Updated 30 May 2021
NEW ERA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
2021 SEPTEMBER SEMESTER
UCENG 2133 WORKPLACE ENGLISH
UNIT 1: PARTS OF SPEECH FOR EFFECTIVE WRITING
Source: https://en.islcollective.com/english-esl-powerpoints/grammar/parts-speech-word-classes/8-parts-speech/45019
1. PREVIEW
Let’s start by asking the question – what is grammar and why it’s worthwhile to study
it? First of all, grammar is a set of conventions and rules that govern a language and
make it understandable by other people by putting a sentence together.
Poorly constructed sentences and incorrect punctuation or grammar can lead to
misunderstanding, confusion, and breakdown in communication. It also reflects on the
credibility as well as the corporate image of any organisation.
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Many errors are made due to not understanding the grammar rules properly, or simply
through carelessness. Knowing the grammatical terms would ensure better effective
writing.
There are eight main parts of speech in English. However, of late, grammarians have
often considered ‘articles’ as a part of speech – thereby making it nine. It’s important
to recognise them so that it helps you to analyse sentences and understand them.
Besides, it also helps you to construct good sentences.
Every word in a sentence belongs to a part of speech. This refers to the role a word
plays in a sentence and the roles are designed to work together.
2. UNDERSTANDING THE PARTS OF SPEECH
The words that we use are divided into different categories called ‘parts of speech’ or
‘word classes’. The important categories are as follows:
2.1. NOUNS
A word that names a person, a place, a thing or an idea. In a sentence, nouns can
play the role of subject (the person, place, or thing that does the action), direct object
(a noun that receives the action performed by the subject) or indirect object (a noun
that is the recipient of a direct object). For example:
Sammy organised a party for his lecturer.
In the above example:
The noun (Sammy) functions as the subject of the sentence because Sammy did
the work of organising a party
The noun (party) functions as the direct object of the sentence because ‘the party’
is the end result of the verb (organised)
The noun (lecturer) functions as the indirect object of the sentence because the
‘lecture’ is the beneficiary of the party
One important distinction to be made s whether a noun is a proper noun or a common
noun. The names of specific people (David, Lucy), specific places (Starbucks) and
specific things (iPod) are called proper nouns. All others names of people
(postmaster), places (theme park), and things (desk) are called common nouns.
Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do not. For example:
Does Jerry have a laptop?
In the above example:
The noun (Jerry) is a proper noun
The noun (laptop) is a common noun
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A noun can be a singular noun or a plural noun. The latter can be formed by adding
‘–s’ or ‘–es’ to the singular form, although there are many exceptions. Please refer to
the spelling rules.
For example:
The general manager will speak with the branch managers later this week.
(‘general manager’ is singular; ‘branch managers’ is plural)
Gosh! The photocopier machines have broken down again. Only one machine
is functional at the moment. (‘machines’ is plural; ‘machine’ is singular)
Another class of nouns is the countable noun and uncountable noun. A countable
noun can be counted, even if the number might be extra-ordinarily high (like counting
the population of a country). A countable can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few,
and many, For example:
There is an elderly man at the door. (‘man’ is a singular countable noun)
Are there many cars on the road? (‘cars’ is a plural countable noun)
An uncountable noun is one that comes in a state or quantity which is impossible to
count: liquids, sand, air, salt, etc. They are always considered to be singular, and can
be used with some, any, a little, and much. For example:
Would you like some sugar in your coffee? Yes, a little sugar will do. (‘sugar’ is
an uncountable noun)
Last but not least is a possessive noun. This type of noun shows possession or
ownership. You can identify a possessive noun by an apostrophe and an ‘s’. For
example:
My neighbour’s house was burgled last night.
In the above example, the ‘house’ belongs to my neighbour. When the noun is singular,
the apostrophe comes before the letter ‘s’.
The ladies’ handbags were searched by the security guard at the entrance.
In the above example, the handbags belong to the ladies. When the noun is plural, the
apostrophe comes after the letter ‘s’.
2.2. PRONOUNS
A word that takes the place of a noun or another pronoun when the reader or listener
knows which specific noun you’re referring to. They are used to make writing and
speech smoother and less repetitive. For example:
Tom was supposed to be here at eight. He is always late; next time I’ll tell him to
be punctual. He should know that himself without being told. Conversely, his
brother is always punctual.
