27/2/2017
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P01 Physical Growth & Development
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem.
In schools, PE classes are
conducted with students within
the same age group.
Even though the students were
born in the same calendar year,
there is a wide variation in the
growth and development among
the students.
Explain this observation.
Photo: Lianhe Zaobao
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
1
27/2/2017
The Approach
• What are the stages of growth in lifespan
development?
• What are the factors contributing variations in
prenatal and postnatal growth and development?
• What are the factors which could cause abnormal
development and their implications on future growth?
• What is the role of infant reflexes in the development
of voluntary movement?
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Stages in Lifespan Development
Stage
Age Range
Prenatal
Conception to Birth
Infancy
Early Childhood
Late Childhood
Adolescence
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Young Old
Birth to 18 months
18 months to 6 years
6 years to 13 years
13 years to 20 years
20 years to 30 years
30 years to 60 years
60 years to 70 years
Middle Old
Frail Old
70 years to 80 years
80+ years
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2
27/2/2017
Prenatal Development
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
From Haywood & Getchel (2009)
Prenatal Development
• Gestation
• Normal – 37 to 42 weeks
• Pre-term - < 37 weeks
• Post-term – 42+ weeks
• Weight
•
•
•
•
Normal – 3-4kg
Low Birth Weight - >2.5kg
Very Low Birth Weight – >1.5kg
Extremely Low Birth Weight - >1kg
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27/2/2017
Abnormal Prenatal Development
• Genetic
• Inherited, either dominant or recessive disorders
• Mutations e.g. Down Syndrome
• Extrinsic
•
•
•
•
•
•
Teratogens
External or internal pressure on the infant
Extreme internal environmental temperature
Exposure to X-rays or gamma rays
Hypoxia
Environmental pollutants
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Abnormal Prenatal Development
Premature Births (> 37 weeks)
Low Birth Weight (>2500g)
 History of miscarriage after
1st trimester
Sex/gender
 Weak cervix
Ethnic/Race
 Maternal hormone levels
Maternal - Ht, pre-pregnancy wt,
birth wt, caloric intake, cigarette
smoking, alcohol consumption,
parity
 Maternal infection of upper
genital tract
Paternal Ht & Wt
 Stress
Prior LBW infant
• Poor nutrition
Gestational wt gain
• Hypoxia
General morbidity
• Fetal stress
Malaria / Diseases
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27/2/2017
Possible Outcomes of Premature Births
Premature Births
 More likely to achieve normal
height & weight
 Delayed mental development
 Mental retardation
 Behavioral problems
 Learning problems
 Delayed psychomotor
development
 Cerebral palsy (possibility)
Small for Gestational
Age (SGA)
Remain shorter & lighter
than full term age peers
Learning problems
Behavioral problems
Below average verbal
ability & academic
achievement
Various impairments
Ophthalmic abnormalities
Speech delay
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Reflexes vs Spontaneous Movements
• Reflexes
• involuntary, stereotypical movement response to
specific stimuli
• Spontaneous Movements
• movement that occurs without any apparent
stimulation
• Differences between spontaneous movements and
reflexes
1. Reflexes are responses to specific external stimuli,
spontaneous are not
2. Reflexes are specific & localized. Spontaneous are nonspecific & generalized
3. Same stimulus elicit specific reflex over and over again
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27/2/2017
3 Categories of Reflexes
1. Primitive Reflexes
2. Postural Reflexes
3. Locomotor Reflexes
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Purpose and Function of Reflexes
1. Structural
2. Functional
3. Applied
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6
27/2/2017
Role of Reflexes in the Development of
Voluntary Movement
• Motor Interference Theory (McGraw, 1943)
• Systematic stimulation of a locomotor reflex could
enhance an infant’s acquisition of voluntary
movement (Zelazo & Colleagues, 1972, 1983)
• Individual constraints, rather than simply
maturation, play a strong role as rate limiters on
movement patterns during infancy (Thelen &
colleagues, 1997)
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Variations in Growth and Development
From Haywood & Getchell (2009)
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7
27/2/2017
Variations in Growth and Development
From Haywood & Getchell (2009)
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Factors Contributing to Variations in
Physical Growth and Development
Nervous system
Skeletal system
Physical growth and
weight
a) Poor nutrition
- stunt the growth of
brain
a) Adequate blood supply to
bone
a) Medical
b) Injury
- for e.g., left side of
brain affects
language
b) Injury disrupts blood
supply
b) Environmental
factors
c) Stimulation
- more experiences,
more neural &
pathways created
c) Amount of exercise
affects density and
thickness of bones
c) Genes
- dependent on
parents height and
build
d) Diet
d) Diet
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
8
27/2/2017
What have you learnt?
• There are several stages in lifespan development.
• At each stage, there are several factors which could
negatively affect the rate of growth and development.
• Individuals grow and develop at different rates.
