NOT FOR SALE
NOT FOR SALE
ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY BAUCHI
DIRECTORATE OF GENERAL STUDIES
SECOND SEMESTER 2020/2021 ACADEMIC SESSION
GNS 121: USE OF ENGLISH II LECTURE MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
GNS 121: Use of English II is a 2 credit unit core course for all ATBU fresh (both UTME and DE)
students. The course exposes students to the skills of academic writing relevant to science and
technology related disciplines involving assignments, term paper, laboratory experiment and
workshop reports. Use of English II, therefore, seeks to address students’ subject specific area
needs so as to be able to effectively present coherent technical reports in the process of their
academic endeavors. The course consists of two components: research paper writing and
functional writing.
COURSE OUTLINE
I.
II.
Research Paper Writing
a). Definition, Purposes and Scope of Research
b). Basic Types and Parts of a Research Paper
c). Technical Terms associated with Research
d). Referencing
Functional Writing
a). Description
b). Definition
c). Exemplification
d). Classification
e). Comparison and Contrast
f). Cause and Effect
g). Generalization and Qualification
h). Interpretation of Data
i). Drawing Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
Formal writing can be categorized into academic writing, business writing and official writing.
This course is basically devoted to academic writing as it concerns students’ ability to produce
readable documents for a variety of purposes. Academic writing is generally objective, factual
and verifiable. This form of writing involves students’ written assignments, term papers, and
projects; hence the inclusion of research report, and general technicalities of functional writing
relevant to science and technology.
PART I: RESEARCH PAPER WRITING
I.I Definition and Scope of Research
The Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of Current English defines research as… “an investigation
undertaken in order to discover new facts, get additional information, etc.” The term can be
defined as a careful, diligent and rigorous study to find out new facts on a particular issue. It is a
systematic inquiry to find a solution to a problem, discover new knowledge, confirm or dispute
findings in previous research.
In essence, research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and create new knowledge. It is a scientific process consisting of systematic
observation, classification and interpretation of data. Because it is scientific, a research is usually
systematic based on observations and experiments rather than mere speculation, guessing or
opinion.
In general, we as scholars, rely on research findings to solve problems in the entire society. So,
problem solving is the main reason behind every scientific investigation. Therefore, at the outset,
the problem must be established, observable and empirically testable and then clearly defined.
For academic purposes, research can simply be described as a means of: 1. doing old things in a
new and easier way; 2. doing new things in new and faster ways; 3. understanding our
environment better; and, solving the problems around us.
The problem is usually an interrogative sentence that asks for a clear relationship existing
between at least two or more variables (independent and dependent). A variable is a condition
that obtains (and which may vary) at a given time. Thereafter, the researcher begins to suggest
various causes and solutions by way of intelligent guessing commonly known as ‘hypothesis’,
which is a tentative proposition suggested as a solution (answer) to a problem (question) or as
an explanation of some phenomenon. A hypothesis can be formulated in any of the three forms:
declarative form, non-directional (null) form and question form. Hypotheses are particularly
necessary where the cause and effect relationships are investigated.
1.2
Basic Types and Parts of a Research Paper
1.2.1 Types of research
There are numerous types of research each reflecting the purpose for which it is undertaken and
the approach. For instance, from the viewpoint of application, there are two broad categories of
research: 1. Pure research and 2. Applied research. In the context of objectives, research can be
classified as 1. descriptive, 2. correlative, and 3. explanatory or exploratory. Research could also
be classified on the basis of the process or approach adopted to find answers to research
questions. These are 1. structured or quantitative and 2. unstructured or qualitative. There is
also a combination of the two, described as 3. ‘mixed’ approach. Fundamentally, however, the
two major types of research are 1. survey (observing what is there as it is; that is, what is already
obtainable) and 2. experimental (attempting doing a new thing in the light of what is already
obtaining with a view to arriving at a solution). These two differ on the basis of the method of
data collection and the research design.
Source of data could be primary (questionnaire, observation and interview) or secondary (test,
books, journals, newspapers, encyclopedia, magazines, etc.). An interview could be structured or
unstructured. Whatever the type of research in an interview, the researcher ensures that the
language used reflects the educational level, age, religion and social position of the interviewee.
When gathering data for research, it is always essential to clearly define the goal/problem;
analyze them to be able to raise questions based on the main/central issue; put down notes;
compare and contrast various views/opinion of others on the similar issue or previous findings
relevant to the present study and drawing conclusion from available evidences.
1.2.2 Parts of a research paper
1.2.2.1 Article based paper
Even though the structure of a professional journal and that of a research project are supposed to
be similar, they are not actually the same. This is because of the several restrictions of a journal
space. Therefore, a great deal of detail is excluded in a journal article. This makes a journal paper
much shorter than a research project. An article based paper is usually not more than 15 pages
long. Its basic parts are abstract, introduction, material and methods, result, discussion, conclusion
and recommendations (if any) and references.
Abstract
Unlike a ‘preface’ for a book, which informs the reader what is available in the text section by
section, an ‘abstract’ of a research paper is a brief concise summary (not more than 120 words) of
the entire document presented in a less technical manner. It is written in a single line space and
briefly captures the background, main purpose, methods adopted, results, conclusion and
recommendation (if any). Abstract is written after the work has been completed but brought to the
beginning of the paper.
Introduction
This answers why the study is of scientific interest and explains the background of the study. This
is summarized succinctly, but not itemized. The section also discusses the results and conclusions
of previously published studies related to the present one. Thus, the majority of statements here
are referenced. It is written in third person using active voice. It is organized to move from general
to specific information. The section is limited to studies that relate directly to the present study.
