Biology Final Exam Study Notes
Macromolecules
Macromolecules
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Lipids
o Long term energy use, makes cell membranes.
Carbohydrates
o Essential for energy creation
Proteins
o Building and repairing of body tissues, regulation of body processes, and the formation of
enzymes and hormones.
Nucleic Acids
o Store your genetic code
Ways to remember the Elements in each macromolecule! (Little Cat Poop Nuggets)
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
C, H, O
C, H, O
C, H, O, N, S
C, H, O, N, P
Lipids
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Elements: Mostly C, H, some O
Not true polymer - no one submit make them up
3 types
o Steroids: 4-fused H * C ring.
o Phospholipid: makes up the cell membrane.
o Triglycerides: energy storage.
Carbohydrates
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Elements: C, H, and O (usually formed near a 1:2:1)
Monomer: monosaccharides
Polymer: Polysaccharides
Function: immediate energy, energy storage, or structural.
Hydrolysis: The process used to split polymers; this is done by adding water
Dehydration: The process used to combine tow compounds by remove water molecule
Proteins
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Elements: C, H, O, N, S
Monomer: amino acids
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Polymer: polypeptides (when functioned protein)
Enzymes: decreasing activation energy
Catalyst: speeds up a chemical reaction by breaking.
Inhibitors: Example for some poisons and drugs will not allow the substrate to bind to the active
site of an enzyme.
Nucleic Acids
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Elements: C, H, O, N, P
Monomer: nucleotides
Function: store and transmit hereditary/genetic info.
2 kinds of nucleic acids
o Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - contains the sugar ribose
o Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) - contains the sugar deoxyribose
Protein Structure
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To function a protein must be folded properly.
4 levels
o Primary: Unique sequence of amino acid
o Secondary: The amino acids within a chain can be twisted or folded.
▪ Alpha helix (twisted)
▪ Beta-pleated sheet (folded)
o Tertiary: Most function, the interaction of R-group
o Quaternary: multiple polypeptides
Cells and Transport
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
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Cells want high SA: V to meet the metabolic needs of the cell
SA increases X2 while volume increases X3
Volume grows faster
Small cells have a higher SA: V ratio
Large cells have adaptations for increasing SA: V
Compartmentalization
Membrane folding
Organelles - Endomembrane System
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Collection of membranes within the cell that is responsible for intracellular transport
Derivatives of the ER
Components:
o Nucleus: Control center of the cell
o Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance that supports and protects cell organelles
o Cell Wall: Protects and supports the plant cell (Only in plants & some bacteria)
o Endoplasmic reticulum: Carries materials from one part of the cell to another
o Mitochondria: Produces energy for the cell. The “power house” of the cell
o Golgi apparatus: Receives materials from the ER and sends them to other parts of the
o cell.
o Ribosomes: Makes Proteins
o Chloroplasts: Capture energy from the sun to produce food for the plant cell
o Vesicles/vacuoles: Stores water, food, waste products, and other materials for the cell
o Lysosomes: Contains chemicals that break down food particles and worn-out cell parts.
The recycling center of the cell. (Trashman)
o Smooth ER: ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) that lacks ribosomes
o Rough ER: ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) that is studded with ribosomes
o Cell membrane: Regulates what enters and exits the cell
Mitochondria
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Site of cellular respiration
Converts sugars to ATP in presence of oxygen
Double membrane
Terminology
Locations of reactions
o Matrix - Pyruvate oxidation and Krebs
o Inner membrane - ETC, and Chemiosmosis
Chloroplast
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Site of photosynthesis
Converts energy in sunlight (photons) into sugars
Double membrane
Terminology
Locations of reactions:
o Thylakoid membrane: Light-dependent
o Stroma: light-independent (Calvin Benson cycle)
Cellular Transport
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Passive Transport (high to low)
o Simple diffusion
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o Facilitated diffusion
o Osmosis
Active Transport (low to high)
o Ion pumps
o Endo/exocytosis
Cell Energetics Review
Cellular Respiration
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The presence of O2 converts sugars into ATP
ATP is a usable form of energy for the cell
Location?