• There is a wide range of growth and development
within a population.
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Copyright © 2015 Republic Polytechnic
9
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P02 Development and Ageing of
Body Systems
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
Explain the changes in the runners as the
age group increases.
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
• What are the theories of aging?
• How do the various body systems develop across the
lifespan?
• What are the changes in motor functions as a result
of the changes in the body systems?
• Is it possible to slow down, stop, or reverse the aging
process?
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Selected Theories of Ageing
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Development of Body Systems
Skeletal System
Early Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
Starts out as a “cartilage model” of bones.
Bone is deposited at ossification centers.
Two types of ossification centers – primary
& secondary.
Primary – mid-portion of long bones e.g.
humerus & femur
Secondary aka epiphyseal plates – end of
bone shaft
Ossication rates different rates for different
bones.
Ossification rates also differ among
individuals and genders.
Older Adulthood
•
•
•
•
Skeletal structure changes very little during
young adulthood but is constantly
remodeled.
In adulthood, bone formation slows down
and eventually cannot keep pace with
reabsorption.
Bone loss with aging occurs in both men
and women and is related to changes in
certain hormone levels, dietary
deficiencies, and decreased exercise.
Many older adults (especially women)
suffer from osteoporosis, which is
characterized by a significantly below
average bone mineral density.
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Development of Body Systems
From Haywood &
Getchel (2009)
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Development of Body Systems
Muscular System
Early Development
Older Adulthood
•
•
•
Muscles develop through hyperplasia and
hypertrophy in the early stages of life.
Sex differences in muscle mass are
minimal during childhood, but males will
start to develop significantly more muscle
mass during adolescence.
Muscles start to differentiate into the
different muscle fiber types from 1 year
onwards.
•
•
•
•
•
Minimal muscle mass loss from 20 – 50
years.
Rate of muscle mass loss increases from
50 years onwards.
Loss of muscle mass usually
accompanies loss of bone mass, which
can lead to a decrease in physical
activity.
Such a loss places an older individual at
risk of falls, which increases the risk of
bone fracture.
Changes in cardiac muscle are usually
related to changes in lifestyle and
resulting pathology rather than aging of
the cardiac muscle fibers.
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
Development of Body Systems
Nervous System
Early Development
•
•
•
Prenatal
o Formation of neurons, differentiation and
migration to a final position occur prenatally.
o Axons then branch out to form synapses with
other neurons.
Postnatal
o The brain grows rapidly during the first few
years – 25% of adult at birth to 80% at 4 years
only
o Size of neurons increase, further branching
occurs, increase in glia and myelin.
o Susceptible to extrinsic factors e.g. poor
nutrition.
Brain Structures
o Spinal cord and lower brain structures are more
developed at birth compared to higher brain
structures.
o Lower brain structures are responsible for vital
tasks e.g. breathing.
o Development of goal-directed movement seen
as an indication of the maturation of higher
structures.
Older Adulthood
•
Neurogenesis occurs to mitigate the loss of
neurons in early adulthood.
•
Neural network model – connections between
neurons break at random and hence, the signal as
to detour to reach its destination.
•
Regular vigorous exercise maintains blood flow to
the brain, lessens the loss of dendrites, stimulates
neurogenesis, and promotes new synaptic
connections.
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Development of Body Systems
Adipose System
Early Development
Older Adulthood
• Adipose tissue increases in the
early years of life, more in
females than in males.
• Proportion of fat mass increases
in later years even though total
body weight decrease.
• Fat distribution changes with
age and with gender.
• Possibly due to les active
lifestyle.
• Subcutaneous fat mass
decreases while abdominal fat
mass increases.
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Development of Body Systems
Endocrine System
Early Development
Older Adulthood
• Exerts control over specific
cellular functions through
chemical substances called
hormones
• Gradual Imbalance Theories –
suggests that the nervous,
endocrine and immune systems
fail to function over time.
• Hormones critical for early
development include:
o Growth Hormone
o Thyroid Hormone
o Gonadal Hormone
o Insulin
• This gradual decrease may occur
at different rates, which may
cause imbalances between them,
and thus reducing effectiveness.
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Possible interventions to slow down
the ageing process
• Exercise
• Physical activity
• Nutrition
• Maintain good general health and be
disease free
• Supplements - antioxidant
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Back to the Problem…
Observed changes could be explained by:
•
Physical Attributes
− decrease in height
− changes in overall body composition
•
•
Motor Skills and abilities
− gradually decline in running skills
Performances
− increase in reaction time
− increase in personal best times in running
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Identify different explanations and theories on the
ageing process
• Explain how the various body systems develop
across the lifespan
• Explain how physical changes during ageing are
caused by the degeneration of the various body
systems
• Examine and evaluate possible interventions that are
able to slow down, stop, or reverse the aging
process
Copyright © 2017 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P03 Stages of Skill Acquisition
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
Tim, a trainee PE Teacher
was discouraged as his
students could not dribble a
floorball properly after
several lessons.