Thus, because journal articles do not require extensive literature review, the few available ones are
captured under this section.
The last parts of this section involve statement of problem and research questions as well as
hypotheses (if any). This provides a good transition to the next section, known as material and
methods, in which the researcher explains how they proceed to meet the research objectives and
answer research questions or test the hypotheses.
Materials and Method
This involves the materials used in the study and the steps taken in the experiment/study. It is
however, not a list of instruments. The section includes the population size, sampling techniques
and sample size and a brief description of statistical test used. The section is written in past tense
as it describes what was actually done to generate data.
Results
This section presents the results/findings of the experiment but does not attempt to interpret their
meanings. It does not include the raw data collected. Instead, the researcher only summarizes the
data with text, tables and/or figures. Here, the text of the paper is used to state the results then
reference is made to a table or figure where the data are summarized. You always proceed from
general to specific features of the data. The text should relate to your data in those of the literature.
However, the same data should not be presented in both a table and a figure. In this section, you
always concentrate on general patterns, trends and differences in the results.
You are required to state the result as concisely as possible. Accompany the word “significantly”
by the statistical probability level (e.g. p = 0.05). Although, using a figure is acceptable, it is best
to present the data in a table unless there is visual information that can be gained by using a figure.
Discussion
This is the section where you interpret the data in relation to the original objectives or hypotheses.
Then, you relate your interpretations to the present state of knowledge and future needs for
research. In this section, it is acceptable to explain what the results mean or why they differ from
what others have found. Hence, you interpret results in the light of other published results by
putting additional information from sources you cited in the introduction section as well as
introducing new sources by providing accurate citations. You should also relate your discussion
back to the objectives and questions you raised in the introduction section. However, you do not
have to simply restate the objectives. In this section, you equally suggest future directions for
research, new methods and explanation for deviation from previously published results. It is, of
course, essential that you cite sources in the discussion section as evidence of your claims. The
cited sources including those in the introduction section must be accounted for under the
‘References’ section, which is the last section except where you have other information of
secondary importance such as row data that you place in the ‘Appendix’.
1.2.2.2 Parts of a project based paper
A project has three major parts. They are preliminary pages or preliminaries, main report and end
matter. Preliminary pages consist of cover page, title page, declaration page, approval page, table
of contents, list of table, list of figures, abstract, dedication, and acknowledgements.
Main report slightly differs from one institution to the other. This section is usually broken into
chapters. Chapter One is known as ‘Introduction’, Chapter Two ‘Review of (related) Literature’,
Chapter Three is ‘Research Methodology’, Chapter Four is ‘Result Analysis and Interpretation of
Data’ and Chapter Five is ‘Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations’. The last part, known as
end matter involves references and all information of secondary importance commonly known as
appendices.
Preliminaries
Cover page
A page that appears at the beginning of a research work consisting of about 20 words in length as
the title followed other information such the name of author, name of the institution and the year.
Title page
This page is immediately next to cover page and contains everything on the cover page; and. in
addition, states the purpose for which the project is submitted. The title clearly defines the
relationship between the variables and indicates the population for the study.
Declaration page
The page where the researcher declares that the work is an independent study
Approval/Certification page
This shows the signature of the relevant persons as having approved the research report.
Table of contents
This contains and sequentially lists all the headings and sub headings with their corresponding
page locations. The page numbers are usually identified and written after the work has been
completed.
List of tables
It lists all tables in the work with their corresponding page locations (the full title of each table is
usually mentioned and serially numbered on the top left hand side of the table).
List of figures
It lists all figures in the work with their corresponding page locations (Unlike list of table, the
number and title of every figure is indicated on its bottom).
List of Appendices
It lists all appendices in the work with their corresponding page locations
Operational definition of terms
The page where significant terms are defined in the context of the study.
Abbreviations
This is where all abbreviations and acronyms related to the study are written with their full
meanings
Dedication
This page mentions the being, person or phenomenon the study is dedicated to. This written the
fewest words, usually not more than one or two lines.
Acknowledgements
This is devoted to mentioning those who helped in the successful completion of the work.
Abstract
An abstract for a research project is much longer than that of a journal paper. For project, it can be
as long as 250 words. Usually written in a single line space and after the full report has been
completed. It summarizes the background, purpose, methodology, results, conclusion,
implications and recommendations
Main Report
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Background is where the problem of the study is introduced and fully explained. Quoting
authoritative sources here is essentially needed to support that the present study is required.
Statement of Problem
This indicates why there is a gap that the present investigation is set out to fill.
Aim and objectives
The aim of the study (which is always one) and the specific objectives emanating from the
variables for the study.
Research questions
These are the specific objectives converted to interrogative expressions and need to be answered
to arrive at the research findings.
Research hypotheses
A hypothesis provides an educated guess regarding the nature of the expected relationship between
the variables.
Significance of the study
This is where the researcher points out the contributions the study would make to existing
knowledge and to the wider society.
Scope and delimitation
This indicates the width and breadth the study problem is able to manage.
Limitations
This bring to focus restricted aspect of the problem the study can address and also providing
convincing reasons for the restrictions.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Under this subsection of the chapter, the researcher points out the purpose of the review and also
those areas based on the research objectives that will be reviewed.
The Review
Literature that is relevant to the present study is reviewed so as to provide a basis to the problem
which is also linked to the data collection instrument for the intended study. In the review, all
authors cited are finally accounted for under the list of ‘references’ at the beginning of the end
matter.
