Professional Development in Education
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjie20
Transfer skills in teacher training programs: the
question of assessment
Irit Sasson & Shirley Miedijensky
To cite this article: Irit Sasson & Shirley Miedijensky (2020): Transfer skills in teacher training
programs: the question of assessment, Professional Development in Education
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1839783
Published online: 25 Oct 2020.
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1839783
ARTICLE
Transfer skills in teacher training programs: the question of
assessment
Irit Sassona,b and Shirley Miedijenskyb,c
a
Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee, Israel; bShamir Research Institute, University of Haifa, Katzrin, Israel; cOranim
College, Israel
ABSTRACT
ARTICLE HISTORY
Professional development programs (PDP) are an important tool for achiev­
ing educational goals; assessing their effectiveness, however, is complex.
The success of PDP depends on teachers’ ability to transfer newly gained
knowledge and skills into practice. To assess this effectiveness, it is neces­
sary to develop appropriate methodological tools. The goals of this study
were to develop and apply a methodology for assessing the development
of near and far transfer skills among participants in an in-service teacher
training program for educators working with youth at risk. Interviews with
114 educators were used to assess near transfer based on a three-level scale:
naive, awareness, and mastery. Performance tests that included educational
dilemmas were used to assess far transfer skill among 554 educators. The
development of transfer skills was examined according to the seniority of
the PDP participants. Research results indicated that the training program
had a positive effect on near transfer skill but was less effective on far
transfer skill. The paper provides tools to assess the development of transfer
skills for continual improvement of PDP.
Received 25 April 2020
Accepted 28 September 2020
KEYWORDS
Professional development
program; near transfer skill;
far transfer skill; assessment;
performance test
Introduction
Developing teachers’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions enhances educational performance
(Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). Professional development programs (PDP) are an important
tool by which teachers increase their knowledge and change beliefs and develop their classroom
practices (Opfer and Pedder 2011, Hill et al. 2013, Tait-McCutcheon and Drake 2016, Colleague &
Author 2020). A variety of methods are currently used in PDP. For example, experts teaching
knowledge or practices use a face-to-face approach (Zhang et al. 2017) while advanced online
environments enable trainees to interact at any time and anywhere (Chen et al. 2009, Kao et al.
2014, Al-Balushi and Al-Abdali 2015, Jimenez and O’Shanahan 2016). Professional learning com­
munities provide an ongoing forum for improvement, enabling participants to explore new ideas
and concepts in order to build shared knowledge among educators (Hod et al. 2018), while striving
to link learning directly to student needs (Fishman et al. 2013). Peer coaching pairs colleagues in
a mutually supportive relationship to enrich self-reflection on teaching practices. This method
provides mutual assistance, feedback, and support for the purpose of enhancing learning (Alsaleh
et al. 2017, Ma et al. 2018). A PDP method for personalised learning was developed based on
learning analytics. This method provides feedback to teachers based on the diagnosis of teaching
design, learners’ learning status and learning behaviours, and provides adaptive and personalised
learning contents, user interfaces, and practices (Mellett and O’Brien 2014, Gynther 2016, Hwang
et al. 2017, Wongsopawiro et al. 2017).
CONTACT Irit Sasson
iritsa@telhai.ac.il
Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee, Israel
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2
I. SASSON AND S. MIEDIJENSKY
Avalos (2011) reviewed publications on PDP in the journal of Teaching and Teacher Education
from 2000–2010. The review includes learning, facilitation and collaboration, factors influencing
professional development, and effectiveness of professional development. The effectiveness of PDP
focused on several aspects: personal changes in teachers’ cognitions, beliefs and practices and
teacher satisfaction, as well as changes among students. The question of assessing the professional
development of teachers following training programs is important and complex. Desimone and
Garet (2015) suggested five key features on which there is consensus that PDP is effective: (1)
content focus; (2) active learning offering opportunities for teachers to observe, receive feedback, or
analyse, as opposed to passive listening to lectures; (3) coherence: content, goals, and activities that
are consistent with the school curriculum and goals, the needs of students, and school, district, and
state reforms and policies; (4) sustained duration: PDP activities that are ongoing throughout the
school year and include 20 hours or more of contact time; and (5) collective participation: groups of
teachers from the same grade, subject, or school build an interactive learning community. In an
earlier study on measuring the effectiveness of PDP, Guskey (2000) suggested five levels for
evaluating professional development: (1) participant reactions (perceptions of the importance
and relevance of the pedagogical change); (2) participant learning (knowledge and skills
acquired); 3) organisation support and change (factors/mechanisms that support or limit imple­
mentation); 4) participant application of new knowledge and skills; and 5) student learning
outcomes.