o Mitochondria
Equation
o C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Stepwise breakdown
o Glycolysis
o Pyruvate oxidation
o Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
o Oxidative phosphorylation
Glycolysis
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Cytoplasm
Anaerobic
Energy Investment Phase
o Requires 2 ATP
Energy Payoff Phase
o Produces 4 ATP
Reactants:
o Glucose
o ADP + Pi
o NAD+ + H+
Products:
o 2 pyruvates
o 2 NADH
o 2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
Phosphorylation means adding one phosphate to turn ADP into ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation
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Matrix
Aerobic
Reactants:
o 2 Pyruvates
o 2 NAD+ +2H+
Products:
o 2 Acetyl CoA
o 2 CO2
o 2 NADH
Citric Acid Cycle
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Matrix
Aerobic
Reactants:
o 2 Acetyl CoAs
o 6 NAD+ +6H+
o 2 FAD+ + 2H+
o 2 ADP + 2Pi
Products:
o 4 CO2
o 6 NADH
o 2 FADH2
o 2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
Oxidative Phosphorylation
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Inner mitochondrial membrane
Aerobic
Most ATP made in this step
Reactants:
o NADH
o FADH2
o O2
Products:
ATP (24-28)
FAD + H+
NAD+ + H+
H2O
Fermentation
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Occurs after glycolysis in anaerobic organisms or when O2 is not available
The purpose is to regenerate NAD+ for more glycolysis
2 types:
o Alcohol - yeast and some bacteria
o Lactic Acid - humans and some bacteria
Photosynthesis
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Uses light energy (photons) to generate carbohydrates
Equation:
o Sunlight + 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
Takes place in 2 stages
o Light-dependent reactions
o Light-independent reactions
o Calvin-Benson Cycle, also called Dark Reactions
Light-Dependent Reactions
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Convert energy from photons into ATP and NADPH
Thylakoid membrane
Water donates electrons
Light-Independent Reactions
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Calvin-Benson Cycle
Stroma
Dark Reactions
Uses ATP and NADPH from Light reactions
It fixes CO2 from atm and makes G3P (sugars)
Photorespiration
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Rubisco fixes O2 instead of CO2 during the Calvin cycle
Less efficient for the organism
2 adaptations for plants to avoid in hot/arid env
o CAM
o C4
Cell Cycle, Meiosis, and Genetics Review
Cell Cycle
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Life of a cell from formation to its division
Results in identical cells
o N -> N
o 2N -> 2N
DNA passed gen to gen with incredible fidelity
Asexual reproduction
Sexual - Growth, repair, and replacement
Cell Cycle
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G1 - growth
S - DNA replication
G2 - preparation for division
Centrosomes duplicate
M - mitosis, and cytokinesis
Meiosis
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Formation of gametes in sexually reproducing organisms
Germ cells -> gametes (sperm or eggs)
2N -> N
Halves the chromosome number
Meiosis and Genetic Diversity
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3 ways:
o Crossing over
o Independent assortment
o Random fertilization
DNA Rep and Central Dogma Review
Codominance
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Both colors show up
Incomplete dominance
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Color is mixed and forms a new color
DNA Replication
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The direction of synthesis/reading
o The direction of synthesis always 5’ - 3’
o The direction of reading always 3’ - 5’
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Enzymes involved
Transcription
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Prokaryotic - no TFs, promoter (no TATA box)
Eukaryotic - require TFs at TATA box for initiation
Enzymes/proteins
3 words are called Codons
Starts with AUG
Definition Genetic (Can use for the same thing and multiple but not for a different one)
RNA Processing
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Eukaryotic only
End modifications
5’ guanine cap
3’ poly-A tail
Splicing
Introns removed
Exons spliced together
Translation
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Ribosome
Protein and rRNA
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Large and small subunit
Reads 3 numbers at a time
Genetic code is redundant but not ambiguous
Wobble position
Reading Codon Chart
Nervous System
Action potential Graph
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Depolarization
o Caused by Na+ channel opening
Hyperpolarization
o Caused by K+ channel opening
Evolution
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Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
o Large population
o No gene flow
o No genetic drift
o No mutation
o No Natural Selection
Natural Selection
o Sexual Selection
▪ Intersexual - Between male and female
▪ Intrasexual - Competition
Genetic drift
o Bottleneck - population of a species is reduced due to an environmental disaster.
o Founder Effect - A small population with limited numbers of individuals breaking away
from a parent population.
Equations for Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
o P + Q = 1, P2 + 2PQ + Q2 = 1
Mechanisms of Evolution
o Mutation
o Natural Selection
o Gene flow
o Genetic drift
Evolution Vocab
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Extinction: When an organism completely dies out
Geographic isolation: The separation of a group of individuals from the rest of the population
Fossil: A remnant or trace of an organism from the past
Homologous structures: Structures with the same parts have different functions; suggests that
organisms share a common ancestry
Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest
Artificial selection: The process in which humans breed organisms for certain traits.
Lamarck: Acquired characteristics are inherited (It was later found to be incorrect)
Mutation: Changing in DNA sequence
Circulatory System