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
This effectively describes the design for the study and at the same time, clearly points out what
informs the choice of the design.
Population for the study
In this subsection, the researcher explains the total number of persons, events, constructs, etc. about
which the study is concerned.
Sampling technique and sample size
Because the whole population is so large, a sample is taken. So, not only does this section mentions
the subsection of the entire population involved in the study, but it also describes it.
Method of data collection
Also known as instrumentation, this section describes the instrument for the research which
include observation, interview, questionnaire or test. The section further explains how the
instrument is constructed and also justifies its validity and degree of reliability (often by way of
pilot study).
Data analytical procedure
This is the section that briefly discusses the statistical design with which the data collated is
computed.
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
This involves the data presentation by means of answering research questions and testing research
hypotheses (if any). The data is summarily presented in tables or graphs under which brief
interpretations follow.
Discussion
Comments on the presented results and comparing them with previous findings by other scholars.
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This is where the researcher reports all findings sequentially in relation to the research questions
raised in chapter one.
Limitations
The section that identifies those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or
influenced the interpretation of the findings of the research.
Implications
It suggests how the findings are important to policy, theory and subsequent research. This is where
it is indicated whether or not the findings of the research are in consonance with theory.
Conclusion
In the light of what the study found out, a conclusion is provided here.
Recommendations
These are suggestions proffered to all those concerned based on the findings of the research. In
this section, the researcher could also recommend for carrying out further research to fill any
uncompleted gap.
End Matter
This is the third and last part of a research project. It immediately follows the main report. It mainly
consists of references and appendices.
References
It is the list of all authors cited in the work written in alphabetical order according surnames.
References are not exactly the same as ‘bibliography’, which involves both those cited and those
not cited but relevant to the study.
Appendices
These are information of secondary importance that cannot be accommodated in the main report.
1.2.2.3 Long Essay
Because a long essay such as a ‘Term Paper’ is not a rigorous research activity, the format is simple
and straightforward. It is presented like a normal course assignment. Except where a term paper is
so extensively detailed, it does not require the luxury of having subheadings. In most cases, it only
requires the title, students’ name, course code, course title and lecturer’s name. These are followed
by a short introduction as a sub heading, then the main work and conclusion.
The terms ‘project’, ‘thesis’ and ‘dissertation’ are in some cases used interchangeably. However,
some academic institutions consider a ‘project’ for a bachelor’s degree, a ‘thesis’ for a degree of
master and ‘dissertation’ for a doctorate degree.
While a ‘term paper’ is meant to satisfy a particular course requirement in a given semester, a
‘research project’ a terminal work as a requirement in a partial fulfilment for the award of a
certificate before graduation. A term paper is a prelude to a project writing; and, therefore, much
shorter than the latter.
1.3 Some Technical Terms associated with Research
ACS American Chemical Society
APA The American Psychological Association
ASA American Sociological Association
CBE Council of Biology Editors (now known as Council of Science Editors [CSE])
Classic Style of Entry The outmoded system of referencing. Although not in use presently, classic
entry which is of Latin origin is available in books written about 40 years ago. Examples are 1.
Ibid/Ib/Ibidem (same place) and Op cit/Loc cit (same place, different place, same place)
CMS Chicago Manual Style
CSE Council of Science Editors (formerly known as Council of Biology Editors [CBE]).
Direct quotation Words of another person copied verbatim. If long, the quote is indented but if is
less than three lines, the quote is put in quotation marks without being indented.
Endnote Further remark on an issue but coming at the end of the chapter or section
Footnotes It is so called because it is written at the bottom of the relevant page. It comprises
additional notes/remark on a particular issue already indicated with an asterisk.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Interpolation Comments or clarification added in brackets to quotations.
In-text citation The form of referencing within the text. It is the act of reporting what somebody
says by writing their surname(s) with year of publication in brackets or followed by comma if
surname is already in brackets.
MLA Modern Languages Association
OWL Online Writing Lab
Paraphrase Also known as indirect citation, paraphrase is re-expression of the original work for
a better understanding and to avoid too many quotations/re-wording of a piece of writing to make
it easier to understand.
Periodical Literature A category of serial publication appearing on a regular schedule (weekly,
monthly or quarterly). Examples are magazines, bulletins, gazettes and newsletters.
Plagiarism Also known as ‘academic theft’, plagiarism is the offence/act of taking someone else’s
ideas as if it is one’s own.
Triple Entry Name, year, Page number
1.4 Referencing
For our purpose in this course, referencing is completely devoted to the American Psychological
Association (APA) format.
1.4.1 In-text referencing/citation
Based on the APA citation manual, the following guidelines are necessary when making citations
within the main report.
1. Use the author’s surname, date format throughout.
2. Use ‘and’ to join the surnames of multiple authors.
3. Use ampersand (&) in parenthetic materials, in tables and in the final reference list.
4. For a work authored by a corporate body, write the entire name in full at the beginning
in brackets and the initials enclosed in a square bracket.
5. Then use only the initials subsequently.
6. When the author is anonymous, indicate so (Anonymous, year).
7. Where multiple authors have same surnames, use their initials before the surname.
8. When author is not mentioned, in the original source, cite using the first three words from
the title.
9. With more than two authors, mention all initially; and subsequently, mention only the
first followed by ‘et al’.
10. Different works by same author within the same year are distinguished by a, b, c, d.
11. Two or more works by the same author(s) are arranged in the order of year of publication.
12. Two or more works by different authors cited in the same parentheses are listed
alphabetically using semi colons to separate the studies.