His mentor, Steve, gave him
this advice, “You do not
know your students well
enough.”
What could Steve possibly
mean?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Image: www.fredricksonpe.blogspot.com
The Approach
• How do motor skills develop across the
lifespan?
• What are the behavioural characteristics of
learners?
• What is the role of the practitioner at the
different stages of learning?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Mountain of Skill Development
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(Haibach, et al., 2009)
Fitts & Posner’s Learning Stages
1. Cognitive Stage
•
•
•
Main goal of the learner is to understand the basic
components of the movement pattern.
Learners require a considerable amount of mental activity
to process and understand the movement pattern and
appropriate coordinate limbs.
Learners often (mentally) verbalise their movements.
2. Associative Stage
• Goal of the task is now refining the movement.
• Learner is able to perform more consistently and focus of
error detection and correction.
• Less attention is required, verbalisation disappears.
Copyright
Copyright ©
© 2015
2018 Republic
Republic Polytechnic
Polytechnic
Fitts & Posner’s Stages of Learning
3. Autonomous Stage
• Performer can perform the skill without thought.
• Performer can focus on decision-making
strategies, or multi-task.
• Level of performance is very high and very
consistent.
Question: Is it possible for a performer in the
Autonomous/Associative Stage to go back to the
Cognitive Stage?
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Bernstein’s Learning Stages
Stage 1: Freezing the limbs
• Novices simplify the movement problem by reducing the
number of degrees of freedom.
• This makes the action for the novice to perform, but the
movement looks very rigid, or stiff.
• Practice should simplify the task by reducing the degrees of
freedom to aid learning.
Stage 2: Releasing the limbs
• Movement appears more fluid, with more degrees of freedom
used.
• The degrees of freedom become incorporated into larger
functional units of action called coordinative structures.
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Bernstein’s Learning Stages
Stage 3: Exploiting the environment
• The learner continues to release the number of
degrees of freedom until all the necessary degrees
of freedom to complete the task have been
released.
• Performer is maximising muscular efficiency
through the optimal number of degrees of freedom
and is able to exploit environmental passive
forces.
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Gentile’s Learning Stages
(Haibach, et al., 2009)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Practical Use of the Learning Models
• The learning models provide a multilevel perspective
on motor learning:
• Environmental
• Cognitive
• Behavioural
• The learning models help to provide a framework as
to how best to tailor instructional strategies to suit the
learner stage of learning.
• A practitioner who fully understands the learning
process will have the skills necessary to properly
manipulate the learning environment and the learner.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the Problem
• Tim needs to know at which stage of
learning his students are at.
• Based on his students’ behavioural
characteristics, he can identify the
learning stage of his students.
• Tim can then modify his teaching
methods to suit his student’s skill level.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
1. Describe how motor skills progress through each
period in the mountain of motor development.
2. Compare and contrast three learning models –
Fitts & Posner’s, Gentile’s, and Bernstein’s.
3. Explain the learner’s behavioural characteristics
for the stages of each learning model.
4. Understand the role of the practitioner for each
of the stages of learning.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P04 Fundamental Movement Skills
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
Develop a lesson plan appropriate for
lower-primary school children to teach
them fundamental movement skills
relevant to the sports you have been
assigned.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
• What are fundamental movement skills
(FMS)?
• What are the stages involved in the FMS
phase?
• What factors may influence fundamental
movement skill acquisition?
• Why is it important to develop FMS?
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What are fundamental movement skills?
• An FMS is an organized series of basic
movements that involve a combination
of movement patterns of two or more
body segments.
• Such skills form the basic foundation for
more complex skills.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What are fundamental movement skills?
FMS can be categorised into:
Axial
• Twisting
• Balancing
• Stretching
• Dodging
• Stretching
Locomotor
• Walking
• Running
• Jumping
• Hopping
• Skipping
Manipulative
• Throwing
• Catching
• Kicking
• Bouncing
• Striking
(Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003)
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Factors influencing FMS acquisition
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(Magill, 2007)
Why is it important to develop FMS?
FMS ...
• Are interdependent
• Occur in a sequence
Developing the FMS of a child
is essential as this forms the
FOUNDATION for them to
participate in popular sports
and leisure activities as they
grow older.
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Revision - Mountain of Skill Development
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(Haibach, et al., 2009)
One-Dimensional Skill Classification System
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(Magill, 2007)
Two-Dimensional Skill Classification System
 A broadened one-dimension approach by considering
two general characteristics of all skills.
Gentile’s Taxonomy
1. Environmental context
•
•
Regulatory Conditions
Inter-Trial Variability
2. Function of the action
•
•
Body Transport
Object Manipulation
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Gentile’s Taxonomy
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Practical uses of Gentile’s taxonomy
1. A useful guide for evaluation of movement
capabilities and limitations.