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In the above example, the words ‘he’ and ‘him’, ‘himself’, and ‘his’ all refer to Tom (the
subject). Instead of saying Tom’s name four times in a row, which sounds repetitive,
you substitute with specific pronouns.
Pronouns can be classified as subject pronouns, object pronouns, and reflective
pronouns. The table below shows the different classes of pronouns:
Singular
Plural
Category
Subject
Object
Possessive
Reflective
Subject
Object
Possessive
Reflective
First
I
me
mine
myself
we
our
ours
ourselves
Second
you
your
yours
yourself
you
your
yours
yourselves
they
them
theirs
themselves
Third
he
him
his
himself
she
her
hers
herself
it
it
its
itself
For example:
Sally is here this morning. She hopes to join in the meeting. (‘She’ - subject
pronoun)
The cleaners have the brooms. I bought them last night. (‘them’ – object pronoun)
This bag belongs to Tom. It is his (‘his’ – possessive pronoun)
These are the tutorial notes. You have to read them yourself. (‘yourself’ – reflective
pronoun)
Another class of pronoun is the relative pronouns. They are used to connect relative
clauses to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information about
something mentioned in the sentence. Relative pronouns can be summarised as
follows:
Relative Pronoun
that
Use
For people, animals, and things in a defining relative clause
which
For animals or things in non-defining relative clause
who
For people as the subject
whom
For people as the object
For example:
This is the book that I borrowed last week.
The Proton Saga, which is Malaysia’s first national car, is generally affordable.
Dr Mok, who is the Vice-Chancellor, will be with you soon.
To whom shall I refer this matter to?
Yet another class of pronoun is the demonstrative pronoun. It takes the place of a
noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned. The demonstrative pronoun
can be summarised as follows:
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Demonstrative Pronoun
that
Use
For singular item that is far away
this
For singular item that is nearby
these
For plural items that are nearby
those
For plural items that are far away
Indefinite pronoun is another class of pronoun that is used when you need to refer
to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be specifically identified. Some common
indefinite pronouns are – one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one.
For example:
Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. It matters more to some
than others. Nobody knows the trouble I’ve been.
Lastly, you have the interrogative pronouns. They are used in questions. Example
are who, what, which, and whose.
2.3. VERBS
A word that tells you what the subject of a sentence or clause is doing. It is
indispensable to the formation of a complete sentence. It must agree with the subject
in number. Therefore, singular subject goes with singular verb and vice versa. It can
be the main verb or a helping verb.
A verb can be an action verb or a non-action verb. The former indicates an action or
an occurrence. For example: Jerry scolded Tom.
Conversely, a non-action verb indicates a state of being, sense, emotion, desire,
possession, or opinion. The most common non-action verbs ‘to be’. For example:
The clock-in system is expensive.
I am a final-year student.
They are late for class.
She has two tickets to the concert.
Tom and Jerry have arrived.
My mother loves me very much.
2.4. ADVERBS
A word that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It can appear
before or after the word it modifies. For example:
The receptionist worked happily after being praised. (modifying a verb – it tells
how the receptionist worked)
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The new employee is extremely hard-working. (modifying an adjective – it tells
how hard-working)
Please read the contract very carefully for grammatical errors. (modifying another
adverb – it tells how carefully)
2.5. ADJECTIVES
A word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. It is often called a ‘describing
word’ because it gives you further details about a noun, such as what it looks like (the
white horse), how many there are (the two girls), or which one it is (the last train). It
doesn’t modify verbs or other adjectives. It is almost always found before the noun it
modifies. However, multiple adjectives can modify the same noun, for example:
That foolish employee was just given a termination letter. (‘foolish’ describes the
employee)
Our old office building is better than our present one. (‘old’ describes the building)
The fast red bus crashed into several vehicles parked by the roadside. (‘fast red’
described the bus)
2.6. PREPOSITIONS
A word or a group of words used before a noun, a pronoun, or a noun phrase to show
direction, time, place, location, spatial relationship, or to introduce an object. Some
prepositions have fixed expressions, thus, it may be a good idea to memorise the
phrase instead of the individual prepositions.
⦁ Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions to, in, into, on, and onto. For example:
Tom walked to the convenience store.
Jerry didn’t ring the doorbell, but came right in(to) the house.
Please don’t drive on(to) the grass, and park your car there.
⦁ Preposition of Time
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions in, at, and on.
Use in with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons. For
example:
She has music lesson in the evening.
Her birthday is in December.
She was born in the year 2002.
Her family often goes for vacation in spring.
