FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELETRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
HND 3
PROGRAMME: MICRO COMPUTER EEE 301
LECTURER: MR. DANIEL COMMEY
QUESTION. COMPARE AND CONTRASTS THE MEAN DEEP RESEARCH ABOUT THE CONCEPTS,
DIFFERENCE, SIMILARITIES AND EXAMPLES OF MICROCONTROLLER AND MICROPROCESSOR.
GROUP MEMBERS
NAME
INDEX NUMBER
GAGOH YAO NELSON
0319030037
KPELI WISDOM
0319032121
KOKOROKO BRAIN DOE
0319030035
ATTENU FRANCIS KOFI ATSU
0319032124
BENJAMN LARBI
0319032129
GIDEON NANA YAW DAFISO
0319030007
AKAHOHO PAUL
0319032102
MIHESO FELIX
0319030093
AGBAH PROMISE
0319030029
ABADA KWASI HENRY
0319032119
Answer
Microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in an embedded
system. A typical microcontroller includes a processor, memory and input/output (I/O) peripherals on a
single chip. They are found in vehicles, robot, office machines, medical devices, mobile radio transceiver,
vending machines and home appliances among other devices.
Microcontrollers are used in a wide array of system and devices. Devices often utilize multiple
microcontrollers that work together within the device to handle their respective tasks. For example, a
car might have many microcontrollers that control various individual systems within, such as the antilock braking system, traction control, fuel injection or suspension control.
The history of microcontrollers
A microcontroller was developed in 1971 by Intel Corporation in the United States. That is the 4 bit
microcontroller called i4004. It was ordered by a Japanese company BUSICOM for calculators. Later, the
contract was changed and it was sold as a general-purpose microcontroller with success. After that, Intel
Corp developed a 16 bit microcontroller ‘8086’, following the 8 bit microcontrollers such as ‘i8008’,
‘i8080A’, and i8085’. After developing several microcontrollers, they continue to develop the CPUs used
in current personal computers. Toshiba developed a 12 bit microcontroller TLCS-12 in 1973. At that
time, the United States was considering electronic control units as a countermeasure of the exhaust gas
regulation law. Against this background, Toshiba’s 12 bit microcontroller was developed as Ford’s invehicles engine controller. After that, Toshiba developed a wide range of high-level microcontrollers
from 4 bit to 32 bit or higher.
A microcontroller is a small and low-cost microcomputer, which is designed to perform the specific tasks
of embedded systems like displaying microwave’s information, receiving remote signals, etc.
The general microcontroller consists of the processor, the memory (RAM, ROM, EPROM), Serial ports,
peripherals (timers, counters), etc.
How do microcontrollers work?
A microcontroller is embedded inside of a system to control a singular function in a device. It does this
by interpreting data it receives from its I/O peripherals using its central processor. The temporary
information that the microcontroller receives is stored in its data memory, where the processor
accesses it and uses instructions stored in its program memory to decipher and apply the incoming data.
It then uses its I/O peripherals to communicate and enact the appropriate action.
Microcontrollers are used in a wide array of systems and devices. Devices often utilize multiple
microcontrollers that work together within the device to handle their respective tasks.
For example, a car might have many microcontrollers that control various individual systems within,
such as the anti-lock braking system, traction control, fuel injection or suspension control. All the
microcontrollers communicate with each other to inform the correct actions. Some might communicate
with a more complex central computer within the car, and others might only communicate with other
microcontrollers. They send and receive data using their I/O peripherals and process that data to
perform their designated tasks.
What are the elements of a microcontroller?
The core elements of a microcontroller are:

The processor (CPU) -- A processor can be thought of as the brain of the device. It processes and
responds to various instructions that direct the microcontroller's function. This involves
performing basic arithmetic, logic and I/O operations. It also performs data transfer operations,
which communicate commands to other components in the larger embedded system.

Memory -- A microcontroller's memory is used to store the data that the processor receives and
uses to respond to instructions that it's been programmed to carry out. A microcontroller has
two main memory types:
1. Program memory, which stores long-term information about the instructions that the
CPU carries out. Program memory is non-volatile memory, meaning it holds information
over time without needing a power source.
2. Data memory, which is required for temporary data storage while the instructions are
being executed. Data memory is volatile, meaning the data it holds is temporary and is
only maintained if the device is connected to a power source.