13. When a work in secondary source is discussed, simply mention the original work and cite
the secondary source.
14. With a direct quote, whether or not indented, indicate the page number of the relevant
source in brackets immediately after the quotation.
15. As much as possible use paraphrase in the in-text citation to minimize too many direct
quotations everywhere in your main report.
1.4.2 Reference List
1.4.1.1 Non electronic based source
Every citation in the text must be accounted for in the ‘References’ section at the end of the
work. Since what you have is References and not Bibliography, you cannot afford to add any
suggested readings other than those cited in the work. For reference list, the following guides
are essential.
1. For a single-authored book, write the author’s surname, comma, initial(s) with dot(s), year
in brackets, dot, book title in italics comma or dot, place of publication colon then
publisher’s name and dot.
Examples
Hedge, T. (1991). Writing. New York: Oxford.
Hensen, J. (1987). When Writers Read. U.S.A: Heinenmann Educational Books Inc.
U.S.A: Heinenmann Educational Books Inc.
2. For a two authored book, same as in a single authored work but separate the first and the
second author with comma and an ampersand.
Examples
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A (2004). English for Specific Purposes (19th edition). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Locker, K. O., & Skienzler, D. S. (2008). Administrative and Business Communication (7th Edition), New
York: McGraw Hills Publishers.
3. For more than two authors, same as in a two-authored book but still remember to put an
ampersand after a comma before the last contributor’s surname.
4. For a multivolume work, indicate the volume number in brackets in Arabic numerals
immediately after the title.
Examples
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A (2004). English for Specific Purposes (19th edition). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Locker, K. O., & Skienzler, D. S. (2008). Administrative and Business Communication (7th Edition), New
York: McGraw Hills Publishers.
5. Put an ampersand (&) not ‘and’ between the second to the last and the last author’s
names.
6. For a journal article, write the author’s surname followed by comma and initials, year in
brackets, title of article in italics comma volume number and pages covered eg 6 (2), 265
– 273
Examples
7. For a chapter contribution or an edited work, write the relevant author’s surname,
comma, initials, year in brackets, title of relevant chapter/section in quotation marks,
comma the word ‘in’ colon, editor’s name Ed in brackets, title of the book, comma, pages
covered in brackets, place of publication, publisher’s name.
8. For conference proceedings, write the author’s surname, comma, initials, year in
brackets, title, in title of proceedings, occasion, place and date, pages covered.
9. For a newspaper, article writer’s name (if available, if not, the first three words from the
title), paper name, year in brackets, title, comma, day and month, page location.
10. For government documents (as in newspaper followed by volume number).
11. If it is a government policy document, put the title of the policy in the position of the
author’s name.
12. For a standalone document that does not indicate any year of publication, simply write
’nd’ in the place of the year.
13. Where a document does not carry the name of the author(s), begin with title.
14. If a journal is accepted for publication but still in press, write ‘In press’ in the position for
year but do not indicate year, volume number or page number until the document is
published.
15. If manuscript is submitted for publication but not yet accepted, write the author, year in
brackets, title and put ‘manuscript submitted for publication’ but do write the journal or
the publisher’s name.
16. If the unpublished manuscript is a student’s project, after author’s name, year in brackets
and title, put ‘unpublished project and the institution’s name.
17. Author’s titles such as Mr, Mrs, Dr, Professor, Deacon are completely omitted.
1.4.1.2 Electronic based Material
18. Write the source (website) of any internet based material (eg. Available at
http://www...).
19. If you feel that the content of an internet based document has changed, indicate the date
of retrieval along with the source of the document; eg. Retrieved on June 24, 2021 from:
http://www...
20. If a document is retrieved from an organization such as an institutional website, the host
organization and relevant programme should be identified before citing the web address;
eg. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University portal
Website: http://www…
EXERCISES
I: Read the abstract of a research paper below and answer the questions that follow it.
(1)Epidemiological data on Bovine Brucellosis are scanty in this area. It is an infection usually
caused by viobars of Brucella abortus, especially where cattle are kept in close association with
sheep and goats. (2)The present study was intended to determine the prevalence of the disease
so as to supplement the existing data. (3) A total of 150 blood and milk samples were collected
from cattle in various farms. The samples collected were carefully packaged and incubated at 37
degrees Centigrade in 5 – 10 % for 6 weeks. (4)Out of the 150 blood and milk samples processed,
3 bulls and 1 cow were found positive for Brucella infection from blood culture. (5) In the light of
the result, it can be inferred that, the low prevalence of the disease is largely attributable to the
level of awareness of the Fulani and Hausa herdsmen. (6) It is, therefore, strongly observed that
cattle herdsmen should always ensure regular vaccination of cattle and prompt treatment of the
infected ones.
QUESTIONS
1. A number is boldly assigned to each of the sub-sections of the abstract (numbered 1 to 6).
Identify and write down in your answer booklet what each number represents from the
following:
a. synopsis, b. resume, c. conclusion, d. preface, e. materials and method, f. dependent
variable, g. purpose, h. background, i. recommendation, j. discussion, k. result, l.
appendix
2. From the abstract, identify and write down any 4 past passive tenses that express
particular/specific procedural description.
Re-organise the following list of references according to the recent edition of APA Citation
Manual.
1. In 1981 Almudeef Printing Press Bauchi published a book titled “Oral Poetry edited by
Ibrahim Yaro Yahaya with Muhammad Sule, Nasiru Salihu and Godwin Emmanuel’s
chapter contribution titled “ The Hausa Poet” Covering Pages 139 to 156.