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Use at with the time of day. Also use at with noon, night, and midnight. For example:
We start our class at 8:30 in the morning.
We’ll meet again at noon next Monday.
She often has a cup of tea at night before bed.
The family usually has supper at midnight.
Use on with days. For example:
We don’t have lessons on Saturdays.
I usually do my laundry on Sundays
Use since, for, by, during, from … to, from … until, with, and within to refer to
extended time. For example:
I’ve lived in Kajang since 2005. (I moved there in 2005 and still live there.)
He’ll be in Ipoh for 3 weeks. (He’ll spend 3 weeks in Ipoh.)
She’ll finish her homework by 6:00 pm. (She’ll finish her homework sometime
between now and 6:00 pm.)
He works part time during the semester break. (For the period of time throughout
the semester break.)
I’ll collect data from January to June. (Starting in January and ending in June.)
They’re in school from March until May. (Starting in March and up till May.)
She’ll graduate within 2 years. (Not longer than 2 years.)
⦁ Preposition of Place
To refer to a place, use the prepositions in (the point itself), at (the general vicinity),
on (the surface), and inside (something contained or confined). For example:
They’ll meet in the lunchroom.
She was waiting at the corner.
He left his phone on the bed.
Place the pen inside the drawer.
To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions over and above. To
refer to an object lower than a point, use the prepositions below, beneath, under, and
underneath. For example:
The bird flew over the house.
The reference books are on the shelf above the magazines.
Basements are dug below ground.
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There’s hard wood beneath the carpet.
The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of leaves.
The cat is hiding underneath the box.
To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions by, near, next to, between,
among, and opposite. For example:
The gas station is by the grocery store.
The park is near her house.
Park your bike next to the garage.
There’s a bench between the two trees.
There’s a purple flower among the weeds.
The garage is opposite the house.
⦁ Preposition of Location
To refer to a location, use the prepositions in (an area or volume), at (a point), and
on (a surface).
They live in the city. (an area)
She’ll find him at the library. (a point)
There’s a lot of dirt on the window. (a surface)
⦁ Preposition of Spatial Relationships
To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions above, across, against, ahead
of, along, among, around, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, from, in
front of, inside, near, off, out of, through, towards, under, and within. For example:
The post office is across the street from the grocery store.
We’ll stop at many tourist attractions along the way.
The children are hiding behind the tree.
His shirt is off.
Walk towards the garage and then turn left.
Place a check mark within the box.
⦁ Preposition Following Verbs and Adjectives (Collocations)
Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition that’s used together.
Sometimes verbs and adjectives can be followed by different prepositions, giving the
phrase different meanings (phrasal verbs). Memorizing these phrases instead of just
the preposition alone is the most helpful.
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Some of the common verb + preposition combinations are as follows:
⦁ About: worry, complain, read
He always worries about the future.
She complained about the homework.
I read about the flooding in the city.
⦁ At: arrive (a building or event), smile, look
He arrived at the airport 2 hours early.
The children smiled at her.
She looked at him.
⦁ From: differ, suffer
The results differ from my original idea.
She suffers from dementia.
⦁ For: account, allow, search
Be sure to account for any discrepancies.
I returned the transcripts to the interviewees to allow for revisions to be made.
They’re searching for the missing dog.
⦁ In: occur, result, succeed
The same problem occurred in three out of four cases.
My recruitment strategies resulted in finding 10 participants.
She’ll succeed in completing her degree.
⦁ Of: approve, consist, smell
I approve of the idea.
The recipe consists of three basic ingredients.
The basement smells of mildew.
⦁ On: concentrate, depend, insist
He’s concentrating on his work.
They depend on each other.
I must insist on following this rule.
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⦁ To: belong, contribute, lead, refer
Bears belong to the family of mammals.
I hope to contribute to the previous research.
My results will lead to future research on the topic.
Please refer to my previous explanation.
⦁ With: (dis)agree, argue, deal
I (dis)agree with you.
She argued with him.
They will deal with the situation.
Some of the common adjective + preposition combinations are as follows:
about
at
by
from
for
in
of
√
aware
√
beneficial
capable
√
characteristic
√
√
composed
√
√
different
√
disappointed
√
√
√
√
essential
√
familiar
good
grateful
interested
with
√
accustomed
employed
to
√
√
√
√
√
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happy
√
√
√
√
opposed
√
proud
√
responsible
√
similar
sorry
√
√
Source: https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/prepositions
2.7. CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating
conjunctions.
