454 Terms You Need To Know For The AP Psychology Exam Nature v Nurture – The big kahuna! Gene v Environment Attribution Theory – The tendency of our brain to try to explain someone’s behavior either by their personality or their situation Fundamental Attribution Theory – The tendency to overestimate and person’s personality and underestimate their circumstances when dealing with behavior Foot-in-the-door phenomenon – The tendency to comply with larger requests after complying with a smaller request Zimbardo – Stanford Prison Experiment > People take on the role that they feel is expected in a situation Cognitive Dissonance – The theory that we seek to reduce discomfort (dissonance) when two of our thought/beliefs/value (cognition) differ by rejecting idea, changing behavior, denying evidence, rationalization Asch – Conformity Experiments > The tendency to go along with the views/actions of others, even if you know they are wrong Milgram - Obedience Experiment > People tend to obey authority figures (In his experiment 60% of people were willing to deliver the maximum possible level of electric shock) Social Facilitation – People sometimes do better on a task when others are around Social Loafing – In the presence of other’s people may tend to do less because they think someone else with do it Dindividualization – Losing self-restraint, self-awareness when in a mob situation causing a change in behavior Just-World Phenomenon – The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve Group Polarization – The tendency for a like-minded group to make a more extreme decision after discussions than the individual members would have alone Groupthink – Group decides to ignore unwelcome info to have group harmony (Chernobyl accident, Pearl Harbor Invasion) Emotional Scapegoating – Blaming gives an outlet for anger, someone to blame Passionate Love – Occurs early in a relationship, more lustful Compassionate Love – Occurs when lives have become intertwined, deep, affectionate attachment Social Trap - A situation in which a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole In-Group – A group that an individual identifies as being a member Out-Group – A group that an individual doesn’t identify as being a member Hindsight Bias – The tendency to believe (after learning the outcome) that you could have easily predicted the outcome Prejudice – Unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members Mere Exposure Effect – Developing a preference for things because they are familiar to you Altruism – Unselfish regard for the welfare of others Bystander Effect – The tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid because others are around (Someone else will do it) Reciprocity Norms – The expectation that we pay in kind what someone else has done for us (if someone does something for you, you feel obligated to return the favor) Biological – Biological processes that influence behavior Cognitive – How we perceive, think, and solve problems Humanistic – Humans are basically good and have a free-will Behavioral – Behavior is observable and measurable Psychoanalytic – Study of the unconscious Sociocultural – Study of how society and culture affect behavior Evolutionary – Study of behavior through evolutionary biology Developmental – Study of how humans change over the course their lives Wilhelm Wundt – Father of Psychology, first psychological experiments Introspection – Looking at your own conscious thoughts or feelings Structuralism – Breaking down sensations, images, feeling into their most basic elements (Wundt and Titchener) William James – Functionalism > relationship between internal states and external behaviors (James-Lange Theory) Functionalism - Approach that views mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to environmental challenges and opportunities John Locke – Tabula Rosa > The mind is a blank slate Sigmund Freud – Father of psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic Theory – Focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences Applied Research – Performed to solve practical problems Basic Research – Pure science, goal is to increase scientific knowledge base Hypothesis – Testable prediction that can be accepted or rejected Independent Variable – Factor that is manipulated in the experiment and whose effects are studied Dependent Variable – Factor that changes in response to the independent variable Theory – A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena Law – A phenomenon that always occurs under the same conditions Validity – Measuring what it is intended to measure Reliability – Producing consistent results Sampling – Process by which participants are chosen Population – The number of participants that can be selected for a sample Representative Sample – The results from a smaller group are applied to a larger group of people Random Sample – Randomly selected individuals that are considered a good representation of the larger population Control – The group used as the comparison