I/O peripherals -- The input and output devices are the interface for the processor to the outside
world. The input ports receive information and send it to the processor in the form of binary
data. The processor receives that data and sends the necessary instructions to output devices
that execute tasks external to the microcontroller.
While the processor, memory and I/O peripherals are the defining elements of the microprocessor,
there are other elements that are frequently included. The term I/O peripherals itself simply refers to
supporting components that interface with the memory and processor. There are many supporting
components that can be classified as peripherals. Having some manifestation of an I/O peripheral is
elemental to a microprocessor, because they are the mechanism through which the processor is
applied.
Other supporting elements of a microcontroller include:

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) -- An ADC is a circuit that converts analog signals to digital
signals. It allows the processor at the center of the microcontroller to interface with external
analog devices, such as sensors.

Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) -- A DAC performs the inverse function of an ADC and allows
the processor at the center of the microcontroller to communicate its outgoing signals to
external analog components.

System bus -- The system bus is the connective wire that links all components of the
microcontroller together.

Serial port -- The serial port is one example of an I/O port that allows the microcontroller to
connect to external components. It has a similar function to a USB or a parallel port but differs in
the way it exchanges bits.
Microcontroller features
A microcontroller's processor will vary by application. Options range from the simple 4-bit, 8-bit or 16bit processors to more complex 32-bit or 64-bit processors. Microcontrollers can use volatile memory
types such as random access memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory types -- this includes flash
memory, erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory (EEPROM).
Generally, microcontrollers are designed to be readily usable without additional computing components
because they are designed with sufficient onboard memory as well as offering pins for general I/O
operations, so they can directly interface with sensors and other components.
Microcontroller architecture can be based on the Harvard architecture or von Neumann architecture,
both offering different methods of exchanging data between the processor and memory. With a Harvard
architecture, the data bus and instruction are separate, allowing for simultaneous transfers. With a Von
Neumann architecture, one bus is used for both data and instructions.
Microcontroller processors can be based on complex instruction set computing (CISC) or reduced
instruction set computing (RISC). CISC generally has around 80 instructions while RISC has about 30, as
well as more addressing modes, 12-24 compared to RISC's 3-5. While CISC can be easier to implement
and has more efficient memory use, it can have performance degradation due to the higher number of
clock cycles needed to execute instructions. RISC, which places more emphasis on software, often
provides better performance than CISC processors, which put more emphasis on hardware, due to its
simplified instruction set and, therefore, increased design simplicity, but because of the emphasis it
places on software, the software can be more complex. Which ISC is used varies depending on
application.
When they first became available, microcontrollers solely used assembly language. Today, the C
programming language is a popular option. Other common microprocessor languages include Python
and JavaScript.
MCUs feature input and output pins to implement peripheral functions. Such functions include analogto-digital converters, liquid crystal display (LCD) controllers, real-time clock (RTC), universal
synchronous/asynchronous receiver transmitter (USART), timers, universal asynchronous receiver
transmitter (UART) and universal serial bus (USB) connectivity. Sensors gathering data related to
humidity and temperature, among others, are also often attached to microcontrollers.
Types of microcontrollers
Common MCUs include the Intel MCS-51, often referred to as an 8051 microcontroller, which was first
developed in 1985; the AVR microcontroller developed by Atmel in 1996; the programmable interface
controller (PIC) from Microchip Technology; and various licensed Advanced RISC Machines (ARM)
microcontrollers.
A number of companies’ manufacture and sell microcontrollers, including NXP Semiconductors, Renesas
Electronics, Silicon Labs and Texas Instruments.
Microcontroller applications
Microcontrollers are used in multiple industries and applications, including in the home and enterprise,
building automation, manufacturing, robotics, automotive, lighting, smart energy, industrial automation,
communications and internet of things (IoT) deployments.
One very specific application of a microcontroller is its use as a digital signal processor. Frequently,
incoming analog signals come with a certain level of noise. Noise in this context means ambiguous
values that cannot be readily translated into standard digital values. A microcontroller can use its ADC
and DAC to convert the incoming noisy analog signal into an even outgoing digital signal.
The simplest microcontrollers facilitate the operation of electromechanical systems found in everyday
convenience items, such as ovens, refrigerators, toasters, mobile devices, key fobs, video game systems,
televisions and lawn-watering systems. They are also common in office machines such as photocopiers,
scanners, fax machines and printers, as well as smart meters, ATMs and security systems.
More sophisticated microcontrollers perform critical functions in aircraft, spacecraft, ocean-going
vessels, vehicles, medical and life-support systems as well as in robots. In medical scenarios,
microcontrollers can regulate the operations of an artificial heart, kidney or other organs. They can also
be instrumental in the functioning of prosthetic devices.
Microcontrollers vs. microprocessors
The distinction between microcontrollers and microprocessors has gotten less clear as chip density and
complexity has become relatively cheap to manufacture and microcontrollers have thus integrated more
"general computer" types of functionality. On the whole, though, microcontrollers can be said to
function usefully on their own, with a direct connection to sensors and actuators, where
microprocessors are designed to maximize compute power on the chip, with internal bus connections
(rather than direct I/O) to supporting hardware such as RAM and serial ports. Simply put, coffee makers
use microcontrollers; desktop computers use microprocessors.
Microcontrollers are less expensive and use less power than microprocessors. Microprocessors do not
have built-in RAM, read-only memory (ROM) or other peripherals on the chip, but rather attach to these
with their pins. A microprocessor can be considered the heart of a computer system, whereas a
microcontroller can be considered the heart of an embedded system.
Choosing the right microcontroller
There are a number of technology and business considerations to keep in mind when choosing a
microcontroller for a project.
Beyond cost, it is important to consider the maximum speed, amount of RAM or ROM, number or types
of I/O pins on an MCU, as well as power consumption and constraints and development support. Be
sure to ask questions such as:

