ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. eskulu.com ECZ GRADE 11 CHEMISTRY SUMMARISED NOTES (FOR 5070 AND 5124) WITH QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. eskulu.com ESKULU ZM 5/30/18 0 G11 CHEMISTRY SUMMARIZED NOTES(5070 & 5124) ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. This document summarizes Chemistry (5070 & 5124)) notes according to the ECZ (Examinations Council Syllabus). The questions and answers are adapted from actual international past exam papers. Prepared by William N for eskulu.com Contact +260978031524 eskulu.com 1 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 1. CLASSIFYING BY GROUPS ................................................................................... 4 1.1 Classifying by Periods ................................................................................... 6 2. Rules of Behavior ............................................................................................. 10 2.1 Empirical Formulae .................................................................................... 12 2.2 The Mole .................................................................................................... 16 2.3 Titrations .................................................................................................... 19 challenging questions I......................................................................................... 22 3. THE BEHAVIOUR OF GASES .............................................................................. 24 3.1 The Particles in a Gas ................................................................................. 24 3.2 Avogadro’s law ........................................................................................... 25 3.3 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law ...................................................................... 26 Molar Gas Volume ........................................................................................... 29 3.4 The Ideal Gas .............................................................................................. 30 Using Molar Volumes in Calculations ............................................................... 32 4. ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS ................................................... 34 Energy Diagrams .............................................................................................. 34 Energy Changes and Heat Content ................................................................... 36 Hess’s Law........................................................................................................ 37 4.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions ..................................................... 38 4.3 Activation Energy ....................................................................................... 39 Challenging Questions II....................................................................................... 40 5. RATE OF REACTION .......................................................................................... 42 5.1 Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction ....................................................... 42 5.2 Catalysts in Industry ................................................................................... 45 5.3 Reversible Reactions .................................................................................. 46 eskulu.com 2 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 6. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM ................................................................................... 47 6.1 What is Dynamic Equilibrium? ................................................................... 47 6.2 Industrial Applications................................................................................ 49 7. FUELS ............................................................................................................... 51 7.1 What is a Fuel? ........................................................................................... 51 7.2 Fossil Fuels ................................................................................................. 52 7.3 Fractional Distillation of Petroleum ............................................................ 52 Fractional Distillation in the Laboratory ........................................................... 53 7.4 Alternative Energy Sources ........................................................................ 55 7.5 Chemicals from Petroleum ......................................................................... 56 8. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION ........................................................................... 58 8.2 Electron Loss and Electron Gain ................................................................. 58 8.3 Reactions Involving Redox.......................................................................... 63 9. Electrolysis ....................................................................................................... 66 9.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes ............................................................... 66 9.2 Mechanism of Electrical Transfer ............................................................... 67 9.3 Examples in the laboratory ........................................................................ 69 9.4 The Faraday Constant ................................................................................ 70 10. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS ............................................................................... 71 10.1 Proton Donors and Acceptors .................................................................. 71 10.2 Salts and their Preparation ....................................................................... 71 10.3 Titrations .................................................................................................. 74 10.4 Hydrolysis of Salts .................................................................................... 76 10.5 Identifying anions ..................................................................................... 78 10.6 Identifying Cations ................................................................................... 79 eskulu.com 3 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 1. CLASSIFYING BY GROUPS A vertical column of elements in the periodic table (Appendix I) is called a group. GROUP I – the alkali metals An example is the column containing lithium, sodium and potassium. If you look again at table 1.5, you can see that each of these elements has one electron in its outer most shell. This is true of all the elements in the group. The group is called Group 1. The reactions of these elements are controlled by this one outermost electron; it is called the valency electron. For example all these elements in the group react with water to form hydrogen gas. Here is the equation for the reaction of sodium with water: 2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2NaOH The compounds of Sodium are ionic, not covalent, so it is better to write: 2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2Na+ + 2OH- From this ionic equation you can see that the atoms of sodium have each lost one electron. These are the characteristics of group behavior. Elements in a group have the same reactions, but show a trend in their reactions. This may be a trend in vigour, in speed, or in reaction type. Group 7 – the halogens From the table below we see that the element fluorine has seven electrons in its outermost (L) shell. Counting from the left-hand side of the Periodic Table, fluorine heads group 7. eskulu.com 4 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The other common members of the group are chlorine, bromine, iodine. Like the Group 1 elements, all these have properties in common. They all: Are coloured, Have seven valency electrons, Form ionic, in preference to covalent, compounds, Form ions with a charge of minus one, Form colourless compounds, Act as oxidizing agents (in the right circumstances) The elements show several trends in their properties. For example: Fluorine if the most reactive, iodine the least, Fluorine is very pale yellow; chlorine is yellow-green; bromine gas is orange; iodine gas is deep purple, Fluorine and chlorine are gases; bromine is a liquid at RTP; iodine is a solid. Here is the equation for the reaction between chlorine and bromide ions: Cl2 + 2Br- (aq) 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (g) Group 8 (0) the Noble gases In Grade 10 you learned that the elements helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon are unreactive because they have full electron shells. They form a clearly defined group of the Periodic Table. They have these properties: They form almost no compounds, either with each other or with other elements. All are colourless. All are gases at RTP. Because they have no chemical reactions, we find trends only in their physical properties. For example the melting points and boiling points of these elements increase as the relative atomic mass increases. eskulu.com 5 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 1.1 Classifying by Periods A Horizontal row in the Periodic table is called a period. The elements in any one period all have different electron structures, so the chemical properties of any one element differ from those of its neighbours. The electron structures change regularly, by one electron for each element. All the elements in one period have an electron core, which is the electron arrangement in the noble gas which completed the previous period, with outer electrons in addition. So there are some properties which show a clear trend as we go across a period. This time, though, there are some which change sharply instead. Changes in Period 2 The table below shows the second period of the Periodic table with two properties of the elements. changes in properties of the elements of period 2 in the Periodic Table State at RTP Usual valency Li (s) 1 Be (s) 2 Elements in Period 2 B C N O (s) (s) (g) (g) 3 4 3 2 F (g) 1 Ne (g) 0 Hydrogen In our Periodic Table we have placed hydrogen at the top of group 1. This is because hydrogen, like the Group 1 metals, has one electron in its outermost shell (the K shell). It forms, as do the metals, ionic compounds containing an ion with a single positive charge. Some people put hydrogen at the top of Group 7 because it is one electron short of a noble gas structure (He) and it can also form an ion with a single negative charge. To get round this problem, we can draw the position of hydrogen as shown in figure 1.3. eskulu.com 6 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. H Li F There is no right or wrong way to place hydrogen; it is a matter of your own preference! But if you place hydrogen above lithium, it is usual to show a small gap between the two. Elements with similar outer shell electron structures form groups in the Periodic Table. They have similar chemical properties. Each property shows a trend from one element to the next Elements with the same electron core form a period in the Periodic Table. Across a period a property may change sharply or make up a trend The number of shells containing electrons is equal to the number of the period in which the element is placed. The number of electrons in the outermost shell is equal to the number of the group in which the element is placed. The metals make up most of the elements. The non-metals are clustered together in the top right-hand corner of the Periodic Table. Some elements for example silicon (Si), seem to have properties between those of metals and those of nonmetals. eskulu.com 7 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. They are often called metalloids and lie on the dividing line between the two extremes. Place an element in the Periodic Table and you know