Algeria – Algiers Angola – Luanda Benin – Porto-Novo Botswana – Gaborone Burkina Faso – Ouagadougou Burundi – Bujumbura Cameroon – Yaounde The Republic of Cabo Verde – Praia The Central African Republic – Bangui Chad – N’Djamena Comoros – Moroni Democratic Republic of Congo – Kinshasa Republic of Congo – Brazzaville Cote d’Ivoire – Yamoussoukro Djibouti – Djibouti Egypt – Cairo Equatorial Guinea – Malabo Eritrea – Asmara Ethiopia – Addis Ababa Gabon – Libreville Gambia – Banjul Ghana – Accra Guinea – Conakry Guinea-Bissau – Bissau Kenya – Nairobi Lesotho – Maseru Liberia – Monrovia Libya – Tripoli Madagascar – Antananarivo Malawi – Lilongwe Mali – Bamako Mauritania – Nouakchott Mauritius – Port Louis Morocco – Rabat Mozambique – Maputo Namibia – Windhoek Niger – Niamey Nigeria – Abuja Rwanda – Kigali Republic Arab Saharawi Democratic – Aauin Sao Tome and Principe – Sao Tome Senegal – Dakar Seychelles – Victoria Sierra Leone – Freetown Somalia – Mogadishu South Africa – Pretoria (Executive), Bloemfontein (Judicial), CapeTown (Legislative) South Sudan – Juba Sudan – Khartoum Swaziland – Lobamba (royal and legislative) Mbabane (Administrative) Tanzania – Dar es Salaam (Traditional capital) Dodoma (Location of legislature) Togo – Lomé Tunisia – Tunis Uganda – Kampala Zambia – Lusaka Zimbabwe – Harare CENTRAL AMERICA El Salvador Costa Rica Panama Guatemala Honduras Belize Nicaragua San Salvador San Jose' Panama City Guatemala City Tegucigalpa Belmopan Managua SOUTHEAST ASIA Southeast Asia is a large region of Asia that stretches from east of India and south of China. The region includes continental countries as well as island nations within several different seas. This divide actually makes up the two distinct geographical regions of Southeast Asia: Maritime and Mainland. The maritime nations include Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Indonesia, and East Malaysia. Mainland Southeast Asia is composed of Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, West Malaysia, and Vietnam. The mainland was originally referred to as Indochina. This article takes a look at the histories of these countries. Most Populated Southeast Asian Nations Indonesia Indonesia is the largest of these countries, both in land area and population. This island, located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, is the world’s 4th most populated country and has a primarily Muslim population. Indonesia was an important stop along the spice route and the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company here in 1602. This company had nearly complete power on the island. When the company went bankrupt, the Netherlands then established the colony Dutch East Indies which was in power until World War II when the Japanese occupied the island. The Japanese rule resulted in over 4 million deaths as the indigenous people were forced into labor. This fact motivated the independence movement; when Japan surrendered in August of 1945, Sukarno became president. Philippines The Philippines is the next heavily populated country with 101,649,000 people. It is located in the western Pacific Ocean and has over 7,000 islands. The Spanish arrived here in 1521 and promptly colonized the area. In 1565, the first Hispanic settlement was founded, and the Philippines remained under Spanish rule for 300 years. For this reason, the majority of the population practice the Catholic religion. During those 300 years, several European powers attempted to take control. Philippine revolutionary forces declared independence in 1898, but that was during the SpanishAmerican War and the same year that the Spanish relinquished power of the islands to the US. In 1935, the US government granted the Commonwealth status to the area in an attempt to transition its independence, but the Japanese invaded during World War II and took control until 1945 when they were defeated. Vietnam Vietnam has a population of 92,571,000 and is located on the mainland on the eastern side of the Indochina Peninsula. The Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid1800’s and later occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. The Japanese were expelled by Ally forces and an independence movement in 1954 beat off the French but left the country divided into North and South. The rival states were at war for 21 years with the North supported by communist China and the Soviet Union and in the 60’s, when the US stepped in to support the southern state. The war lasted until 1975 when the northern side won and the two states were merged. Thailand Thailand, also in mainland Southeast Asia, has a population of 65,236,000. This nation is located in the middle of the Peninsula and shares borders with Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Malaysia. Thailand has a long history of Buddhist empires and kingdoms yet never fell under the rule of European colonists. It played a buffer role between Great Britain and France during their colonization of the surrounding areas. The Siam kingdom did, however, cede