2. A tool to select a progression of functionally
appropriate activities.
3. Helps to chart an individual’s progress to attain
their goal.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the problem
• Identify the FMS used in the sport.
• Identify factors which could influence skill
acquisition.
•Identify the skill level of the students.
•Use an appropriate framework to design a series
of activities to help students learn FMS.
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What have you learnt?
It is important to think about the learner’s
characteristics, the task demands and
environmental factors when designing a
Physical Education programme aimed at
developing FMS.
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What have you learnt?
1. Explain what are “Fundamental Movement Skills”.
2. Identify different levels of competency in selected
fundamental movement skills.
3. Explain what factors facilitate or interfere with the
development of fundamental movement skills.
4. Differentiate what are “skills”, “movements” and “actions”.
5. Demonstrate how to categorise motor skills using onedimensional and two-dimensional classification systems.
6. Develop a series of teaching activities to develop motor
skills using Gentile’s Two-Dimensional Taxonomy.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P05 Introduction to Motor Skills
Assessment
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
How would you assess the motor
development of Eldrick?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
• What is the purpose of movement assessments?
• What are the characteristics of an ideal test
instrument?
• What are the different types of assessment
instruments?
• What are the advantages & disadvantages of various
assessment instruments?
• How to choose an appropriate assessment
instrument?
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Purpose of Assessment
• Screening
• Programme Content
• Student Progress
• Programme Evaluation
• Classification
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Characteristics of an Ideal Test
• Content Validity
• Test-Retest Reliability
• Objectivity (Inter-Rater reliability)
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Types of Assessment
Assessment
Advantages
Disadvantages
Norm-referenced
- (mostly) easy to
administer
- Minimal training
required
- Assessment score
provides information
about how a child is
performing relative to
his peers.
- Cannot pin-point the
cause of skill or
developmental
deficits.
- Provides little insight
into programming
considerations.
Criterion-referenced
- Provides true
developmental
assessment.
- More complicated to
administer, hence
more training is
required.
- Tester must be familiar
with functional
definitions.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Types of Assessment
Assessment
Advantages
Process Oriented
- Provides true
developmental
assessment.
- Lends more
insight into
programming
considerations.
Product Oriented
- Similar to normreferenced.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Disadvantages
- More
complicated to
administer,
tester must be
familiar with
functional
definitions.
- Similar to normreferenced.
TGMD-2
• Assess gross motor functioning in children.
• Identification and screening, instructional
programming, assessment of individual progress,
program evaluation and as a research tool.
• For ages 3-11 years old.
• 15-20 minutes to administer and score
• It is made up of 12 skills (six for each subtest):
– Subtest 1: Locomotor - run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, slide
– Subtest 2: Object Control - striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble,
kick, catch, overhand throw, and underhand roll.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
TGMD-2
• Scoring
– 1 score if observed.
– 0 score if not observed.
• Raw scores are converted to percentiles, standard
scores, age-equivalent scores for the two areas
(locomotor and object control), and a total gross motor
quotient.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
BOT-2
• To assess gross and fine motor skills in children and to assist in
decision making about appropriate educational and
therapeutically placement.
• The short form of the test can be used for screening for special
purposes such as early identification of developmental problems.
• 3 to 21 years old
• 45-60 min (short form 15-20 min) to administer
• The motor or areas assessed are:
– running speed and agility, balance, bilateral coordination,
strength, upper limb coordination, response speed, visual
motor control, and upper limb speed and dexterity
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
BOT-2
• Some test items are difficult to conduct on young
children
• Scoring
– Raw score from each item is converted into point
scores which maybe converted to standard scores.
From then composite scores can be calculated for
gross and fine motor tasks. In addition, one can
determine age levels of functioning in each of the
specific area.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the problem
• Ascertain the purpose of the assessment
• Ensure reliability and validity of the
assessment
• Consider tester competency, logistics and
subject profile when deciding which
assessment to use.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Explain the purpose of movement assessments.
• Describe the characteristics of an ideal test instrument.
• Describe the different types of assessment
instruments.
• Explain the advantages & disadvantages of various
assessment instuments.
• Rationalise the choice of an appropriate assessment
instrument.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P06 Conducting Motor Skill
Assessments
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
How would you explain the
assessment results?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
• How to conduct motor skill assessments?
• How to record and covert raw scores into
composite scores?
• How to interpret assessment results?
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TGMD-2 Run
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TGMD-2 Gallop
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TGMD-2 Hop
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TGMD-2 Leap
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TGMD-2 Horizontal Jump
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TGMD-2 Slide
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TGMD-2 Striking
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TGMD-2 Stationary Dribble
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TGMD-2 Catch
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TGMD-2 Kick
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TGMD-2 Overhand Throw
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TGMD-2 Underhand Roll
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
TGMD-2 Record Form
1. Add up the raw
scores for Locomotor &
Object Control here.