⦁ Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical
purpose in a sentence. There’re seven main coordinating conjunctions in English,
which form the acronym FANBOYS:
For: We’re frustrated, for the college had cut funding for our project.
And: I’ll have plain rice, green curry, and fried egg for dinner.
Nor: The students didn’t complete their homework, nor did they pass the test.
But: The study is several years old, but still valuable to my research project.
Or: At the end of the class, the students can choose to write an essay or take a
test.
Yet: The patient complained of chronic pain, yet she refused treatment.
So: I’ve only been here for a week, so I hardly know anyone in class.
Transitional words such as however and therefore can also function as conjunctions.
For example:
The authors agreed on the prevalence of the problem; however, they disagreed
on the problem’s cause.
Several employees complained about the new policies, and therefore, the
manager held an all-staff meeting to address their concerns.
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⦁ Paired Conjunctions
Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish
alternatives. Although paired conjunctions can be helpful in structuring a sentence,
they can also make sentences wordier than necessary, so use these conjunctions
sparingly.
⦁ both … and
The project will require significant investments of both time and money.
Both the students and the teachers were satisfied with the pilot program.
⦁ not only … but also
Students who didn’t complete the assignment received not only a poor
grade but also a warning from their lecturer.
Not only did the student include full sentences from the source without using
quotation marks, but he also failed to properly cite paraphrased material.
⦁ either … or
Either the students were unprepared or the assessment was poorly written.
Participants in the survey could either choose from a list of possible answers
or write in their own responses.
⦁ neither … nor
Students who didn’t complete the project received neither praise nor rewards.
The staff neither followed the new policy nor asked for clarification.
⦁ Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause (dependent clause) to a main
clause (independent clause) and establishes a relationship between the two. There
are many subordinating conjunctions, but here are some of the most common ones:
after
as though
in order to
that
whenever
although
because
in order that
though
where
as much as
before
once
unless
wherever
as soon as
how
since
until
whether
as long as
if
than
when
while
There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction:
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⦁ Main clause + subordinate clause
The teacher administered the test after giving instructions.
The author must avoid bias if she wants to maintain a scholarly tone.
I’ll turn in this assignment at midnight whether or not I complete it.
⦁ Subordinate clause, + main clause
After giving instructions, the teacher administered the test.
If she wants to maintain a scholarly tone, the author must avoid bias.
Whether or not I complete this assignment, I will turn it in at midnight.
Note: If a subordinate clause is used to begin a sentence, a comma is used at the end
of the subordinate clause.
2.8. INTERJECTIONS
Interjections, like wow and ouch, are solely designed to convey emotion in an abrupt
and exclamatory way. They express meaning or feeling in a word or two. They don’t
relate grammatically to the other parts of the sentence, nor do they help the reader
understand the relationship between words and phrases in the sentence.
Instead, interjections simply convey the way the author (or speaker) feels. Some
grammarians believe interjections are the least important part of speech because
interjections aren’t generally required in order for the meaning of a sentence to be
clear.
In addition, they are rarely used in academic or formal writing; they're more common
in fiction or artistic writing. They're usually, but not always, offset by an exclamation
point (which is also used to show emotion).
⦁ Use of Interjections
Interjections can be used at the beginning of sentences, in the middle of sentences,
and at the end of sentences. Sometimes, they act as fillers in sentences, and
sometimes as standalone sentences on their own. For example, the following
interjections have not meanings whatsoever:
Hurrah. We won the game!
(Emotion of joy)
Alas, I fail the exam!
(Emotion of sorrow)
Wow. What a beautiful car!
(Emotion of surprise)
Oh. I forgot to bring my purse!
(Emotion of regret)
Ouch. It hurts!
(Emotion of pain)
Eww. It tastes so bad!
(Emotion of dislike)
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Yahoo. I got a job!
(Emotion of joy)
Huh. I don’t care!
(Emotion of scorn)
Sometimes, adjectives are used as interjections. Below are some examples:
Great. You helped the poor!
Nice. You played very well!
Good. We can use it!
Sweet. It looks so cute!
Besides, nouns may be used as interjections as well. Below are some examples:
Congratulations. You got a job!
Hello! How are you?
Man! Where were you?
⦁ Beginning of Sentences
Interjections are commonly used at the beginning of a sentence. They're also
associated with a punctuation mark designed to convey emotion: the exclamation
point. For example:
Yikes, I didn't realize that there was a test on grammar today!