2. The book of Fatima Sani-Rabiu retrieved on October 19, 2019 from
http://eprints.mg/11872/71/ with the title Global warming today: Causes, effects and
solutions.
3. Towards the end of August 2013, the article of Professor Moses Adebayo Aremu and Mr
John Peter’s article appeared in the Ife Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, Volume
1, Number 2. The title of the article is Nigerianisms in the English language usage by
selected Pentecostal preachers in southwestern Nigeria. The article begins from page 85
and ends on page 103.
4. A book titled ‘my life’ contains the life of Sir Ahmadu Bello in 1962. It was first published
in London by Cambridge University Press.
III: Match each of the terms associated with research (numbered in Roman numerals) with the
suitable definition (in letter lists) that most appropriately reflects it.
i.
Sampling ii. Methodology iii. Discussion iv. Bibliography v. Recommendation vi.
Variable vii. Appendices viii. Preliminaries ix. Acknowledgement x. Title page
DEFINITIONS
(a). Information of secondary importance and provided as an end matter; (b). Mentioning of all
those who helped, in anyway, in the successful completion of the study; (c). A comment on the
result and also highlights some previous findings of other scholars relevant to the present study;
(d). The procedure adopted in the in the study involving design for data gathering and analysis;
(e).The name given to the first page of a thesis; (f).A process in which a portion of the entire
population is carefully selected as a representation of the whole; (g). A condition that obtains
at a given time and which may vary as time goes on; (h). Information provided before the main
report of a project and usually the page numbers of which are numbered in roman numerals;
(i). A detailed list of works cited as well as those not cited but are relevant to the topic; (j).
Providing suggestion(s) to improve existing conditions
PART II: FUNCTIONAL WRITING
1.2.1 Description
Description of places, scenes, objects and processes are not so straightforward. To describe, the
writer has to be logical, organized and sequential. The writer is required to begin from general to
specific; from whole to part; from large to small; from outside to inside; top to bottom and from
left to right. Apart from describing a personality, physical feature or a location, which ordinarily
requires the use of present simple tense (is/are), there are also general (procedural) and specific
or particular descriptions.
1.2.1.1 General Description
Both general and particular descriptions, which are our main concern, are objective and highly
impersonal. They are, therefore, written in the passive voice. General description is the
description of a process or procedure. So, the present passive tense (is/are + verb stem +ed/en)
is used. Below is an example.
HOW A PAPER IS MADE
1. The trees are felled or cut down.
2. The branches and leaves are removed.
3. The trees are transported to the sawmill.
4. The bark is stripped from the trunks.
5. The trunks are sawn into logs.
6. They are conveyed to the paper mill.
7. They are placed in the shredder.
8. They are cut into small chips.
9. They are mixed with water and acid.
10. They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp.
11. This wood pulp is cleaned.
12. It is also chemically bleached to whiten it.
13. It is passed through rollers to flatten it.
14. Sheets of wet paper are produced.
15. The water is removed from the sheets.
16. These sheets are pressed, dried and refined until the finished is
produced.
Now, underline all the verbs written in present passive tense. The fact that the text is a general
description suggests that the procedure takes place everywhere and at any time.
In order to link the sentences, sequence markers, also known as sequencers (first, initially, to
begin with, next, at the same time, subsequently, then, finally, lastly, etc), usually placed at, or
near, the beginning of a sentence could also be used. However, when describing a process, to
produce a sentence for each step; such that every sentence mentions one step; and also having
almost the same shape is often boring. So, it is sometime more logical and much clearer to put
several steps in a single sentence. This is because a good writer does not always need sequencers
to communicate effectively. It is generally assumed that, realistically speaking the natural order
of the process and the reader’s knowledge of the world would provide the required insight that
facilitates a smooth understanding. Take a look at the example below.
One of the earliest attempts at solar heating was the Dover House,
Maria Tilkes and Eleanor Raymond, and built in 1949.
In this house, energy from the sun is absorbed by a large area of
blackened metal sheets covered by double plates of glass. Before
the heat can be blown around the house it must first be stored in
large tanks containing Glauber’s salt, a given volume of which can
hold eight and a half times more heat than water.
designed by Dr
Equally, to avoid unnecessary repetition of certain subjects, relative pronouns and relative
clauses are used. For example, sentences 1 and 2 can be merged into one as in number 3.
1. The bark is stripped from the trunks.
2. The trunks are sawn into logs.
3. the bark is stripped from the trunks which are sawn into logs.
1.2.1.2. Particular/Specific Description
Very good examples of a specific description are obvious in laboratory or workshop reports in
which cases the writer explains what happened during a particular event at a particular time.
Therefore, the past passive tense (was/were + verb +en/ed) is often used. Passive voice is chosen
to depersonalize the information. However, when the writer wants to avoid distance between
the actor and the action, active voice could be used. Read the following examples.
1. The liquid was heated in a test tube and reagent was added (PASSIVE).
2. The results were tabulated, and then the following conclusion were reached (PASSIVE).
3. The switch K was then closed and an accurate balance print (was) found (PASSIVE).
4. The four reactors we tested in the work reported here all contained a platinum catalyst
(ACTIVE)
Now, change the following sentences below to suit standard format for laboratory report writing.
1. Weight a dry stoppered 50ml flask and introduce 2.5g of acid.
2. Tighten the thread on a clamp
3. Use a metre rule to measure various lengths of 100cm, 80cm, 40cm and 20cm respectively.
Answer
1. A dry stoppered 50ml flask was weighted and 2.5kg of acid was introduced.
2. The thread was tightened on a clamp
3. Various lengths of 100cm, 80cm, 40cm and 20cm were measured with a metre rule.
It is also possible to shorten certain passive constructions. See example below.
