Chapter 1 and 2 Mass is a measure of the amount of a substance expressed in grams or kilogram. Length is a measure of distance in meter (slightly more than a yard). Volume is a measure of the space occupied by a substance and is measured in liters. Time is measured in seconds. Nonpolar covalent bonds: A covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons lies equidistant from both bonded atoms. Polar covalent bonds: A covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons lies closer to one of the bonded atoms. Note: ionic bonds are by definition polar bonds, and are stronger than any covalent bond. Ions conduct electricity: Ions must be mobile to conduct Electricity– either in their liquid state (which is only at very high temperatures) or be dissolved in a liquid solvent such as water. Electrolytes: A substance that ionizes efficiently in solution and conducts electricity. Your body requires an adequate amount of electrolytes, mainly sodium and potassium ions (Na+ and K+), to function. Is NaCl an electrolyte? Molecules: An electrically neutral assembly of atoms held together by covalent bonds. Catalytic Cracking: A petroleum refining process that uses a catalyst to break down (crack) higher-boiling, higher-molecular weight hydrocarbon molecules into lighter molecules. Catalytic Reforming: A petroleum refining process in which a catalyst converts low-octane-rated compounds into those more suitable for gasoline. Catalytic Converters: A device (typically a platinum or palladium metal) built into an automobile’s exhaust system that uses catalysts to reduce the levels of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and other pollutants emitted. Oxygenate: An oxygen-containing compound added togasoline to improve oxidation of fuel and decrease harmful emissions. Greenhouse Effect: A process by which infrared radiation is trapped by certain atmospheric gases, thereby warming Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. Chapters 5 and 6 Alkanes: A hydrocarbon molecule containing only single bonds. æ 12in. ö æ 2.54cm ö 3 1ft. ´ ç ÷ ´ç ÷ = 28,317cm è 1ft. ø è 1in. ø ( ) 3 3 3 Triglyceride – Molecules composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains. Fatty Acid – A long hydrocarbon side chain (with ~8-20 or more C atoms) that has an acid functional head group (COOH). Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons and therefore in mass number. Saturated Fats-Contain only carbon-carbon single bonds, “C-C”. This allows molecules to pack more densely. Are typically solids at room temperature. Are typically animal fats (butter, lard). Atomic mass: The weighted average of the masses of all of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element. -The atomic mass unit is “u” or “amu.” Group/Column Names (Families): Unsaturated Fats-Contain 1 (monounsaturated) or more (polyunsaturated) carbon-carbon double bonds, “C=C”. Molecules cannot pack as densely. Are typically liquids at room temperature. Are typically vegetable oils (but some fish oils, etc.) 1st Column (Group 1) – Alkali Metals, 2nd Column (Group 2)– Alkaline Earth Metals, 2nd to Last Column (Group 17) – Halogens, Last Column (Group 18) – Noble Gases trans fatty acid –An unsaturated fatty acid containing one or more C=C bonds with a trans orientation. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: this dispersal of energy is associated with an increase in a property called entropy. Elements in living things: O, C, H, and N are the 4 main elements found in living things (plant and animal). 1Joule (J) = 0.24 calories (cal) 1000 calories (cal) = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1 Calorie (Cal) 4 Broad Areas of Energy Use: Industrial (31%) Transportation (28%) Residential (22%) Commercial (19%) Chapters 3 and 4 Compounds: A pure substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in a specific ratio. omega-3 fatty acids – An unsaturated fatty acid with a carbon-carbon double bond occurring between the third and fourth carbons from the end of the chain. essential fatty acids (EFAs) – Fatty acids that are necessary for good health and must come from diet (food intake). Saccharides – carbohydrates that are sugar molecules monosaccharides – 1 ring unit examples: glucose, fructose, galactose Fossil Fuels: Fuels such as natural gas, petroleum (oil), and coal, derived from decaying plant and animal matter. disaccharides – 2 ring units with glycosidic link examples: sucrose, maltose, lactose US Fuel Demands: Fossil Fuels (83%) Nuclear (9%) Renewables (8%) polysaccharides – several to many linked rings examples: starch, cellulose, amylose Compression Ratio: A measure of the extent to which the fuel–air mixture is compressed during the compression stroke. The higher the compression ratio, the greater the compression of the gasoline–air mixture when it is ignited, and the more powerful the thrust it delivers to the piston on its way down in the power stroke. Glucose – C6H12O6 or C6(H2O)6 is the