What hardware peripherals are required?

Are external communications needed?

What architecture should be used?

What sort of community and resources are available for the microcontroller?

What is the market availability of the microcontroller?
Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller
The following highlights the differences between a microprocessor and a microcontroller −
Microcontroller
Microprocessor

Microprocessors are used for big
applications.
It’s designing and hardware cost is low.

It’s designing and hardware cost is high.

Easy to replace.

Not so easy to replace.

It is built with CMOS technology, which
requires less power to operate.

Its power consumption is high because it
has to control the entire system.

It doesn’t consist of RAM, ROM, I/O ports.
It uses its pins to interface to peripheral
devices.

Microcontrollers are used to execute a
single task within an application.


It consists of CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports.
Types of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are divided into various categories based on memory, architecture, bits and instruction
sets. Following is the list of their types −
Bit
Based on bit configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into three categories.

8-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is used to execute arithmetic and logical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication division, etc. For example, Intel 8031 and
8051 are 8 bits microcontroller.

16-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is used to perform arithmetic and logical
operations where higher accuracy and performance is required. For example, Intel 8096 is a 16bit microcontroller.

32-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is generally used in automatically
controlled appliances like automatic operational machines, medical appliances, etc.
Memory
Based on the memory configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into two categories.

External memory microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is designed in such a way that
they do not have a program memory on the chip. Hence, it is named as external memory
microcontroller. For example: Intel 8031 microcontroller.

Embedded memory microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is designed in such a way
that the microcontroller has all programs and data memory, counters and timers, interrupts, I/O
ports are embedded on the chip. For example: Intel 8051 microcontroller.
Instruction Set
Based on the instruction set configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into two categories.

CISC − CISC stands for complex instruction set computer. It allows the user to insert a single
instruction as an alternative to many simple instructions.

RISC − RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers. It reduces the operational time by
shortening the clock cycle per instruction.
Applications of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are widely used in various different devices such as −

Light sensing and controlling devices like LED.

Temperature sensing and controlling devices like microwave oven, chimneys.

Fire detection and safety devices like Fire alarm.

