RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without
research in almost if not all human endeavors. In government, in
education, in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of
industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore, the
methods and techniques must be taught and learned in graduate
as well as in undergraduate educational work. This is imperative
because the people who have gone through the college and
graduate levels of education are the ones who are most
expected to undertake research activities.
Due to the reasons above, it is the purpose of this lessons to
make the study of research methods and techniques as well as
thesis writing easier, more practical and understandable but
comprehensive enough.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW DO YOU DEFINE RESEARCH?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW DO YOU DEFINE RESEARCH?
• “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry” (Good, p. 464)
• “systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem.”
(Aquino, p. 1)
• “the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific
problem in a scientific manner” (Manuel and Medel, p.5)
• “systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering
questions posed by the researcher” (Parel ; Cited by Sanchez, p.2)
• “An attempt to gain solutions to problems” (Treece and Treece, p. 3)
Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a
purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing,
classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a
problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the
expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES AND GOALS
OF RESEARCH?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES AND GOALS OF RESEARCH?
The main or principal purpose of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality
of human life.
For more specific purposes and goals of research, the following may be mentioned:
1. To discover new facts about known phenomena
2. To find answers to problems which are partially solved by existing methods and information.
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
4. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements.
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements.
6. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in
other undertakings.
8. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
9. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.
10. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon.
11. To expand or verify existing knowledge.
12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products.
13. To promote health and prolong life.
14. To provide man with more of his basic needs.
15. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier and more comfortable.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW DO YOU CHARACTERIZE A
GOOD RESEARCH?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW DO YOU CHARACTERIZE A GOOD RESEARCH?
SYSTEMATIC. Follows an orderly and sequential procedure
CONTROLLED. All variables are kept constant
EMPIRICAL. All data are perceived in the same manner by all observers
ANALYTICAL. There is a critical analysis of all data
OBJECTIVE,UNBIASED AND LOGICAL. Conclusions are logically based on empirical data
EMPLOYS QUANTITATIVE OR STATISTICAL METHODS. Data are transformed into numerical measures
ORIGINAL WORK. Data are gathered from primary sources
DONE BY AN EXPERT. Uses valid and carefully designed procedures.
ACCURATE INVESTIGATION, OBSERVATION AND DESCRIPTION. Must be done accurately
PATIENT AND UNHURRIED ACTIVITY. To ensure accuracy
REQUIRES AN EFFORT-MAKING CAPACITY. Conducted with exertion of much effort.
REQUIRES COURAGE. Researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW ARE RESEARCH AND
PROBLEM-SOLVING DIFFERENTIATED?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW ARE RESEARCH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING DIFFERENTIATED?
RESEARCH
1. There may not be a problem.
2. A research problem is more
rigorous and broader.
3. The research problem is not
necessarily defined specifically.
4. All research is intended to solve
some kind of problem, but this is
not the primary aim.
5. Research is conducted not
primarily to solve a problem but
to make a contribution to
general knowledge
6. Research is concerned with broad
problems, recurrent phenomena,
and wide application through
generalization.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
1. All problem to be solved is less
rigorous and less broad
2. The problem to be solved has to
be defined specifically and
identified definitely.
3. Problem-solving does not always
involve research.
4. Problem-solving
is
always
intended to solve a problem.
5. Problem-solving is concerned
with a specific problem and once
the problem is solved that is the
end of it.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
1.According to purpose - There are three broadly different kinds of
research, namely, predictive, directive and illuminative.
•
Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the
future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of
controlling or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research
proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice or
pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection between
characteristics of students and a prediction of educational outcome.”
•
Directive research determines what should be done based on the
findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.
•
Illuminative research is concerned with the components of the
variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the
components of educational systems and aims to show the connections
among, for example, student characteristics, organizational patterns
and policies, and educational consequences.”
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
2.According to goal - According to goal, research may be classified as
basic or pure research and applied research.
•
•
Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or
principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning.
Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology and
sociology.
Applied research is the application of the results of pure research.
This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance,
a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this
is true, one conducts an experiment in which there are two
classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is
no praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the
experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If
the scores of the pupils in the class with praise are significantly
higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is
true.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
3.According to the levels of investigation French categorizes research according to the levels
of investigation into exploratory research,
descriptive research and experimental research.
•
•
•
In exploratory research, the researcher studies
the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
In descriptive research, the researcher studies
the relationships of the variables.
In experimental research, the experimenter
studies the effects of the variables on each
other.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
4.According to the type of analysis According to the type of analysis, research is
classified into analytic and holistic research.
•
•
In the analytic approach, the researcher
attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.