large areas to the two European powers. The nation took sides with Japan during World War II in an attempt to regain lost territory; by the end of the war, Thailand was a US ally. Myanmar Myanmar, also known as Burma, is bordered by China, India, Bangladesh, Laos, and Thailand. This country was once the largest empire in Southeast Asia, but, became a British colony in the 19th century. Buddhist monks led an independence movement in the 1930’s and 1937, Myanmar became a separately administered colony with its own Prime Minister. The British administration failed during World War II when Japan made advances to the country. After a brief Japanese rule, Burma became independent in 1948. Southeast Asia Today Today, ten Southeast Asian countries belong to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organization that promotes international peace and trade among its members. Founded on August 8, 1967, the organization has worked to create economic progress, social evolution, and political evolution. Its members include Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Philippines, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Vietnam. Member states and their representatives employ an informal, private, and non-conflictual method for resolving the conflict that allows their disagreements to stay out of the public eye. This system protects the nations against perceived disgraces that may need to be defended thus reducing conflict. Rank State/Dependant Territory/Administrative Subdivision Area (km2) Population (2014) Capital 1 Indonesia 1,904,569 251,490,000 Jakarta 2 Philippines 342,353 101,649,000 Manila 3 Vietnam 331,210 92,571,000 Hanoi 4 Thailand 513,120 65,236,000 Bangkok 5 Myanmar 676,000 51,419,000 Nay Pyi Daw 6 Malaysia 329,847 30,034,000 Kuala Lumpur 7 Cambodia 181,035 15,561,000 Phnom Penh 8 Laos 236,800 6,557,000 Vientiane 9 Singapore 724 5,554,000 Singapore (citystate) 10 East Timor 14,874 1,172,000 Dili 11 Brunei 5,765 453,000 Bandar Seri Begawan 12 Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) 8,250 379,944 Port Blair 13 Christmas Island (Australia) 135 1,402 Flying Fish Cove 596 West Island (Pulau Panjang) 14 Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) 14 AFRICA Africa is home to diverse ecosystems, from sandy deserts to lush rain forests. Largest Urban Area Cairo, Egypt (15.6 million people) Highest Elevation Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (5,895 meters/19,341 feet) Largest Watershed Congo River (4 million square kilometers/1.55 million square miles) Population Density 87 people per square kilometer Most Renewable Electricity Produced Lesotho (100%, hydropower) Africa, the second-largest continent, is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided in half almost equally by the Equator. Africa’s physical geography, environment and resources, and human geography can be considered separately. Africa has eight major physical regions: the Sahara, the Sahel, the Ethiopian Highlands, the savanna, the Swahili Coast, the rain forest, the African Great Lakes, and Southern Africa. Some of these regions cover large bands of the continent, such as the Sahara and Sahel, while others are isolated areas, such as the Ethiopian Highlands and the Great Lakes. Each of these regions has unique animal and plant communities. Sahara The Sahara is the world’s largest hot desert, covering 8.5 million square kilometers (3.3 million square miles), about the size of the South American country of Brazil. Defining Africa’s northern bulge, the Sahara makes up 25 percent of the continent. The Sahara has a number of distinct physical features, including ergs, regs, hamadas, and oases. Ergs, which cover 20 percent of the Sahara, are sand dunes that stretch for hundreds of kilometers at heights of more than 300 meters (1,000 feet). Ergs cover most of Algeria and Libya and parts of Mali and Nigeria. Ergs can contain large quantities of salt, which is sold for industrial and food use. Regs are plains of sand and gravel that make up 70 percent of the Sahara. The gravel can be black, red, or white. Regs are the remains of prehistoric seabeds and riverbeds, but are now nearly waterless. Hamadas are elevated plateaus of rock and stone that reach heights of 3,353 meters (11,000 feet). They include the Atlas Mountains, which stretch from southwestern Morocco to northeastern Tunisia; the Tibesti Mountains of southern Libya and northern Chad; and the Ahaggar Mountains in southern Algeria. An oasis is a hub of water in the desert, often in the form of springs, wells, or irrigation systems. About 75 percent of the Saharas population lives in oases, which make up only 2,071 square kilometers (800 square miles) of the deserts vast area. The Saharas animal and plant communities have adapted to the regions extremely dry conditions. The kidneys of the jerboa, a type of rodent, produce highly concentrated urine that minimizes water loss. A dromedary camel conserves water by changing its body temperature so it doesnt sweat as the day gets