important energy sugar molecule for your body. Other saccharides need to be hydrolyzed or isomerized into this form (of glucose) for your body to use. Hydrolysis –The process of breaking down a chemical compound through reaction with water. Ionic bonding: A chemical bond resulting from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions. Glycemic Index – How much and how quickly the food hydrolyzes into glucose to be used for energy. Covalent bonding: A bond consisting of a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. small saccharides– highest index (quick energy) polysaccharides– lower index (slow/even energy) Alkali Metal ions: classified on the periodic table as the atoms that will tend to lose electrons to become positively charged cations in ionic compounds. Electronegativity: A measure of the ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons. Some values are given in Figure 3.7. Fluorine (F) is the most electronegative and the values decrease in proximity to F on the periodic table Sucrose – The most common disaccharide composed of a glucose and a fructose (both monosaccharides), commonly known as “Table Sugar” Petroleum Refining: A process by which petroleum is separated into its different components to produce the best fuel molecules. Enzymes – A biological molecule, typically a protein, that acts as a catalyst. cleaving enzymes typically have an “ase” suffix example: sucrase – turns sucrose into glucose + fructose Starch – A polysaccharide with a (alpha) glycosidic linkages that can be hydrolyzed by human enzymes into glucose and be used as energy. Nonionic – Surfactant molecules that have no electric charge. These tend to be easier on material or “no more tears” if a shampoo gets in your eyes. Cellulose – A polysaccharide with b (beta) glycosidic linkages that cannot be hydrolyzed (by humans) into glucose, so it passes through the human digestive tract as fiber Hard Water – Water containing high amounts of mineral cations like calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), or iron (Fe2+) that can bind to surfactants and from insoluble salts. (ex. “soap scum” and sink/bathtub rings.) Proteins – A polymer made up of 2 or more linked amino acid molecules (protein:chain, amino acid:link) Hard Water Problem Solving 2. Heart Notes– The most noticeable or recognizable part of the odor (i.e. smells like a type of flower). 3. Base Notes– The residual, longer-lasting odor that lingers the longest, usually a musk-like odor. Sunscreen – Lotions containing molecules that reflect or scatter harmful UV rays (photons) or turn them into IR (infrared or “heat”) photons. Zinc oxide or Titanium dioxide – Used to scatter all UV Known as peptide (or amide) linkages, and larger ones called polypeptides (polymer chains) Softening – A process that exchanges the “hard” ions with sodium ions, Na+, that won’t form the insoluble salts. Amino Acids – A small organic molecule containing both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups that serves as a structural unit for proteins. Synthetic Detergents – Alkylbenzonium sulfonates (ABS) remain effective in hard water, but accumulate in the environment and are being replaced with linear ABS. with dimensions on the nanoscale (less than 100 nm in size) and often exhibiting novel properties. Primary Structure, Secondary Structure, Tertiary Structure, Quaternary Structure Builders – Compounds that soften water by sequestering the mineral ions, making the surfactant more effective. -Making TiO2 in nm-sized particles makes it a clear coating (instead of a white paste), yet still provides the expected UV screening. Phosphate – This polar head group, PO43-, was used to naturally sequester hard minerals, but was a nutrient for algae. Using phosphate as “builders” in detergents is now banned in many states. Sunless tanning – Molecules, such as dihydroxyacetone, that react with amino acids in the skin and produce the tan or brown pigments that the UV rays of the sun would. Eutrophication – The covering of the surface of water by phosphate filled algae that prevents atmospheric oxygen from reaching marine life. Dental Care – Oral care specific to the teeth and gums. Typically teeth are cleaned professionally twice per year including a check up by a certified dentist, that may include annual x-rays to probe further for any decay. PABA – Protection against UV-B (no longer widely used.) Nanotechnology – The science of developing materials Essential amino acids –Cannot be synthesized by the body, so they are especially required with dietary intake for the proteins that require these essential amino acids in their structures Density: A measure of how much mass is in a given volume of a substance. (D = m/V). Dispersion Forces: A weak attractive force between nonpolar molecules in close proximity. These weakest intermolecular attractions are also known as London forces. Cosmetics – Anything intended to be applied directly to the human body for “cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance.” Solid to gas=Sublimation Gas to solid=vapor deposition Cosmetic Formulations, Main Components Composition of Dry “Pure” Air: 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, leaving just trace amounts of all other gases combined Surfactant(s) – Added to help mix or suspend formulation components where water and oils are immiscible Pressure = Force/Area Charles’ Law – Gas pressure is proportional to temperature Boyle’s Law – Gas pressure is proportional to the inverse of volume 1. Principal Function – Clean, whiten, color, odor Combined Law – putting Charles’ and Boyle’s Law together, one can use this to solve many gas problems. 