The holistic approach begins with the total
situation, focusing attention on the system
first and then on its internal relationships.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
5.According to scope - Under this category is action
research. This type of research is done on a very limited
scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is
almost problem solving.
In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem
solving or research used by teachers, supervisors, and
administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and
actions; it seeks more dependable and appropriate means of
promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with the
specific and general objectives and attempts to improve
educational practices without references to whether findings
would be applicable beyond the group studied.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
6.According to choice of answers to problems Research that is concerned with finding answers to
problems into evaluation and development research.
•
•
In evaluation research, all possible courses of
action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
In development research, the focus is on finding or
developing a more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
7.According to statistical content - Under this type may be
mentioned quantitative research and non-quantitative research.
•
•
Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential
statistics are utilized to determine the results if the study.
Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis
of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of
research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect
relationships, etc.
Non-quantitative research. This is the research in which the
use of quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is especially
true in anthropological studies where description is usually
used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative
data.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
HOW IS RESEARCH CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING
8.According to time element - According to time element, best
classifies research as historical, descriptive and experimental.
•
•
•
Historical research describes what was.
Descriptive research describes what is.
Experimental research describes what will be.
Historical, descriptive and experimental are the major research
methods. All other methods, kinds and types of research whatever
they are called fall under these three major methods.
Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area
or field of activity. Hence, we have sociological research, social
research, psychological research, anthropological research,
physical research. Chemical research industrial research,
economics research, health research, nursing research, curriculum
research, educational research and countless others.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO
RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY CALLED
HINDRANCES?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
1. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, beliefs,
practices, and superstitions are true and are parts of the
daily lives of men. No effort is exerted to find out
whether they are true or not. For example, there is a
traditional belief among some women that women who
are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black food
such as black berries because their children will become
dark also. This may be true or not, but many women
believe and practise it without verifying its truth. People
have the idea that when everybody does a thing, it is
true. This belief is a hindrance to scientific
investigation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
2. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinion about
a certain subject which is given by someone who is considered an
authority on the subject. If an ordinary person says that kissing
transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may even be laughed
at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is
believed without question. Suppose, a doctor commits a mistake
and it is a fact that some doctors commit mistakes sometimes.
Worse, sometimes persons with big names in the community make
pronouncements about things outside their own expertise and they
are believed because of their big names. They are believed without
any scientific inquiry about the truth of their pronouncements. For
instance, a well-known athlete is made to announce that to drink a
certain brand of liquor is good because it makes the body strong.
Big stars in the movies are often made to sponsor the sale of
certain products, especially beauty enhancing things or articles,
and they are believed without the slightest semblance of any
scientific investigation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing
wrongly what is actually observed. For instance,
in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees a
shadow in the form of a person and the man
concludes at once without any investigation that
he has seen a ghost. When a meteor streaks the
atmosphere, people who see it I say they have
seen a flying saucer. When one sees a man lying
unconscious in the street after he is hit by a
speeding car, he concludes at once that the
person is already dead even if he is not. He does
not investigate anymore.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
4. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a
pattern out of a few instances. For instance,
when one sees one or two Ilocano husbands
who are hardworking, responsible and
trustworthy then he concludes that Ilocano
husbands are hardworking, responsible, and
trustworthy. When one happens to travel in a
rough road in a certain province he forms the
impressions that the roads in that province are
rough. He does not take the pains anymore to
see if the other roads in the province are also
rough.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
5. Selective observation. This is persisting to
believe
an
observed
pattern
from
an
overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent
patterns. For example, one sees for the first time
one or two prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor,
struggling Filipino store. He forms the conclusion
that the Chinese are more shrewd and more
competitive than Filipinos. So when ever he sees
Chinese and Filipino stores he always has that idea
that Chinese are better businessmen than Filipinos
ignoring the fact that there are also poor Chinese
businessmen and there are also very good and more
competitive Filipino businessmen.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
6. Made-up information. This is making up information to explain away
confusion. Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P50.00 and
gives to the storekeeper a P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives
a change of P40.CO. The buyer goes away without counting the change
but when he gets home he finds that the change is short of P10.00.
Instead of going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong change,
he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his
family are also cheaters. Then, he buys again from the store but
accidently leaves his wallet when he is paying for the goods. A son of the
storekeeper goes to the buyer's house returning the wallet. Instead of
thinking that after all the storekeeper is an honest fellow and perhaps
also his family members, he imagines that maybe the boy went to his
house purposely not to return the wallet but to see his house for a
possible burglary.
Another example of made-up information is wrongly interpreting the
findings of a research material.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing
something to another without any logical
basis. For instance, because of the ex tended
good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or,
because it is sunny it will not rain that day.