There is a need for empirical studies assessing how effectively PDP improve teacher self-efficacy,
knowledge, skills, and teaching practices, as well as contribute to their personal, social, and
emotional growth as educators (Rodriguez et al. 2020). The essence of PDP is ‘teachers learning,
learning how to learn, and transforming their knowledge into practice for the benefit of their
students’ growth’ (Avalos 2011, p. 10). Transfer skills are key to professional development, forming
the bridge between knowledge and practice (Race 1998). Hence, accurate measuring of transfer
skills can support research on PDP effectiveness. Various researchers point to a lack in studies
examining the connections between PD and classroom practices and outcomes (Cochran-Smith
et al. 2015, Martin and Dismuke 2018). One of the reasons may be measurement issue and the need
for appropriate methodologies for assessing transfer skills following professional development
training. The goals of this study, therefore, were to develop and apply a methodology for assessing
the development of transfer skills among participants in an in-service teacher training program for
educators working with youth at risk.
Theory of transfer skills
Transfer skills are defined as the degree to which behaviour will be repeated in a new learning
situation (Gagne 1975, Perkins and Salomon 1988, Detterman 1993, De Corte 2003); or student
ability to use previously gained knowledge and skills, and to apply it to new situations (Mayer and
Whitrock 1996, Barnett and Ceci 2002). Meaningful learning necessarily involves transfer (Ausubel
et al. 1978), and its importance in education stems from the need to provide students with skills for
daily life outside of school (Barnett and Ceci 2002, Halpern and Hakel 2002, Konkola et al. 2007).
However, since transfer is complex and challenging, there are instances where students fail to relate
and link knowledge from previous experience to new settings (Perkins and Salomon 1988, Bassok
and Holyoak 1993, De Corte 2003). In the workplace, transfer is the degree to which trainees
effectively apply knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in a training situation to the job environ­
ment (Colleague & Author 2013).
One of the theories that explains the complex dynamics of teacher development as it interfaced
with classroom teaching and learning is the complexity theory, which refers to systems that are
complex in the sense that a lot of elements are connected to and interacting with each other in many
different ways (Davis and Sumara 2008, Mason 2008). Once a system reaches a certain critical level
of complexity, known as critical mass, a phase transition takes place which makes possible the
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
3
emergence of new properties and behaviours and a momentum whose inertia is significantly
increased (Mason 2008). Abilities, knowledge, identities, attitudes, and culture influence teachinglearning activities (Martin and Dismuke 2018); therefore, when investigating complex phenomena
of dynamic and multidimensional systems outcomes cannot be predicted (Davis and Sumara 2006).
What is learned by teachers from practice for future practice is linked to external systems (Martin
2004). Transfer skills are one example for this process. It relates to the degree to which teachers/
trainees effectively apply knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in a training situation to the job
environment (Colleague & Author 2013). It is a dynamic process that depends on various compo­
nents (Jaramillo-Baquerizo et al. 2019). From the perspective of complexity theory, successful
professional development involves knowledge and skills systems embedded within the operative
system. Complexity theory refers to complex systems of relationships and influences and therefore
within its framework, it is not possible to predict specific outcomes but at the same time, there is
value to conduct educational studies that point to existing relationships in subsystems (Mason
2008). To investigate links between practices and knowledge in the teachers’ operative system,
combining qualitative and quantitative tools among various factors involved in the educational
environment is recommended.
Over the years, various models related to transfer following a training program have been
proposed. Kirkpatrick (1967) suggested training effectiveness taxonomy based on four levels:
reactions (how trainees felt about the training), learning (whether they learned anything), beha­
viour (whether the learning was transferred to work), and organisational results (whether it
achieved its objectives, in terms of fixing the perceived). Cheng (2016) suggested a model based
on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) which includes factors that affect transfer skills: attitude
towards the training content and the particular behaviour; subjective norms that refer to his/her
response to the social pressure of whether to engage in an intentional behaviour; and perceived
behavioural control which is defined as one’s perception of whether it is easy or difficult to perform
a specific behaviour. These factors affect transfer maintenance intention and behaviour. The
transfer process consists of two major transfer variables – motivation to transfer and the transfer
behaviour itself (Colquitt et al. 2000).
Based on a broad literature review, Colleague & Author (2013) formulated a theoretical transfer
framework that distinguishes between near and far transfer. Near transfer occurs when the new
situation for applying knowledge and skills has the following features: The situation is similar to the
previous learning situation; is drawn on a single discipline or is based on closely related content; and
it requires application of a relatively small set of skills. Far transfer occurs when a learner success­
fully applies skills and knowledge from one or more disciplines different from the one in which the
learning originally occurred. Far transfer necessarily requires more abstract thinking to connect
situations and succeed in applying knowledge from one to another (Yamnill and McLean 2001,
Barnett and Ceci 2002, Author & Colleague 2015, Parong et al. 2017, Sala and Gobet 2017).