in an experiment Experimenter Bias – The experimenter (either unconsciously or consciously) affects the outcome of the experiment Single-Blind Experiment – The subject don’t know if they are in the experimental or control group in an experiment Double-Blind Experiment – Neither the experimenter or the subjects know whether they are in the experimental or control group Hawthorne Effect – Participants will act differently if they know they are being studied Placebo – Substance that has no effect, often given as the control in an experiment Positive Correlation – Relationship between two variables where they both move in the same direction Negative Correlation – Relationship between two variables where as one goes up the other goes down Survey - Data collection tool used to gather information about individuals Naturalistic Observation – Observing behavior in wild/natural environment Case Study – An in depth study of a person, small group, or event Mean – Average Median – Middle score (place all scores in numerical order, choose middle score) Mode – Most frequent score Range – Lowest score subtracted from highest score Standard Deviation – The average distance of scores from the mean Z-Score – A type of standard score that tells us how many standard deviation units a given score is above or below the mean for that group Myelin Sheath – Fatty covering around the axon of neurons that speed up the neural impulses Axon – Carry nerve impulses from the cell body of the neuron Neuron – Basic building block of the nervous system Sensory Neuron – Afferent > Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (nose, ears, hands) to the central nervous system Interneurons – Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between sensory and motor neurons Motor Neuron – Efferent > Neurons that carry incoming in-coming information from the central nervous system to the muscles or glands Neurotransmitters – Chemicals released from terminal knobs that travel across the synapse stimulating receptors sites on dendrites of another neuron Agonist – Excite, act-like or increase the effect of a neurotransmitter Antagonist – Inhibits, blocks a neurotransmitter CNS – Central Nervous System > Brain and spinal cord PNS – Peripheral Nervous System > Sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body Somatic Nervous System – SNS > Division of the PNS that controls the skeletal muscles Autonomic Nervous System – ANS > Division of the PNS that controls glands, muscles, internal organs Sympathetic Nervous System – Division of the ANS that arouses the body, fight or flight Parasympathetic Nervous System - Division of the ANS that calms the body Pituitary Gland – Under the control of the hypothalamus, considered the “master gland”, regulates growth and controls endocrine glands Hypothalamus – Controls metabolic functions of body temperature, sex arousal, hunger/thirst, motivation, and endocrine system EEG – Electroencephalogram > measures electrical activity in the brain PET – Visual display of brain activity using radioactive glucose to light up activated areas MRI – Brain scan using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce images fMRI – Visual display of brain activity measuring blood flow to activated areas Medulla – Connected to brainstem, controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing Reticular Formation – Screens incoming information, filters out irrelevant info, responsible for arousal, if severed permanent coma Thalamus – The brain’s switchboard Pons – Part of brainstem, links thalamus and medulla, facial expressions Cerebellum – Little Brain > controls coordination and balance Limbic System – Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Amygdala > associated with emotions (aggression, fear), hunger/thirst, and sexual arousal Amygdala – Emotions > aggression and fear Hippocampus – Memory and learning Temporal Lobe – Above ears, side of brain > hearing, memory and perception Occipital Lobe – Lower back of brain > vision Peripheral Lobe – Top of brain > shapes and textures Frontal Lobe – Behind forehead > complex cognitive thinking Phineas Gage – Rod through frontal lobe, altered personality (less friendly, less honest) Broca’s Area – Damage causes difficulty forming/saying words Wernicke’s Area – Damage causes difficulty understanding language Plasticity – Brain’s ability to modify itself Corpus Callosum – Connects two sides of the brain Split Brain – Corpus callosum cut, two sides can’t communicate Left Hemisphere – Logical, math, sequential tasks, verbal Right Hemisphere – Artistic, emotional, facial recognition, creative Sensory Cortex – Receives info from sensory organs and skin Motor Cortex – Control voluntary movement, opposite sides of body Depolarization – Positive ions enter the neuron creating an action potential Refractory Period – Short period after a neuron has fired before when it recharges before it will fire again Action Potential - Causes a nerve impulse to travel down an axon All-or-Nothing – Depolarization