ERIK ERIKSON & POSTFREUDIAN THEORY
Prepared By:
Janelle Rose Tan, Instructor 3
Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila
Erik Erikson’s theory was developed as an an extension of it Freudian psychoanalysis
(Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). However, his theory, like Adler, differs markedly from
Freud’s. First, he extended the stages of development beyond that of childhood until
old age. Second, he emphasized the power of the ego. Rather than being at the mercy of
and drawing power from the id, the ego is separate and is primary responsible for the
development of a self. Second, although he also agreed with Freud that development
moves through psycho-physical erogenous zones, Erikson believed that development is
also social (Feist, Fiest, & Roberts, 2018). That is, at each stage of development, growth
happens when a person learns how to balance trusting, loving, and caring for others, and
maintaining a sense of independence and competence.
Erik Erikson was a man who spent most of his life in search of a self and an identity. He
was confused about who he was as a person. He tried different things, all in search for
answers to the question of: Who am I? This life-long search can be seen in his theory. You
may find yourseld resonating with Erikson's search for a self, as it is a developmental task
that is relevant at this point in your life. Your last years of adolescence are spent searching
for and trying to figure out answers to the same question that Erikson asked himself: Who
am I?
ERIK
ERIKSON'S
LIFE
THE PERSON BEHIND THE
THEORY
As a man who was in constant search for an identity, it was fitting that Erik Erikson changed his
name several times. He was not born Erik Erikson. He was actually born as Erik Salomonsen in
Germany. His mother, a Jewish Dane, was unmarried at the time he was born. Erik Salomonsen did
not know who his father was. His mother refused to tell him. Even until his death and after a
lifelong search, he still did not know who his father was.
For a time, and as Erik Homburger, he thought that his stepfather, Theodor Homburger was his
real father. However, Erik’s hair was blond and his eyes were blue. He looked nothing like his
parents who had dark hair and eyes. His features were also a cause for identity confusion. He did
not look Jewish enough. Yet, because he was Jewish, he was not considered a Dane. As an
adolescent, Erik Homburger travelled as an artist and a poet, possibly in search of himself but
those 7 years in his life gave him no answer. He started the journey towards being Erik Erikson
when he was invited by his friend, Peter Blos, to teach at a school in Vienna found by none other
than Anna Freud who became his psychoanalyst and mentor.
Erikson married Joan Serson, who was also Anna Freud’s patient. They had four children. As a
father, Erik Erikson also kept secrets from his children. When his youngest son Niel was born with
Down’s syndrome, he told his three older children that their brother died. In truth, he placed Neil
in an institution. Although the eldest was told about this eventually, the other two children only
knew about their brother’s existence when they were asked to arrange for Neil’s funeral when he
died at the age of 20.
Erik Erikson is generally considered a figure in the field of psychology. However, had no formal
training, unlike Freud, Alder, or Jung, who were all trained as doctors. He was known in various
professional capacities throughout his life; a psychologist was only one of these (Feist, Feist, &
Roberts, 2018). Throughout his life, he frequently changed residence and jobs. When he moved to
the United States, he finally changed his name from Erik Homburger to Erik Homburger Erikson,
and finally (his final form I guess) to Erik Erikson.
In the United States, his professional life thrived. He worked in various universities in various parts
of the United States. His magnum opus, Childhood and Society, was written after he spent time
with two Native American tribes. He spent the last 10 years of his career teaching in Harvard. After
retirement, he also frequently changed addresses. He died in 1994, at the age of 91. Even at the
end, he still did not know who his father was.
POST-FREUDIAN
THEORY
Erikson's Theory
There are several distinct ideas in Erik Erikson’s theory that are different from Freud's.
The ego is the center of personality.
Society influences the development of the ego.
Ego develops through a predetermined stage according to the
epigenetic principle.
The ego is center of personality.
Erik Erikson thought that the ego is the glue that holds the personality together. It organizes and
unifies personality (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). The ego does not merely exist to serve the
needs of the id and the superego. The ego enables us to have a continuous identity that
processes both the past and the future (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018).
Society influences the development of the ego.
Erikson believed that the ego is shaped by society. The ego does not develop in a vacuum. It is a
product of one’s social and cultural context. The development of the ego depends on the unique
cultural values of a society. For example, some societies may find that fixation is a particular
stage of development is normative rather than a sign of neurotic development.
The ego develops based on the epigenetic
principle.
The epigenetic principle states that development occurs through a sequence of stages, each in
its own appointed time. Moreover, the current stage builds on the growth that occurred during
the previous stage. The success of the current stage partly depends on the development
that occurred in the previous stages. In the words of Erik Erikson, the epigenetic principle is:
“...anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out
of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having its
time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen
to form a functioning whole” (Erikson, 1968 as cited
in Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2019).