at once what its character will be Metal oxides, nitrates and carbonates A similar pattern is found when we examine the oxides of the elements. Oxides of metals are basic; they react with acids to give a salt and water. Here is the equation for the reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid: MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O The oxides of non-metals are acidic; in water they react with bases to give a salt and water. Here is the equation for the reaction between carbon dioxide and sodium hydroxide: 2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O Some oxides will react with acids and react with bases. Fresh aluminium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to give aluminium chloride Al2O3 + 6HCl 2alCl3 + 3H2O But it also reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to give a soluble compound, sodium aluminate: Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O Such oxides are called amphoteric oxides. A few common oxides have neither acidic nor basic properties. They do not react with either bases or acids to form a salt. They are called neutral oxides. Three common examples are water (H2O), nitrogen monoxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO). Nitrogen and carbon both form other oxides which are acidic. Summary The elements are arranged in order of their atomic number (Z) to form the Periodic Table. Vertical columns in the Periodic Table are called groups. eskulu.com 8 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Horizontal rows in the Periodic Table are called periods. Each element in a group has the same arrangement of electrons in its outermost shell hence elements in a group have similar chemical properties. Properties of elements in a group frequently show a trend Properties of elements in a period may show a trend or change abruptly. The position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to predict its properties and those of its compounds. eskulu.com 9 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 2. RULES OF BEHAVIOR If matter is made of atoms, then compounds are formed when atoms join together. But they can only do this in a limited number of ways. Think about copper oxide. We can find out by experiment that this compound contains only copper and oxygen. The atoms might join together in various ways, for example: Cu O or Cu O Cu or O Cu O When we get a bottle of copper oxide from the shelf perhaps it contains a mixture of all these different materials. Below is a picture of two bottles of copper oxide. One compound is black and the other is red. It seems likely that each compound is not a mixture, but just one of the possible atomic combinations. Dalton said, “All samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass.” Remembering that all atoms of one element have the same mass, this means that all samples of a pure compound, however they are made, contain the same elements in the same atomic ratio. This is called the law of constant composition. Experiment: To find the composition of black copper oxide Black copper oxide can be reduced to metallic copper by warm ammonia gas. We can weigh a container, weigh the same container with some dry copper oxide, pass eskulu.com 10 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. ammonia gas over the warmed copper and weigh the tube after the reaction is over. Requirements Flat-bottomed or round-bottomed flack, drying tower, glass tubing, perforated test tube, small length of rubber tubing, clip. Caution There is little risk in this experiment if you do it carefully. However ammonia gas is very irritating to the eyes and lungs. Only do this experiment where there is good ventilation. Method Set up the apparatus as below. The container for the copper oxide can be a test tube with a hole blown in it or a length of glass tubing. It should have a loose plug of fibre near one end. When the apparatus is set up follow these steps: 1. Weigh the empty, dry container. 2. Add a little dry copper oxide and reweigh. Insert the loose fibre plug 3. Warm the flask to start the production of ammonia and after one minute begin to warm the copper oxide in the tube. When the ammonia reaches the oxide the reaction will begin. Notice the colour changes. eskulu.com 11 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Explanation The ammonia gas converted the copper oxide into copper. The oxygen from the oxide was lost as water from the heated tube. Heat was produced in the reaction. Through the early years of the nineteenth century chemists did a large number of experiments like this one and found that the law of constant composition was indeed true. This in turn meant that Dalton’s atomic theory was also conformed. 2.1 Empirical Formulae Percentage composition To find out the formula of a substance we often begin by finding out which elements are present and in what quantities. It is useful to express the composition in percentage terms. We imagine that we start with 100 mass units of the compound and find out how many of those 100 parts come from each element. eskulu.com 12 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. For example a compound contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We discover that 20g of the compound contained 10.4g of carbon and 2.61g of hydrogen. To find the percentage composition of the compound we follow these steps. 1. 20g contained 10.4g carbon therefore 1g contained (10.4g/20g) x 1g carbon and 100g contained 100g carbon x (10.4/20) that is 52g carbon. Therefore the compound contains 52 percent of carbon by mass. 2. Similarly we find that the percentage of hydrogen is 100g x (2.61/20) namely 13.05g, or 13.05 percent hydrogen by mass. 3. Therefore since there is only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present, the percentage of oxygen is 100 – (52 + 13.05) namely 34.95 percent by mass. From Percentage Mass to Formulae If we know the relative atomic masses of the atoms in a compound and its percentage composition by weight, we can work out how many atoms of each type are present. This is how to do it. 1. Divide each percentage weight by the relative atomic mass of the atom. 2. Divide each of these answer by the smallest of them 3. The numbers you get are the numbers of each type of atom in the compound. Example In an analysis of black copper oxide, the percentage of copper was found to be 79 percent therefore the percentage of oxygen was (100 - 79) = 21 percent. From appendix 1 we see that Ar for oxygen is 16 and Ar, for copper is 63.5. Atoms present are Cu O Percent of each 79 21 1. Divide by Ar: 79/64 = 1.24 21/16 = 1.31 2. Divide by the smaller: 1.24/1.24 = 1.00 1.31/1.24 = 1.06 3. But atoms must be there whole numbers! The nearest whole numbers are: Copper = 1, Oxygen = 1. eskulu.com 13 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. So the atoms are present in the ratio 1:1. Now we can write a formula for the compound; it is Cu1O1 or simply CuO. The idea of molecules; molecular formulae A molecule is the smallest particle of the substance capable of independent existence. Now we know that many materials, not just gases, exist as molecules. Any covalent compound is made up of molecules. The molecules are made up of atoms tightly bound together. The molecules thus formed are usually less tightly bound to each other. When we heat some alcohol molecules come apart from each (vaporize) without the individual atoms coming apart (decomposing). To decompose the molecules (to make the atoms separate from each other) we have to make the vapour much hotter. In the last section we saw how to calculate the ratio of the number of atoms in a compound. In the example, the formula was CuO. Figure 2.4 shows several different molecules all having this atom ratio. All the molecules in figure 2.4 have the same atom ratio. The formula CuO, which shows this ratio, is called the empirical formula. The formula which gives a picture of the real molecule is called the molecular formula. The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present. The molecular formula shows the actual number of each atom present. In black copper oxide the empirical formula and the molecule formula and the molecule formula are the same. But in ethane they are not. The molecular formula of ethane is C2H4. The empirical formula is CH2. eskulu.com 14 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Percentage Composition Sometimes we need we need to state, in quantitative terms, how a substance is made up. A convenient way of doing this is to use the percentage composition by mass. To find the percentage composition by mass of a compound we follow these steps. 1. We need to know the formula and the values of the relative atomic mass (Ar) for each element. 2. We then work out the relative molecular mass (Mr) by multiplying the value of Ar for each element by the number of atoms of that element in the formula (X) and adding together the values X for each element. 3. Express the value X for each element as a percentage of Mr. Example To calculate the percentage composition by mass of sodium nitrate we follow these steps 1. Sodium nitrate has a formula NaNO3 and values of Ar are NA 23, N 14, O 16. 2. Mr = 23 + 14 + (3 x 16) = 85 3. Na = (23/85) x 100 = 27 percent; N = (14/85) x 100 = 16.5 percent O = ((3 x 6)/85) x 100 = 56.5 percent Example To calculate the percentage by mass of aluminium in aluminium nitrate: 1. Aluminium nitrate has the formula Al (NO3)3 and values of Ar are Al 27, N 14, o 16. 2. Mr = 27 + (3 x 14) + (3 x 16)) = 213. 3. Al = (27/213) x 100 = 12.7 percent When we go to the market to buy eggs, we do not buy one egg at a time. Instead we buy a unit of eggs. The word “unit” is used to mean a quantity of eggs, in fact a bag of ten eggs. In chemistry we use the word “mole” to mean a quantity of a chemical substance. One mole is a very large number, it is: eskulu.com 15 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 (6.022 x 1023) particles A mole is a quality of a substance. One mole of a substance is 6.022 x 1023 particles of that substance. There are 6.022 x 1023 particles per mole. The symbol for a mole is mol. Although the number is large, because the particles – atoms and molecules – are very small, one mole of a chemical is about a small handful, smaller in size than a unit of eggs. The mole is a very useful quantity. Most quantitative work in chemistry uses moles as we will discover later on in this unit. Examples 1 mol of copper atoms contains 6.022 x 1023 copper atoms. 1 mol of sugar molecules contains 6.022 x 1023 sugar molecules. 1 mol of eggs would contains 6.022 x 1023 eggs. 6.022 x 103 is called the Avogadro number or Avogadro constant The symbol for the Avogadro constant is L In calculations we often use the approximate value 6 x 103 The number of particles equals the number of moles multiplied by 6 x 103 When using moles, always state which particles are involved. 