exceeds threshold and nerve signal is sent, or threshold not met and no signal is sent Reuptake – Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed from the synapse after signal is sent Acetylcholine – Ach > neurotransmitter plays role in skeletal muscle contracts, Black Widow venom is similar/agonist Dopamine – Neurotransmitter that plays a role in voluntary movements and pleasure, too little Parkinson’s Disease, too much schizophrenia Endorphins – Neurotransmitter that plays role in pain relief, like morphine Serotonin – Neurotransmitter involved in mood, appetite, too little causes depression and anxiety Norepinephrine – Neurotransmitter involved in excitability and mood Top-down Processing – Thinking influences what we see (understand/perceive) – ex. Water gets on a letter smearing some words but you can still understand its meaning Bottom-up Processing – Environment/stimuli influence our thinking – ex. Blind taste test Just Noticeable Difference – Minimum difference between two stimuli required to detect it 50% of the time – ex. Hold two weights and notice the difference Olfaction – Smell Cocktail Party Phenomenon – Focus attention on selected parts of the environment and block out the rest Retinal Disparity – Binocular clue for depth perception, brain compares images taken in by both eyes and computes distance > allows us to have stereoscopic vision Transduction – Converting a sensory signal into an electrical signal that is interpreted by the brain Vision Retina – rods/cones/neurons process visual information Cornea – Bends light rays, sends light to Lens Lens – Focuses light on retina Iris – Control pupil size based on light Pupil – Adjusted opening in iris Optic Nerve – Carries neural info to brain Blind spot – No rods or cones, optic nerve head Rods – Neurons that detect black/white and peripheral and night vision Cones – Neurons that detect color and fine detail Parallel Processing – Processing several aspects of a problem at the same time Young-Helmholtz Theory – Three types of cones (red, blue and green) and we get all colors by mixing them Opponent Process Theory – Way we perceive color is controlled by three opposing systems: black/white, red/green, yellow/blue Afterimage – Visual illusion where retinal images persist after the removal of a stimulus, caused by the continued firing of the cones when staring at something for a long period of time Visual Cliff - Apparent, but not actual drop from one surface to another, originally created to test babies' depth perception Hearing Pinna – Collects sound waves, outer ear Auditory Canal – Sound waves travel to eardrum, wuter ear Tympanic Membrane – Eardrum, vibrates when soundwaves hit Malleus, Incus, Stapes – Three bones of the middle ear, amplify energy Oval Window – Membrane on the cochlea where vibrations from the bones of the middle ear are transferred to the cochlea in the inner ear Cochlea – Snail shaped, fluid-filed structure in the inner ear that changes sound vibrations into nerve impulses Semicircular Canals – Three tiny tubes that play a role in balance Sensory Deprivation – If one sense is deprived, another sense will become stronger Sensory Adaption – After continued stimulation, we stop detecting the sense (doesn’t happen with vision) Vestibular Sense – Sense of body position, movement, and balance Perceptual Set – A mental predisposition to see one thing rather than another Gestalt – Organized whole, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Proximity – Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group Similarity – Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to group together Continuity – Objects that are connected by other elements are viewed as grouped together Connectedness – Objects that have a continuous form are more likely to be grouped together Closure - Even if there are breaks in an object, we still tend to see it as a whole Constancy – Objects with similar size, shape and brightness are considered a set Metacognition – The ability to think about the way you think > selfevaluation Pavlov – Founder of Classical Conditioning > Dog/Food/Bell Classical Conditioning – Form of learning where organism associates meaningless stimulus with a response UCS – Unconditioned Stimulus > Stimuli that automatically triggers a response (Food) UCR – Unconditioned Response > Unlearned natural response to UCS (Salivating) CS – Conditioned Stimulus > After pairing with UCS, causes a response (Bell) CR – Conditioned Response > Learned response (Salivating) Acquisition – Period of learning when the stimulus causes the response Generalization – Tendency to respond to similar stimuli in the same way Discrimination – Ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli Spontaneous Recovery – Reappearing of the CR to the CS Extinction – Loss of CR to CS John Garcia – Taste aversion and rats (radiated rats, made them sick, associated food with illness, stopped eating that food) Operant Conditioning – Consequences (positive or negative) following a