In order the understand Erik Erikson’s stages of development, you have to remember the
following points:
Growth occurs according to the epigenetic principle.
Contradiction between two opposite qualities occurs in each stage (Feist, Feist, &
Roberts, 2018). On one hand, there is a syntonic quality (positive) or a dystonic quality
(negative). However, the labels do not imply that the syntonic quality must overpower the
dystonic quality. A balance between the two is important in the development of the individual. For
instance, the first crisis that the ego must experience during infancy is that of trust
(syntonic) vs. mistrust (dystonic). The infant must learn to trust that his or her needs will
be met by the primary caregiver. This does not mean, however, that a child must only learn to
trust. He or she must also be able to learn a certain level of mistrust since too much trust
makes a person naive.
The contradiction experienced between the syntonic and dystonic qualities lead to the
develop an ego strength or a virtue.
The crisis that an individual experiences at each
stage due to the conflict of the opposing dystonic and syntonic qualities will result in the ego
obtaining a strength or a virtue. For example, during the trust versus basic mistrust stage, the
infant’s ego will eventually learn the virtue of hope. Although they will experience hunger or
discomfort when their needs are immediately met, they have hope that these will eventually
be satisfied.
Insufficient development of the ego strength will result in a core pathology in each
stage. For example, the ego strength is weak, trust vs. mistrust will result in the core
pathology of withdrawal. If a person cannot trust others to meet his or her needs or for the
world to provide her with positive experience, then she will find it difficult to have hope in the
world and other people, and will choose to isolate and withdraw herself.
Biology is still an important determinant in human development. Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development are anchored in biological developmental milestones. For example, it
is only appropriate that trust versus mistrust is the first conflict that babies experience because
they feel helpless and need caregivers to fulfill their basic needs.
Development has no single cause. It is shaped by social, psychological, and biological
experiences. However, development is not only limited to biological causes. It is also influenced
by social and psychological experiences. A person’s ego also has to exist in a socio cultural
context. That is, children are expected to go to school, adults have to engage in productive
work. Thus, these contexts also shape the developmental stages that a person has to go
through.
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Infancy (0-2)
Psychosexual mode: Oral-sensory
Erik Erikson retained the Freudian proposition that each stage of development has
psychosexual origins. For infant’s developmental issue is anchored on the oral-sensory
mode. Babies still cannot talk or play. Most of what they do is eat, sleep, and react to the
stimuli around them. They are given food, they are cleaned, they are sung and cooed at.
These experiences mostly involves absorbing oral and sensory stimuli. Erikson calls it a stage
of “incorporation” (Feist, Feist, & Roberts).
Crisis: Trust (Syntonic) vs. Mistrust (Dystonic)
What happens if there is no one to feed, bathe, or love a baby? An infant is quite a helpless
being. Its survival depends on its caregivers. Erik Erikson said that in this stage, an infant who
has his oral-sensory needs met by a caregiver will develop the syntonic quality of basic
trust. There is a faith that the caregiver will provide for his needs. Yet, his needs will not
always be met. A parent might be too busy caring for other children, or working, that an
immediate response is not forthcoming. When his oral-sensory needs are not met, an infant
will develop the dystonic quality of basic mistrust.
Ego Strength: Hope
Erikson believes that infants experience these two qualities in different degrees. Conflict
between syntonic and dystonic qualities is necessary for development. Out of this conflict
comes the ego strength of hope or the faith that one’s needs will be met by the world and
other people. An infant will also realize that distressing situations from unmet needs will pass.
In contrast, if a weak ego strength is developed, the person will acquire the core pathology of
withdrawal. This excessive mistrust will make it hard for infants to engage with others and
the world. Imagine if you are the kind of person who does not trust anyone. Think about what
will happen if you think that no one can meet your needs for security or affection? Erikson
said that these people will choose to withdraw.
Early Childhood (2-3)
Psychosexual mode: Anal-urethral-muscular
During early childhood, children have moved past their complete dependence on their
primary caregivers. They are starting to learn new skills such as walking and speaking. They
are also learning how to eat, pee, and poop on their own. The development that occurs
during early childhood happens through the anal-urethral-muscular mode.
Crisis: Autonomy (Syntonic) vs Shame and Doubt (Dystonic)
I have a 2-year old niece and a 1 year-old nephew. Taking care of them is a handful. Their
mother even barely has time to take care of herself. The only time she gets to rest is when
the two kids are asleep. There is a reason why this age is called “terrible twos”. Children in
this age like to explore their environment. For example, my niece liked stick her fingers in
electrical sockets and electric fans. When we was learned how to walk, she would try to climb
out of her crib sometimes or climb up high places. She is now starting to explore newly
found capacities that makes her more independent or autonomous. Thus, the syntonic
quality that children express in this age is autonomy.