hotter. The scorpion limits its activities to night, burrowing into the cooler sands beneath the surface during the day. The scorpion, a predator, also absorbs water from the flesh of its prey. Saharan plants survive thanks to root systems that plunge as far as 24 meters (80 feet) underground. In parts of the Sahara, plants cannot take root at all. In the southern Libyan Desert, for instance, no greenery exists for more than 195 kilometers (120 miles). Sahel The Sahel is a narrow band of semi-arid land that forms a transition zone between the Sahara to the north and the savannas to the south. It is made up of flat, barren plains that stretch roughly 5,400 kilometers (3,300 miles) across Africa, from Senegal to Sudan. The Sahel contains the fertile delta of the Niger, one of Africa’s longest rivers. Unfortunately, the Sahel’s fertile land is rapidly becoming desert as a result of drought, deforestation, and intensive agriculture. This process is known as desertification. The Sahel’s animal communities are constantly scavenging for scarce water and vegetation resources. The Senegal gerbil, the most common mammal in the Sahel and measuring only a few centimeters, consumes as much as 10 percent of the Sahel’s plants. The Sahel’s green vegetation only emerges during the rainy season, but is often quickly harvested by farmers or consumed by animals. Baobabs are drought- and fire-resistant trees with trunks that are often 15 meters (50 feet) wide and as tall as 26 meters (85 feet). Acacia, whose deep root systems are ideal for semi-arid climates, are among the most common trees found in the Sahel. Cram-cram, a prickly grass, is the primary fodder for Sahel herds such as zebu cattle. Ethiopian Highlands The Ethiopian Highlands began to rise 75 million years ago, as magma from Earth’s mantle uplifted a broad dome of ancient rock. This dome was later split as Africa’s continental crust pulled apart, creating the Great Rift Valley system. Today, this valley cuts through the Ethiopian Highlands from the southwest to the northeast. The Ethiopian Highlands are home to 80 percent of Africa’s tallest mountains. The highlands craggy landscape is perfect for nimble animal species. Native species such as the walia ibex, an endangered wild goat, and the gelada baboon live in the ledges and rocky outposts of the Simien Mountains. The most emblematic highlands species is probably the Ethiopian wolf, which is now on the brink of extinction. Important plant species native to the Ethiopian Highlands include the Ethiopian rose, Africa’s only native rose, and the ensete, a tall, thick, rubbery plant that is a close relative of the banana. Savanna Savannas, or grasslands, cover almost half of Africa, more than 13 million square kilometers (5 million square miles). These grasslands make up most of central Africa, beginning south of the Sahara and the Sahel and ending north of the continents southern tip. Among Africa’s many savanna regions, the Serengeti (or Serengeti Plains) is the most well-known. The Serengeti is a vast, undulating plain that stretches 30,000 square kilometers (11,583 square miles) from Kenya’s Massai-Mara game reserve to Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park. The Serengeti is home to one of the continents highest concentrations of large mammal species, including lions, hyenas, zebras, giraffes, and elephants. Each year, more than 1 million wildebeest travel in a circular migration, following seasonal rains, across the Serengeti Plains. Their grazing and trampling of grass allows new grasses to grow, while their waste helps fertilize the soil. Swahili Coast The Swahili Coast stretches about 1,610 kilometers (1,000 miles) along the Indian Ocean, from Somalia to Mozambique. The nearby coral reefs and barrier islands protect the coast from severe weather. There is not a lot of animal life on the sandy Swahili Coast. The golden-rumped elephant shrew, an insect-eating rodent with a long snout, is common. A small, primitive species of primate known as the bush baby inhabits vegetated areas of the Swahili Coast. Bush babies, which have enormous eyes for hunting at night, feed primarily on insects, fruit, and leaves. These more vegetated areas are located on a narrow strip just inland from the coastal sands. Heavy cultivation has diminished the diversity of plant species in this interior area of the Swahili Coast. Mangrove forests are the most common vegetation. Mangroves have exposed root systems. This allows the trees to absorb oxygen directly from the air, as well as from the nutrient-poor soil. Rain Forest Most of Africa’s native rain forest has been destroyed by development, agriculture, and forestry. Today, 80 percent of Africa’s rain forest is concentrated in central Africa, along the Congo River basin. Africa’s rain forests have a rich variety of animal life; a 6-kilometer (4-mile) patch could contain up to 400 bird species, 150 butterfly species, and 60 species of amphibians. Important mammals include African forest elephants, gorillas, the black colobus