Or, when a woman is believed to be a
sorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical
basis and no effort is exerted to verify them.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving
an explanation when one finds himself in an
unfavorable situation. For instance, when foreigners
make a slur on Filipinos, the latter counter that, that
is racial discrimination without investigating whether
the slight is true or not. When a student gets a low
grade, he says that he got a low grade because his
teacher has a personal grudge against him and he is a
victim of vindictive ness. He does not make any effort
to examine his abilities, his habits of study, etc.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
9. Mystification. This is attributing to
supernatural power, the phenomena that
cannot be understood. This is accepting that
there are things which are beyond human
intelligence to understand and which are
reserved only to a supernatural being. Thus,
no effort is exerted to make a scientific
inquiry about these phenomena.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
10. To err is human. This is an attitude that
admits the fallibility of man. When a man
renders a wrong decision or commits a mistake,
he merely leans on the saying "To err is human."
He does not make any effort anymore to study
why he committed the error, how he committed
the error, the implications of his error, how he
can correct his error and how to make more
sound decisions in the future.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT ARE THE HINDRANCES TO RESEARCH? WHY ARE THEY
CALLED HINDRANCES?
11. Dogmatism. This is an addition. This is an unwritten policy of
certain institutions and governments prohibiting the study of
topics that are believed to run counter to the established
doctrines of such institutions or governments. Thus in
communistic states, it is unlikely that one studies and writes
about the beauty of democracy. The same is true in a democracy.
There is a veiled prohibition to study and write about the beauty
and adoption of communism. It may be a remote possibility that a
research student in a Christian church-related school can make a
study about the non-existence of God. It is unlikely also that one
advocates the adoption of polygamy in a Christian community
because his study findings say that polygamy is good.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHY SHOULD THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF
RESEARCH BE FOLLOWED? WHAT ARE THE
STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHY SHOULD THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH BE
FOLLOWED? WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows
the scientific method of research which includes the following sequential
steps: (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 47)
1. Determining (recognizing) the problem;
2. Forming a hypothesis; 3. Doing the library search;
4. Designing the study;
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;
6. Collecting the data; 7. Analyzing the data;
8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings;
and 9. Making recommendations for further research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
It should be borne in mind that the researcher goes
through all the nine steps when he does his research
and when he writes his research report. If the standard
format of thesis writing is followed, the first two steps
will be included in Chapter 1, "The Problem and Its
Setting"; the third step will be in Chapter 2, "Related
Literature and Studies"; the fourth, fifth and sixth
steps will be discussed in Chapter 3, "Methods of
Research and Procedures", the seventh step will be
presented in Chapter 4, "Analysis, Presentation, and
Interpretation of Data"; and the last two steps placed
in
Chapter
5,
"Summary,
Conclusions,
and
Recommendations".
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Principles of the scientific method. (Ibid., p. 50) The principles of the
scientific method are:
Rigid control
Rigid control refers to the manipulation of the research variables. Variables
are those things that vary in quantity and quality which are to be
manipulated by the researcher. Examples of variables are age, sex,
population, adequacy, efficiency, etc. There are variables which should be
controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a certain research work.
Objectivity
Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the
results of the inquiry. The results should not be tampered with, whatever
they may be.
Systematic organization
Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as
well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.
Rigorous standards
The fourth principle refers to the setting up of standards or principles which
serve as bases for evaluating the findings of a study. Such standards should
not be changed to suit the expectations of the re searcher. The principle
also refers to the accurate statistical computation and interpretation of
quantified data. It should be noted that the development of this book
follows the sequential steps of the scientific method of research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Designing the Study
Designing the study must follow the scientific method
of research. Aside from choosing the right problem,
forming the hypotheses, and library research,
designing the study also includes deciding on the
method of research to be used, the study population,
the instrument for gathering data and its preparation,
the sampling design, statistical treatment of data,
and analysis and presentation of data.
Following are discussions and explanations of each of
these aspects of the research procedure. After
carefully studying these discussions and explanations,
the researcher can already make a workable design of
research for his investigation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
There are three major research methods with their respective
variations from which the researcher may choose the method he
wants to use depending upon the nature of his investigation.
These are the historical, descriptive, and experimental methods
of research.
Discussed and explained also are the different methods of
collecting data such as the interview, questionnaire, observation,
tests, and others as well as the preparation of their respective
instruments.
Sampling designs such as pure random, systematic, stratefied,
cluster and other types are also well elaborated on.
Other activities involved in conducting research inquiries and
writing research reports are also given clear explanations with
illustrations for better understanding. How to write the research
report or thesis has been given very ample explanations and
illustrations, chapter by chapter for better understanding of the
whole process of research reporting or thesis writing.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
END OF PRESENTATION
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY