1. What is natuiresis?
a. The process of sodium excretion in the urine through the action of the
kidneys.
2. Function of microvilli in the small intestines/
a. Microvilli function to increase the surface area of the small intestine
and as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract.
3. What is the function of aldosterone?
a. Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the outer section (cortex) of the
adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys.
b. Aldosterone causes water to be reabsorbed along with sodium and
potassium to be secreted.
4. What is the difference between an autosome and sex chromosome?
a. Autosomes – chromosomes that don’t carry any genes that determine
the sex of the individual.
b. Sex chromosomes – carry sex-determining genes (but may also carry
many other genes that have nothing to do with sex).
5. How does the body control its hydrogen levels?
a. Buffer systems functioning in blood plasma include plasma proteins,
phosphate and bicarbonate and carbonic acid buffer. The kidneys
help control acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions and
generating bicarbonate that helps maintain blood pH within a normal
range.
6. What causes edema of the lower limbs in pregnant women during the third
trimester?
a. Changes in blood chemistry cause some fluid to shift into tissues, and
by the third trimester, the weight of the uterus puts pressure on the
pelvic veins and the vena cava that blood can pool, forcing fluid
retention below the knees.
7. Vitamins linked to erythropoiesis
a. Iron, vitamin B12, folate, and heme.
8. Note: liver produces bile salts, Gall bladder stores bile salts, biles salts
function to emulsify dietary salts
9. Study and understand the Nephron, questions will include functions of
different structure, what happens where? Where is water reabsorbed, which
parts filter the blood? Where is the most substance reabsorbed? Order of
filtration in the nephron/renal tubule
a. Review structures
b. Functions and Structure
i. Glomerulus is the site in the nephron where fluid and solutes
are filtered out of the blood to form a glomerular filtrate.
ii. Proximal and distal tubules, the loop of Henle, and the
collecting ducts are sites for the reabsorption of water and ions.
iii. All of the glucose in the blood is reabsorbed by the proximal
convoluted tubule through ion cotransport.
iv. The collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule are normally
impermeable to water, but this is altered due to the hormone
stimulus during homeostasis.
v. Bowman’s capsule is a cup like sac at the beginning of the
tubular component of a nephron.
vi. Proximal tubule is the first and primary sort of water and ion
reabsorption in the kidney, where all glucose in the blood is
reabsorbed.
vii. Glomerulus is a small, intertwined group of capillaries within
the nephrons of the kidney that filter the blood to make urine.
10.Note: Bulbourethral gland at the base of the penis produces lubricating fluid
11.What is a zygote?
a. A diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a
fertilized ovum.
12.What is the role of the following hormones in males? (LH, FSH)
a. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) in males, stimulates the production of
testosterone from Leydig cells in the testes.
b. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) in males, stimulates testicular
growth and enhances the production of an androgen-binding protein
by the Sertoli cells, which are a component for sustaining the
maturing sperm cell.
13.What is the role of the following hormones in females (LH, FSH, Relaxin,
Estrogen Inhibin)
a. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) in females, stimulates ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum.
b. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) in females, stimulates the growth
of ovarian follicles in the ovary before the release of an egg from one
follicle at ovulation.
c. Relaxin produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary. During
pregnancy it is released by the placenta. In preparation for childbirth,
it relaxes the ligaments in the pelvis and softens and widens the cervix
for implantation. Towards the end of pregnancy, relaxin promotes the
rupture of the membranes surrounding the fetus and the growth,
opening and softening of the cervix and vagina to aid the process of
childbirth.
d. Estrogen helps develop and maintain both the reproductive system
and female characteristics i.e. breasts, pubic hair, menstrual cycle.
e. Inhibin, secreted by the granulosa cells in the ovaries of women that
acts primarily to inhibit the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone
by the anterior pituitary gland.
14.Note: Myometrium makes up most of the uterine mass
15.Major hormone of the absorptive state of digestion
a. Insulin is the major hormone, directing organs, tissues, and cells in
terms of what to do with absorbed nutrients during the absorptive
state.
16.Between the extracellular and intracellular fluid, which one hold most of the
fluid in the body? What separates the two types of fluids? Which cations are
most/least abundant in extracellular fluid? intracellular fluid. Which anions
are most/least abundant in extracellular/ intracellular?
a. Intracellular fluid makes up majority of the fluid within the body.
b. Intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside cells, between
endomembrane and the membrane-bound organelles.
c. Extracellular fluid usually denotes all body fluid outside of cells, and
consists of plasma, interstitial, and transcellular fluid.
d. Cell membrane is a physical barrier that separates intracellular fluid
inside the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid.
e. Cations and Anions
i. Intracellular Fluid: K+ is the most abundant cation, while
HPO4 2- is the most abundant anion.
ii. Extracellular Fluid: Na+ is the most abundant cation, while Clis the most abundant anion.
17.Difference between fraternal and identical twins
a. Fraternal twins are dizygotic, meaning that they developed from two
different eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells.
b. Identical twins are monozygotic meaning that they developed from a
single fertilized egg that split.
18.Difference between prolactin and oxytocin
a. Prolactin is the hormone that tells the body to make breast milk when
a person is pregnant or breast-feeding. Production of prolactin takes
place in the pituitary gland.
b. Oxytocin is a hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland, a pea-sized structure at the base of the brain. It is sometimes
known as the “love hormone.”
19.Metabolic alkalosis
a. Is a condition that occurs when your blood becomes overly alkaline
and is caused primarily by an increase in bicarbonate with or without
compensatory increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure.
20.What are the three stages of labor in the order they occur?
a. First state: This starts with contractions and the cervix dilating and
ends when the cervix if fully dilated.
b. Second stage: This is when the fetus is pushed through the birth canal.
c. Third stage: This ends with the delivery of the placenta, AKA
afterbirth.
21.Induction of thirst response, what induces it?
a. Thirst center governs the urge to drink and is stimulated by:
i. Dehydration
ii. Decrease in blood volume
iii. Decrease in blood pressure
iv. Dryness in the mouth
22.The pancreatic juice and bile are release into which part of the intestines?
a. Secreted into the duodenum
23.How does punnet square work to determine color blindness (just like the
questions in the practicum), and Huntington disease. (Pay close attention to
see if the parents are heterozygous or homozygous)
24.Hormone associated with glomerular filtration rate
a. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) increases the glomerular filtration
rate. The hormone is produced in the heart and is secreted when the
plasma volume increases, which increases urine production.
25.What are the types abnormal substance found in urine?
a. Any abnormal constituents found in urine are an indication of disease.
b. Presence of red blood cells in urine referred to as haematuria.
c. Presence of proteins can be an indication of damage to the tubules,
and is called proteinuria.
d. Glycosuria is glucose in the urine, due to excess plasma glucose in
diabetes, beyond the amount able to be reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
26.Possible blood groups (understand the resulting blood group with different
parent combinations)
a. A+
b. Ac. B+
d. Be. AB+
f. ABg. O+
h. O27.What does alcohol do to ADH, and what happens to urine content?
a. Alcohol suppresses ADH, which causes the kidneys to release more
water and causes urine to be more dilute.
28.Can you identify these cells or structures: trophoblasts, embryoblasts,
yolk sac, amniotic cavity, PCT, DCT, glomerulus, bowman’s capsule,
ascending, descending, transverse colon epididymis, seminal vesicle,
parts of the kidney, parts of the breast?
29.Changes in concentration of female reproductive hormones (figure
28.24 in your book)
30.Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis
a. Spermatogenesis leads to the formation of sperm cells
i. Occurs in testes (seminiferous tubules)
ii. All stages completed in testes
iii. It is continuous
iv. Produces motile gametes
b. Oogenesis helps in the formation of ova.
i. Occurs inside the ovary
ii. Major part of oogenesis occurs inside the ovary. The last few
stages occur in the oviduct.
iii. It is a discontinuous process. The early stages take place in the
foetus and the rest in later stages of life.
iv. Produces non-motile gametes.
31.Identify and describes hormones involves in female ovarian cycle
a. Follicular Phase:
i. Luteinizing Hormone stimulates ovulation and development of
the corpus luteum. Also, stimulates progesterone.
ii. Estrogen helps regulate the growth of the uterine lining during
the first part of the cycle.
iii. FSH stimulates the growth of eggs in the ovaries.
b. Luteal Phase
i. Progesterone and estrogen cause the lining of the uterus to
thicken more to prepare for fertilization.
ii. If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and no
longer produces progesterone, the estrogen level decreases the
top layers of the lining break down and shed, menstrual
bleeding occurs.
32.Explain the similarities and differences between respiratory and metabolic
acidosis.
a. Respiratory Acidosis occurs when the lung fails to remove excess
carbon dioxide from the bloodstream during the process of respiration.
b. Metabolic Acidosis occurs because of the digestive and urinary
systems. Excess consumption of acid may enter the bloodstream
Essays
Pregnancy:
Pregnancy lasts generally 40 weeks and consists of three segments referred to as
trimesters. During the first trimester (week 1-week 12) two periods occur, the
embryonic phase (week 1- week 8) and the fetal period (week 9 until birth). The
embryonic period, includes fertilization, cleavage of the zygote, blastocyst
formation, and implantation. The fetal period is when the human is developing
into a fetus. The first trimester is critical because this is the stage that major organ
systems are formed. The second trimester is the near complete development of the
organ systems of the fetus and the fetus also takes on human characteristics. The
third trimester is the period that the fetus begins to grow and take on additional
weight. This stage is also critical because it takes place before birth and due to
this, most of the fetus’ organ systems are functioning. Labor is the period in which
the female body prepares to deliver the fetus. Estrogen levels increase to inhibit
progesterone. It also stimulates the placenta to release additional enzymes that help
the cervix soften. Labor is divided into three stages, dilation, expulsion, and
placental. During the dilation phase, the cervix is dilating to accommodate the
expulsion of the fetus. Also, the uterus contracts which ruptures the amniotic sac.
During the expulsion stage, the cervix is fully dilated, and the baby is delivered
through the birthing canal. The last phase occurs shortly after expulsion and
involves the delivery of the placenta, which is expelled through uterine
contractions.
Lactation
Lactation occurs when lactogenesis occurs, which causes the mammary glands to
produce milk. This occurs during the late stages of pregnancy and is stimulated by
the delivery of the placenta and also a decrease in progesterone, estrogen, and
additional hormones. Colostrum is produced by the mammary glands, which
contains white blood cells, immunoglobin, and additional nutrients. The suckling
of the breast signals the lactocytes in the mammary alveoli to produce milk. The
stimulation of oxytocin occurs during breastfeeding and also signals the release of
milk from lactiferous ducts to the nipple pores.
Acid Base Balance
Acid Base balance occurs in multiple ways throughout the body. In order to
maintain homeostasis, the body requires a specific range of pH generally ranging
from 7.35-7.45. The lungs, kidneys, and buffer systems throughout the body ensure
that this maintain occurs. The lungs release carbon dioxide which is slightly acidic
and through this expulsion, lowers the pH of the blood. The brain determines the
amount of carbon dioxide that needs to be exhaled to maintain homeostasis.
Additionally, the kidneys affect the pH of the blood through excretion of excretion
of acids or bases. The body also contains many buffer systems that protect the
body from acidity and also alkalinity. One of these buffer systems is the binding of
carbonic acid to bicarbonate ions. This helps maintain the pH within the blood and
chemically ensures homeostasis.