behavior will increase/decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again B. F. Skinner – Father of operant conditioning and Skinner boxes Shaping – Successful reinforcement steps used to get a subject closer to a desired behavior (Skinner used this with the rats and pigeons) Positive Reinforcement – Add Good > Reinforcing behavior with reward Negative Reinforcement – Take Away Bad > Reinforcing behavior by eliminating adverse thing Positive Punishment – Add Bad > Reinforcing behavior by added a negative consequence Negative Punishment – Take Away Good > Reinforcing behavior by taking away a favorable stimulus Primary Reinforcers – Occur naturally and don’t need to be learned > survival needs (food, sex, water) Secondary Reinforcers – A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforce (dog treat for behavior) Reinforcement Schedules Continuous – Behavior reinforced every time it occurs Fixed Ratio – Behavior reinforced after a set number of times > Buy 3 get 1 free Variable Ratio – Behavior reinforced after a random number of time > Slot machine Fixed Interval – Behavior reinforced after a set rate of time > pay check every two weeks Variable Interval – Behavior reinforced after a random amount of time > Fishing Social Learning – learning through watching Bandura – BOBO doll experience about aggression > child see adult being aggressive, child behaves aggressively Flashbulb Memory – A clear memory of an emotionally significant event > JFK assignation, 911 Encoding – Changing info in storable content Storage – Placing info into brain to be used later Retrieval – Getting info out of storage Ebbinghaus – The more time we spend learning info the longer we remember it > memorize nonsense syllables Serial Position Effect – Tendency to recall the 1st and the last items on a list Primary Effect – Tendency to recall the 1st terms on the list Recency Effect – Tendency to recall the last terms on the list Mnemonic Devices – Creative memory techniques Chunking – Recoding information into meaningful groups > ROY G BIV Sensory Memory – Immediate, brief recording of sensory info Iconic – Visual info/memory Echoic – Auditory info/memory Short Term Memory – Temporary memory storage of a limited number of items > 7 Long Term Memory – Almost limitless amount of storage Implicit Memory – Procedural memory > How to ride a bike Explicit Memory – Memory of facts > Info you have worked to remember HM – Henry Moliason > Removed hippocampus to control seizure, no longer could store long term memories, much knowledge of implicit and explicit memory was learning from studying HM Anterograde Amnesia – Inability to make new memories, can remember old one > HM Retrograde Amnesia – Inability to recall memories before an accident/incident Source Amnesia – Inability to remember when, where, how you gained a memory Infantile Amnesia – Inability to remember before the age of three due to an immature hippocampus Recall – Retrieval of already learned information > fill in the blank, discussion test questions Recognition – Identifying already learned information > multiple choice test Proactive Interference – Old information interfering with new information Retroactive Interference – New information interfering with old information Repression – Pushing memory to the back of the mind > Cannot retrieve info Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Physiological Need (food, water) > Safety Needs (shelter, security) > Belonging Needs (friends, family, group), Esteem Needs (achievement) > Self Actualization (achieve full potential) Sexual Response Cycle – Masters and Johnson > Excitement > Plateau > Orgasm > Resolution Refractory Period – The resting period after an orgasm in which one cannot be achieved again > Increases with age Homeostasis – Maintaining balance Stress – Responding to situations/events that we consider threatening General Adaption Syndrome – GAS > Response to stress > Alarm (fight or flight) > Resistance > Exhaustion (vulnerable to exhaustion and disease) Intrinsic Motivation – Desire to perform behavior for own sake Extrinsic Motivation – Desire to perform behavior for reward Bulimia – Eating and purging Anorexia – Starving Obesity – BMI over 30 Drive Reduction Theory – Physiological need (drive) motivates individual to satisfy the need James-Lange Theory- Emotion is due to awareness of arousal > Event/Stimuli >> Phyical/Body Response >> Emotion Felt Cannon-Bard Theory – Event/Stimuli >> Physical/Body Response and Emotion at same time Schachter Two Factor Theory – Event/Stimuli >> Physical/Body Response and cognitive label (thinking) >> Emotion Consciousness – Awareness of ourselves and environment Non-consciousness Level – Body processes controlled by brain (heartbeat, respiration) Subconscious – Part of the mind of which one is not fully aware but which influences one's actions and feelings Unconscious – Unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories in which we are ashamed and repress Sleep Cycle Stage 1 – Alpha