1. the data were collected and they were analysed.
2. The data were collected and analysed.
1.2.2 Definition
Definition is the process of explaining meaning of a concept or a phenomenon. There are three
kinds of definition. These are 1. Real/formal definition, 2. Name/nominal/naming definition and
3. Expanded definition
1.2.2.1Real/Formal definition
This kind of definition begins with concept being defined, followed by verb, then the general class
to which the concept belongs, and finally a relative (wh-) clause.
(concept + verb [is/are] + general class+ wh- clause).
1. Biology is the science which deals with the physical life of animals and plants.
2. A parasite is an organism which lives for all or part of its life on or in
another
organism.
1.2.2.2 Nominal/name definition
The general feature/characteristic/class followed by a relative (wh-) clause then verb and finally
the concept defined. (general class + wh- clause + verb[is/are] + concept)
1. The science which deals with the physical life of animal and plants is called Biology.
2. An organism which lives for all or part of its life on or in another organism is known as a
parasite.
1.2.2.3 Expanded definition
This kind of definition is called because it combines a definition with an added explanation such
as example.
1. The science which deals with the physical life of animal and plants is called Biology the
branches of which are Botany, Ecology and Zoology.
2. A parasite is an organism which lives for all or part of its life on or in another organism
from which it derives some benefits such as food, shelter and protection.
3. Courtship is an innate pattern of behaviours- such as dancing, preening, or bringing
nesting materials- which certain vertebrates carry out before mating.
NB: 1. Always avoid omitting an important element when writing definition; and, 2. Avoid
giving an example only in place of definition.
1.3 Exemplification
When examples are provided in the process of defining something as in expanded definition,
the act is known as exemplification. A sentence might use example to complete its meaning.
This is often associated with sentences which make very wide generalisations. Examples are
usually the detailed ellaborations (the examples) emanating from the topic sentence. Apart
from giving definitions, examples are also possible in other instances such as statements
referring to quality, feature or habit. These include efforts to support an assertion. For
example,
1. Limestone regions in many regions of the world contains caves (examples are required).
2. There are three reasons why I want to be educated List required).
Common markers/ connectives for exemplification are ‘for example’, ‘for instance’, ‘as shown
by’, ‘particularly’, ‘such as’, ‘a case in point’, ‘an example’ and ‘illustration’. Exemplification can
also take place without the use of connectives. Eg,
The colour of stalactites is determined by the nature of the surrounding rocks. where the
surrounding rocks contain copper, the stalactites are green. The presence of iron makes the
stalactites pale yellow. In limestone areas which do not contain copper or iron, the stalactites are
yellow or brown.
1.4 Classification/Division
Classification refers to the division of items into classes, categories, groups or families on the
basis of a certain identifiable criterion or several criteria (habit, colour, origin, shape, size, etc).
Classification essays group objects/people/phenomena/animals according to the characteristics
they share- usually a group to sub groups. The process requires the following:
i.
Establish a subject- select a topic with a general grouping to be classified into groups;
ii.
Provide specific details that form a basis of classification;
iii.
Use transitional words to help reader follow the causal analysis; and,
iv.
Draw conclusion concerning the groups and subgroups.
To classify items effectively well, the distinguishing features have to be clearly determined. For
instance, animals could be categorized according to vertebrates and invertebrates, each of which
is further divided into sub groups. The commonest way of classification is through a diagram
which is interpreted in a text. The first stage is always having a topic sentence with a title relating
to the essay or by way of providing a thesis statement indicating the main group that will be
classified into subgroups.
Basic words used in classification are: categories, categorise, classes, classify, division, divide,
items, itemize, arrangement, arrange, distinction, distinguish, difference, differ, fall into, order,
kinds, types, members, consists of…, comprises, divided into, further subdivided, and classified
according to/on the basis of…
1.5 Comparison and Contrast
Comparison is involved when talking or writing about two persons, objects, or ideas in order to
establish similarities and differences between/among them in terms of certain characteristics.
Comparison involves more than one thing except in the effort to compare an aspect of that thing
with another aspect of the same thing. Eg. Colour of the flower bud and the leaves of the same
plant.
1.5.1 Comparison: The eye and the camera
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The camera and the eye are similar in many aspects.
They both need light rays in order to function.
Both have a sensitive surface on which the image is formed.
In the eye, the image is formed on the retina.
In the camera the image, the image is formed on the film.
As in the camera, the image on the retina is inverted.
Both the eye and the camera have a lens which focuses the image on the sensitive
surface.
8. In the camera, the lens moves backwards and forwards.
9. In the eye, the curvature of the lens is charged.
10. In this respect, the eye differs from the camera.
Now, identify from the 10 sentences above, those which show similarity and those that indicate
difference.
1.5.2 Contrast
As an aspect of comparison, contrast describes any observable trait (behaviour, characteristics,
colour, etc in living and non-living things. While comparison reveals both similarities and
differences, contrast points out an emphasis on the differences only. Contrast is, therefore, an
aspect of comparison. See an example below.
Plants and Animals
There are several characteristics that distinguish plants from animals.
Green plants are able to manufacture their own food. They use substances
in the environment. This process is known as photosynthesis. In contrast,
all animals, including man, get their own food either directly from plants or
indirectly by eating animals which have eaten plants. Animals, therefore, take
in a wider range of food than plants.