3. Add up the
standard scores.
2. Convert raw scores
into standard scores &
percentiles using
Tables B1-B3.
4. Convert sum of
standard scores into GMQ
and percentiles using
Table C1.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
5. Convert raw
scores into age
equivalents
using Table
D1.
TGMD-2 Interpretation
• TGMD-2 results can interpreted using the Gross
Motor Quotient (GMQ) or Age Equivalents.
• Descriptive ratings for the GMQ can be obtained from
Table 3.2.
• For Age Equivalents, compare the child’s age to the
age equivalent obtained from Table D1.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Demonstrate how to conduct motor
skill assessments.
• Demonstrate how to record and covert
raw scores into composite scores.
• Provide an interpretation of
assessment results.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P07 Theories of Motor Control
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
Why is Peter more successful than Paul?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
• What are the theories that explain the control of
movement?
• What is coordination?
• What are the characteristics of motor control
theories?
• What are the implications for movement
practitioners?
• What are the key constraints for movement
coordination?
• What is the role of variability of motor output in
movement systems?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What are theories of motor control?
• Describe and explain how the nervous
system produces coordinated movement
in a such a way that allows an individual
to perform a diverse range of motor skills
in a variety of environmental contexts.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What is coordination?
• The patterning of head, body, and /or limb
motions relative to the patterning of
environmental objects and events.
(Magill, 2007)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Characteristics of motor control theories
Motor Control
Theory
Flexibility of
movement
Uniqueness of
movement
Consistency of
movement
Modifiability of
movement
Adapted from Kluka, 1999
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What are the Reflex Theories?
• Paradigms that explain behavior as the use of
stereotyped, involuntary and rapid responses to
stimuli
(Kluka, 1999)
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What are Reflex Theories?
• Pavlov experience 1890s
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What are the Hierarchical Theories?
• Theory suggests that motor control emerges from
a hierarchy of the Central Nervous System (CNS)
functioning. There is a top-down approach
command from the brain to the muscles
regarding performance.
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What are the Hierarchical Theories?
• Feedback
• Motor program- executive and effector level
• Motor Program-Based Theory (Richard Schmidt)
(Schmidt, 2005)
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Schmidt’s (2003) Schema Theory
• Generalized motor program - motor programs
are generalised, allowing a given memorial
structure (or program) to be executed in
countless variations for the “same” action or
skill.
• Two Compartments of Memory
i)
recall memory in learning to produce a response
ii) recognition memory responsible for recognising the
correctness of a response.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Schmidt’s (2003) Schema Theory
• The Schema Concept – a rule developed by practice
and experience across a lifetime, which describes a
relationship between parameters for the program for
each trial and the outcome achieved the program.
There are 2 types of schemas – recall and
recognition.
• Storage & Novelty Problems
• Storage – previous theories assumed that there was one
motor program for every action we could do and implied
massive storage capabilities for the CNS
• Novelty – no way to produce an action we have never
produced previously and no way to produce novel actions.
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What is Dynamical Systems Theory?
• A theoretical approach that views the learner
as a complex neurobiological system composed
of independent but interacting degrees of
freedom or subsystems.
(Davids, Button and Bennet, 2008)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What is self-organization?
• A system’s capacity to have interactions or
coordination between smaller systems to
achieve stable states of functional
organization.
• These processes of interaction and
coordination are inherent in many complex
systems and are influenced by many
constraints that act on the system.
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What are complex systems?
• Complex systems are highly integrated
systems that are made of many
interacting parts, each of which is
capable of affecting other parts.
(Davids, Button and Bennet, 2008)
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Characteristics of complex systems?
The capacity for
stable and
unstable
patterned
relationships to
occur through
system selforganization
Many
independent and
variables
degrees of
freedom
The ability of
subsystems
components to
limit or influence
the behaviour of
other subsystems
Many different
levels in the
system
The potential
for nonlinearity
behaviour
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What are the constraints in movement
coordination?
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What are the implication for movement
practitioners?
Magill, 2007
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Explain the characteristics of any motor
control theory.
• Describe how theories of motor control
explain the control of movement and
coordination.
• Explain how constraints affect movement
behaviour.
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Back to the problem
•
Peter is more successful than Paul because of experience.
He has learnt to adapt his movement coordination to kick
a ball under a variety of different conditions.
•
Schema Theory – Peter has more schemas to draw on
than Paul.
•
Dynamical Systems – Peter has more experience in
identifying the constraints, and is better able to adapt his
coordinative structures to suit the constrains.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P08 Processing Information and
Making Decisions
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
Are highly skilled players faster than other
players or is it due to other factors?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
What is
Information
Processing?
What is reaction
time, and what
are the factors
that influence it?
What are the
perceptual-motor
abilities?
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How can attention
influence
informationprocessing
capacity?