Measuring devices like Volt Meter.
Sr.No Von Neumann architecture
Harvard architecture
1
Requires single bus for instructions and data
Requires separate & dedicated buses for
memories for instructions and data.
2
Its design is simpler
Its design is complicated
3
The Von Neumann architecture uses single
memory for their instructions and data
The Harvard architecture uses physically separate
memories for their instructions and data
4
Vectors & pointers, variables program segments
Program segments & memory blocks for data
& memory blocks for data & stacks have different
& stacks have separate sets of addresses.
addresses in the program.
Sr.No Von Neumann architecture
5
Harvard architecture
Examples of Von – Neumann Architecture:
ARM 7 and Pentium Processors etc.
Examples of Harvard Architecture: 8051, ARM 9,
AVR by Atmel Corporation and PIC
microcontrollers by microchip Technology etc.
6
Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a component that performs the instructions and the tasks involved in computer
processing. In a computer system, the microprocessor is the central unit that executes and manages the
logical instructions passed to it. A microprocessor is designed to execute logical and computational tasks
with typical operations such as addition/subtraction, interprocess and a device communication,
input/output management etc. A microprocessor is composed of integrated circuits that hold thousands
of transistors. Microprocessor are generally classified according of the number of instructions they can
process within a given time, their clock speed measured in megahertz and the number of bits used per
instruction.
The history of microprocessor
Fair child semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first Integrated Circuit in 1959 that marked the
microprocessor history. In 1968, Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce and Andrew Grove resigned from the Fair
child semiconductors and started their own company: Integrated Electronics (Intel). In 1971, the first
microprocessor Intel 4004 was invented. A microprocessor is also known as a central processing unit in
which numbers of peripherals’ are fabricated on a single chip. It has ALU (arithmetic and logic unit), a
control unit, registers, bus systems and a clock to perform computational tasks.
Generation of microprocessor
1st Generation
This was the period during 1971 to 1973 of microprocessor history. In 1971, INTEL created the
microprocessor 4004 that would run at a clock speed of 108 KHZ. With only bits as the word size, the
4004 could only represent a signed numbers in the range -8 to +7, which is indeed very small. So, it was
not really of practical use of arithmetic calculations. However, it found applications in controlling
devices.
2nd Generation
Intel 8008 was the next in the revolution, the first 8-bit microprocessor. This was in the year 1972. This
was soon followed by Intel 8080, and also an 8 bit microprocessor. With 8 bits as the word size, it could
represent signed numbers in the range of -128 to +127. This is also not a good enough range for
performing arithmetic calculations. Thus, the 8080 also was used only for control applications.
3rd Generation
Around 1978, Intel released 8086, the first 16 bit microprocessor. With 16-bit word size, it was possible
to represent signed numbers in the range of -32, 768 to +32, 767, which is quiet a decent range for
performing arithmetic calculations. As such, this processor became very popular not only for control
applications, but also for number crunching operations. Speed of those processors were four times
better than the 2nd generation processors. Not to be outdone, Motorola came out with 68000, their 16bit processors. Zilog released Z-8000, again a 16-bit processor. These are most popular 16-bit
processors.
4th Generation
In the early 80s, Intel released the 32-bit processor, the Intel 80386, by using HCMOS fabrication. With
32- bit word size, it was possible to represent signed numbers in the range ±2 ×109, which is quiet a
large range for performing arithmetic calculations. If floating point notation is used, it can represent
much larger numbers. As such, this processor became very popular as the CPU in computers for number
crunching operations. At that time, Motorola came out with 68020, their 32-bit processor. Intel released
80486, which was basically an 80386 processor and 80387 numeric co-processor on a single chip.
Motorola released 68030. In the early 90s, Intel released 80586 by Pentium processor. It is extremely
fast in performing arithmetic calculations and executing instructions. The Pentium 4 released in 2000
has 42 Million transistors worked with a clock frequency of 1.5 GHz and is rated for 1500 MIPS (million
instructions per second).
5TH Generation
From 1995 to until now this generation has been bringing out high performance and high speed
processors that make use of 64-bit processors. The present day computers based on microprocessor are
already faster than the mini computers and sometimes the main frame computers of the yesterday, and
they are available at a small fraction of the cost such main frame computers.
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip capable of
performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating with the other devices
connected to it.
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) which incorporates core functions of a computer’s central
processing unit (CPU). It is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip, clock driven, register based,
accepts binary data as input and provides output after processing it as per the instructions stored in the
memory.
Block Diagram of a Computer
Why do we need a Microprocessor?
A microprocessor is similar to our human brain, it can be trained to do anything. It can be programmed
to do anything we want based on its instruction set and capabilities. Sometimes solutions are very
complex, circuits also becomes very complex if we try to solve it without programming.
Here is my analogy. Imagine you want to make a big building. Usage of BRICKS will make the
construction process simple and cost effective. And it will also give you the freedom to make the
building in shape and size what you like. Instruction set in a microprocessor are the bricks which you can
use to solve your problem. By using those instructions you can easily solve complex program.
How does a Microprocessor work?
A processor is the brain of a computer which basically consists of Arithmetical and Logical Unit (ALU),
Control Unit and Register Array. As the name indicates ALU performs all arithmetic and logical
operations on the data received from input devices or memory. Register array consists of a series of
registers like accumulator (A), B, C, D etc. which acts as temporary fast access memory locations for
processing data. As the name indicates, control unit controls the flow of instructions and data
throughout the system.
So basically a microprocessor takes input from input devices, process it as per instructions given in the
memory and produces output.
Advantages of a Microprocessor

Low Cost
Microprocessors are available at low cost due to integrated circuit technology. Which will
reduce the cost of a computer system.