2.2 The Mole Using Moles Before the mole was thought of, the manufacture of chemicals was a hit-and miss affair. Raw materials were mixed in quantities which gave a good result but not necessarily the best or cheapest result. To make cement, we mix one bucketful of cement with four bucketsful of sand and add enough water to make a slippery paste. Water does not cost very much so if we add a little too much no harm is done. But suppose that we want to make copper nitrate to sell. We need to be more accurate. eskulu.com 16 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Example Suppose we have some copper, how much nitric acid will we need? Nitric acid is expensive so we don’t want to waste it. First we write down a balanced equation to represent the reaction. Cu + 4HNO3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 We see from this that one atom of copper reacts exactly with four molecules of nitric acid. Two atoms of copper would react exactly with eight molecules of nitric acid and ten molecules of copper would react exactly with 10 x 4 molecules of nitric acid. 6 x 1023 atoms of copper would react exactly with 4 x (6 x 1023) molecules of nitric acid. One mole of copper atoms would react exactly with four moles of nitric acid molecules. The highlighted numbers in the equation tell us how many atoms and molecules are involved. They also tell us how many moles of each reactant are needed. Converting Moles to Mass Avogradro’s number (L), 6.023 x 1023 , is the number of atoms of hydrogen which weigh 1.000g. So L hydrogen atoms, have a mass of (weigh) one gram To convert from moles to grams, multiply the number of moles by the relative particle mass. Grams = moles x relative particle mass Converting Mass to Moles Two moles of helium weigh 8g. Looking at this from another angle, if we know that the relative mass of an atom is four, and we know that we have 8g of that atom, then we can see that we have two moles of the atom 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 eskulu.com 17 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Calculating Reaction Quantities Examples The following reaction starts off with 1000 tonnes of copper. Work out exactly how much nitric acid is required. Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 Example. Method – 1 From the equation we see that 1 mol of copper reacts with 4 mol nitric acid 1000 tonnes = 1000 x 106 g Ar for copper = 63.5, therefore copper weighs 63.5g/mol 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟓𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 There is 1.575 x 107 mol copper so he will need: 4 x 1.575 x 107 mol of nitric acid = 6.30 x 107 mol of nitric acid Mr for nitric acid = (1 + 14 + 48) = 63, therefore nitric acid weighs 63g/mol 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 = 𝟔𝟑 = 𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟗𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒈 × (𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 ) 𝒎𝒐𝒍 Example. Method – 2 1 mol reacts with 4 mol nitric acid. 1 x 63.5g copper reacts with 4 x 63g nitric acid 63.5 parts by mass of copper react with 4 x 63 (252) parts by mass nitric acid 63.5 tonnes of copper react with 252 tonnes nitric acid Therefore: eskulu.com 18 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 1 tonne copper reacts with 252/63.5 tonnes nitric acid** 1000 tonnes copper react with 1000 x (252/63.5) tonnes nitric acid = 3968 tonnes The two answers are not exactly the same because the figures have been rounded up throughout the calculations. NB: It is usually better to use moles Quantity and Concentration The concentration of a solution is either the mass of solute it contains or the number of moles of solute it contains divided by the volume of the solution: concentration = mass/volume (usually g/dm3) or concentration = moles/volume (usually mol/dm3) 2.3 Titrations You can use indicators to find out whether a substance is acid or alkaline. Now we will use indicators to find the concentration of a solution. Experiment: To Find the Concentration of a Solution Aim To find the concentration of an alkali. You have to react a fixed volume of the alkali with an acid solution whose concentration you know exactly. Then the concentration of the alkali is calculated. This is called titration. Requirements Burette and stand, pipette (10, 20 or 25cm3), an acid/base indicator (methyl orange, phenolphthalein or bromothymol blue, preferably not litmus or any universal indicator) eskulu.com 19 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Procedure 1. Use a small funnel to fill the burette with acid; there is no need to fill to the 0.0 line; anywhere in the graduated part will do. 2. Use the pipette to transfer 25.0cm3 of alkali solution into the beaker 3. Use the glass rod to put one drop of indicator into the alkali. If the colour is not deep enough, add another drop. 4. Copy the table below into your note book. 5. Read the level of the acid in the burette. Read the bottom of the liquid meniscus as shown above. 6. Add acid to the alkali roughly 1 cm3 at a time, swirling the liquid in the beaker to mix it after every addition, until the indicator changes colour. 7. Read the level of the liquid in the burette. 8. Work out what volume of acid was used. 9. Start again! But this time add 1cm3 less acid than was needed, all in one go. Mix the liquid very thoroughly. 10. Now add acid from the burette one drop at a time until the indicator just changes. This is called the end-point. eskulu.com 20 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 11. Read the burette again. 12. Work out the exact volume of acid needed for the reaction. 13.Make sure that you have noted your results as shown below. Concentration of acid (mol/dm3) Volume of alkali taken (cm3) First burette reading (cm3) Second burette reading (cm3) Third burette reading (cm3) Fourth burette reading (cm3) Accurate volume of acid needed is (cm3) 25.0 14. Write down the equation for the reaction, for example: NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O 15. From the concentration of the acid work out how many moles of acid you added (call this A moles) 16. From the equation, work out how many moles of alkalis are needed to react with A moles of acid (B moles) 17. B moles of alkali must have been in the 25cm3 of alkali with which you began. 18. How many moles of alkali would be in 1.0cm3 of solution? 19. How many moles of acid would be in 1000cm3 of solution (in 1dm3 of solution). 20. Write down the concentration of the alkali in mol/dm3 eskulu.com 21 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. CHALLENGING QUESTIONS I Instructions: try to attempt the following before checking the answers. 1. 33 mL of 3 M Hydrochloric acid is titrated with sodium hydroxide to form water and sodium chloride. How many mols of sodium hydroxide are consumed in this reaction? a. 3 mol b. 10 mol c. 33 mol d. 100mol answer: d. 100mol 2. 50 mL of 0.5M barium hydroxide are required to fully titrate a 100 mL solution of sulfuric acid. What is the initial concentration of the acid? a. 50 M b. 5 M c. 100 M d. 25M answer: d. 25M 3. An experiment was done on the reaction of copper oxide (CuO) with methane (CH4). (a) The equation for this reaction is shown below. 4CuO(s) + CH4(g) → 4Cu(s) + 2H2O(g) + CO2(g) The water and carbon dioxide produced escapes from the test tube. Use information from the equation to explain why. ........................................................................................................................ [1] eskulu.com 22 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. (b) (i) Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of copper oxide (CuO). Relative atomic masses (Ar): O = 16; Cu = 64. Relative formula mass (Mr) =.......................................................................... [2] (ii) Calculate the percentage of copper in copper oxide. Percentage of copper = .................................. % (iii) Calculate the mass of copper that could be made from 4.0 g of copper oxide Mass of copper = ............................................. g answers: 3. (a) because they are gases ignore vapours / evaporate / (g) allow it is a gas 1 (b) (i) 80 / 79.5 correct answer with or without working = 2 marks ignore units if no answer or incorrect answer then evidence of 64 / 63.5 + 16 gains 1 mark 2 (ii) 80 / 79.87 / 79.9 / 79.375 / 79.38 / 79.4 correct answer with or without working = 2 marks if no answer or incorrect answer. (iii) 3.2 correct answer with or without working = 1 mark allow (ecf) 4 x ((b)(ii)/100) for 1 mark if correctly calculated eskulu.com 23 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 3. THE BEHAVIOUR OF GASES 3.1 The Particles in a Gas Experiment: To estimate the separation between the particles in a gas. Requirements A polythene bag (sandwich bag), alcohol, electric kettle, teat pipette, sellotape or clip, tongs. Inside the hot kettle the liquid alcohol changes state. The particles move further apart as they vaporise. Alcohol has a boiling point of 78C so it condensed back to liquid as soon as you took it out of the hot steam. You might find the result of your calculation surprising. Despite the huge change in the volume the particles only move apart by less than ten times their own size. But there are some equally surprising consequences! eskulu.com 24 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 3.2 Avogadro’s law When Avogadro suggested that elements could exist as molecules, rather than single atoms, he was trying to support an idea which he had put forward several years before but which no one believed. Avogadro had suggested that equal volumes of all gases contained equal numbers of particles. It was well known that when gases reacted together, they did so in volumes which were either equal or simple multiples of each other. For example hydrogen and chlorine react together in equal volumes to make hydrogen chloride. It seemed obvious that: one hydrogen particle + one chloride particle = one hydrogen chloride particle So if there were L particles in one volume, this would be the same as saying that: one volume of hydrogen + one volume of chlorine = one volume of hydrogen chloride But we know they make two volumes of hydrogen chloride! So each particle of hydrogen and each particle of chlorine must contain two atoms each to give two particles of hydrogen chloride. The particles are molecules, not atoms. So now we can say that: Equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. This is called Avogadro’s Law. If we use L (the Avogadro constant) as the number of particles whose volume we measured, then, because L is the number of particles in one mole, we can say that one mole of any gas, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, will occupy the same volume. This volume is called the molar volume Vm. When we have considered what happens to the particles of a gas as it is heated, cooled, or squeezed, we shall be in a position to ask what that volume is. eskulu.com 25 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 3.3 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law The gas particles in the box on the left-hand side of Figure 3.3 are all moving. They move in straight lines unless they hit each other or they hit the wall of the box. When they hit the wall they bounce off. It is as though each wall is being continuously struck by thousands of tiny hammers. The walls are being continuously pushed outwards by the gas molecules. We call this the pressure of the gas. If we were to squirt more gas into the box, so that the number of gas molecules was doubled (as in the box on the right hand side of Figure 3.3) then the walls would be hammered twice as often – the pressure would be doubled. This is the same as saying that the concentration of gas particles in the box has been doubled. Instead of doubling the amount of gas in the box, we could have halved the volume of the box as shown in Figure 3.4. the pressure of the gas in the small box in Figure 3.4 is exactly the same as it was in the large box on the right-hand side of Figure 3.3 with double the number of particles because the concentration of particles is the same in both. eskulu.com 26 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. So when the volume was halved, the pressure doubled. If the volume had been made one tenth of the original, the pressure would have gone up by a factor of ten. When the volume increases, the pressure decreases and vice-versa. The volume and the pressure of the gas are inversely proportional to each other. This was first pointed out by Robert Boyle. It is called Boyle’s law. Boyle’s law states that if the temperature is constant, the volume and pressure of a gas are inversely proportional to one another, in short form: P 1/V Increasing the concentration of a gas in a box is not the only way of increasing its pressure. If we could increase the speed of the molecules v, then they would hit the box walls harder, because their kinetic energy (mv2) would be greater. We can do this by heating the gas to a higher temperature. Nearly