Information Processing Model
Input
Stimulus Identification
Response Selection
Response Programming
Output
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Reaction, Movement and Response time?
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Types of reaction time situations
Simple Reaction Time
• Refers to the reaction time when a situation
involves only ONE signal (stimulus) that
requires only ONE response.
• It is the shortest RT.
Magill (2004)
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Types of reaction time situations
Choice reaction time
• Refers to the reaction time when the situation
involves more than one signal and each signal
requires its own specified response.
• RT increases as the number of stimulusresponse increase.
Magill (2004)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Types of reaction time situations
Choice reaction time
• Hick’s Law:
– It describes the stable relationship that exists
between the number of stimulus-response
alternatives and reaction time.
– In simple terms, it is a law of human
performance stating that Reaction Time (RT)
will increase as the number of stimulusresponse choices increase.
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Types of reaction time situations
Choice reaction time
Source: Schimdt and Wrisberg, 2008
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Types of reaction time situations
Choice reaction time (Hick’s Law)
Source: Schimdt and Wrisberg, 2008
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Types of reaction time situations
Discrimination reaction time
• Refers to the RT when a situation involves
more than one signal but only one response.
• The other signals require NO response.
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Factors influencing reaction time and
decision making
(1) Number of
stimulus-response
alternatives
(2) Stimulusresponse
compatibility
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(3) Practice
How does attention influence informationprocessing (attentional) capacity?
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How does attention influence informationprocessing (attentional) capacity?
Limited
vs
Unlimited Information
Serial & Simple RT
vs
Parallel & Choice RT
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The Psychological Refractory Period
Stimulus
Identification
Response
Selection
S1
S2
< 400ms
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Response
Programming
Stimulus
Identification
S1
S2
Response
Selection
Response
Programming
The fake
Intended
movement
100ms
Response to the fake
S1
S2
Response to intended
movement (TOO LATE)
S1
Response to the fake
S2
200-300ms
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the problem
• Elite athletes are the best in their sport.
• Their superior skills are more than just a
physical, agility and strength advantage.
• They are automatically processing the
information as they are experts in their field.
• Hours of practice will have a part in helping
them to process information more quickly.
• Attentional capacity plays a part as well by
influencing reaction time (using either the
Simple RT or Choice RT).
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Describe different types of reaction time
situations
• Differentiate between reaction time,
movement time and response time.
• Describe the principles of information
processing most relevant to skilled
performance
• Discuss how concept of attention can limit
skilled performance
• Associate an individual’s abilities to level of
skill and their ability to process information
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P09 Sensory Contributions to Skilled
Performance
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
Today’s Problem
How does the ballet dancer manage
to stay upright?
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The Approach
1. What are the roles of our sensory
systems?
2. How do the sensory systems work?
3. How does the conceptual model of
human performance work?
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What are the roles of our sensory
systems?
• Touch / Tactile
• Proprioception
• Vision
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How do the sensory systems work?
Touch / Tactile
Movement
Consistency
Movement
Accuracy
Touch
Estimate
movement
distance
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Movement
Force
adjustment
How do the sensory systems work?
Proprioception
Golgi-tendon
organs
Vestibular
apparatus
Joint
receptors
MOTOR
PERFORMANCE
COORDINATION
Cutaneous
receptors
Muscle spindles
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How do the sensory systems work?
FOCAL
Vision
AMBIENT
CENTRAL &
PERIPHERAL
CENTRAL
NON CONSCIOUS
CONSCIOUS
Declines rapidly with
dim lights
Not greatly impaired with
decreased light levels
“What is it?”
“Where is it?”
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How does the conceptual model work?
Schmidt & Wrisberg (2009)
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Back to the problem
⇒necessary sensory information
required
⇒trunk, upper and lower limbs, make
adjustments to keep the body upright
⇒ alterations or absence of particular
sensory information can hinder the
performance of the task.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
1. Explain the roles of various sensory organs.
2. Explain the contributions and limitations of a closedloop model of movement control.
3. Describe the various ways sensory information is
used in movement control.
4. Explain the various roles of vision in movement
control.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P10 The Speed-Accuracy
Relationship
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
In Today’s Problem….
“Two groups of golfers underwent two experiments.
One group comprised of novice players who have not played
golf before. The other group comprised of skilled players
who have been playing competitively for at least 2 years.
In both experiments, they were told to putt 5 sets of 20
putts twice. For the first 5 sets, they must emphasize on
accuracy and for the second 5 sets, they must be accurate
and quick.
The difference between Experiment 1 and 2 lies in the type
of putter used.”
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Problem Statement
Results from the experiment were:
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Problem Statement
You were asked:
Explain the results of the two groups
of golfers in the two experiments.
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The Approach
• What is the speed-accuracy trade-off?
• How does Fitts’ Law relate to speed-accuracy
trade-off phenomenon?
• What is a prehension movement skill?