High Speed
Microprocessor chips can work at very high speed due to the technology involved in it. It is
capable of executing millions of instructions per second.

Small Size
Due to very large scale and ultra large scale integration technology, a microprocessor is
fabricated in a very less footprint. This will reduce the size of the entire computer system.

Versatile
Microprocessors are very versatile, the same chip can be used for a number of applications by
simply changing the program (instructions stored in the memory).

Low Power Consumption
Microprocessors are usually manufactured using metal oxide semiconductor technology, in
which MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors) are working in saturation
and cut off modes. So the power consumption is very low compared to others.

Less Heat Generation
Compared to vacuum tube devices, semiconductor devices won’t emit that much heat.

Reliable
Microprocessors are very reliable, failure rate is very less as semiconductor technology is used.

Portable
Devices or computer system made with microprocessors can be made portable due to the small
size and low power consumption.
Common Terms used in a Microprocessor
Here are some common terms that we will use in microprocessor field.
Bus
A bus is a set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different
elements in a microprocessor. Usually a microprocessor will have 3 types of buses: Data Bus, Control Bus
and Address Bus. An 8-bit processor will be using 8-bit wide bus.
Instruction Set
Instruction set is the group of commands that a microprocessor can understand. So instruction set is an
interface between hardware and software (program). An instruction commands the processor to switch
relevant transistors for doing some processing in data. For eg. ADD A, B; is used to add two numbers
stored in the register A and B.
Word Length
Word Length is the number of bits in the internal data bus of a processor or it is the number of bits a
processor can process at a time. For eg. An 8-bit processor will have an 8-bit data bus, 8-bit registers and
will do 8-bit processing at a time. For doing higher bits (32-bit, 16-bit) operations, it will split that into a
series of 8-bit operations.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a random access memory that is integrated into the processor. So the processor can
access data in the cache memory more quickly than from a regular RAM. It is also known as CPU
Memory. Cache memory is used to store data or instructions that are frequently referenced by the
software or program during the operation. So it will increase the overall speed of the operation.
Clock Speed
Microprocessors uses a clock signal to control the rate at which instructions are executed, synchronize
other internal components and to control the data transfer between them. So clock speed refers to the
speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions. It is usually measured in Hertz and are expressed
in megahertz (MHz), gigahertz (GHz) etc.
Classification of Microprocessors
Based on Word Length
Hope you read about word length above. So based on the word length of a processor we can have 8-bit,
16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit processors.
RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer
RISC is a type of microprocessor architecture which uses small, general purpose and highly optimized
instruction set rather than more specialized set of instructions found in others. RISC offers high
performance over its opposing architecture CISC (see below). In a processor, execution of each
instruction require a special circuit to load and process the data. So by reducing instructions, the
processor will be using simple circuits and faster in operation.

Simple instruction set

Larger program

Consists of large number of registers

Simple processor circuitry (small number of transistors)

More RAM usage

Fixed length instructions

Simple addressing modes

Usually fixed number of clock cycles for executing one instruction
CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer
CISC is the opposing microprocessor architecture for RISC. It is made to reduce the number of
instructions per program, ignoring the number of cycles per instruction. So complex instructions are
directly made into hardware making the processor complex and slower in operation.
This architecture is actually designed to reduce the cost of memory by reducing the program length.

Complex instruction set

Smaller program

Less number of registers

Complex processor circuitry (more number of transistors)

Little RAM usage

Variable length instructions

Variety of addressing modes

Variable number of clock cycles for each instructions
Special Purpose Processors
There are some processors which are designed to handle some specific functions.

DSP – Digital Signal Processors

Coprocessors – processors used along with a main processor (8087 math-coprocessor used with
8086)

Input/output processors

Transistor Computer : Microprocessor with its own local memory
Examples

Intel 4004 – The First Microprocessor

Intel 8085

Intel 8086

Intel Pentium 4

Intel Core i7

AMD Athlon
Microprocessor classification
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories −
RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to reduce the execution time by
simplifying the instruction set of the computer. Using RISC processors, each instruction requires only
one clock cycle to execute results in uniform execution time. This reduces the efficiency as there are
more lines of code, hence more RAM is needed to store the instructions. The compiler also has to work
more to convert high-level language instructions into machine code.
Some of the RISC processors are −

Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

DEC Alpha: 210642, 211066, 21068, 21164

MIPS: TS (R10000) RISC Processor

PA-RISC: HP 7100LC
Architecture of RISC
RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set of instructions. It is used in portable devices
like Apple iPod due to its power efficiency.
Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows −

It consists of simple instructions.

It supports various data-type formats.

It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for pipelining.

It supports register to use in any context.

One cycle execution time.

“LOAD” and “STORE” instructions are used to access the memory location.

It consists of larger number of registers.

It consists of less number of transistors.
CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to minimize the number of instructions
per program, ignoring the number of cycles per instruction. The emphasis is on building complex
instructions directly into the hardware.
The compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level language into assembly level
language/machine code because the length of the code is relatively short, so very little RAM is required
to store the instructions.
Some of the CISC Processors are −

IBM 370/168

VAX 11/780

Intel 80486
Architecture of CISC
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost because more storage is needed in larger
programs resulting in higher memory cost. To resolve this, the number of instructions per program can
be reduced by embedding the number of operations in a single instruction.
Characteristics of CISC

Variety of addressing modes.

Larger number of instructions.

Variable length of instruction formats.

Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.

Instruction-decoding logic is complex.

One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.
Special Processors
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes. Few of the special processors
are briefly discussed −
Coprocessor
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle its particular function many
times faster than the ordinary microprocessor.
For example − Math Coprocessor.
Some Intel math-coprocessors are −

8087-used with 8086

80287-used with 80286

80387-used with 80386
Input/Output Processor
It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which is used to control I/O
devices with minimum CPU involvement.
For example −

DMA (direct Memory Access) controller

Keyboard/mouse controller

Graphic display controller

SCSI port controller
Transputer (Transistor Computer)
A transputer is a specially designed microprocessor with its own local memory and having links to
connect one transputer to another transputer for inter-processor communications. It was first designed
in 1980 by Inmos and is targeted to the utilization of VLSI technology.
A transputer can be used as a single processor system or can be connected to external links, which
reduces the construction cost and increases the performance.
For example − 16-bit T212, 32-bit T425, the floating point (T800, T805 & T9000) processors.
DSP (Digital Signal Processor)
This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a digital form. This is done by
sampling the voltage level at regular time intervals and converting the voltage at that instant into a
digital form. This process is performed by a circuit called an analogue to digital converter, A to D
converter or ADC.
A DSP contains the following components −

Program Memory − It stores the programs that DSP will use to process data.

Data Memory − It stores the information to be processed.

Compute Engine − It performs the mathematical processing, accessing the program from the
program memory and the data from the data memory.

Input/Output − It connects to the outside world.
Its applications are −

Sound and music synthesis

Audio and video compression

Video signal processing

2D and 3d graphics acceleration.
For example − Texas Instrument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TMS 320C40, TMS320C50.
What Does X86 Mean?
X86 is the term used to denote the microprocessor family based on the Intel 8086 and 8088
microprocessors. These microprocessors ensure backward compatibility for instruction set
architectures. Initially x86 started with an 8-bit instruction set, but then grew to 16- and 32-bit
instruction sets. X86 microprocessors are capable of running in almost any type of computer, ranging
from supercomputers to desktops, servers and laptops. AMD is the second largest maker of personal
computer microprocessors after Intel. They also make flash memory, integrated circuits for networking
devices, and programmable logic devices. ... Its Athlon (formerly called the "K7") microprocessor,
delivered in mid-1999, was the the first to support a 200 MHz bus.
Advanced Micro Device
AMD is the second largest maker of personal computer microprocessors after Intel. They also make flash
memory, integrated circuits for networking devices, and programmable logic devices. ... Its Athlon
(formerly called the "K7") microprocessor, delivered in mid-1999, was the the first to support a 200 MHz
bus.