The Story of Psychology (so far…) The Story of Psychology (so far…) What is Psychology? What is Psychology? • Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior – Science – we’ll describe this process next time… – Mind – the private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings – Behavior – the observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals A couple of problems… • Mind... a problem – How can anyone tell you about your own private and subjective experiences? A couple of problems… • Behavior… another problem – How does behavior relate to subjective inner experiences? What is Psychology? • Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior – It is a systematic process of answering questions about the mind and behavior – There are other ways of answering these questions… Psychology’s Ancestors: The Great Philosophers • Before the mind and behavior were studied in a scientific way, they were studied in a philosophical way – Plato – Aristotle • They debated many of the questions that are being scientifically tested today Psychology’s Ancestors: The Great Philosophers • Are cognitive abilities and knowledge inborn, or are they acquired only through experience? – For example, is the ability to learn language “hardwired” or does it depend on experience? Psychology’s Ancestors: The Great Philosophers • Nativism – the philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn – Plato was in favor of this view Psychology’s Ancestors: The Great Philosophers • Philosophical empiricism – the philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired through experience – Aristotle believed that the mind was a “blank slate” on which experiences are written Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Here’s what we know – That our brain and our bodies are physical, tangible objects – That the subjective contents of our minds (i.e. our perceptions, thoughts, and feelings) are not physical* • If our experiences are real… where the hell are they?! Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Here’s what we know – That our brain and our bodies are physical, tangible objects – That the subjective contents of our minds (i.e. our perceptions, thoughts, and feelings) are not physical* • If our experiences are real… where the hell are they?! – Dualism – how mental activity can be reconciled and coordinated with physical behavior Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Dualism - “The Ghost in the Machine” – The argument for the distinction between the physical brain and the non-physical mind Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Dualism - “The Ghost in the Machine” – The argument for the distinction between the physical brain and the non-physical mind – Descartes (right) posited that the non-physical was connected to the physical via the pineal gland Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Materialism – The view that the mind and body are one and the same Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Franz Joseph Gall (1758) – Phrenology – a now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics are localized in specific regions of the brain. – The more capacities and traits a person has, the greater area they take up in their brain Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Don’t laugh so fast… Mind or Brain? The French Connection • Paul Broca (1824-1880) – Worked with a patient who lacked the ability to speak, but retained the ability to comprehend speech – Broca surmised that this impediment might be related to a specific part of the brain • This was extremely insightful Psychology’s Roots • William James (18421920) – First to take a scientific approach to study Psychology – Wrote The Principles of Psychology • “An attempt to mark out psychology as a new domain of science.” Psychology’s Roots • Wilhelm Wundt (18321920) – Founded the first laboratory devoted exclusively to psychology – University of Leipzig, Germany Psychology’s Roots • Two original movements within Psychology – Structuralism – analyzes the mind by breaking it down into its basic components • Wilhelm Wundt took a structuralist approach – Functionalism – the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment • James, influenced by Darwin, took a functional approach Structuralism and the Bridge from Physiology to Psychology • In the middle of the 19th century, psychology saw a breakthrough within the related field of physiology – Physiology – the study of biological process, especially in the human body Structuralism and the Bridge from Physiology to Psychology • Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) – Developed a method for measuring the speed of nerve impulses – Applied a stimulus and measured reaction time • Stimulus – sensory input from the environment • Reaction time – the amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus Structuralism and the Bridge from Physiology to Psychology • Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) – Compared responses to stimuli applied to either • The toe • The thigh – Found that participants took longer to respond to stimulations of the toe in comparison to stimulations of the thigh • This suggested that mental processes do not occur instantaneously, but – Over time – Dependent on nerve length – Most importantly, this was an empirical study that demonstrated what could be done in psychology Structuralism and the Bridge from Physiology to Psychology • Wundt wanted to study consciousness scientifically – Consciousness – a person’s subjective experience of the world and the mind – Noted that chemists study things by breaking down natural substances into basic elements – Structuralism – the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind • Aimed to study consciousness by breaking it down into elemental sensations and feelings – Introspection – the subjective awareness of one’s own experiences • In a typical study, participants were given a stimulus and asked to report their subjective experiences Structuralism and the Bridge from Physiology to Psychology • Introspection – Fundamental difficulties • Invalid – different people see different things • Unreliable – the same person may see different things at different times • People are often mistaken about their experiences • Many events happen outside of our conscious awareness • Sometimes examining something is enough to change it • Williams James was aware of these limitations James and the Functional Approach • James thought it impossible to break consciousness down into component parts – Consciousness is more like a stream than a bundle of constituent parts • Functionalism – the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment – This approach was highly influenced by Charles Darwin’s On the origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection – The functional approach is an evolutionary approach Reverse-Engineering for Function • What is this? Reverse-Engineering for Function • What is this for? Reverse-Engineering for Function • Let’s treat it as a mental or physical aspect of a human – One that we don’t know what it is – One that we don’t know what it does • How might we best understand it? Reverse-Engineering for Function • Design features make it good at what it does – Two open slots • Large enough for one slice of bread each • Small enough to deliver heat efficiently to the sides of the bread – Clever plastic handle • Allows me to lower bread • Stays fairly cool itself while the bread heats Reverse-Engineering for Function • Design features make it good at what it does – Timer • Automatically ejects the toast (or whatever) when a certain amount of time has gone off – Power cord – Heating elements Reverse-Engineering for Function • Various parts contribute to the overall function of the toaster – They make it good at toasting bread • The features of the toaster provide evidence regarding its function – Its construction is too well suited for precisely this for it to be anything else Reverse-Engineering for Function • Contrast a toaster with a butane torch – You could toast bread with a torch, but it’d be much less efficient • Heat would be wasted • Bread would not be toasted evenly • The toaster is good at what it does for the same reason the constituent parts of our bodies are… and our minds – They “assume” facts about the problems they have to solve – Same thing with good computers Reverse-Engineering for Function • Narrow function – A toaster is great at making toast – Horrible at washing dishes, opening cans, brewing coffee, etc. – Just like the constituent parts of our bodies… and our minds Reverse Engineering for Function • Of course a toaster could be used for other functions… – – – – A paperweight A weapon A mirror A “crumb-maker” • But it does a poor job at each of these other functions Reverse Engineering for Function • Brains are machines with functions… just like toasters – “to the extent there is a problem whose solution has regularities, an efficient solution to that problem will embody those regularities, making the mechanism specialized for the task and efficient in solving the problem.” – Kurzban, 2011 • In the context of organisms – These regularities are the environment – Natural selection has shaped designs that reap advantages of function and specialization Reverse Engineering for Function Charles Darwin William James • Inspired James; wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection • Natural Selection: the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations • First to take a scientific approach to study Psychology; wrote The Principles of Psychology • Functionalism: study of the purpose of mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment The Development of Clinical Psychology • Meanwhile… in France • Two physicians were treating patients with hysteria – Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) – Pierre Janet (1859-1947) • Hysteria – a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as the result of emotionally upsetting experiences • They found that, when hypnotized, hysteric patients experienced relief from physical and emotional symptoms The Development of Clinical Psychology • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – The work of Charcot and Janet amazed Freud • These observations inspired one of the most influential theories in all of psychology – Psychoanalytic theory – Although inspired, Freud’s theory was all his own – Psychoanalysis – therapeutic approach focusing on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness Challenge accepted! Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud – Was studying hypnosis in 1890’s with Josef Breuer – Found that hysterical patients experienced catharsis with when talking about problems in a hypnotic state • Catharsis – emotional release – Theorized that hysterical symptoms resulted from early sexual molestation • Leaving memories that were intentionally forgotten – Discovered that symptoms disappeared when memories were completely recalled – Theory of neuroses • Behind every neurotic conflict lies a forgotten childhood trauma • Mind defends against painful experiences by actively excluding them from conscious awareness Psychoanalytic Theory • The Topographic Model – the idea that the mind has an organization or architecture that overflows consciousness and can be described in terms of different levels or compartments – Unconscious* – the only part of the mind that exists at birth – Preconscious – everything that can be summoned to consciousness on command (e.g. phone number) – Conscious awareness – the part of our mind that forms our waking lives • The desire to bring satisfaction to our unconscious instincts continues to be the main motivator in human behavior throughout the life span Psychoanalytic Theory • Difficulties – Dark view of human nature • Emphasis on limitations and problems – Many ideas were difficult to test • In science, any hypothesis that can’t be disproven can be worse than useless • … still there can be no doubt of the enduring influence of psychoanalytic thought – “He has a big ego.” – “I was pissed.” – “She’s anal.” Humanistic Response • Humanistic Psychology – Pioneered by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) – This approach emphasized the positive potential of human beings • Direct reaction to the darker tones of psychoanalytic theory • Both Maslow and Rogers made distinct contributions – Maslow is most well known for his “hierarchy of needs” – Rogers is most well known for his “Client-Centered” approach to therapy Behaviorism • Thus far, psychologists have attempted to study the mind • The same problem persists… – How can anyone tell you about your own private and subjective experience? Behaviorism • Underlying inner-workings of the mind – Conscious perceptions – Thoughts – Memories – Feelings – Reports of unconscious material • Each of these is subjective – Thus vulnerable to mistake and bias Behaviorism • Behaviorists challenged the idea that psychology should be interested in mental life at all • Behaviorism – Advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior – Represented a dramatic departure from all previous schools of thought within psychology Watson and the Emergence of Behaviorism • John Watson (1878-1958) – Science requires replicable and objective measures – Methods used by structuralists and functionalists are subjective • Private experiences are too idiosyncratic and vague – Lack validity and reliability – Proposed that psychologists focus entirely on what people do rather than what they experience – If psychology is the study of the mind and behavior… • Watson wanted to take out the “mind” Watson and the Emergence of Behaviorism • Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) – Studied digestion – Striking observation • Dogs naturally salivated to the smell of dog food – This stimulus was “unconditioned,” that is, not learned • After several feedings, dogs began salivating at the sight of the person who fed them – This stimulus was “conditioned,” that is, learned – What other stimuli might be “conditioned” to elicit natural responses? • Tones, lights, etc. • Marijuana, tennis balls, teachers, boyfriends Watson and the Emergence of Behaviorism • Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) – Studied the physiology of digestion and founded classical conditioning (stimulus-response learning) • Response – action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus • John Watson (1878-1958) – Influenced by Pavlov – Goal to predict and control behavior through the study of observable behavior • Margaret Washburn (1871-1939) – Studied behavior in different animal species – Published The Animal Mind – Developed theory of consciousness Behaviorism • John Watson – “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become ay type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it or many thousands of years.” B.F. Skinner and the Development of Behaviorism • Not all learning is based off of paired associations • What about – Instruction? Trial and error? Reinforcement… B.F. Skinner and the Development of Behaviorism • B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) – Built a conditioning chamber (“Skinner Box”) – Allowed him to study reinforcement • Reinforcement states that: – The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more or less likely to occur again B.F. Skinner and the Development of Behaviorism • Is free will an illusion? – Skinner stated that our behaviors are a product of past and present patterns of reinforcement – How much “choosing” do we actually do? Technology and the Development of Cognitive Psychology • Not all learning is based off of paired associations or reinforcement • What about – Completely novel behaviors? – What about… language? Technology and the Development of Cognitive Psychology • Noam Chomsky b. 1928) – Children generate sentences that they could never have heard before – Thus, language cannot be learned solely by reinforcement • This was HUGE – It brought the mind back to psychology The Emergence of Neuroscience • Cognitive Neuroscience – An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily experiences • Behavioral Neuroscience – The field of study that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
