3. Design a program for preparing for cross-cultural assignments.
4. Make recommendations on steps to take to “melt the glass ceiling.”
5. Discuss what a trainer needs to do to ensure that school-to-work and hard-core unemployed
training programs are effective.
6. Describe the necessary steps in a program for helping dysfunctional managers.
7. Discuss the implications of a skill-based pay plan for training.
I. Introduction: This chapter covers current issues and environmental pressures, such as legal issues,
globalization, and workforce diversity that influence companies and training units. The second
part of the chapter covers issues that result from pressures from the company’s internal
environment.
II. Training Issues Resulting from the External Environment
A. Legal issues
1. Failing to provide training or providing inadequate training. Employers may be required to
provide certain types of training or a certain number of hours of training for employees
in certain industries.
2. Employee injury during a training activity. Many states require that employers be
responsible for paying employees their salary and/or paying them a financial settlement
for injuries received during any employment-related activity, including training.
3. Employees or others injured outside a training session. The company is liable for injuries
or damages resulting from actions of poorly, incorrectly or incompletely trained
employees, even when training is conducted by an external vendor. Training content
and methods should be thoroughly documented.
4. Breach of confidentiality or defamation. Information placed in employees’ files regarding
training performance must be accurate; employees should be informed when their
training performance data will be used for any purpose or discussed with anyone.
5. Reproducing and using copyrighted material in training sessions without permission.
a. Copyrights protect the expression of an idea, but not the ideas the material contains.
They prohibit the creation of a product based on others’ original work and from
copying, broadcasting or publishing the product without permission.
b. The use of videos, manuals, handouts or any copyrighted material in training without
the owner’s permission is illegal.
6. Excluding women, minorities, and older employees from training programs.
a. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964) makes it illegal to make employment
decisions on the bases of race, color, religion, gender or national origin.
b. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) prohibits discrimination against
individuals over the age of 40.
c. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces both the Civil
Rights Act and the ADEA.
d. Still, the US Department of Labor has found that training required for promotion
has not been as accessible to women and minorities.
7. Not ensuring equal treatment of all employees while in training. Opportunities for
practice, feedback, etc., should be equal for all employees; and trainers should avoid
offensive jokes, remarks, etc.
8. Requiring employees to attend programs that might be offensive to them, e.g.,
scientology principles woven into insurance agent training programs which some
trainees found offensive and counter to their religious beliefs.
9. Revealing discriminatory information during a training session. Notes taken during a
diversity training program at a supermarket chain were used as evidence of
discrimination.
10. Not accommodating trainees with disabilities.
a. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits discrimination on the
basis of disability in employment practices, such as hiring, firing, compensation, and
training.
b. The ADA defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially
limits one or more major life activities, a record of having an impairment, or being
regarded as having such an impairment.
c. The ADA requires employers to make reasonable accommodation in facilities to allow
the disabled worker to perform effectively, unless that accommodation would cause
undue hardship on the company. Undue hardship means excessive expense or loss
of production, assessed by looking at percentage of profits.
d. The ADA is intentionally vague in its definitions of disabilities, reasonable
accommodation, and undue hardship to allow for full coverage of all impairments
and situations and for case-by-case interpretation.
11. Incorrectly reporting training as an expense or failing to report training
reimbursement as income. a. Companies can often deduct the cost of training
provided to employees as a business expense.
b. Employees may be able to deduct work related educational expenses as itemized
deductions on their income taxes. To be deductible, the expenses must be for
training only.
B. Cross-Cultural Preparation involves educating employees (known as expatriates) and their
families for work and life in another country.
1. Types of employees in global companies include
a. Parent-country national, referring to an employee whose country of origin is where
the company is headquartered.
b. Host-country national, referring to an employee from the host country.
c. Third-country national, referring to an employee whose country of origin is different
from both the parent company and the host country.
2. Dimensions of cultural differences that influence employee behavior:
a. A culture is the set of assumptions group members share about the world and how it
works and the ideals worth striving for. It influences the effectiveness of various
behaviors and management styles.
b. Cultures have five dimensions:
1.) Individualism-collectivism is the dichotomy or degree to which people act as
individuals or as members of a group. In an individualistic culture like America, we
expect to be hired, evaluated and rewarded on the basis of individual performance.
2.) Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people prefer structured rather
than unstructured situations. A culture with a strong uncertainty orientation
favors structured situations.
3.) Masculinity-femininity is the extent to which a culture values behavior
considered traditionally masculine or feminine. Masculine cultures include the
United States, Japan, and Germany.