• How does prehension relate to speed and
accuracy in aiming skills?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What is the speed-accuracy relationship?
Accuracy
Accuracy:
Size and distance
WHEN LEARNING A NEW
MOTOR SKILL
Speed-accuracy trade-off:
When performer emphasizes
on speed, accuracy is reduced.
Speed
Speed:
Size of equipment
Environmental factors
Attentional-demands
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How does Fitt’s law relate to speedaccuracy trade-off phenomenon?
MT = a + b log2 (2D/W)
(Fitts, 1954).
Where
MT = Movement Time
a and b are constants
D is the distance moved
W is the target width or size
p. 141 – 142, Schmidt and Wrisberg, 2008)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
How does Fitts’ law relate to speedaccuracy trade-off phenomenon?
MT = a + b log2 (2D/W)
Log2 (2D/W) = Index of
Difficulty
Index of difficulty increases
when either or both D and
W changes
However, if D is doubled and
W is also doubled, the Index
of Difficulty would remain
the same.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
(Magill, 2004, p. 78)
What is prehension movement skill and
how does it relate to speed and accuracy?
3 components:
• As objects decrease in size, the
- Transport
amount of time involved in
decelerating increases i.e. there
- Grasp
- Object manipulation is more movement time
associated with smaller objects.
• Compare a person reaching for
a cup with a big handle versus
reaching for a cup with a small
handle
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What is prehension movement skill and
how does it relate to speed and accuracy?
Prehension affects movement skill because of the following:
Movement amplitude
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the problem
•
In performing an accuracy-related movement skill, the
emphasis on speed plays a vital role in the overall
performance.
•
When put under time constraints (forced to emphasize on
speed), novice players perform worse than when they were
given the luxury of time.
 Novice players need to pay more attention to the skill, hence they
need time to perform the task properly.
•
Skilled players appear to benefit from emphasizing on speed.
 Skilled players do not need to think about the movements when
performing the movement, hence they do not need time to perform the task
properly.
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Back to the Problem
• When using a different set of equipment, novice players do
not seem to be affected by the change in equipment, skilled
players are negatively affected by a change in equipment.
• This is because to the novice, the skill to be performed with a
standard equipment or not, is still a new skill. Hence there is
no difference whichever equipment is used. However, to the
skilled player who have gotten used to the standard
equipment, using a different equipment changes the skill
(environment) so the skilled player becomes somewhat a
novice player momentarily.
• Given practice the skilled player would adapt to the new
equipment and performance would be improved with the
new equipment.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
• Speed-accuracy trade-off
• How Fitt’s Law relates to speed-accuracy trade
off
• Prehension and the components of
prehension
• How prehension relates to speed-accuracy
trade-off
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Reference
R. A. Magill. (2004). Motor Learning and Control:
Concept and Applications (7th ed.). Australia,
Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
R. A. Schmidt, & C. A. Wrisberg. (2008). Motor
Learning and Performance: A Situation-Based
Learning Approach. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control
and Development
P11 Memory & Transfer of Learning
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
In Today’s Problem
You were told that a coach taught a simple dive
routine to 16 novice divers. 8 with gymnastics
background and 8 without gymnastics background.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
In Today’s Problem
You were told the coach observed 9 divers were
able to perform the routine up to his expectations. 7
of them had gymnastics background. On the
following week, 4 divers out of the initial 9 were able
to repeat their performance.
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In Today’s Problem
You were asked what could have
caused the variation in performance
between the divers.
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The Approach
•
•
•
•
What is the memory system?
What is short term memory?
What is long term memory?
What are the strategies to enhance
memory performance?
• What is transfer of learning?
• What are the types of transfer of
learning?
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What is the memory system?
MEMORY:
The capacity of people to retain and
utilize information in various ways
for various lengths of time.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What is the memory system?
Environmental inputs
Short-term
sensory store
Schmidt & Lee (2005).
Via selective
attention
Via rehearsal
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Via retrieval
processes
Movement output
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What is short-term memory?
Short-term Memory
• Duration: 30 sec
• Capacity: 7 ± 2 Items
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What is long-term memory?
Long -term Memory
Retrieve
Rehearse
Refine
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Source: SD HMCD Lesson 8, 2008
What are the strategies to enhance
memory performance?
Increasing a
movement’s
meaningfulness
Strategies to
enhance
performance
Imagery
Labeling
Chunking
Intention to
remember
Schmidt & Lee (2005)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What is Transfer of Learning?
The influence of previous experience
(or having previously practiced a
particular skill) on performing a new
skill or a skill in a new context.
Magill (2007)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Theories of Transfer of Learning
Identical elements theory – the amount of and direction
of transfer are dependent on the number of identical
elements between two motor skills (Thorndike, 1914).
Hence, it would be expected if two motor skills which
have similar equipment and movements would promote
positive transfer.
Transfer-appropriate processing theory – movements or
games that require similar cognitive processes can
promote positive transfer.