monkey, and the okapi, a donkey-like giraffe. The driver ant is one of Africa’s most aggressive rain forest species. Driver ants move in columns of up to 20 million across the rain forest floor, and will eat anything from toxic millipedes to reptiles and small mammals. The African rain forests plant community is even more diverse, with an estimated 8,000 plant species documented. More than 1,100 of these species are endemic, or found nowhere else on Earth. Only 10 percent of the plants in the African rain forest have been identified. African Great Lakes The Great Lakes are located in nine countries that surround the Great Rift Valley. As the African continent separated from Saudi Arabia, large, deep cracks were created in the Earth’s surface. These cracks were later filled with water. This geologic process created some of the largest and deepest lakes in the world. There are seven major African Great Lakes: Lake Albert, Lake Edward, Lake Kivu, Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Turkana, and Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa, is the southern source of the Nile River, the longest river in the world. The African Great Lakes region has a diverse range of aquatic and terrestrial animal life. Fish include the 45-kilogram (100-pound) Nile perch and the 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) cichlid. Migrating savanna animals, such as wildebeest, use the lakes as watering holes. Hippos and crocodiles call the region their home. The Great Lakes about everything from rain forest to savanna plant communities. However, invasive species like the water hyacinth and papyrus have begun to take over entire shorelines, endangering animals and plants. Southern Africa The region of Southern Africa is dominated by the Kaapvaal craton, a shelf of bedrock that is more than 2.6 billion years old. Rocky features of Southern Africa include plateaus and mountains, such as the Drakensberg range. Southern Africa is the epicenter of Africa’s well-known reserves, which protect animal species such as lions, elephants, baboons, white rhinos, and Burchells zebras. Other important animal species include the impala, a type of deer, and the springbok, a type of gazelle that can spring several feet into the air to avoid predators. Southern Africa’s Cape Floral Region is one of the richest areas for plants in the world. While the Cape Floral Region covers less than 0.5 percent of Africa, it is home to nearly 20 percent of the continents flora. The giant protea, South Africas national flower, is found in the Cape Floral Region. CENTRAL AMERICA Belize History Archaeological evidence in Belize indicates that the famed Mayan culture began to emerge in this lowland area of the Yucatan Peninsula around 1000 BC. That Mayan civilization flourished here for eons; great cities were formed, massive ceremonial buildings, palaces, temples and personal dwellings were constructed, and the people farmed the land with great proficiency. There are many theories (none proven) why the Mayan society began its general decline across the entire Yucatan in the 10th century, yet remnants of this extraordinary people and a quite sizeable population of direct descendants still exist in Belize and all across the Yucatan today, despite hundreds of years of European colonization of the area. And speaking of Europeans, Spain aggressively controlled most of the colonies on the fringes of this New World, when the first English settlers arrived in the early 1600s. For the next two centuries military conflicts (mostly naval) between the British and Spanish raged, as both countries desired this land. The last attack by the Spanish occurred in 1796, and in the early 1800s, after most of the Spanish colonies in the New World had gained independence, the Settlement of Belize was under British control. Regional power struggles continued in the area over the next 50 years, and then in 1862, the Settlement of Belize was officially declared a British colony, and named British Honduras. Similar to all European colonies in the Americas, British Honduras also craved independence, but Guatemala continued to claim the entire area, and the British were reluctant to release their firm grip. By the 1960s the British began to soften their position, and though they still controlled all of the defense and foreign affairs of the settlement, its name was changed to Belize in anticipation of the independence, which finally did come in 1981. As the second smallest and least populated country in Central America, the relatively new (independent) nation of Belize continues to struggle with high unemployment, increasing drug traffic and urban crime. On the hopeful side, the country's natural beauty has sparked a significant increase in cruise ship passengers and eco-tourism, and those industries are now major factions in its improving economy. COSTA RICA On his final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus came ashore on Costa Rica's Caribbean coastline (near Limon) and the indigenous Indians