4.) Power distance refers to expectations for the unequal distribution of power in a
hierarchy.
5.) Time orientation is the degree to which a culture focuses on the future rather
than the past and present. The American culture has a short-term orientation
and, thus, emphasizes respect for tradition and social obligations. Cultures with
long-term orientations, such as Japan and China, value thrift and persistence
which pay off in the long run.
3. Implications for Expatriates and Their Families: Steps in cross-cultural preparation for
expatriates.
a. To be effective in overseas assignments, expatriates need to be:
1.) Competent in their area of expertise.
2.) Able to communicate effectively both verbally and nonverbally in the host
country.
3.) Flexible, tolerant of ambiguity, emotionally stable, outgoing and agreeable, and
sensitive to cultural differences.
4.) Motivated for success, able to enjoy the challenges of a different culture, and
willing to learn about the host country’s culture, language and customs.
5.) Supported by their families.
b. The three phases of foreign assignments, all of which present training needs, include:
1.) Predeparture phase is the preparatory period before the expatriate leaves the
States. It is critical that expatriates and their families receive training in the host
country’s language and an orientation on the host country’s culture and
customs. Information regarding housing, schools, recreation, shopping, and
healthcare in the host country needs to be provided.
a.) Cross-cultural training methods used range from presentational methods,
such as lecture, to experiential exercises.
b.) The rigor of cross-cultural training needed depends on the degree of
difference between the United States and host country’s cultures (i.e.,
cultural novelty); the amount of interaction with host country citizens and
nationals (i.e., interaction); and the familiarity of the job tasks and work
environment (i.e., job novelty). High levels of novelty call for experiential
training methods.
2.) The on-site phase, when the expatriate and family are in the host country, should
involve continued orientation to the host country through formal training or
mentoring.
3.) The repatriation phase is the time during which the expatriate prepares to
return to the parent company and country.
a.) To prepare to reenter the United States, expatriates and their families should
be brought up to speed on current national issues, politics, and news stories.
b.) Employees may have to adjust to a lower standard of living upon their return
to the U.S.
c. Virtual Expatriates have an assignment to manage an operation abroad
without being permanently located in that country.
4. Implications of Cultural Differences for Training a. Expectations regarding instruction
differ by culture
a. Language differences must be considered in preparing delivery and materials.
b. The needs assessment must include examining the cultural dimensions and the
characteristics of audience, which need to be considered in the development and
delivery of training.
C. Managing Work Force Diversity
1. Diversity can be considered any dimension that differentiates one person from another.
a. The goals of diversity training are to:
1.) Eliminate values, stereotypes, biases, and managerial practices that inhibit
employees’ development.
2.) Allow employees to contribute to company goals regardless of their race, gender,
religion, sexual orientation, family status, or cultural background.
b. Managing diversity means creating an environment that allows all employees to
contribute to company goals and grow professionally.
c. Managing diversity can help companies gain a competitive advantage:
1.) Cost
2.) Employee attraction and retention
3.) Market share
4.) Creativity
5.) Problem solving
6.) Flexibity
d. To be effective work teams, employees must:
1.) Learn from each other how to better accomplish their work.
2.) Be provided with a supportive and cooperative organizational culture.
3.) Be taught leadership and process skills that can facilitate effective team
functioning.
2. Managing diversity through adherence to legislation means adhering to affirmative action
policies and meeting equal employment opportunity legislated requirements.
a. This approach fails to change beliefs and behaviors that inhibit productivity and
development of individuals.
b. The Cycle of disillusionment shown in Figure 10.3, p. 408, illustrates the
disillusionment and frustration among women and minorities in particular resulting
from this approach to diversity. Women and minorities often leave such types of
firms.
3. Managing diversity through diversity training comes from the need to move beyond
simply abiding by laws. Diversity training is designed to change employee attitudes
about others unlike themselves and/or developing the skills and behaviors
necessary to work effectively and appropriately in a diverse workforce.
a. To successfully manage a diverse workforce, companies need to ensure that:
1.) Employees understand how their values, beliefs, and stereotypes affect their
behaviors toward others unlike themselves.
2.) Employees gain an appreciation of cultural differences among themselves.
3.) Behaviors that isolate or intimidate minority group members improve.
b. Attitude awareness and change programs focus on increasing employees’ awareness
of differences in cultural and ethnic backgrounds, physical appearance, and personal
characteristics and how they respond to them.
1.) The underlying assumption is that by raising awareness about biased beliefs and
stereotypes, this type of training leads employees to avoid those stereotypes in
their future interactions.