one hundred years after Boyle stated his law, Charles discovered that when a gas is heated, the change in pressure is related to the change in temperature in a simple way. If the temperature increases, the pressure also increases. Charles’ law states if the pressure of a gas is constant, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, in short form: VT Notice that in Charles’ law, it is the absolute temperature which matters. Absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) where: T(K) = T() + 273 eskulu.com 27 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Example The temperature in a room is 25. The atmospheric pressure on that day is 1.0 x 105 Pa. a chemist collects 600cm3 of a gas in a balloon and puts it in a refrigerator at 4. What will be the volume of the gas? The pressure in the refrigerator will be the same as in the room. Only the temperature has changed. Original temperature = (25 + 273) K = 298 K Final temperature = (4 + 273) K = 277 K The gas is colder, the temperature has gone down, and so the volume will go down; the new volume is: (600cm3 x 277 K/298 K) = 557.7cm3 Example A chemist collects two samples of gas. Each has a volume of 1000cm3. He stores one in a glass gas jar with a sealed lid. He stores the other in a balloon. The atmospheric pressure on that day is 0.98 x 105 Pa. The next day the temperature has not changed but the pressure has risen to 1.01 x 105 Pa. What will be the volume of gas in each of the containers? The volume of the gas jar will not change because the jar cannot change and a gas takes the volume of its (rigid) container. The volume of the gas in the balloon changes because the container is not rigid; the pressure has gone up so the volume will go down. The new volume is (1000 cm3 x 0.98 x 105) Pa/(1.01 x 105)Pa = 970.3cm3 Exercise 1. A gas has a volume of 2.00dm3 at a pressure of 1 x 105Pa. what will be its volume at the same temperature, at a pressure of 3 x 105 Pa? eskulu.com 28 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 2. 150cm3 of oxygen are heated from 25 to 45, at atmospheric pressure. What is the new volume of the gas? 3. A certain mass of gas is found to have a volume of 15.00dm3 at a temperature of 25 and a pressure of 1.00 x 105 Pa. what is the volume of the gas at 0 and 5 x 104 Pa? Hint: Ask yourself each time “will the volume get larger or smaller?” Then you will know if you have got the numbers the right way up! Molar Gas Volume Because the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies with its pressure and temperature we cannot use Avogadro’s law to say “One mole of any gas will have the same volume”. One worker might measure that mole under conditions different from those chosen by someone else. So scientists have chosen a set of standard conditions which everyone can use. Standard conditions for the measurement of gas volumes are a pressure of 105 Pa and a temperature of 273 K. Under these conditions one mole of any gas occupies 22.4dm3. These conditions are called standard temperature and pressure (STP). STP: Standard pressure = 105 Pa Standard temperature = 273 K Molar gas volume = 22.4 dm3 Very few measurements are actually taken at 273 K so for many purposes we use not STP but RTP (room temperature and pressure). At RTP the molar volume of a gas is taken as 24.0dm3. RTP: Room pressure = 105 Pa eskulu.com 29 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Room temperature = 298 K Molar gas volume = 24.0 dm3 3.4 The Ideal Gas If it is true that for a fixed mass of gas: p 1/V then it would follow that: p = k/V where k is a constant and so: pV = constant A graph of pV against p for any gas at constant temperature should be a horizontal straight line. Instead these lines are curved, as shown below.(Note that the curves are exaggerated to show the effect.) For some gases pV is usually smaller than Boyle’s law would predict (the gas is taking up less space than the law suggests). The differences are not great but they are very important in practice. What can be the explanation? If Boyle’s law was accurate, if the pressure of a gas was increased to infinity the volume would be zero. But the volume could never be zero, because the molecules take up some space. eskulu.com 30 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. So when a gas takes up more space than we expect, it is because of the volume of the molecules themselves. The space between them obeys Boyle’s law, but not the gas itself! When two molecules come together, they usually attract one another. The molecules of polythene, for example, must have something holding them together, or polythene would be a gas. When sulphur dioxide gas is compressed it turns into a liquid because the molecules, when they get close enough, attract each other so strongly that the kinetic energy (mv2) of the particles is not enough to make them separate again. Although these forces (usually called van der Waals’ forces) are only weak even when the molecules are touching each other, they do still have some effect in the gas. They pull the molecules of the gas just a little closer together than would otherwise be the case. So the gas has a slightly smaller volume than Boyle’s law suggests. As the pressure goes up the volume decreases, the molecules get closer together and this effect increases. These two effects work against one another. Which one wins depends on the gas and the pressure. So sometimes the product pV is smaller than we expect and sometimes larger. If the gas is at low pressure – the molecules are far apart from each other – then these effects are not noticeable. We say that the gas is behaving like an ideal gas. For an ideal gas we can combine Boyle’s and Charles’ laws together: eskulu.com 31 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. If pV = constant, and p = constant x T then pV = constant x T As usual, it is sensible to work with one mole of gas. When we do, the constant in the equation is called the molar gas constant. The molar gas constant has the symbol R and its value is 8.314 J K-1 mol-1. The gas law becomes, for one mole of an ideal gas: pVm = RT Using Molar Volumes in Calculations From the equation for any reaction we know how to work out the quantities involved by mass or by moles and how to convert from moles to volumes. This means that we can work out what volumes of gas are produced, or used up, in any reaction. Example Nitrogen and hydrogen react to make ammonia. Ammonia is a gas at RTP. The equation for the reaction is: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 From this equation, using values of Ar from Appendix I, we see that: 28g of nitrogen reacts with 6g of hydrogen to give 34g of ammonia. One molecule of nitrogen reacts with three molecules of hydrogen to give two molecules of ammonia. One mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to give two moles of ammonia. At RTP, 24dm3 of nitrogen reacts with 72dm3 of hydrogen to give 48dm3 of ammonia. eskulu.com 32 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. We can use this information to answer several different types of questions. For example, suppose that we wanted to know what is the maximum volume of ammonia which can be made, at RTP, from 56g of nitrogen, here is how we would work it out: 56g of nitrogen = 56g/28g/mol = 2 mol 1 mol nitrogen yields 2 mol ammonia. (1 x 2) 2 mol nitrogen yields 4 mol ammonia. (2 x 2) 1 mol gas at RTP occupies 24dm3. 4 mol occupies (4 x 24) dm3 = 96dm3 Notice that this tells us nothing about the conditions needed to do the reaction, how fast the reaction will happen, or how much gas might be lost. Example Supposing 6dm3 of ammonia were lost and only 90dm3 of ammonia were collected, what was the yield of the reaction? In this case, as we expected to collect 96dm3, the percentage yield is (90dm3/96dm3) x 100 = 93.75% eskulu.com 33 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 4. ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS In every chemical change there is a change of temperature and a flow of heat into or out of the reacting system. Experiment: To observe changes in temperature in chemical reactions, Requirements: Anhydrous calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, test tubes. Both the compounds used are ionic solids. When the solids dissolve in the water, firstly, the ions of the solid become separated from each other. Bonds are broken. Secondly, the water molecules form bonds with the cations forming new chemicals Ca(H2O)n2+ and NH4(H2O)m+. Energy Diagrams In the diagram below, the height above the baseline represents the energy content of the system. The higher the system is in the diagram, the more energy it contains. The separate atoms are high up the scale; the bonded atoms are low down. The separate atoms contain more energy than the bonded atoms. eskulu.com 34 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. If the atoms are to end up in exactly the same state as they began, the loss of energy from the atoms as the bond forms must exactly equal their gain in energy as the bond is broken. Energy is released into the surroundings when bonds form. Energy is gained from the surroundings when bonds are broken. Overall changes In a chemical change, the starting materials (reactants) are used up and new substances (products) are formed. Bonds in the reactants are broken, and bonds in the products are formed. Example Think about the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. Showing the bonds, we can write: 2(H–H)(g) + OO(g) 2(H–O–H)(g) As the reaction goes on, H–H and O=O bonds are broken and bonds between oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms are formed (H–O–H). energy has to be put into the system to break the old bonds, but energy is given out of the system as the new bonds are formed. Measurements of the energies involved show that 436kJ of energy are needed when one mole of hydrogen molecules is broken into atoms and 498kJ of energy are needed when one mole of oxygen molecules is broken into atoms. When one eskulu.com 35 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. mole of water is formed from hydrogen and oxygen atoms, 463kJ of energy are liberated. We can draw an energy diagram for these changes. The diagram below shows that when one mole of water (in the gaseous state) is formed from its elements, more energy is given out than has to be put in. Energy Changes and Heat Content Energy changes in chemical reactions affect heat content. That is why we measure them by observing changes in temperature. To show the energy changes, in an equation, we use the symbol H where means “the change in” and H means “heat content”. Note that the H is in italics to distinguish it from the symbol for hydrogen (H). (Another word for “heat content” is enthalpy, but you do not have to remember this word at this grade.) When heat energy is added to a system, to break bonds, H is positive (+ve). When heat energy is lost from a system because bonds are formed, H is negative (-ve). Example In the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, it shows that 482kJ are lost from the system for every mole of oxygen used. So we can write either: eskulu.com 36 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) – 482 kJ or: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) + H; H = – 482 kJ/mol H = heat content of products minus heat content of reactants. When the heat content goes up, H is positive. When it goes down, H is negative. Hess’s Law It states that the overall energy change in converting reactants to products is the same no matter what route the change takes. The value of H for a reaction is a useful figure; it is measured per mole of reactant under standard conditions, and is called the standard molar heat of the reaction. The standard conditions are usually 298 K and 1.01 x 105 Pa (1 atmosphere). The standard molar heat of a reaction is the heat change per mole of the reaction as specified by a balanced chemical equation. The heat change must be measured under standard conditions. For example we can make copper(II) oxide in several ways; we can heat copper metal in oxygen gas: Cu + O2 CuO + H1 or we can dissolve copper metal in nitric acid to make copper nitrate, then heat he copper nitrate strongly: Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 + H2 Cu(NO3)2 CuO + O2 + 2NO2 + H3 also: 4HNO3 2H2O + 4NO2 + O2 + H4 Using Hess’s law, we can say that: H1 = H 2 + H3 – H4 eskulu.com 37 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 4.