presented him with an offering of gold. Christopher Columbus-The lure of riches in the Americas was a strong magnet for European adventures of-the-day, but those that ventured to Costa Rica were confronted by an inhospitable landscape of coastal swamps and hostile Indians tribes - and most did not survive. The Spanish persisted, and by the mid-16th century a few small settlements were successfully established; Cartago was declared the capital, and the colony was ruled by a governor appointed by the Spanish empire's regional capital of Guatemala. Unlike neighboring colonies, Costa Rica was slow to grow, and remained a collection of subsistence farmers for the next two centuries. With very few exports of real value, it quietly remained off the radar screen of the Spanish Crown. After the overthrow of the Spanish King by Napoleon, Costa Rica and others declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Then, Costa Rica, as well as El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua formed the United Provinces of Central America, but that federation quickly dissolved, and Costa Rica became an independent state in 1838. juan mora fernandezJuan Mora Fernandez (the first head of state) encouraged the cultivation of coffee, and over time the powerful coffee barons helped finance a political revolution that would change the country forever. Over the next century an assortment of presidents and ambitious military dictators came and went, but for the most part, Costa Rica avoided the chaos of bloody coups, rebellions and citizen revolts endemic to other Central American countries. In the mid-1900s, democracy was the order-of-the-day, but when the United Social Christian Party refused to leave power after losing the 1948 general election, civil war was in the wind. The opposition in that brief 40-day uprising was led by Jose Mar¡a (Don Pepe) Figueres Ferrerhe, and in the end he founded a new republic; banned the Communist Party; women could vote; blacks gained citizenship; and in a brilliant stroke of governing he abolished the armed forces and established a term limit for all future presidents. Coffee beansWhen Don Pepe died in 1990 (a justifiable national hero to this day) his innovative leadership had earned Costa Rica an enviable international reputation as a peaceful, stable democracy in a region of instability. Today, driven by agricultural products (like bananas and coffee), and strong tourism and technology industries, Costa Rica enjoys a high standard of living, and remains the true success story of Central America. EL SALVADOR This land of volcanic eruptions and devastating earthquakes was occupied by indigenous Indian factions as early as 1500 BC, and the remains of their civilizations are strewn across the land. The Spanish arrived in 1524 and the native tribes aggressively fought back; those invaders retreated, but they returned the next year and the locals were simply overpowered by Spanish military weapons. By mid-century the city of San Salvador was up and running and the district of El Salvador were under the control of the Spanish Kingdom of Guatemala. Over time the Spanish colonial system flourished here, and quite typically of all regional colonies, the indigenous Indian population was stripped of their land, and through abuse and repression were relegated to a rural, lower-class status. After the overthrow of the Spanish King by Napoleon, El Salvador and others declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Then, El Salvador, as well as Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua formed the United Provinces of Central America, but that federation quickly dissolved, and El Salvador became an independent republic in 1838. Across the Americas, all of the new independent states experienced power grabs (revolutions), mostly fed by land-greed and for control of natural resources; El Salvador was no exception. Serious problems began in 1932 with a coup, and for most of the remaining 20th century, El Salvador totally unraveled; its people suffered through decades of military rule, out-of-control death squads and the bloodshed of a 12-year civil war that all but destroyed the country. hurrican symbolThat civil war finally ended, but then Hurricane Mitch paid a surprise visit in 1998; widespread flooding and landslides were the result, infrastructure was washed away, hundreds died, and over 50,000 Salvadorans were rendered homeless. To make matters worse, on Saturday, January 13, 2001, a 7.69 earthquake struck; more than 1,000 died, and hundreds of thousands were left homeless. Today, the cost of rebuilding has now surpassed 3.5 billion dollars. The small country of El Salvador is certainly a work in progress. On the positive side, and over the last ten years, the country has instigated a strong move toward democracy, countrywide modernization, and a greatly improved tourism industry. GUATEMALA The fabled Maya people flourished throughout the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala for centuries. This very advanced