2.) There are several concerns:
a.) The approach will be misunderstood as reinforcing only certain stereotypes.
b.) Encouraging employees to share their attitudes, feelings, and stereotypes toward
certain groups may leave employees feeling guilty, angry, resentful and less
likely to see similarities among people of different backgrounds, etc.
c. Behavior-based programs focus on changing the company’s policies and
employee behaviors that inhibit others’ growth and productivity. 1.) One
approach is to identify incidents that inhibit performance by asking
employees to describe situations in which they believe they were treated
unfairly.
2.) Another approach is to teach managers and employees basic behavioral rules for the
workplace, including teaching them what is inappropriate to do or say and better
alternatives.
3.) A third approach is cultural immersion, in which employees are sent directly into
communities where they have to interact with persons from different cultures, races,
and/or nationalities.
a.) Employees tend to react more favorably to this type of program.
b. Characteristics of successful diversity efforts:
1.) Increasing evidence suggests that attitude awareness and change-type
programs are not effective; nor are one-shot programs.
2.) A survey of diversity training efforts indicates:
a.) The most commonly addressed issue in diversity training programs is the
pervasiveness of stereotypes, assumptions, and biases.
b.) Less than 1/3 of companies that do diversity training evaluate it or follow up.
Among those that do evaluate, the typical criteria were reduced grievances
and lawsuits, increased diversity in promotions and hiring, increased
awareness of biases, and increased attention given to diversity issues.
c.) Most diversity training programs last a day or less.
d.) Three fourths (75%) of respondents believed that employees leave diversity
training with positive attitudes toward diversity (short-term), but over 50%
said the programs have no long-term effects.
e.) Twenty-nine percent of survey respondents report that no tools are provided
to reinforce diversity training and 22 percent report that no development or
advancement issues are addressed.
3.) Table 10.6 (page 412) summarizes the characteristics associated with diversity
programs’ long term success.
a.) Top management providing resources, showing support and creating a
culture that values diversity.
b.) The diversity program being structured.
c.) Making the valuing workforce diversity as a business objective.
d.) Valuing diversity and capitalizing on it is seen as necessary to be profitable.
e.) The diversity program being evaluated.
f.) Manager being required to be involved.
g.) The program being focused on a long-term culture change, not a one-shot
program.
h.) Managers and particular demographic groups not being blamed for
problems.
i.) Teaching skills and behaviors needed to interact with others effectively.
j.) Managers being rewarded on progress toward diversity goals.
k.) Management collects employee feedback and responds to it.
l.) The company fosters a safe and open culture, in which all employees discover
and appreciate the differences and benefits of diversity.
D. School-to-Work Transition Programs combine classroom instruction and work experiences
to prepare noncollege-bound high school graduates for employment.
1. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act was designed to assist states in developing
school-to-work systems to prepare primary and secondary students for high-skill, high-wage
jobs or further education.
E. Training’s Role in Welfare-to-Work and Other Public-Private Sector Programs
1. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (The Welfare reform act of
1996) increased pressure on welfare recipients to find jobs.
a. Under the law, recipients have a five-year limit on benefits and must find jobs within
two years.
b. Tax incentives are given to companies that hire welfare recipients.
2. There are two primary methods for training welfare recipients: a. Government
agencies can refer welfare recipients to a company-sponsored training program that
is subsidized with money and tax credits from the government.
b. State and local governments can provide work and life skills training to welfare
recipients directly.
3. The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 created a new comprehensive workforce
investment system. a. The Cornerstone of the program is One-Stop service delivery,
which unifies numerous training, education, and employment programs into a
single, customer friendly system in each community.
b. O*NET, the Occupational Information Network, is a database of occupational
information which supports One-Stop service delivery.
III. Training Issues Related to Internal Needs of the Company
A. Basic skills training, has become a necessity for many firms because they cannot find
enough individuals with the appropriate basic skills to hire.
1. Basic skills programs involve the following steps:
a. The necessary skill levels for effective performance must be identified.
b. Employees’ skill must be assessed.
c. Training is developed to address the gap between the skills needed and the skills
possessed by the individuals.
d. Basic skills training should be:
1.) Highly applied and contextual so that their relationship to the job is clear and the
content is meaningful.
2.) Offered at times when employees are able to attend (i.e., accommodating
multiple shifts, where necessary).
3.) Participation needs to be as private as possible, since some find it embarrassing
to reveal that they have basic skill deficiencies.
B. LifeLong Learning Account (LiLA) refers to an account for adult education into which both the
employee and the company contribute to make continuing education a priority. The money
in the LiLA can be used to pay for a range of educational expenses and can be rolled over
from year to year.