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions Exothermic reaction is one in which heat is given out from the chemicals to the surroundings. (The prefix exo means outside). Example Consider the reaction between solid carbon and carbon dioxide to form carbon monoxide: C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g) The energy formed in breaking and forming the bonds is shown below. Step Energy (kJ/mol) Vaporise C(s) 715 Break each (of two) carbon–oxygen bonds (in 804 CO2) Form carbon–oxygen -1076 More energy is required on the left-hand side of the reaction equation, namely; {715 kJ/mol + (2 x 804 kJ/mol)} = 2323 kJ/mol Than is liberated by forming two moles of carbon monoxide: (2 x 1076 kJ/mol) = 2152 kJ/mol H is +171 kJ/mol. We can show this in the equation: C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g); H = +171 kJ/mol Heat has to flow into the system for the reaction to proceed. This is an endothermic reaction. This particular reaction occurs in the special conditions of the blast furnace. (The prefix endo means within). Note: Negative H implies an exothermic reaction. Positive H implies an endothermic reaction. eskulu.com 38 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Spontaneous and non-spontaneous changes If something is hotter than its surroundings, it will lose heat. This happens without us having to do anything about it. Processes like this are called spontaneous processes. These processes happen without any external help or influence. Most exothermic reactions are spontaneous. Once they begin, they go on. Most endothermic processes are not spontaneous. They cannot go on unless something drives them. Photosynthesis is an example of an endothermic process because it needs sunlight to occur. Some endothermic processes are spontaneous. For example ammonium chloride dissolves spontaneously in water. 4.3 Activation Energy The figure below shows how the heat content of a reacting system varies with time, from start to finish. Part (a) shows an exothermic reaction, in which the overall heat content falls. Part (b) shows an endothermic reaction in which the overall heat content goes up. In both cases the reacting system needs to gain energy first, before the final products can be formed. It is as though the system has to climb up an energy hill before it can slide down the other side. The additional energy is called the energy of activation for the reaction. eskulu.com 39 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. CHALLENGING QUESTIONS II Instructions: attempt the following questions before checking the answers. 1 (a) Marble chips react with hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide. The equation for the reaction is CaCO3 + 2HCl o CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2 Which one of these changes would decrease the rate of this reaction? A. use hydrochloric acid which is more dilute. B. use smaller sized marble chips. C. use marble chips which have a larger surface area. D. use a larger volume of the hydrochloric acid. (b) Explain why increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the rate of the reaction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… (c)(i) The rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide can be increased by adding a catalyst. Which of these graphs shows the mass of the catalyst during the reaction? eskulu.com 40 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. (ii) The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2 O2 , produces oxygen and water. Give the balanced equation for this reaction. .................................................................................................................................... (d) Explain, in terms of the energy involved in the breaking of bonds and in the making of bonds, why some reactions are exothermic. Answers: 3(a) A use hydrochloric acid which is more dilute 3(b) An explanation linking two of M1 {particles/reactants/collisions} have more energy (1 mark) M2 more frequent collisions (1 mark) M3 more {productive/successful/effective} collisions (1 mark) (c)(i) C (c)(ii) 2H2O2→ 2H2O + O2 (2 marks) all formulae correct (1 mark) balancing correct formulae(1 marks) eskulu.com 41 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 5. RATE OF REACTION The rate of a reaction is stated in terms of grams per second (g/s), or moles per second (mol/s) of reactant used up or products produced. Because the rate of a reaction often changes as time goes on, we may plot a graph of amount of substance against time. The slope of this graph gives the rate of the reaction, just as the slope of a distance against time graph gives the rate (speed) of a moving object. 5.1 Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction Two chemicals can react together when their particles hit one another. Anything which changes the rate at which particles collide will change the rate at which they react. Speeding up the collision rate will speed up the reaction, and slowing down the collision rate will slow the reaction down. Not every collision will result in a reaction. Unless the particles collide there will be no products. In some collisions there will not be enough energy to break the original chemical bonds and so no new substances can be made. Anything which changes the amount of energy needed to activate the reaction will also change eskulu.com 42 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. the rate of reaction, because a different fraction of the collisions will be successful. We can illustrate this by thinking about a reaction between two compounds A–B and C–D which react according to the equation: A–B + C–D A–C + B–D In this reaction energy will be needed to break the bonds between A and B and those between C and D are formed. Any excess energy will be given off as heat. This is shown below. Not all the colliding particles have the same energy. Some particles are always travelling more quickly than others. In a gentle collision the total energy is not enough to force A–B and C–D into a state from which A–C and B–D can form. The diagram below shows how the energies of the collisions are distributed. A few have only small energies; most have energies near the average; and some have very large energies indeed. eskulu.com 43 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. In the diagram above, the shaded area shows the proportion of collisions which have energies above the energy E shown by the vertical line. Diagram (a) is at a low temperature, and diagram (b) is at a higher temperature. The value of E is the same in both. As the temperature goes up, the proportion of collisions whose total energy is above E goes up. If E is the energy needed to allow the reaction to continue, then at the higher temperature, more reactions become possible. E is called the energy of activation. When the temperature goes up, there are more collisions in a fixed time. When the temperature goes up, a larger fraction of the collisions give a reaction. The rate of reaction is controlled by these factors. a) The concentration of the reactants: The more concentrated the solution is, the closer the reacting particles are. The closer together the particles are, the more often they will collide. So the more concentrated the solution, the faster the rate. The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactant. This is true for every reactant. In general we can say that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentration of the reacting substances. b) Surface area (particle size): The more finely divided a solid reactant is, the more surface area it exposes and the more quickly it reacts. eskulu.com 44 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. c) Temperature: The rate of a chemical reaction increases with increasing temperature. d) Gas pressure. e) Presence of a catalyst: A catalyst is a substance which changes the speed of a chemical reaction but is unchanged in mass at the end of the reaction. Most catalysts speed up the rate of reactions. Some however, slow down the rate of reaction. 5.2 Catalysts in Industry eskulu.com 45 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. A catalyst provides an alternative reaction path with a lower activation energy. 5.3 Reversible Reactions Example: Copper (II) Sulphate crystals contain water chemically bonded to the copper ions. The formula of the crystalline material is CuSO45H2O. When you heat the crystals gently, the bonds between the water and the copper ions are broken and the water is driven off as water vapour. This vapour condenses on the cold parts of the test tube and appears as a colourless liquid. If you collected enough of it you could boil it and measure the boiling point to show that it was indeed water. The solid residue is still copper (II) sulphate (unless you have heated it too strongly) but it is white, not blue. It is called anhydrous copper (II) sulphate because it now has no water in it. When the water mixes once more with the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, the two recombine, giving the original blue hydrated material. Because this is the reverse of the first reaction and the first one was endothermic (took in heat), this is an exothermic reaction (it gives out heat). The reactions you have done are two parts of one reversible reaction. The direction of change of a reversible reaction can be controlled by changing the conditions. We can write one equation which shows both forward and reverse reactions by using a special symbol. CuSO4H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O All reactions are reversible to some extent. eskulu.com 46 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 6. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM 6.1 What is Dynamic Equilibrium? Look at the graphs above. If, after time t, the rate of the forward reaction (A) is higher than the rate of the backward reaction (B), more products are being formed than are being converted back into limestone. So the amount (and the surface area), of the limestone must go on falling, and the rate of the forward reaction falls with it. But less quicklime and carbon dioxide are being reconverted than are being formed, so the rate of the backward reaction must still go up. This is true as long as A is greater than B. Therefore as the forward rate falls and the backward rate goes up the two rates must get closer and closer together. Eventually the two rates will become equal. When this happens, the products are being formed at the same rate as they are being reconverted. The reactants are eskulu.com 47 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. being used up at the same rate as they are being re-formed. So the concentrations of the reactants and the products no longer change. It is as though the reaction has stopped, though in reality the forward and the backward reactions are still going on. When this happens, and no further change can be detected in the system a state of dynamic equilibrium has been reached. A reacting system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to that of the backward reaction. In a reacting system which is in dynamic equilibrium no further change can be detected. This does not mean that when a system is in dynamic equilibrium the products and reactants are present in equal amounts or concentrations. Look at the diagram below which shows graphs of rate against time for three separate types of reaction. The first case (a) shows a reaction in which the forward reaction goes on very quickly but