2. Secondary Function – Specific applications, ex: To add body or volume to hair Avogadro's Number: The number of atom in one mole (6.02 x 1023) 3. Subtle Qualities – perception of worth, added confidence, or aspirations Chapter 11 Epidermis – Outer skin layer several cells deep that eventually become lifeless at the top layer, the stratum corneum. Surfactants – Shortened form of surface-active agent; a chemical that accumulates at a liquid’s surface and changes the properties of that surface. Soap – The sodium salt of a long-chain carboxylic acid. Detergents – A cleansing agent consisting of molecules that contain hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. Micelles – Spherical aggregations of detergent molecules. Micelles and Cleaning – Adding detergent in water produces micelles where the nonpolar tails aggregate and point inward (away from polar water). The micelles trap dirt, grease, and oil, which can then be rinsed away with fresh water.. Saponification– Heating fats or oils in the presence of lye (NaOH) to produce soap and glycerol. Other Surfactants – Hair – A lifeless structure of protein called keratin that grows naturally on all mammals. Protein – amino acid groups connected in a long chain Fragrance – A small, but often most expensive or most important, component of the formulation Cosmetics, Main Tasks Surface Tension – A property of liquids that causes them to behave as if the surface is covered by a thin membrane. Tooth Enamel – The mineral known as calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, where the OH groups are susceptible to acid attack– often treated with fluoride, F-, to reduce the risk of caries (cavities). Dermis – Skin layer underlying the epidermis with active blood vessels, nerves, sweat glands, and hair follicles Sebaceous Glands – Glands that secrete an oily substance to lubricate the skin at the hair follicles. Frequent washings cleanse the oil, but can also dry the skin, and a moisturizer may be desired Lotions and Creams – Substances added to the skin to moisturize it. Oil-in-water and water-in-oil are two types. (See Fig. 11.17) Antiperspirant – A substance added, typically containing aluminum cations (Al3+) ions, to control the apocrine (“sweat”) glands from secreting fluid. Deodorant – Substance added to control or mask the bad odor associated with sweat that has had bacteria decomposing the organic portion of the liquid. Color Cosmetics – Cosmetics contain organic or inorganic dyes to add a specific color to the area (faces, eyelids, eyelashes, lips, nails, hair). These formulas tend to be mostly oil-based to dissolve the dyes and make them flow upon their application. Anionic – The hydrophilic head is an anion and negatively charged. Fragrance Formulation Parts Cationic – The hydrophilic head is an cation and positively charged. 1. Top Notes – Easily vaporizing components that will be detected first and gains interest. Amino Acid – one of 20 naturally occurring small molecules that can bond together to form proteins, that differ by their pendant side chain group A Hair Permanent (“Perm”) – The process of breaking, then reforming the disulfide crosslinks of the hair follicles into a specific hair setting (i.e. curls or straight) Cysteine – The amino acid that has an S atom in its side group allowing it to form a disulfide link (-S-S-) to a different cysteine residue that crosslinks chains and gives more strength to hair. Shampoo – A formulation that is used to clean hair, typically containing anionic surfactants (See Fig. 11.26) and formulated to have a pH value that is slightly acidic (pH:4-6), which leads to a tighter hair follicle Oil and Color Treatments – Oil treatments are often done “hot” for more penetrating lubrication to the hair follicles. Dye is added to hair (or a bleaching, whitening agent) to obtain a desired hair color or “highlighting” pattern. Many OTC Products Exist. Disulfide links – The strongest of attractions, this is a covalent chemical bond that crosslinks different protein strands together, giving someone’s hair the natural tendency to be straight or curly. Salt links – The ionic bonds that form between the acidic group of one amino acid and a basic (amino) group of another amino acid located somewhere else on the same or an adjacent protein molecule.