C. Melting the glass ceiling, or breaking the barrier for women and minorities to advance into
upper-level positions in the company.
1. The barrier may be the result of stereotypes or company systems that are biased against
women and minorities.
2. The ceiling is likely due to reduced access to training, developmental job experiences,
and/or mentoring. Assignments to training, to job experiences, and to mentoring
relationships should be equal for both genders and all races. a. Men tend to receive
more job assignments with high levels of responsibility than women.
b. Women and minorities often have trouble finding mentors because they don’t have
access to the “old boy network;” mentoring programs can target mentoring women
and minorities to gain the skills and visibility to move into upper management tiers.
D. Joint Union-Management Programs provide a wide range of services to help employees
learn job-related skills and “portable” skills that are valuable across employers.
1. Both employers and unions contribute resources to operate these training programs.
2. For example, the United Auto Workers-Ford Education Development and Training
Program includes:
a. A life/education planning program to look at career interests and needs.
b. An education and training assistance plan, providing tuition reimbursement and
assistance finding appropriate courses at colleges and universities.
c. A skills enhancement program involving basic adult education, English as a second
language, etc.
d. A college and university options program, making degree and non-degree college and
technical training more accessible to employees by providing workshops, on-site
registration, classes at convenient times, and college credit.
e. Targeted education, training, or counseling for particular segments of the workforce.
f. A retirement planning program providing preretirement planning.
g. A financial education program including skills-building in financial planning, investing,
insurance matters, wills and trusts.
E. Succession Planning refers to the process of identifying and developing the future leadership
of the company.
1. Succession planning helps organizations in several different ways:
a. It ensures that top-level managerial talent is available.
b. It provides development experiences that managers must complete for top
management positions, thus avoids the premature promotions.
c. It also helps attract and retain managerial employees by providing them with
development opportunities.
2. High-potential employees are employees that the company believes are capable of being
successful in higher-level managerial positions.
a. They are often placed in fast-track development programs involving education,
mentoring and coaching, and job rotation.
b. The development of high-potential employees involves three stages:
1.) Stage 1: High potential employees are selected—well-educated or highperformers are identified.
2.) Stage 2: High-potential employees engage in development activities. Those who
meet the expectations of the company at this stage advance to the next stage.
3.) Stage 3: The CEO becomes actively involved in the development process, given
that the remaining employees are seen by top management as fitting the culture
and having what it takes to succeed. Reaching stage 3 may take 15 to 20 years.
F. Developing Managers with Dysfunctional Behaviors
1. Certain “dysfunctional” behaviors can cause an otherwise competent manager to be
ineffective:
a. Insensitivity or lack of empathy to others
b. Inability to be a team player
c. Arrogance and autocratic approach
d. Poor conflict-resolution skills
e. Inability to meet business objectives
f. Inability to change.
2. These managers stand to fail or “derail” because of these dysfunctional behaviors.
3. Assessment, training, and counseling can help managers change dysfunctional behaviors.
a. An example is the Individual Coaching for Effectiveness (ICE) program, which includes
diagnosis, coaching, and support activities.
1.) The diagnosis phase involves gathering information about the manager’s skills,
personality, and interests through interviews and psychological tests. It is
determined if the behavior can be changed.
2.) The coaching phase involves presenting the manager with information about the
targeted behavior and having the manager participate in behavior-modeling
training. Psychological counseling may also be involved.
3.) The support phase involves creating conditions conducive to the use of new skills
and behaviors. Feedback is given and an action plan may be developed to
outline how and when the behaviors will be used.
4.) Participation in such programs has been shown to result in skill improvement and
reduced chance of termination.
G. Training and Pay Systems
1. Compensation is the pay and benefits; a company gives to employees for the work they
perform.
2. Compensation systems are used to attract and retain employees and motivate them by
being competitive with other employers for similar jobs.
3. Training is increasingly being tied to compensation by using skill-based or knowledgebased pay structures.
a. Skill-based or knowledge-based systems link employee pay to the knowledge and
skills they possess rather than on what their job requires of them, in order to
motivate them to learn.
b. Cross-training means training employees to learn the skills needed for more than one
job, which is especially useful in a work-team setting.
c. Multi-skilled employees give the company greater flexibility and the ability to adapt to
changes quickly.
d. Tying pay to training means spending more on training and offering more programs;
the training must be accessible to all employees.
e. A key issue is skill “perishability,” meaning that it is the key to monitor skills so that
they are still sharp when it comes time to use them. Refresher courses may be
required to keep skills from becoming obsolete.