waves, wakefulness to sleep Stage 2 – Light sleep, small burst of brain activity - sleep spindles Stage 3 – Some delta waves, hard to wake up, sleep walking/bed wetting Stage 4 – Delta waves, deep sleep, gets shorter during night Stage 5 – REM (rapid eye movement), paradoxical sleep active brain/paralyzed skeletal muscles Night Terror – High arousal dream that terrifies a child, occurs in stage four sleep Insomnia – Reoccurring difficulty either falling asleep or staying asleep Narcolepsy – Person randomly collapses into REM sleep Sleep Apnea – Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep Manifest Content – Story line of a dream Latent Content – Underlying meaning of the dream Hypnosis - therapeutic technique in which clinicians make suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure designed to relax them and focus their minds Agonist – Excite, causes neurotransmitter to hit site multiple times Antagonist – Inhibits, blocking neurotransmitters Psychoactive Drugs – Chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood Drugs Meth – Stimulant, dopamine Cocaine – Stimulant, dopamine Tobacco – Stimulant, dopamine Caffeine – Stimulant, dopamine Alcohol – Depressant, GABA, glutamate Opium/Heroin – Depressant/Pain Relief, dopamine Barbiturates – Depressant, dopamine LSD – Hallucinogen, serotonin Marijuana – Hallucinogen, dopamine Ecstasy – Hallucinogen, serotonin Tolerance – Diminishing effects with regular use of the same dose of the drug Withdrawal – Discomfort and distress that follows discontinuation of an addictive substance Stimulants – Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions Depressants – Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow down body functions Hallucinogens – Drugs that distort perceptions creating sensory images in the absence of sensory input Temperament – A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, genetic Heritability – Variation among individuals based on genes Culture – Enduring behaviors, ideas, values, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group Norm – Understood rule for accepted and expected behavior Individualism – Giving priority to one’s goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes Collectivism – Giving priority to the goals of the group, group identification Intelligence - Ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems, and to adapt to new situations Spearman – Proposed G factor (general intelligence across many abilities) Gardner – Proposed there were 8 areas of intelligence (logical/mathematic, linguistic, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), and naturalistic) Sternberg – Three types of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical) Binet – Created the first IQ test > mental age/chronological age x 100 Achievement Test – Designed to determine what an individual has learned Aptitude Test – Designed to predict one’s ability to learn/perform Standardized Test – Use to compare test takers to others, given multiple times to representative group to compare scores for accuracy Reliable – A test that produces consistent results > Two ways to test – Test/Retest (giving test more than once to same group) or Split-half – split test in half and give to same group Content Validity – Test on actual material covered Predictive Validity – Accurately predicts ability to perform task or grade received Normal or Bell Curve - Represents normal distribution, top of the curve is the mean and the bell shape comes from the standard deviation from the mean Convergent Thinking – Only one answer is 100% correct (multiple choice, spelling, fill-in-blank, standardized test) no creative thought > right or wrong Divergent Thinking – Multiple answers could be correct, creatively solving a problem (How many ways can you use a spoon?) Crystallized Intelligence – One’s accumulated knowledge, increases with age Fluid Intelligence – One’s ability to reason speedily and thank abstractly, decreases with age Rooting Reflex – Baby turns head looking for nipple when check touched Moro Reflex – When startled, baby flings limbs out Babinski Reflex – Spread toes when foot is stroked Sucking Reflex – Object placed in baby’s mouth, baby will suck Grasping Reflex – Object placed in baby’s hand, baby will grasp Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – FAS > physical and cognitive abnormalities caused by drinking during pregnancy Harry Harlow – Monkey experiment using wired/bottle mother and cloth mother > learned about attachment Secure Attachment – Confidently explore new environment while parent present, cry when they leave, and calm down/come to them when they return > Parents attend to child’s needs Avoidant Attachment – Pay little to no attention to parent in new environment, don’t seek them out when parent leaves and returns > Parents don’t attend to child’s needs, child shuts down emotions and becomes self-reliant Anxious Attachment – Show stress when parents leave, may not go to them when they return > Parents are unpredictable