Words denoting similarities and differences
Similarity: similarly, in like manner, just as…so, similar to, the same as, in the same way,
resembles, (be) like/alike/equally, as much as, as…as
Contrast: in contrast, unlike…, not like, on the contrary, on the other hand, but, different from,
dissimilar, differ(s) from, while, whereas, not similar to, more/less than.
Qualifying degree adverbs for comparison: approximately, considerably, practically, entirely,
totally, exactly, almost, nearly, slightly, a little, more or less, a great deal, somewhat, somehow.
NB: there are situations when a contrast is indicated without any signaling word. For example:
1. The lion, unlike the goat, eats meat (‘unlike’ indicates difference).
2. A triangle has three sides; a rectangle has four (difference is implied/in-built).
1.6 Cause and Effect
Cause-effect relationship refers to the idea of linking the reason /purpose/cause of events or
actions with their result/effect/consequence. For any expression that shows cause and effect,
there is a connective/linking expression as in the example below.
CAUSE
Heat
Prices rose.
Any marks on the leaves are
probably
CONNECTIVE
Causes
As a result,
due to
EFFECT
iron to expand
fewer goods were sold
the same virus
Now, link each of the expressions numbered 1 to 6 with the one from those numbered (a) to (i)
that appropriately fits. Connective in each case is in italics.
1. There is acid in that bottle. Therefore…
2. The effect of the fluctuation in temperature
3. Bad labour relations caused…
4. The accident occurred because of…
5. He passed his examinations because…
6. Delayed treatment often results in….
(a). the road was icy.
(b). he was unsuccessful.
(c). prolonged illness.
(d). it must be handled very carefully.
(e). careful storage.
(f). the icy road conditions.
(g). the strike.
(h). he worked hard.
(i). was to kill the laboratory specimens.
Most often, the type and the position of the connective usually determines whether the cause or
the effect occupies the initial position. For instance,
1. An increase in demand often causes/results in/ leads to/culminates in /produces higher
prices.
2. Higher prices result from/emanate from an increase in demand.
3. The prices are higher because of/ as a result of/ on account of/owing to/through/largely
due to/ because there is/since there is/as there is an increase in demand.
4. The prices are higher because the demand has increased.
5. When/If there is an increase in demand, (then) prices rise.
6. Because/As/Since/Now that the demand has increased, the prices are higher.
1.7 Generalisation and Qualification
This is where general comments are made about information and at the same time,
opinion/interpretation/analysis is given after describing the information initially. To make
general comments about certain information often requires that it is qualified with some amount
of precision. The qualification entails that the writer is giving interpretation or opinion purely
based on the available information. The following are some the commonly used expressions for
qualification.
QUANTITY: all, every, each, most, majority (of), many, much, a lot (of), enough, some, several, a
number (of), a minority (of), a few, few, a little, little, no, none, no any
FREQUENCY: always, usually, normally, generally, regularly, often, frequently, sometimes,
occasionally, rarely, scarce(ly), seldom, hardly, never
PROBABILITY: certainly, definitely, undoubtedly, probable, probably, likely, perhaps, possible,
possibly, maybe, unlikely
Below is frame for a typical description of a factual information
Based on a survey of/ A recent survey of…analysed…Out of …, … were/were found to be…This
implies/suggests/shows/reveals that all/almost/most/majority/several/a larger proportion
of…However/Interestingly… The …tend(s) to/There is a general tendency that… generally/most
frequently/always/rarely
1.8 Interpretation of Data
Our age is characterized by information explosion. Therefore, the problem associated with data
can be summarized briefly as those involving the source, collection, processing, storage and
retrieval. Information of whatever form, shape or mode for scientific or academic use is described
as data. In academic writing, data interpretation is the written comment or discussion on
significant information from tables, diagrams, charts, etc. even where such diagrammatic
information is clear. It usually begins with an introduction of general comment which is followed
by a descriptive comment on the most significant information. The introductory section mentions
the type of diagram (eg. table or figure) with the number assigned to it and its important features
(content). The commentary section adequately describes or discusses everything within the
content in any of the following examples.
As can be seen from/in …
According to Table I/Figure I…
As is shown in…
As indicated…
Larger of… was/suggests/implies…In fact, … accounted for as much as/ greater than/less than/as
high as/as low as/lower than...
While/Whereas/On the contrary/On the other hand…
/Similarly/Most importantly/As much as/Only…
… very minimal/slight/gradual/sharp/rapid/sudden/marked/ increase/decrease…
1.9 Drawing Conclusions
Soon after every data interpretation, conclusions are drawn. This is usually in the light of findings
that emerged from the data interpreted. The conclusions inform the reader what is
inferred/suggested from the data. Conclusions state clearly what is obtainable or what can/may
be predicted.
From every information in a text, table or figure, you make an analysis, make comments on
significant items and discuss them. Thereafter, you draw some conclusion(s). Summary, is in this
context, largely different from conclusion(s).
EXERCISES
I: Read the following description of a procedure used to carry out a study on ‘an economic
analysis of natural gas policy alternatives’ and answer the questions that follow.
A mathematical model was developed for the evaluation of alternative natural gas policies. The
model is based upon a simplified energy demand function which relates the quantity of energy
consumed to price. The relationship was not estimated by a statistical procedure. Rather,
parameters were specified which, on the basis of previous studies, were thought to approximate
market behavior.