My nephew likes water so much that if you take him out after a bath, he will scream and cry
his lungs out. He likes to do his tantrums on the floor with a sound that will remind you of a
pig that is about to be slaughtered. His cries are his protests of independence. They are his
way of establishing autonomy. “I want to stay in the bathroom! I still want to play with
water!”. Of course, the reaction of adults is to take him out of the water and try to stop him
from crying; alternating with soothing pacification or reprimands, depending on the volume
of his i’m-about-to-be-slaughtered voice. According to Erikson, these reprimands will instill
shame and doubt on the child. Shame and doubt are dystonic qualities that develop during
this stage. Feist, Feist, & Roberts (2018) defined shame as “the feeling of being looked at and
exposed” and doubt as “the feeling of not being certain...” Again, it must be emphasized that
these two have to exist together to a healthy degree. Too much shame and doubt will cause
a child to feel guilty and constantly question what he does. Too much autonomy is also not
good as a child will not be able to determine which actions are right or wrong.
Ego Strength: Will
The ego strength of will emerges out of this conflict. It is said that this will become a building
block for one’s willpower later in life (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). Will enables a child to be
sure of what he wants and to know that he has the ability to carry it out.
The core pathology of this stage is compulsion which is a desire to do everything well and
perfectly so as not to experience shame and doubt (Boree, n.d.).
Play Age (3-5)
Psychosexual mode: Genital locomotor
Children in this age have enough control of their bodies that they can now speak, run, walk,
and climb. The ability to engage in imaginative play is also present. Unlike children in the
previous stages who often engage in activities for its momentary pleasure (like looking at a
toy), children in this age now play with purpose and direction.
Crisis: Initiative (Syntonic) vs. Guilt (Dystonic)
My niece is about to turns 4 this December. I can see through video calls that she's now past
toddlerhood. She can water plants and dance. She now engages in imaginative play, too.
Like my niece, children at this age begin to show purposeful goal-driven behavior. They
show initiative in the goals that they want to achieve. Initiative is the syntonic quality that
develops during this stage. However, some of the child's goals might be inappropriate. For
example, they may get reprimanded when playing with dirt. This causes them to feel guilt
which is the dystonic quality of guilt developed in this stage.
Ego Strength: Purpose
Out of the conflict between initiative vs. guilt, the ego strength of purpose will develop.
Children will have the ability to “set and pursue goals with purpose” (Feist, Feist, & Roberts,
2018).
A weak development of the ego strength will result in inhibition or inability to set goals and
have a purpose.
School Age (7-12 or 13)
Psychosexual mode: Latency
During this stage, Erikson believes that psychosexual development is stalled. Energy is rather
given to accomplishing skills and performing activities that are required for children at this
stage. At this stage, children learn how to be a part of society. They expand their world to
include mentors, peers, and school. They engage in activities that eventually enable them to
become functioning members of a society.
Crisis: Industry (Syntonic) vs. Inferiority Dystonic
Development in this stage occurs when the child feels that they are able and willing to do
these activities well. These feelings of success enable them to develop industry which is the
syntonic quality during this stage. However, when they are not able to do things well in
games that they play with friends or in their performance at school, they experience the
dystonic quality of inferiority.
Ego Strength: Competence
As a child successfully navigates through the conflict between industry and inferiority, she will
eventually develop the ego strength of competence which Feist, Fiest, & Roberts (2019)
defined as, “the confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive abilities to solve the problems
that accompany school age.
The opposite of competence is inertia. This leads to a child not doing anything at all out of
fear of failure.
Adolescence (13-18)
Puberty
This is defined as genital maturation and does not play an important role in development
(Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2019).
Crisis: Identity (Sytonic) vs. Identity Confusion (Dystonic)
For Erikson, adolescence is an important period in development. This is when an individual
has to develop ego identity (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). As an adolescent, Erikson also
struggled with his identity. He wandered around Europe himself, trying to know who he is.
Similarly, as adolescents, you are also trying out identities, roles, belief systems, and values,
all in an effort to develop your ego identity and to know who you are. The development of an
identity is the syntonic quality that is cultivated at this stage. Yet, as the search for identity
occurs, there is also some degree of confusion. Identity confusion, the dystonic quality of
this stage, involves questioning the values and beliefs of your peers, your family, or society
as a whole, yet being unable to create or discover your own identity. Identity confusion is
helpful as it helps you to reevaluate what you know about yourself and the standards others
set around so that you can create an identity that is truly your own. However, too much role
confusion can result to you not committing to anything, be it a career decision, a goal, a
value, or a belief.
Ego Strength: Purpose
The ego strength that develops during this period is fidelity. Feist, Feist, & Roberts (2018)
defined fidelity as “faith in one’s ideology”. This means having faith in your own established
identity; in your values, principles, and beliefs. The core pathology of this stage is role
repudiation which can express itself as either diffidence or defiance. When you have too much
doubt about yourself and who you are, you become reluctant to cement your presence and
identity. You do not express your ideas and assert yourself. This is what Erikson called
diffidence. On the other hand, some adolescents develop defiance which is rebellion for its
own sake. This is expressed in adolescents who stick to unacceptable beliefs, without
introspection or examination of their own beliefs and values, out of rebellion.
Young Adulthood Adolescence (18-30)
Psychosexual mode: Genitality
The psychosexual mode of development that occurs during this stage is genitality which
Feist, et al. (2018) describes as “mutual trust and stable sharing of sexual satisfactions with a
loved person.” Sexual activities for those who have reached this stage are expressions of
intimacy and love, and not as a means for identity exploration.
Crisis: Intimacy (Syntonic) vs. Isolation (Dystonic)
Are you in a relationship right now?
What kind of love do you have with this person?
Erikson believed that people who are still trying to figure out their identity are still not
entirely capable of establishing true intimacy. Erikson believes that true intimacy can only be
achieved when ego identity is developed. What do you think happens in relationships when
one or both people are unsure of themselves, and of who they are? True intimacy, the
syntonic quality that is developed at this stage is the ability to share one’s self with another
person through commitment, care, and compromise (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). However,
there has to be a conflict with the dystonic quality of isolation. Erikson (1968) defined it as
“the incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true intimacy” (cited in Feist,
Feist, & Roberts, 2018). Too much of this dystonic quality will have individuals afraid of losing
themselves in a relationship. However, enough isolation is needed as there has to be a
balance between intimacy and independence in a relationship. A person has to be able to
share her life with another, yet remain as a whole, independent person.
Ego Strength: Love
Love is the ego strength that develops out of this conflict. In love, there is intimacy, a sharing
of one’s self, but with independence. The core pathology of this stage is exclusivity. A person
exhibits exclusivity when he or she tries to exclude others to preserve an identity.
Adulthood (31-60)
Psychosexual mode: Procreativity
The psychosexual mode for this stage is procreativity. As the term implies, this means
producing offspring. However, Eriksons’ idea of procreativity goes beyond simply having
children. This includes the responsibility to care for children, both one’s own and others.
Crisis: Generativity (Syntonic) vs. Stagnation (Dystonic)
The syntonic quality in this stage is generativity. Adults are tasked with generating “new
ideas as well as new products and new ideas” (Erikson, 1982 cited Feist, Feist, Roberts, 2018).
Think of your parents, your teachers, and all adults around you. They invest themselves in
their jobs and in taking care of you. They propose programs, they direct employees, they run
businesses, they create policies, they do research, among other things. All these things are in
the spirit of contributing something to the world and of caring for younger generations. The
dystonic quality of this stage is self-absorption and stagnation. This is characterized by too
much self-focus at the expense of one’s generativity.
Ego Strength: Care
The ego virtue that develops during this stage is care. This is as simple as taking care of what
one has generated or what one has learned to care for (Erikson, 1982 cited Feist, Feist,
Roberts, 2018). The core pathology that develops when a person is unable to sufficiently
achieve care is rejectivity. This is the refusal to care for anyone and anything, which Erikson
believes is the source of all conflict and war (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018).
Old Age (61 - Death)
Psychosexual mode: Generalized sensuality
The psychosexual mode during this stage is generalized sensuality. This implies that people
in their old age generally enjoy the pleasures of life (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018).
Crisis: Integrity (Syntonic) vs. Despair (Dystonic)
Their children (if there are) are now adults with their own lives. They are now in retirement
after spending several years in their jobs. One by one, friends die. It becomes difficult to
sustain energy in activities. Walking and running are not as easy as they used to be. Old age
is characterized by losses, of one’s social circle, of one’s productivity, and of one’s physical
faculty. Thus, it is only understandable that some might develop the tendency to feel despair
and to lose hope. This feeling of despair is the dystonic quality that develops during this
stage. Having the syntonic quality of integrity is important to counter the feeling of despair.
Integrity is being able to retain a sense of one’s self, of one’s ego identity despite old age.
Ego Strength: Wisdom
Wisdom is the ego strength that develops during this stage. People with wisdom examine life
with interest, with little despair and fear of death. People have enough integrity to retain a
sense of self, even with increasing loss that happens to them at this age. The core pathology
that develops with weak ego strength is disdain which presents itself as resentment of life
because of the inability to accept the finiteness of life and the losses that come with old age.