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What are the types of transfer of learning?
The influence can be a:
• Positive transfer
• Negative transfer
• Neutral transfer
Source: gymnastics.about.com
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Source: chinadaily.com.cn
Back to The Problem
What could explain the variation in performance
between divers?
•Previous experience influence performance
(resulting in positive transfer of learning):
- Gymnastics (7 Divers)
- Related Sports (2 Divers)
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Diving
Diving
Back to The Problem
What could explain the variation in performance
between divers?
The 4 divers could have used the following strategies to
enhance their memory performance:
Somersault (tuck)
1.Imagery
Water Entry
2.Labelling
3.Chunking
4.Rehearsal
Springboard
approach
Source: en.wikivisual.com; huaxlee.com; english.china.com
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What you have learnt today …
• Memory, which comprises of short-term and long
term memory, affects motor skill performance.
• Strategies such as imagery, labelling, chunking,
and rehearsal can be used to improve memory.
• Previous experience can lead to a positive,
negative or neutral transfer of learning.
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Instruction and Feedback
Problem 12
In Today’s Problem….
How could the training session be conducted
differently to eliminate the frustration
experienced by Billy?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
1. What are the common ways of providing
information?
2. How should this information be provided?
3. What types of feedback are there?
4. How can feedback be administered?
5. Does augmented feedback enhance or hinder
learning?
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What are the common ways of providing
information?
Common Methods:
1. Demonstration
• From experts?
• From Novices?
2. Verbal Instructions
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How should this information be provided?
• Demonstration
- Precede practice
- Demonstrate during practice as necessary
• Verbal instructions
- Short, concise phrases
- Focus on movement outcomes
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What types of feedback are there?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Schmidt & Wrisberg (2007), pg 285
Does extrinsic feedback enhance or
hinder learning?
Enhance Learning:
1. Informational properties
2. Motivational properties
3. Reinforcing properties
Hinder Learning:
4. Dependency-Producing properties
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When to provide feedback?
• Complexity of the task
• Experience of the performer
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How can feedback be administered?
Concurrent vs Terminal
Instantaneous vs Delayed
Verbal vs Nonverbal
Summary (Average & Bandwidth)
Knowledge of Results (KR) VS Knowledge of
Performance (KP)
• Video
• Descriptive vs Prescriptive
• Program vs Parameter
•
•
•
•
•
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Back to the Problem
• Provide demonstration as well as appropriate
amount of verbal instructions during practice to
reduce frustration
• Provide augmented feedback appropriately to
enhance learning and reduce confusion
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback and
give examples of each
2. Explain the difference between KP and KR and give
examples if each
3. Describe how instructional feedback can serve as a source
of motivation, reinforcement, and error information
4. Discuss dependency-producing properties of instructional
feedback
5. Explain the principles involved in giving instructional
feedback
6. Apply the principles of feedback to a variety of real-world
instructional settings.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
S311
Human Motor Control &
Development
P13 Structuring the Learning Experience
School of Sports,
Health and
Leisure
In Today’s Problem….
How might Coach Wyche have contributed
to the problem; and how could he have
prevented it?
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
The Approach
1. What are the different practice types?
2. What are pros and cons of each practice type?
3. Why are certain practice types more effective
than others?
4. How to structure a practice session to meet
the learning objective?
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Types of Practice
• Blocked
• Random
• Constant
• Varied
• Whole
• Part
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Blocked vs. Random Practice
Which is “better”?
Contextual Interference Effect explained
by:
- Elaboration Hypothesis
- Forgetting (or Spacing) Hypothesis
Also need to consider target skill and
context.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Implications of Blocked & Random Practice
Blocked Practice Random Practice
• More time efficient
• Superior practice
performance
• Useful in teaching
beginners during the
initial learning phase.
• Could be used as part of
warm-up routine
• Less time efficient
• Superior retention
• Practice outcomes less
motivating for beginners
• More challenging to plan
and devise an effective
session.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Varied Practice & Schema Development
What is a schema?
By varying the parameters of a GMP, varied practices
helps to enhance the:
• Flexibility
• Adaptability
• Generalisability
of movement production.
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Blocked/Random vs. Constant/Varied
• Different GMPs
• Variations of the same skill
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Whole-Part-Whole Practice
Source: www. learningworkshop.mindeedge.com
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
Back to the Problem
• Coach Wyche could have used the wrong
practice schedules.
• Coaches need to be aware of the characteristics
of each practice type.
• There is a also need to consider the target skill
and target context in relation to the learning
outcome.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic
What have you learnt?
1. Discuss the concept of practice structure and explain its
performance to goal achievement and the performance of
target skills in the desired target contexts.
2. Describe the various types of practice schedules.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of each practice type.
4. Recommend an appropriate practice structure for groups of
varying ability.
Copyright © 2018 Republic Polytechnic