Oh no, I can't believe that it’s raining again!
Wow, this’s such a pleasant surprise!
In these sentences, the interjection (yikes, oh no and wow) appear at the beginning
of the sentence. In addition, the emotion is strong and the sentence itself ends with an
exclamation point to illustrate that.
⦁ Middle or End of Sentences
Interjections don't always have to be at the beginning of a sentence. They can appear
in the middle, at the end, or anywhere else where the author wants to interject a bit of
feeling and emotion. For example:
So, it's raining again, huh?
The interjection is found at the end of this sentence. The interjection huh is designed
to express confusion (or perhaps dismay) at the continued rain fall. In this example,
the emotion wasn't an emotion that necessitated an exclamation point--instead, the
interjection turned the sentence into a question.
Here's another example:
In my opinion, my gosh, this’s just the smartest thing you've ever said!
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The interjection my gosh is found in the middle of this sentence. It's designed to
express the author's emphasis on his opinion and no exclamation point was required.
⦁ Standalone Sentence
An interjection can also be used by itself as a standalone sentence.
Oh gosh. I can't believe how late it is!
The interjection Oh gosh is a standalone sentence with an exclamation mark. This is
grammatically correct, even though it doesn't contain a subject or verb, both normally
required for a complete thought. The interjection--or the emotion--is the entire point of
the sentence.
⦁ In Writing
Interjections aren't recommended in formal or academic writing. Because of their
emotive function, there's virtually no place for them in an academic paper designed to
convey facts. By definition, facts should be devoid of emotion or opinion.
Interjections can find their way into fictional pieces, most often in the form of dialogue.
They can also be used in informal written communication between two people, such
as letters or emails.
2.9. ARTICLES
A word used before a noun to indicate if the noun is definite or indefinite, or if a noun
is countable. There are three articles in English: the general singular articles – a, and
an; and the specific article the.
Articles (a, an, and the) are determiners or noun markers that function to specify if
the noun is general or specific in its reference. Often the article chosen depends on if
the writer and the reader understand the reference of the noun.
The articles a and an are indefinite articles. They are used with a singular countable
noun when the noun referred to is non-specific or generic.
The article the is a definite article. It is used to show specific reference and can be
used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable
nouns.
Many languages do not use articles (a, an, and the), or if they do exist, the way they’re
used may be different than in English. Multilingual writers often find article usage to be
one of the most difficult concepts to learn. Although there’re some rules about article
usage to help, there’re also quite a few exceptions.
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Therefore, learning to use articles accurately takes a long time. To master article
usage, it’s necessary to do a great deal of reading, notice how articles are used in
published texts, and take notes that can apply back to your own writing.
⦁ When to Use Article “A” or “An”
Articles a and an are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is nonspecific
or generic. For example:
I do not own a car.
In the sentence above, ‘car’ is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could
be any car.
She would like to go to a university that specializes in teaching.
In the sentence above, ‘university’ is a singular countable noun. Although it begins
with a vowel, the first sound of the word is /j/ or ‘y.’ Thus, a instead of an is used. In
this sentence, it is also generic (it could be any university with this specialization, not
a specific one).
I would like to eat an apple.
In the sentence above, ‘apple’ is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could
be any apple.
Article a is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound. For
example:
a book
a pen
a uniform (Note that ‘uniform’ starts with a vowel, but the first sound is /j/ or a ‘y’
sound. Therefore a instead of an is used here.)
Article an is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound. For example:
an elephant
an American
an MBA (Note that ‘MBA’ starts with a consonant, but the first sound is /Ɛ/ or a
short ‘e’ sound. Therefore, an instead of a is used here.)
Sometimes a or an can be used for first mention (the first time the noun is mentioned).
Then, in subsequent sentences, the article the is used instead. For example:
He would like to live in a large house. The house should have at least three
bedrooms and two bathrooms.
In the first sentence (first mention), a is used because it is referring to a non-specified
house. In the second sentence, the is used because now the house has been
specified.
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⦁ When to Use Article “The”
The is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and
uncountable nouns when the noun is specific. For example:
The book that I read last night was great.
In the sentence above, ‘book’ is a singular, countable noun. It is also specific because
of the phrase ‘that I read last night.’ The writer and reader (or speaker and listener)
know which book is being referred to.
The books assigned for this class are very useful.