the backward reaction goes on slowly. In this case the reactants are used up almost entirely long before the reverse reaction can have much effect. eskulu.com 48 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The system comes to equilibrium but the reactants have almost gone and only products are present in any concentration. The second case (b) shows a reaction in which the forward and backward reactions have nearly the same rate throughout. This time there will be similar concentrations of reactants and products in the equilibrium mixture. The third case (c) shows the opposite of (a). The backward reaction is fast, and so the reactants are re-formed almost as soon as they are used up. When equilibrium is reached, there will only be small concentrations of products in the mixture. An equilibrium mixture may contain mostly reactants, or a mixture of both. 6.2 Industrial Applications Sulphuric Acid Production – The Contact Process Sulphuric acid is made from sulphur. Sulphur dioxide SO2 is made by burning the sulphur or by roasting a sulphide mineral such as iron pyrites in air. The sulphur dioxide is then oxidised to form sulphur (VI) oxide SO3. Sulphur (VI) oxide is a white solid at room temperature but at the temperature of the Contact process it is a gas. The gas can be dissolved in water but the reaction is so violent that instead it is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to give an oily, super-concentrated product called oleum H2S2O7. Water is then added to the oleum giving sulphuric acid. eskulu.com 49 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The equations for the Contact process reactions are: 1) 2) 3) 4) S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g); H-ve H2O(l) + 2SO(g) H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) It is exothermic. It must use a catalyst that passes through a converter containing vanadium (v) oxide V2O5. In this process, a high yield is produced by high pressure and low temperature. Ammonia Production – The Haber Process Nitric acid and nitrates are important in the manufacture of fertilisers and explosives. It can be made from ammonia which in turn can be made from nitrogen and hydrogen. The Haber process for ammonia manufacture is based on the reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g); H-ve This reaction is also exothermic – it gives out heat as it goes. Nitrogen is obtained from the air, while Hydrogen is obtained from methane (natural gas). The three conditions needed for this process are; A catalyst of pure iron with a trace of added aluminium oxide. A temperature of about 400C Pressure of 250 atmospheres. In the Haber process a high equilibrium yield is produced by low temperature and high pressure. eskulu.com 50 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 7. FUELS 7.1 What is a Fuel? It is a substance which burns in air to provide us with useful energy. Carbon burns in air to form either carbon monoxide (if the air supply is limited, which is known as incomplete combustion) and carbon dioxide (if the air is plentiful, which is known as complete combustion). The equations are: 2C + O2 2CO incomplete combustion C + O2 CO2 complete combustion What makes a Fuel Good? It’s availability. Yield as much heat as possible. Avoidance of unpleasant fumes when it is burnt. Easy to handle. Be cheap. Heat of Combustion The heat of combustion of a fuel is the total amount of heat released when one mole of the fuel is completely burned in air or oxygen. eskulu.com 51 ESKULU.COM Heats of combustion Substance Carbon (s) Coal (s)* Ethanol (l) Hydrogen (g) Propane (g) Wood (s)* *Average values. STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Heat of combustion (kJ/mol) 394 280 1370 286 2200 540 Heat of combustion (kJ/g) 32.8 23 29.8 143.0 50.0 18 7.2 Fossil Fuels These are fuels that were formed a long time ago and cannot be replaced. They are finite resources. Burning fossil fuels adds carbon dioxide to the air. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas – it helps to trap heat which would otherwise leak out into space by radiation. The use of fossil fuels causes climatic change. 7.3 Fractional Distillation of Petroleum Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small amounts of other substances. Crude oil cannot be used in its natural state as it comes from the Earth. It must be separated into fractions each containing a much smaller range of compounds. The range chosen depends on the intended use of the fuel. The separation is done by fractional distillation. A fraction consists of a mixture of chemicals with similar boiling points. In distillation, a liquid is heated to its boiling point to turn it into a vapour. The vapour is collected and cooled to turn it back into a liquid. In the process any material, dissolved in the liquid, which cannot easily be vaporised, is left behind. Simple distillation is used to purify a liquid by removing non-valuable impurities. The liquid being purified turns into vapour; the impurities do not. eskulu.com 52 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. In fractional distillation we heat a mixture of two or more volatile liquids, each with its own boiling point and then cool the vapour progressively. The liquids with high boiling points condense before the liquids with low boiling points. The liquids are separated. Fractional Distillation in the Laboratory The diagram above shows the laboratory apparatus for fractional distillation. A long tube, packed with small pieces of glass, is fitted vertically between the top of the flask and the condenser. This is called the fractionating column. As the flask is heated the vapour rises up the column and condenses. If the flask is not heated very strongly the temperature of the top of the column (heated by the condensing vapour) never reaches the boiling point of the liquid and no vapour gets to the outlet. eskulu.com 53 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. As the flask is heated more strongly more vapour condenses in the fractionating column, which heats up from the bottom upwards. The part near the flask is always hotter than the part near the top. A temperature gradient has been set up in the column. Eventually the temperature at the top of the column rises enough that light molecule vapour flows out and down to the condenser. However the temperature in the lower part of the column is below the boiling point of the heavier molecules so they condense there and drop back into the flask as shown in the diagram. When all the light molecules have been distilled over nothing more happens until extra heat is supplied to the flask when the column heats up further and the next liquid can be distilled off. Eventually only one liquid is left in the flask. Fractional Distillation in Industry Fractional distillation is also used in the petroleum industry to separate the main constituents of crude oil, on a larger scale. The oil is vaporised and the vapour passed into a fractionating column. This is like a laboratory column but is made in such a way that liquids of different boiling points collect in trays in the column and the gas continually bubbles through these liquid fractions. The arrangement of trays and the bubble caps which cover them. The gas from the top of the column contains ethane, propane and butane. It is used as a fuel either directly or liquefied. Some is used to produce ethene (C2H4) which is a valuable synthetic chemical. The naphtha is mainly used to produce synthetic chemicals. The petrol contains molecules with five to ten carbon atoms. It is used directly as a fuel for cars and vans and also after the process of cracking to make other chemicals. eskulu.com 54 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The kerosene (paraffin) fraction contains hydrocarbons with eleven and twelve carbon atoms and is used as aviation fuel and for domestic heating systems. The residue is used to make bitumen which is used to surface roads and make waterproofing materials. 7.4 Alternative Energy Sources As resources diminish and people become more aware of the effects on their environment which burning fossil fuels can have, other sources of energy are being developed. Nuclear Energy Nuclear fission is now widely used. The light isotope of uranium (235U) is unusual. If it is struck by a neutron it breaks up into smaller nuclei and gives out more neutrons. This is called fission. Each of the neutrons can then go on to strike more nuclei and cause more fissions. In every fission a tiny amount of mass is lost. This mass is actually turned into energy. This differs from a conventional chemical reaction in which the total mass remains the same. The law of conversation of mass states that in a chemical reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed. However, when a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei some matter is converted into energy. Every time a 235U nucleus breaks up energy is released because the bonds which hold the components of the fission fragment nuclei together are stronger than the bonds which held the components of the uranium nucleus together. The amounts of energy which are released are enormous because the relationship between mass lost and energy produced is: E = mc2 eskulu.com 55 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. where E is the energy released (in joules), m is the mass lost (in kilograms) and c is the velocity of light (in metres per second). Chemical Energy Sources Chemically, several alternative sources are available. Coal can be gasified. In one process the coal is heated, in the absence of air, to produce useful chemicals, hydrogen gas and methane. The charred residue – coke – is then heated with steam at a high temperature, to form a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen: C + H2O CO + H2 Some countries now produce fuels from biomass. Biomass includes all plant and animal material. For example sugar can be grown as an energy crop. It can be fermented to give ethanol: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Animal waste can be digested, in the absence of air and in the presence of bacteria which decompose it, to form methane. Produced in this way methane is called biogas. 7.5 Chemicals from Petroleum Some of the products from the fractional distillation of crude oil are not directly marketable. They can be changed into different more marketable molecules by cracking. In steam cracking the unwanted fraction is heated and mixed with steam. The mixture is passed into a furnace. At high temperatures the molecules decompose and a mixture, consisting mostly of ethene and propene, is produced. Ethene and propene are valuable synthetic chemicals. For example they form the basis (the feedstock) for making plastics by polymerisation. eskulu.com 56 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Catalytic cracking is a process applied to the heavier fractions. The large molecules are heated strongly. They break up into fragments. In the presence of a suitable catalyst the fragments join up again into smaller, more valuable molecules. Heavy oils, for example, can be changed into petrols by this process. eskulu.com 57 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 8. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 8.1 Oxygen and Hydrogen Oxygen is a reactive element. Most metals and most non-metals, except the noble gases, combine with oxygen to form one or more oxides. A substance is oxidised when oxygen is combined with it or when hydrogen is removed from it. A substance is reduced when hydrogen is combined with it or when oxygen is removed from it. Examples of oxidation and reduction include: Magnesium is oxidised since it has combined with oxygen. 2Mg + O2 2MgO Copper (II) oxide is reduced since it has lost oxygen. CuO + H2 Cu + H2O Sulphur is reduced since it has combined with hydrogen 8H2 + S8 8H2S In the decomposition of ammonia, ammonia is oxidised since it has lost hydrogen. 