civilization constructed great cities, grand palaces, pyramids and observatories, as well as advanced works of art, astronomy, literature and mathematics. For somewhat mysterious reasons, the Maya society began its general decline across the entire area in the 10th century, yet remnants of this extraordinary people and a quite sizeable population of descendants still exist in Guatemala and all across the Yucatan today. In fact, even though they remain the largest population majority in the country and their languages and religions survived, they sadly live in poverty, and if you will, form an almost forgotten and repressed minority-majority. Pedro AlvaradoWhen the Spanish conquistadors and their leader, Perdro de Alvarado, arrived in 1523, they quickly defeated the weaker Maya forces and aggressively began the colonization of the land; large farms were established and the remaining Indians were forced to work them. For the almost 300 hundred years that followed, the Spanish colonial powers ruthlessly exploited and persecuted the remaining Maya, all but erasing their culture from the map of world history. After the overthrow of the Spanish King by Napoleon, Guatemala and others declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Then, Guatemala, as well as Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua formed the United Provinces of Central America, but that federation quickly dissolved, and Guatemala became an independent republic in 1838. Unfortunately (like many new countries) this new country experienced a lengthy series of coups, dictatorships, insurgencies, human atrocities, and long stretches of brutal military rule. In the 1940s, two reformist presidents were elected; presidents that permitted free expression, legalized unions, encouraged social reform, and the formation of political parties. It's referred to as the "Ten Years of Spring," but it was short-lived. In 1949 the Guatemalan Party of Labor (PGT), the communist party in Guatemala was formed. It gained prominence during the government of Col. Jacobo Arbenz. communist military regime guatemalaArbenz was forced out of office and the repressive military regained control, and eventually Guatemala slipped into a 36-year civil war; over 200,000 civilians were murdered, and of course, the country's economy was ruined. Eventually the USA - the major supplier of military assistance to the country - tired of the civil war, and eliminated all of its financial aid; this action finally forced the election of a civilian, but controversies and coups would quickly return. Finally, in 1996, the government signed a peace agreement with the leftist rebels, formally ending the conflict, which had left countless people dead and over one million homeless refugees. And then what happened? Well, currently the country has stabilized, but I would stay tuned, as Guatemala's government (be it civilian or military) frequently alters it course. HONDURAS The lands of Honduras were long inhabited by a mixture of indigenous Indian peoples, with the Maya culture certainly recognized as the most progressive, and justifiably celebrated yet today. Christopher ColumbusIn 1502, on his final voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus sailed into the area, stopping briefly in the Bay Islands. Subsequently a few Spanish navigators passively explored the region, but it wasn't until 1524 that the Spanish began the serious conquest of Honduras. Initially, these European invaders selfishly fought among themselves for control, and this new Spanish colony was in total disarray and all but abandoned; then gold and silver were discovered in the 1530s, new settlers arrived by the boat load, and typically, the indigenous Indians and imported slaves were forced into hard labor. Despite a revolt of the native people in 1537, one led by Lempira, a local chieftain, and revered national hero, the spread of colonization and mining continued across the land. The initial prosperity from precious metals soon waned, and eventually the rural agricultural industries proved the only real revenues in this struggling colony. Adding to the financial dismay of the Spanish Crown, the English aggressively entered Honduras, building small settlements along the Caribbean coastline and in the Bay Islands. These two powers fought for control for over a century, until the Spanish finally drove the British out in 1780s. After the overthrow of the Spanish King by Napoleon, Honduras and others declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Then, Honduras, as well as Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua formed the United Provinces of Central America, but that federation quickly dissolved, and Honduras became an independent republic in 1838. In this new upstart country, chaos soon followed, and over the next 150 years the country suffered through countless coups, citizen rebellions and revolts, a long line of military regimes and rulers, incursions and regional wars. Hurricane Mitch Just as stressed-out Honduras appeared to stabilize, Hurricane Mitch ravished the country in 1998, leaving over 11,000 people dead and all but destroying major cities such as San Pedro Sula and even Tegucigalpa. Recovery costs have now exceeded 4 billion US dollars. Volcanoes are long dormant in Honduras, but the political system still flares, and the next major eruption could be just around the corner. In 1502, Nicaragua was inhabited by over a million indigenous Indians when Christopher Columbus stopped briefly along its Caribbean coastline. Twenty years later the Spanish had established permanent settlements here in their ongoing colonization efforts across the Americas. Over time, most of its original people were decimated. Flag of the Mosquito CoastThe Spanish colony of Nicaragua was ruled from the Spanish empire's regional capital of Guatemala, with one exception - as the British influenced (or controlled) much of its Caribbean coastline, an area inhabited by Miskito (Mosquito) Indians. NICARAGUA After the overthrow of the Spanish King by Napoleon, Nicaragua and others declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Then, Nicaragua, as well as Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras formed the United Provinces of Central America, but that federation quickly dissolved, and Nicaragua became an independent republic in 1838. As factions fought for control of this new country, the U.S. inserted its considerable stabilizing power, and in fact, invaded Nicaragua on many occasions. In the early 20th century, the U.S. Marines left, and Nicaragua quickly fell under the repressive fourdecade regime of the Somoza family. Flag of the Sandinista National Liberation FrontStrong resistance to that brutal regime began in the late 1970s, organized by the Sandinista National Liberation Front. The Sandinistas eventually took control of the country, instigated land reforms, as well as important health and literacy changes. The U.S. remained unhappy about the removal by the Somoza family and the Reagan administration supported a heavily armed counterrevolutionary movement against the Sandinistas. They were called the "Contras" and they terrorized the countryside and inflicted great damage to the already weak economy. The Contras were secretly funded by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), with revenues from the sale of weapons to Iran (Iran-Contra Scandal). The civil war ended in 1990, but Nicaragua, all but destroyed by decades of fighting, would soon be dealt another tragic blow. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch arrived and became the worst natural disaster in Nicaragua's history; killing over 10,000 people, more than 40,000 homes damaged or destroyed, and most bridges and roads simply washed away. In 2004, the World Bank forgave most of Nicaragua’s international debt, and though the country still struggles to survive, there is much optimism in this beautiful, yet fragile land. PANAMA Like all of Central America, the native Indian population of Panama was all but destroyed by the disease and powerful weapons inflicted on them by the Spanish during their aggressive colonization. Native peoplesAs the Spanish regional power increased, Panama became the launching point for invasions into South America. Most of the treasure mined (stolen) by the conquistadors in Bolivia and Peru was sent back to Panama for transport to Spain. Treasures shipped across the Caribbean became a strong magnet (an easy mark) for pirates (and over time) to reduce their increasing losses, the Spanish Crown decided to transport the gold and silver south, around the southern tip of South America, on a long (but safe) journey back to Spain. With little strategic value remaining for Spain, Panama was ignored. When neighboring Colombia gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Panama became a province of that new country. With U.S. backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, and promptly signed a treaty with the U.S. allowing for the construction of a canal and U.S. sovereignty over a strip of land on either side, to be called the Panama Canal Zone. Ignoring the tragic attempt by the French to build the canal in the late 19th century, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers successfully constructed it between 1904 and 1914, a feat that revolutionized ocean-going shipping, even to the present day. Canal constructionUnderstandable unhappiness by Panama on its major asset about being controlled by a foreign land, an agreement was signed in 1977, calling for the complete transfer of the Canal from the U.S. to Panama by the end of 1999. In the mid-1980s General Manuel Noriega took control of Panama, and during his messy 5-year dictatorship, democracy disappeared, the economy was severely damaged, drug trafficking from South America increased, and the population lived in fear of further repression. With U.S. help, Noriega was deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining U.S. military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999.