In the sentence above, ‘books’ is a plural, countable noun. It’s also specific because
of the phrase ‘for this class.’ The writer and reader (or speaker and listener) know
which books are being referred to.
The advice you gave me was very helpful.
In the sentence above, ‘advice’ is an uncountable noun. However, it is specific
because of the phrase ‘you gave me.’ It is clear which piece of advice was helpful.
Below are some more specific rules:
The is used in the following categories of proper nouns. For example:
Museums and art galleries: the MAC Art Centre, the National Institute of Art
Buildings: the Kuala Lumpur Tower, the Putrajaya Hall of Justice
Seas and oceans: the South China Sea, the Straits of Malacca
Rivers: the Klang River, the Yellow River
Deserts: the Sahara Desert, the Sonora Desert
Periods and events in history: the Industrial Revolution, the Vietnam War
Bridges: the Penang Bridge, the Causeway
Parts of a country: the South, the Central Region
In general, use the with plural proper nouns. For example:
the Great Lakes
the French
the Rockies (as in the Rocky Mountains)
The is often used with proper nouns that include an ‘of’ phrase. For example:
the People’s Republic of China
the University of Malaya
the International Swimming Hall of Fame
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Use the when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of
the world. For example:
The Earth moves around the Sun.
Wolves howl at the Moon.
Use the when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text. This
is also known as second or subsequent mention. For example:
My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation.
I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English.
The is used with superlative adjectives, which are necessarily unique (the first, the
second, the biggest, the smallest, the next, the only, etc.). For example:
It was the first study to address the issue.
She was the weakest participant.
He was the only person to drop out of the study.
⦁ When No Article is Necessary (Generic Reference)
Writers sometimes struggle with the choice to include an article or to leave it out
altogether. Keep in mind that if the noun is singular, countable, and non-specific or
generic (e.g., book, author), the articles a and an may be used.
If the noun is countable and plural (e.g.., ‘research studies’) or uncountable (e.g.,
‘information’) and it’s being used in a non-specific or generic way, no article is used.
Here are some more specifics:
No article is used when a plural countable noun is generic or nonspecific. For example:
I bought new pens and pencils at the store. (general, not specific ones)
Cats have big eyes that can see in the dark. (cats in general, all of them)
Babies cry a lot. (babies in general, all of them)
No article is used when a non-count noun is generic or non-specific. For example:
I bought milk and rice at the store. (generic reference)
We were assigned homework in this class. (generic reference)
There has been previous research on the topic. (generic reference)
Sometimes article usage in English doesn’t follow a specific rule. These expressions
must be memorized instead. Here are some examples of phrases where article usage
is not predictable:
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⦁ Destinations: go to the store, go to the bank, but go to school, go to church, go
to bed, go home
⦁ Locations: in school, at home, in bed, but in the hospital (in American English)
⦁ Parts of the day: in the morning, in the evening, but at night
⦁ Chores: mow the lawn, do the dishes, do the cleaning
3. SUMMARY
A part of speech, sometimes known as word class, is a term used to categorise words
according to their functions in meaning as well as grammatically within sentences.
Every sentence we write or speak in English includes words that fall into some of the
parts of speech.
There are nine parts of speech in the English language:
⦁ nouns are a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. They can take the role of a
subject in a sentence, or an object of an action
⦁ pronouns stand in for a noun in a sentence
⦁ verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence or can show a
sentence subject’s state of being. They changes form based on tense (past or
present) and count distinction (singular or plural)
⦁ adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much,
what child, and more.
⦁ adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when,
where, how, and why something happened and to what extent or how often
⦁ prepositions show special and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the
other words in a sentence
⦁ conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence
⦁ interjections are expressions of emotions and reactions which can stand on their
own or be contained within sentences
⦁ articles function like adjectives by specifying and identifying nouns
The parts of speech are commonly divided into two classes, namely:
⦁ open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) which can be altered and
added to as language develops, just like new nouns are created every day.
⦁ closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and interjections)
which are pretty much set in stone, just like conjunctions never change.
Take note that an individual word can function as more than one part of speech when
used in different circumstances. For example:
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They showed up for work two hours late.
(‘work’ as a noun – the thing they showed up for)
They will have to work until midnight.
(‘work’ as a verb – the action they must perform)
Their work permits expire next week.
(‘work’ as an adjective – modifying the noun ‘permits’)
Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct definition of a
word and to communicate effectively.
Reference:
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/prepositions
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/parts-of-speech/
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