Energy consumption was defined to include natural gas, oil and electricity used in the residential,
commercial, and individual sectors. Fuels used for transportation and oil used for industrial
feedstock were excluded because natural gas is not generally used for these purposes. It is used
to produce anhydrous ammonia, but this was also excluded.
The supply and price of natural gas and the prices of potential natural gas substitutes were
specified for each policy option. The model was then used to calculate the price of energy, the
quantity of energy, and the quantities of natural gas substitutes that would be consumed. From
this information, policy alternatives were evaluated by comparing the consumer expenditure
associated with each policy.
QUESTIONS
1. Identify and write down in your answer booklet:
(a) 8 passive voice verb forms that show particular/specific description
(b) 2 passive voice verb forms showing general description
II: Change the following from nominal to formal definitions.
1. A writing instrument which contains a lead and can be erased by a rubber is called a pencil.
2. A person who studies living organisms is called a biologist.
3. A book which has softcovers and is relatively cheap is known as a paperback.
4. The type of vision which allows distances to be judged and shapes perceived in depth is
known as a binocular vision.
5. A substance which has the property of being transparent is glass.
III: The following are statements about animals (numbered 1 to 5) and plants (marked by
letters a to e). Match the statements that express contrast.
ANIMALS
1. Animal cells are enclosed in a membrane. 2. Animals obtain food from plants and other
animals.
3. Animals can move. 4. Animals are sensitive to their environment.
5 All parts of an animal grow.
PLANTS
a. Plants manufacture their own food. b. Plants do not have the power of locomotion.
c. Plants only grow in their extremities.
d. Plants do not appear to be sensitive to their
environment.
e. Plant cells are enclosed in a non-living wall.
III: The following are statements about human (numbered 1 to 5) and insect communities
(marked by letters a to e). Match the statements which express similarities.
HUMAN SOCIETIES
1. Cities are complex. 2. Countries maintain armies. 3. Individuals work together.
4. Human houses are functional. 5. There is division of labour.
INSECT SOCIETIES
a. Groups have specialized functions. b. Individuals coordinate their efforts.
c. There are soldiers to defend the colonies.
d. Insects’ nests are not simple. e. Nests are built to perform specific functions
IV. Each of the sentences below shows a cause and effect relationship. Copy the sentences and
indicate each of the two clauses in every sentence as expressing either a cause or an effect.
1. He was demoted because his performance was too low.
2. Drug addicts can become very moody and sometimes violent. As a consequence,
families sometimes break off.
3. Since men take on the main responsibility of keeping the family, they develop stressrelated illness and die younger.
4. Many able-bodied men are killed in violence prone communities. As a result, widows
and orphans are left without a breadwinner.
V. Complete each of these sentences, making use of any one of the following: such as, as…as,
while, nevertheless, a case in point, an example, although, however, because.
1. at the approach of danger, many birds utter warning calls. This is… of animals.
2. …the imported juices are expensive, the locally produced ones are cheap.
4. there are a number of languages … Italian and Romania which descended from Latin.
5. The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited, the Great is…
6. alkaline and base were mixed in the basin, a remarkable reaction was observed.
7. … he is a novice, his written English performance was impressive.
Suggested Readings
Altherton, B. (2000). ‘Developing accuracy in academic writing’. In A. J. Gillet, & L. Wray (Eds), Assessing
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Barras, R. (1978). Scientists must write – A guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students.
New York: Willey and Sons Inc.
Brown, F. A. (2003). English for tertiary education: An integrated approach. Jos: Mazlink.
Crème, P, & Lea, M. R. (2003). Writing at university – a guide for students 2nd edition. London: Oxford
University Press
Grant – Robertson, R. (1982). Approaches to encourage young Arabs to monitor and improve their writing
skills. In Jordan, R.R. (Ed) Case services in ELT. (pp46-55) London: Collins
Hamp – Lyons, L. & Courter, K. B. (1984). Research matters. London: New Bury House Publication.
Harding, K. (2007). English for specific purposes. London: Oxford University Press.
Hedge, T. (1991). Writing. New York: Oxford.
Horsella, M. & Sindermann, G. (1992). Aspects of scientific discourse: conditional argumentation,
English for Specific Purposes: An International Journal, 11(3), 129 – 140.
Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A (2004). English for specific purposes (19th edition), Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Jean-Luc, L. (2008). Scientific writing 2.0: A reader and writer’s guide. London: World Scientific.
Jordan, R. R. (1980). Academic writing course : Collins study skills in English. London: Collins.
Kaewpet, C. (2009). Communication needs of Thai civil engineering students. English for Specific
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Okezi, U. (1984). “Towards functional performance based use of English programmes in Nigeria”, In
Freeman, R. and Jibril, M. (Eds) English language studies in Nigerian higher education papers of
the Nigerian English Studies in Association with the British Council. Pp62-73. Conference held at
BUK, Nigeria.
Olaofe, I. A. (2010). Research writing for academic growth: a handbook for writing seminar and
conference papers, theses, dissertations and journal articles.Zaria, Nigeria: ABU Press Limited.
Paltridge, B. (2001). ‘Linguistic research in EAP pedagogy’, in J. Flowerdew and M. Peacock (Eds)
Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes. Retrieved: November 16, 2009 from
www.faculty.edfac.usyd.edu.au/staff/paltridb.
Sambo, A. A. (2005). Research Methods in Education. Ibadan: Stirling – Horden Publishing Company
Udoeyo, F. F. & Wudiri, A. J. (1996). Future engineers and the science of English language. Bauchi Liberal
Studies Series, 1 (1), 76White, R. & Arndt, V. (1991). Process writing. London: Longman.