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 8.2 Electron Loss and Electron Gain According to the definition a substance is oxidised when it reacts with oxygen to form its oxide, for example when magnesium burns in oxygen: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) eskulu.com 58 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. the product, magnesium oxide, is ionic. We could write an ionic equation (without state symbols, to be clearer): 2Mg + O2 2Mg2+ + 2O2- (1) Magnesium will burn in chlorine. The product is magnesium chloride. It is also ionic. The ionic equation for the reaction (again leaving out the state symbols) is: Mg + Cl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl- (2) In each of the reactions the magnesium atoms have lost electrons and become positively charged ions. If the first case is called oxidation then the second must be called oxidation also. The electrons which have been lost from the magnesium atoms have been transferred to the other reagent (the oxygen in one case, the chlorine in the other). It is as though the two reagents competed for the electrons and the magnesium lost. Losing electrons is called being oxidised; gaining electrons is called being reduced. This leads to a new definition of oxidation and reduction. A substance is oxidised when it loses one or more electrons. A substance is reduced when it gains one or more electrons. Silver metal reacts with sulphur to form black silver sulphide. (This type of reaction, which makes the silver lose its polish, is called tarnishing.) the equation for the reaction is: 2Ag(s) + S(s) Ag2S(s) or ionically: 2Ag + S 2Ag+ + S2- eskulu.com 59 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The silver atoms have been oxidised because they have lost electrons. The sulphur atoms have been reduced because they have gained electrons. In these reactions there is no overall loss or gain of electrons. The electrons removed from one reagent must be added to another one. There cannot be an oxidation reaction unless something is reduced at the same time, and vice-versa. So this type of reaction is often called a redox reaction. Redox is short for reduction – oxidation. Oxidation and reduction must take place together. In a redox reaction the reagent which causes the oxidation is called the oxidising agent. The reagent which causes the reduction is called the reducing agent. Note that because the oxidising agent causes the oxidation causes the oxidation (removes electrons) it itself is reduced because it accepts them. Similarly the reducing agent gives up electrons and is itself oxidised. Oxidation Loss of electrons Oxidising agent Gains electrons, is reduced Reduction Gain of electrons Reducing agent Loses electrons, is oxidised Halogens can react with each other’s ions. These reactions can be done by dissolving the reagents in water and mixing the solutions. Fluoride ion Chloride ion Bromide ion Iodide ion Fluorine Chlorine x Bromine x x Iodine x x x - Look at the reaction between chlorine gas and bromide ions. We can write an ionic equation for this reaction: eskulu.com 60 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq) The chlorine gas has gained electrons from the bromide ions. The bromide ions have lost electrons and become bromine. This means that the chlorine gas acted as an oxidising agent. But when bromine gas was tested against chloride ions, there was no reaction. Bromine, although a strong enough oxidising agent to oxidise iodide ions, was not a strong enough oxidising agent to take electrons from the chloride ions. From the table above you can see that only fluorine can do that. Therefore fluorine is a stronger oxidising agent than bromine. Some oxidising agents are stronger than others. The halogen order of their oxidising power is as follows: Iodine Bromine Chlorine Fluorine Least powerful Oxidising agent Most powerful Investigating the reducing power of some metals Three metals are used namely; copper, iron and magnesium Adding electrons to hydrogen ions produces hydrogen atoms which bond together to make hydrogen gas. The hydrogen ions are reduced by the metal atoms. Magnesium and iron reduce the hydrogen ions to hydrogen. The equations for the reactions are: Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(aq) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(aq) With iron and with magnesium a colourless gas is given off. This gas is hydrogen. With copper metal no gas is given off. There is no reaction. Therefore copper is a worse reducing agent than either iron or magnesium. eskulu.com 61 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. The reaction with magnesium is much more vigorous than the reaction with the iron. This suggests that magnesium is a more powerful reducing agent than iron. The three metals can be written in order of their reducing power, as follows: Magnesium Iron Copper Most powerful Reducing agent Least powerful The reactivity series of the metals towards water Metal Reducing power Sodium Best reducing agent Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Hydrogen Copper Silver Worst reducing agent Metals and Their ores Name of ore Metal Contained Cinnabar Mercury Zinc blende Zinc Haematite Iron Chalcopyrite Copper Bauxite Aluminium Metal Compound Mercury (II) sulphide Zinc sulphide Iron (II) oxide Copper (II) iron (II) sulphide Aluminium oxide Metal Ion(s) Hg2+ Zn2+ Fe3+ Cu2+Fe2+ Al3+ eskulu.com 62 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Redox Processes in Metal Production Metal compound Reducing Process agent Mercury (II) None Heat in air sulphide Zinc sulphide Carbon Heat Iron (III) oxide Carbon monoxide Copper (II) Sulphur in sulphide the ore Aluminium oxide Electrons (from oxide ions) Reduced product Mercury Zinc Heat Iron Heat with oxygen Electrolysis Copper Aluminium Oxidised product Sulphur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide Sulphur dioxide Oxygen (becomes CO2) 8.3 Reactions Involving Redox Corrosion Corrosion occurs when a metal is oxidised. In some cases the corrosion is only a nuisance when silver tarnishes in an atmosphere containing sulphur. 2Ag(s) + S(g) Ag2S(s) The silver sulphide is black but can be removed by polishing the metal with a mild abrasive. In other cases corrosion leads to severe weakening of the metal and is both difficult and expensive to prevent. An example is the rusting of iron. When iron rusts it forms a compound which is a mixed oxide-hydroxide. Experiment: To investigate the rusting of iron Requirements Clean iron plate about 10cm square, dilute salt solution, ferroxyl indicator, dilute solutions of sodium hydroxide and iron (II) sulphate. eskulu.com 63 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. After a while the plate looks like the one shown above. The red areas indicate the presence of an alkali namely the presence of excess hydroxide ions in the solution. The 2+ blue areas indicate the presence of iron (II) (Fe ) ions in the solution. The brown ring formed last. It is rust, formed by the other two ions coming together. Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 this is then oxidised further: Fe(OH)2 + OH- Fe(OH)3 Brown solid Rusting of iron needs moisture and oxygen. At first iron atoms pass into solution as Fe2+ ions quite randomly. Random blue areas are seen. The electrons are liberated from the iron atoms: Fe Fe2+ + 2e- (1) The electrons travel to the outside of the drop where oxygen from the air is available. They react with water and oxygen to make negatively-charged hydroxide ions. 2H2O + O2 4e- 4OH- (2) After a short time reaction 1 only goes on in the centre of the drop of solution, in places away from the oxygen. Reaction 2 can only go on at the edges of the drop, where oxygen is available. The production of rust goes on between these two other areas. It needs both Fe2+ and OH- ions. Anything which will stop either reaction 1 or reaction 2 will prevent the rust forming. Rusting needs oxygen (to form OH- ions), a clean iron surface (to eskulu.com 64 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. release iron ions) and water (to transport the ions). Removing any one of these will stop rusting. Corrosion Prevention 1. Painting – paint prevents the access of water and oxygen as long as the paint is not scratched. If the paint is scratched, rusting is rapid because the rust forces its way under the exposed edges of the paint and pushes it off. 2. Oil or grease. 3. Rust preventer – usually a solution containing phosphate ions which form insoluble iron phosphates on the metal surface and stop iron ions passing into solution. This can be used as a primer under paint, or where paint has become scratched and is being repaired. 4. Galvanising – this means that the iron is dipped into molten zinc so that a thin layer of zinc is deposited on the iron surface. Zinc is more easily oxidised than iron so the electrons needed to form the hydroxide ions come from the zinc, not the iron. 5. Sacrificial protection- using another metal to protect the other from rusting. eskulu.com 65 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 9. ELECTROLYSIS 9.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes Electrolytes are very often salts. A salt is formed when some or all of the hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced by a metal. Salts are made up of an array of positively charged metal ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) arranged in a crystal lattice. The relative numbers of cations and anions make the lattice electrically neutral. For example sodium chloride, NaCl is made up of sodium ions, Na+ and chloride ions, Cl-. In sodium chloride the ions are present in equal numbers (1:1). Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 is made up of sodium ions, Na+ and sulphate ions,SO42-. In sodium sulphate there are two sodium ions to one sulphate ion (2:1). The ions in a solid salt cannot move. If the salt is melted or made into a solution, the ions separate from each other. In molten salt the ions stay close together but in solution they become separated by large numbers of solvent molecules. (See diagram below.) When an electric current flows through a liquid, producing a chemical change, the process is called electrolysis. The electrode connected to the positive side of the DC supply is called the positive electrode or anode; the electrode connected to the negative side of the DC supply is called the negative electrode or cathode. eskulu.com 66 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 9.2 Mechanism of Electrical Transfer When two electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and connected to a DC source, an electric field is produced. The ions in the liquid interact with the electrical field and experience a force accelerating them towards the electrode of the opposite sign and repelled by the electrode of the same sign. The current pushes the electrons around the circuit. As the ions move towards the electrodes they have to push through the solvent molecules which surround them. Small ions can move faster through the solution than big ions. When a positive ion reaches the negative electrode (cathode) it takes electrons away from the electrode. When a negative ion reaches the positive electrode it gives up electrons into the electron holes on the positive electrode (anode). In both cases the ions lose their overall charge and become neutral. As many electrons are taken from the negative electrode (cathode) as are given to the positive electrode (anode).