dealing with child’s needs, creates a child that doesn’t trust/rely on them (clingy/angry/no trust) Authoritarian – Strict standards and harsh punishment for rule violations Permissive – No set standards, free-range parenting, little/no punishment Authoritative – Set standards, explain rules/expectations when broken, encourage, not overly strict on punishment Erik Erikson – 8 Stages of Ego Development: Trust v Mistrust – (birth – 1 year) > Needs met, infant trusts Autonomy v Shame – (1 to 3 years) > Learn to do for self, or doubt abilities Initiative v Guilt – (3 to 5 years) > Start task/carry out plans, or feel guilty about lack of independence Industry v Inferiority – (6 to puberty) > Joy in applying oneself, or feel inferior Identity v Role Confusion – (teen to 20’s) > Discover self by testing roles, or confusion about self Intimacy v Isolation – (20’s to 40’s) > Form close relationships, or feel isolated Generativity v Stagnation – (40’s – 60’s) > Contribute to family/society, or feel lack of purpose Integrity v Despair – (late 60’s to death) > Reflect on life, may feel sense of failure Jean Piaget – Stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor – (birth to 2 years) > Explore world though senses, object permanence, stranger anxiety Preoperational – (2 to 6 years) > Egocentric, introduction of language, animism (belief non-living things have feelings), think about things symbolically (using symbols to represent things), don’t think logically Concrete Operational – (7 to 11 years) > Understand concept of conservation, logical thinking, less egocentric Formal Operational – (12 and over) > Abstract thinking, deal in hypotheticals, critical thinking Kohlberg – Theory of Moral Development: Preconventional – Obey rules to avoid punishment, get reward Conventional – Follow rules because they exist Postconventional – Can think ethically, rules generally exist the greatest number, may work against individuals sometimes The Heinz Dilemma – Kohlberg asked about Heinz stealing medicine to save wife (testing his theory) Freud Psychosexual Stages Oral - (birth to 1 year) > Pleasure through mouth Anal - (1 to 3 years) > Toilet training, pleasure controlling body Phallic - (3 to 6 years) > Realize gender, genitals, love mother/hate hate father (Oedipus Complex) Latent - (6 years to puberty) > No sexual urges Genital – (puberty to adulthood) > Sex, pleasure in genitals Electra Complex – Same as Oedipus but girls hate mother and love father Fixation – If a problem occurs during one of Freud’s psychosexual stages if may come up again later in life > Smoking is an oral fixation due to an issue during the oral stage Representative Heuristics – Mental shortcut used to determine whether a person or an event should be put into a certain category by judging how similar the person or event is to the prototypical person or event of that category. Ex. Short, slim man reading poetry must be a college professor and not an interstate truck driver Available Heuristics – Mental shortcut used to determine the likelihood of an advent happening based on the last time in occurred in memory. Ex. After a recent house fire a person may think a house fire is more likely to destroy a house than a tornado (even in tornado alley). Functional Fixedness – Inability to see the different uses of an object > paper clip’s only use is to clip paper, not as a hook Noam Chomsky – Best time to learn a language is during childhood Babbling Stage – Stage of speech development where a baby utters sounds but not words One-Word Stage – Stage of speech development where a baby speaks in single words, around age 1 Two-Word Stage – Beginning at age 2, child speaks in two word statements Telegraphic Stage – Stage of speech using two word sentences, usually a noun and verb Personality – Individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Type A Personality – Hard-driving, aggressive, anger-prone people (more likely to have a heart attack) Type B Personality – Easygoing and relaxed people Free Association – Saying anything that comes to mind (uncensored talk) which is supposed to provide clues to the unconscious mind Id – Pleasure principle, unconscious part of the personality that seeks to satisfy basic need and desires (Devil) > Freud Ego – Conscious part of the personality that must mediate between the Id and Superego > Freud Superego – Part of personality that acts as the moral compass, tries to make the ego behave morally and not rationally > Freud Defense Mechanisms – Ego’s ways of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Repression – Pushing bad thoughts to back of mind Denial – Refusing to accept reality Displacement – Taking anger out of someone else Projection – Placing your feelings on to someone else Reaction Formation – Showing the opposite of the feeling you are having Regression – Going back to an earlier stage of development Rationalization – Giving false reasons why you did what you did Sublimation – Putting bad urges into socially acceptable behavior (boxing/football for aggressive tendencies) Penis Envy – A woman’s want for a man’s power (not necessarily their penis) Womb Envy – A man’s desire to reproduce (introduced by Horney) Humanism – All humans are basically good and have free will Rogers – Psychologist that believes people are genuine, accepting and empathic Self-Concept – All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in response to “Who am I?” Real Self – Who you really are in terms of your personality Ideal Self – Who you want to be, your perfect version Unconditional Positive Regard – An attitude of total acceptance towards another person Trait Theory – The study and measurement of traits Trait – A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel or act The Big Five Personality Factors CANOE Conscientiousness – Organized, careful, disciplined Agreeableness – Trusting, helpful, soft-hearted Neuroticism – Emotional stability > calm, secure, self-satisfied Openness – Imaginative, likes variety, independent Extraversion – Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate Projective Tests – Personality tests where ambiguous images are used to provoke projections of one’s inner thoughts Rorshach Inkblot – Projective test using 10 inkblots Thematic Apperception Test – Projective test using pictures MMPI – Most widely used personality test Internal Locus of Control – Idea that one can control their own fate External Locus of Control – Idea that one’s fate is controlled by outside forces, they have no control Carl Jung – Founded analytical psychology, belief that we are controlled by not only the unconscious but also experiences of our ancestors Collective Unconscious – A shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history Neo-Freudian – Followers of Freud that broke away due to his emphasis on childhood memories and sexually aggressive urges Self-efficacy – How capable we think we are in controlling events, determined by previous events, comparison with others’ abilities, listening to what others say about our capabilities, and feedback from our bodies Learned Helplessness – Unable to avoid repeated adverse events, will give up and avoid trying to escape Inferiority Complex – The avoiding of feelings of inadequacy and insignificance Spotlight Effect – Tendency to overestimate others’ noticing and evaluating our appearances, performance, and blunders Self-serving Bias – A readiness to perceive oneself favorably DSM-V – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by American Psychiatric Association for diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder > By age 7, more males than female, treated with stimulant drugs Anxiety Disorders – Distressing persistent anxiety, often low levels of serotonin Obsessive-compulsive disorder – Anxiety disorder with unwanted repetitive thoughts followed by actions/compulsion in an attempt to relieve the thoughts PTSD – Post-traumatic stress disorder > haunting memories, nightmare, withdrawal, jumpiness after a traumatic experience Somatoform Disorders – Physical body symptoms without an apparent physical cause Conversion Disorder – Somatoform disorder where anxiety is transferred into physiological symptoms Hypochondriasis – Somatoform disorder where normal physical sensation are interpreted as a disease DID – Dissociative Identity Disorder > Person exhibits two or more distinct, alternating personalities Depression – Mood disorder > More common in women, feeling worthless, decreased interest, depressed mood Bipolar Disorder – Individual alternates between mania and lethargic states of depression Schizophrenia – Causes a split from reality (delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate emotions, disorganized thoughts), Dopamine levels are too high causing the following types of symptoms: Positive symptoms – hallucinations, deluded talk, inappropriate rage, laughter, or crying, disorganized Negative symptoms – flat affect (no emotion), rocking, catatonic, rigid body, tone-less speech, expressionless face Treatment is with antipsychotic drugs. Hallucination – Sensory experiences without sensory stimulation (sight, sound, taste, smell or touch Agoraphobia – Irrational fear of going places Personality Disorders – Having rigid and unhealthy patterns of thinking, functioning and behaving with trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people Histrionic – Excessive attention seeking behavior, need for approval, egocentric, inappropriate seduction Borderline – Mood swings, impulsive, unstable relationships, poor self-image, feel abandoned, impulsive Narcissistic – Vane, severe egocentricity, exaggerate importance, selfish, desire power/success/beauty, do not react well to criticism, trouble with relationships Antisocial – Lack of conscience, callous, prone to violence, liars, do not feel guilt/remorse, seen more in males > psychopath Psychotherapy – Treatment for psychological disorders and growth personally through interactions with a therapist > one-on-one or group Biomedical Therapy – Treatment for psychological disorders with medication or medical procedures (electroshock/surgeries) Humanistic Therapy – Treatment focusing on awareness, acceptance, and growth as an individual (Carl Rogers) Behavior Therapy – Treatment focusing on changing behaviors Exposure/Desensitization – Exposure that things that provoke fear Counterconditioning – Replace unwanted behaviors with desirable Behaviors Aversive – Associate unpleasant outcome with unwanted behavior Operant Conditioning – Token economy as a reward/reinforcer Cognitive Therapy – Thoughts affect our emotions : negative thinking causing depressed/anxious states > Cognitive-Behavioral therapy combines changing negative thoughts/thinking and negative behaviors Psychopharmacology – Drug effects on the mind and behaviors Antipsychotic – Schizophrenia Antianxiety – Depress central nervous system (Xanax) Antidepressant – Depression and anxiety disorders (SSRI > selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or SNRI > selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors Mood Stabilizer – Bipolar disorder (lithium) Electro-convulsive Therapy – Electric current sent through brain to treat severe depression Psychosurgery – Removes or destroys brain tissue to treat a psychological disorder/seizures Biopsychosocial Model - Looks at the interconnection between biology, psychology, and socio-environmental factors Reciprocal Determinism – Bandura’s belief that a person’s behavior is influenced by and influenced by their past experiences/thinking (determinism) and the environment. Modeling – A form of learning where a behavior is observed and then repeated/modeled Mirror Neurons – Mirror neurons were discovered first in monkeys > Mirror neurons fire when an animal is observing and performing a behavior at the same time > Monkey See Monkey Do > Monkey eating a banana while watching another monkey eating a banana Deindividuation – An individual in a group loses a sense of “self” sometimes behaving in an impulsive, deviant, or even violent fashion Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal – Stress is productive up to a point (arousal helps us focus, remain alert) but as stress increases performance decreases. Flooding – Instead of exposing a person to their phobia gradually, a person is exposed to the most frightening situation immediately Overjustification – Being rewarded for a behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation (being paid to read a book, makes you less interested in the content of the book) Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory – Seeks to explain human intelligence using three criteria: Conventional (analytic) Intelligence, Practical Intelligence, and Creative Intelligence Barnum Effect - The tendency to accept certain information as true, such as character assessments or horoscopes, even when the information is so vague as to be worthless. Dorothea Dix – Improved the treatment of patients with mental disorders in asylums Multiple Sclerosis – An autoimmune disease where the immune cells attack the myelin sheath Chaining – A form of operant conditioning that breaks a task down into small steps and then teaches each step within the sequence by itself. Backward Chaining - The final response is taught first. The chain is thus taught backward, one response at a time. Forward Chaining - The chain is taught by reinforcing the first step in the sequence, then the second, and so on until the entire sequence is learned. Shaping - the process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to a desired final behavior. Ex. A child learns to pull up, to stand, and to walk. Correlation – Strong +1 to .08 or -1 to - .08, Moderate + .08 to + .05 or -.08 to - .05, Weak + .05 to + .03 or - .05 to - .03, No correlation 0 Habituation - A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure Rods & Cones > Bipolar Cells > Ganglion Cells > Optic Nerve Instrumental Aggression – Aggression to achieve a goal Stroop Effect – The delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli. Ex. Saying the color of a color word, not just the word Excitation Transfer – Excitement from one stimulus can amplify the excitatory response of another stimulus Gambler’s Fallacy – A belief that a streak decreases the probability that it will happen again soon after Door-In-The-Face – Making an extreme request (that would normally be rejected) in hopes that a subsequent more reasonable request would be excepted. Rational-emotive behavior therapy – Identify negative, irrational beliefs in therapy that may lead to emotional issues Ventromedial Hypothalamus – Ends hunger, makes you feel full Lateral Hypothalamus – Makes you hungry Muller-Lyer Illusion – False impression of length using three forms of arrows Approach-approach Conflict - The situation where a person is trying to make a choice between two desirable options. Motion parallax - Is a type of depth perception cue in which objects that are closer appear to move faster than objects that are further.
