11th and 12th GRADE - GRAMMAR NOTES
#1
SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT
Subject: WHO or WHAT the sentence is about
Singular Subject = Singular Verb
Plural Subject = Plural Verb
2 or more nouns/pronouns joined with and = plural.
2 or more nouns/pronouns joined with or or nor = use the one closest to the verb
always singular:
each
each one
either
neither
everyone
everybody
anybody
anyone
nobody
somebody
someone
no one
In sentences beginning with there is, there was, there are, and there were the subject follows the verb.
Verbs:
1. Action
2. Helping verbs: must be followed by a main verb
am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been, has, have, had, having, do, does, did
can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would
#2
PREPOSITIONS:
Subjects and Verbs are NEVER in prepositional phrases!
(Watch out for phrases that come between the subject and verb!)
prepositions:
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
at
as
#3
to + verb = infinitive
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
but (except)
by
concerning
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
last
like
near
next to
of
off
on
onto
out
outside
over
past
since
through
throughout
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
within
without
CAPITALIZATION:
1st Word in Sentence
The Word I (Never use the lower case I as a word!)
Proper Nouns (Specific Person, Place, or Thing)
Titles: First and Last Word/Any Other Important Words
#4
APOSTROPHES:
A. contractions: missing letters
Ex. can't, don't, couldn't
B. shows ownership (possession)
Ex. Asia's shoes, person's picture, the flashlight's battery
#5
COMMAS:
A. listing - 3 or more things
Ex. He runs, jumps, and dives.
B. between cities and states
Ex. Temple, Georgia
*If the sentence continues, add a comma after the state also.
Ex. Kevin has lived in Temple, Georgia, all of his life.
C. between dates
Ex. May 25, 2017
*If the sentence continues, add a comma after the year also.
Ex. Graduation will be on May 25, 2019, unless the date is changed.
D. after transition words
Ex. Therefore, learning is important.
E. to set off additional information
Ex. Kevin, the quarterback of the football team, made an excellent pass.
F. to set off a phrase or dependent clause that begins a sentence
Ex. If I study for my test, I will have a better chance of passing.
G. to shift between the main discourse and a quotation
Ex. She was glaring at me when she said, “That is my book.”
Ex. “That is my book,” she stated.
H. joining clauses
Clause = Subject + Verb
Independent Clause (IC)
Independent clauses are joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
coordinating conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Dependent Clause (DC)
Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.
subordinating conjunctions:
after
because
although
before
as
even if
as if
even though
as long as
how
as much as
if
as soon as
inasmuch
as though
in order that
now that
provided (that)
since
so that
though
till
unless
until
relative pronouns:
who whom
which
whomever
whoever
Basic Clause Patterns
IC, cc IC.
Ex. School is important, and you must work hard.
IC; IC.
Ex. School is important; you must work hard.
IC. IC.
Ex. School is important. You must work hard.
DC, IC.
Ex. Because school is important, you must work hard.
IC DC.
Ex. You must work hard because school is important.
when
whenever
where
wherever
while
whichever
that
#6
PUNCTUATION WITH TITLES:
Books or Books
Epic Poems or Epic Poems
Plays or Plays
Newspaper or Newspaper
Magazine or Magazine
Series or Series
Movie or Movie
Album or Album
CD or CD
"Short Stories"
"Lyrical Poems"
"Acts"
"Article"
“Article"
"Episode"
"Scene"
“Song”
“Song”
#7
COLONS:
A. introduce an item or a series of items after a complete thought
Ex. You are required to bring many supplies: notebook, pen, and paper.
B. following the salutation of a business letter
Ex. Dear Ms. Rodriquez:
#8
SEMI-COLONS:
A. Join related independent clauses
Ex. Employers expect you to have general knowledge of grammar rules; it
ensures good writing.
B. to avoid confusion with complicated lists
Ex. On a Harley motorcycle, my grandmother and her poodle have
traveled to Anchorage, Alaska; San Francisco, California; and Tijuana,
Mexico.
#9
HYPHENS:
A. when 2 adjectives depend on one another before a noun/pronoun
Ex. well-known artist, off-campus apartment
B. compound numbers
Ex. thirty-six, eighty-one
#10
DASHES (longer than hyphens):
comma with drama – only when comma is used to add additional or optional
information
Ex. You have to read outside of class – this is English.
Ex. He won the election – not by a lot – but he did win.
#11
TRANSITION WORDS
To introduce related ideas:
Also
In addition
As well as
Likewise
Similarly
Moreover
Furthermore
To introduce examples:
For instance
For example
In support of this idea
In fact
An example of this is
To introduce contrasting ideas:
However
Although
Nevertheless
On the other hand
Instead
Even so
Conversely
To offer a summary or conclusion:
Thus
Therefore
As a result
In sum
After all
All in all
#12
SYMBOLS to use when QUOTING information:
. . . = something left out
[ ] = changes or additions
/ = change in lines of verse (poems/songs)
#13
PLURAL AND POSSESSIVE NOUNS
Singular Noun
(one)
Plural Noun
(more than one)
Singular ownership
(one)
Plural ownership
(more than one)
lady
boy
man
school
diamond
arm
ship
truck
child
the twenty ladies
all the boys
ten men
five schools
six diamonds
two arms
six ships
three red trucks
children
lady’s coat
boy’s book
man’s watch
school’s gym
the diamond’s glow
the left arm’s muscles
the ship’s cargo
my truck’s windows
child’s toys
ladies’ coats
boys’ books
men’s watches
schools’ gyms
diamonds’ value
the arms’ shapes are
the six ships’ cargo
all the trucks’ tires
children’s toys