(See the next figure) When the ions have lost their charge at the electrodes they may become atoms which are stable, like the copper atom below. They may become atoms (or groups of atoms) which are not stable and react further. The chlorine atoms shown eskulu.com 67 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. forming below are an example. Chlorine atoms cannot exist alone. They combine to form chlorine gas. Each half of an electrolytic cell can be regarded as separate from the other. The reaction which takes place at an electrode is called a half-cell reaction. The half-cell reaction which occurs at the negative electrode (cathode) involves the donation of electrons from the cathode to the ions reacting. This is a reduction reaction. The ion reacting at the cathode is reduced. At the positive electrode (anode) the ion gives up electrons to the electrode. This is an oxidation reaction. The ion reacting at the anode is oxidised. The overall chemical changes which take place during electrolysis can be found by adding together the reactions which go on at the separate electrodes. So for the example above: At the negative electrode (cathode): Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) At the positive electrode (anode): 2Cl- 2e- Cl2(g) eskulu.com 68 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Overall: Cu2+ + 2Cl- Cu(s) + Cl2(g) Electrolytic and metallic conduction In an electrolytic cell the current is carried through the cell by ions of both charges. At the electrodes, chemical changes take place. In metallic conduction the current is carried everywhere in the circuit by electrons. There are no chemical changes in the metallic conductor. In both cases there is heating effect. 9.3 Examples in the laboratory Experiment 1: To observe the products of the electrolysis of water At the negative electrode, hydrogen gas was produced. When ignited the gas burns with an almost invisible flame. In this experiment there is always some air eskulu.com 69 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. in with the hydrogen and the gas mixture burns very quickly with a shrill “pop”. This is used as a test for hydrogen. At the positive electrode, oxygen gas was produced. Air contains only 20 per cent of oxygen – enough to allow a charred splint to glow. In the pure gas the higher concentration of oxygen makes the glowing splint burn much more quickly and it burns into flame again. This is used as a test for oxygen. The water has been electrolysed into hydrogen and oxygen: 2H2O 2H2O2 9.4 The Faraday Constant The coulomb (C) is the unit of electrical charge. When an electrical current of one ampere (A) flows for one second, one coulomb of charge flows round the circuit: Coulombs = amperes x seconds 1C = 1As Just as we can have one mole of atoms or ions or molecules so we can have one mole of electrons. Knowing the charge on one electron (1.602 x 10-19C) and the value of the Avogadro constant we can calculate the charge on one mole of electrons. The charge on one mole of electrons is equal to the charge on one electron multiplied by the Avogadro constant, namely: 1.602 x 10-19 C x 6.022 x 1023 = 9.65 x 104C This quantity, the amount of charge carried by one mole of electrons, is called the Faraday constant (F). Electrolysis is used in aluminium production and in electroplating. eskulu.com 70 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 10. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 10.1 Proton Donors and Acceptors Acids react with bases to give a salt and water only. Salts are substances formed when the hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metal ions or by ammonium ions from a base: acid + base salt + water An acid can only exist in aqueous solution. It is the solution which is acidic rather than the parent compound even though we speak loosely of nitric acid or sulphuric acid. An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton acceptor. 10.2 Salts and their Preparation Salts A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal ions or by ammonium ions. Each acid gives rise to a series of salts named by the anion which they contain. Hydrochloric acid gives chlorides (sodium chloride, ammonium chloride). Nitric acid gives nitrates (barium nitrate, copper nitrate). Sulphuric acid gives sulphates (silver sulphate, iron (II) sulphate). Phosphoric acid gives phosphates (sodium phosphate, ammonium phosphate). Salts which contain no replaceable hydrogen are called normal salts. Salts which contain replaceable hydrogen are called acid salts (because when that hydrogen is replaced they are acting like an acid). eskulu.com 71 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Methods of salt preparation There are a number of different methods of salt preparation. Most (but not all) involve the reaction between an acid and a base. These are shown below. Methods of salt preparation from acids and bases Acid Dilute mineral acid (*) Dilute mineral acid (*) Dilute mineral acid (**) Base Metal Insoluble metal oxide or hydroxide Alkali Mineral acid (**) Metal carbonate Concentrated mineral acid Any of the above Notes Not all metals react Includes ammonium salts Gives off carbon dioxide May be vigorous, not normally used The steps involved depend largely on the solubilities of the reagents and products. In general terms they are as follows. 1. (a) Neutralise the acid with an excess of the other reactant and filter off any excess solid reagent (marked * in the table), (b) exactly neutralise the acid with the other reagent, (** in the table). 2. Evaporate the solution to the crystallisation point. 3. Cool to produce crystals of the salt. 4. Filter, wash and dry the crystals. Salt Preparation by Neutralising an Acid with a Metal When a metal reacts with an acid the atoms of the metal become ions, and the hydrogen ions from the acid become hydrogen atoms which join together to form hydrogen molecules. The hydrogen comes off as a gas. Most metals have a valency of two; we can use the symbol M for any metal and write a general equation: eskulu.com 72 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. M(s) + 2H+(aq) M 2+(aq) + 2H H + H H2 Preparation of a Crystaline Salt by Neutralising an Acid with Excess Base Information Copper (II) oxide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid according to the rquation: CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Explanation As the oxide dissolves, the solution changes colour. The blue colour of the Cu2+(aq) ion appears. If the crystals, which contain water of crystallisation, had been evapourated to dryness, the water would have been driven off and some decomposition would have taken place. The copper(II) oxide had all been removed in the filter and the only other product of the reaction was water so there was no need to rinse the crystals. Salt Preparation by Precipitation (Double Decomposition) Insoluble salts can be made by mixing solutions containing their separate ions. They process is called double decompostiotion. eskulu.com 73 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Pb(NO3)2 + H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2HNO3 Pb+ + 2NO3- + 2H+ + SO42- PbSO4(s) + 2H+ + 2NO3- 10.3 Titrations To get more accurate results of a quantity of a salt we perform a titration. Using a Titration to Prepare a Salt Requirements: Hydrochloric acid (1.0 mol/dm3), sodium hydroxide solution (about 2 mol/dm3) bromothymol blue or other suitable indicator, pipette of suitable volume (10, 20, or 25cm3), burette and stand, dropper, conical flask or beaker (about 100cm3). Method: (Refer to page XXXX) 1. Titrate 20cm3 of base solution with acid. 2. Note the volume of acid needed. 3. Work out the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution. 4. Work out the volume of base solution you will need to give the desired mass of salt. 5. From your titration value, work out what volume of acid will be needed exactly to neutralize this volume of base. 6. Mix the two solutions and evaporate until crystals begin to form 7. Set the dish aside to crystalise, then filter off the product. *Use titration to prepare a salt when both acid and base are soluble in water.* eskulu.com 74 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Calculation Method for Titrations 1. Calculate the number of moles of acid added from the volume used and known concentration. 2. From the equation for the reaction work out how many moles of alkali will react with this number of moles of acid. 3. Work out the concentration of alkali solution. Example This is based on using a 20cm3 pipette. The volume of acid required is shown in the table below. Rough titration Starting volume (cm3) Final volume (cm3) Added Volume(cm3) 0.4 First accurate titration 22.4 Second accurate titration 0.6 22.4 42.0 20.2 20.0 19.6 19.6 1. Volume of acid needed is 19.6cm3. Concentration of acid is 1.0mol/ dm3. Therefore moles of acid are = 0.0196𝑚𝑜𝑙 19.6 1000𝑑𝑚3 × 1.0𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3 2. The equation is: 2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O so one mole of acid reacts with two moles of alkali so (0.0196 x 2) mol of alkali were present = 0.0392 mol alkali 3. The volume of alkali was 20cm3 so 1 cm3 of alkali contained (0.0392/20) mol, therefore eskulu.com 75 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 1000cm3 (1dm3) contained (0.0392/20) mol x 1000 = 1.96mol The value of Mr for NaOH is (23 + 16 + 1) = 40 Therefore 1 mol NaOH contains 40g. 1.96mol contains 1.96g X 40g/mol = 78.4g and the concentration is 78.4g/dm3 10.4 Hydrolysis of Salts Reactions with Water Water is a reactive chemical. A reaction involving splitting a chemical has a name ending –lysis; when this is done by water the process is called hydrolysis. Acids and bases react to form salts and water. This process can be reversed. When this happens we say that the salt has been hydrolysed. Hydrolysis is the reaction of an ion or a molecule with water. When crystals of a salt are dissolved in water the salt may be hydrolysed. As a result, the solution may be acidic, neutral or alkaline. Equilibrium in Hydrolysis Reactions Weak acids and alkalis ionise to only a small extent when in solution in water. Most of the dissolved material is in the form of molecules. eskulu.com 76 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. Weak CH3COOH(aq) Ethanoic Acid Strong HCl(aq) Hydrochloric acid in solution Alkali CH3COOH NH3(aq) Ammonia solution H+, ClNaOH(aq) Sodium Hydroxide Solution in solution NH4OH Na+, OH- Acid Strong acid, weak base: H+ + A- + BOH ⇌ B+ + A- + H2O Weak acid, strong base: HA + B+ + OH- ⇌ B+ + A- + H2O Strong acid, strong base: H+ + OH- ⇌ H2O Weak acid, weak base: HA + BOH ⇌ BA + H2O These are reversible reactions. To see the effect of dissolving the salt in water look at each one in turn from right to left. (in reverse) The salt of a strong acid and weak base reacts with water to give an acidic solution because of the ionised acid and the unionised base. The salt of a weak acid and strong base reacts with water to give an alkaline solution because of the ionised base and the unionised acid. The salt of a strong acid and strong base reacts with water to give a neutral solution because of the equal number of H+ and OH- ions. We cannot give any predictions about the salt of a weak acid and a weak base. eskulu.com 77 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 10.5 Identifying anions Test Carbonate (CO3 2-) add dilute hydrochloric acid to solution of CO3 Chloride (Cl-) Add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid Nitrate (NO3-) To solid salt add sodium hydroxide solution and heat gently Sulphate (SO42-) Add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid (to prevent precipitation of barium cabonate) Reagent Positive observation Dilute hydrochloric acid Colourless gas which first turns lime water milky and then clear again Silver nitrate solution(about 0.1 mol/dm3) White precipitate (which turns purple in the light) Devarda’s alloy (or aluminium powder) Colourless gas which turns damp red litmus paper blue (the gas is ammonia) Barium chloride solution (about 0.1 mol/dm3) White precipitate eskulu.com 78 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. 10.6 Identifying Cations eskulu.com 79 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. eskulu.com 80 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS. References pixabay.com physicsandmathstutor.com Curriculum development Centre’s chemistry 10 – macmillan Zambia Scullion Family chemistry material Wikimedia Commons eskulu.com 81