In contrast to an applied experience, theoretical knowledge acquired in a classroom is con­
structed and codified and hence difficult to apply in a new environment such as the workplace. Each
person processes knowledge, which is mainly tacit and implicit, differently. Thus, applying theore­
tical knowledge involves a combination of various relevant aspects of knowledge and skill for an
integrated performance (Eraut 2004). The following were found to influence transfer: character­
istics of the work environment, including interpersonal components (Davids et al. 2017); learnerwork environment fit, effectiveness of training with clear goals, and empowerment and commu­
nication characteristics while reflecting upon learning during training; training structure and
methodology, student perceptions of the degree to which training is effective, and student motiva­
tion (Manuti et al. 2015, Prince et al. 2015, Nafukho et al. 2017). Significantly, student beliefs as to
who is responsible for the transfer of learning and the relevance of the training to the work
environment play an important role (Peters et al. 2018).
4
I. SASSON AND S. MIEDIJENSKY
Assessment of transfer skills
Transfer skills among in-service educators can be tested through the ability to implement educa­
tional ideas acquired in a professional training. Implementation in education relates to a process in
which the ability exists to advance and to provide learning among all professionals in the school
community with the collective aim of improving learning processes (Younger and George 2013).
According to Rogers (1995), organisation members who adopt an educational innovation experi­
ence five formative stages: development of awareness, creation of interest, evaluation, experimenta­
tion, and adoption. Author & Colleague (2019) suggested an implementation model based on three
main components: building a clear awareness of the educational philosophy, including recognising
its value and its relevance for the educator; creating deep understanding of the educational
philosophy and all of its components and; optimally implementing the practices that correspond
to the educational philosophy. Each of the elements of implementation must be expressed in
implementation circles expanding through the organisation – from the narrow managerial staff
to the educational community members. In this way, an implementation expanse is created,
forming an educational program defined by three elements and implementation circles. BurkeSmally and Mendenhall (2020) designed a cognitive-behavioural tool in order to facilitate trainees’
professional development. Specifically, the tool assisted participants to become self-aware of their
cognition and enable them to understand how they perceive and process events at work.
The research literature can be distinguished between different methodologies for assessing
transfer skills, those based on self-report questionnaires or interviews for participants and those
based on performance tests. Jackson et al. (2019), and Alt et al. (2019), for example, used students’
self-report regarding the extent to which they perceive they are transferring skills and knowledge
across classroom and work settings. Based on interviews with students Jackson et al. (2019)
determined inhibitors and facilitators of skill and knowledge transfer. On the other hand, an
empirical study of transfer skills, carried out many years ago and based on performance test,
investigated whether transfer was applied successfully following training of comparing and asses­
sing the size of rectangles with an area of 10 cm2 to those measuring 100 cm2 (Thorndike, 1901,
1913). Judd (1908) investigated students’ transfer ability to hit underwater targets according to the
type of instruction they received. Ma et al. (2018) used a learning participation rubric and
performance assessments of the participating teachers’ lesson plans and teaching videos to assess
transfer skills. Author & Colleague (2012, 2015) suggested a case-based method for assessing
transfer skills and reported studies of high school chemistry students’ near and far transfer skills.
The methodology was based on pre- and post-performance tests given to students. For each
performance test, a special rubric was developed to assess near and far transfer skills. In this
paper, we present a new method for assessing transfer skills development for in-service educators
following a PDP. The methodology proposed in the present study includes an evaluation scale that
can be expanded to diverse content areas.
Method
Research framework – the professional development program
‘Village Way’ professional development program for in-service educators was designed to enhance
the spiritual well-being, character development, and leadership potential of youth at risk coming
from poverty-stricken families and broken homes in order to help them live a secure and productive
life. The PDP goal is to infuse educators with educational methodologies enabling them to provide
youth at risk with tools to overcome their troubled pasts and reach their potential. ‘Village Way’ is
based on a special educational philosophy incorporating a unified language, shared values, and
a step-by-step work process. The educational philosophy includes 10 core components that serve as
an outline for implementing the educational concept in the training process (see Appendix). The
PDP is a three-year program and is characterised by five main design features:
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
5
(1) Meetings with content experts and inspirational figures.
(2) Integrating theory and practice by connecting consciousness and emotion with application.
The three-year process is designed to bring about two parallel changes: Each stage of the
process includes conscious-emotional aspects acquired through learning sessions and dis­
course alongside application aspects honed through initiating and planning a budgeted work
program and establishing a variety of educational programs and procedures in the educa­
tional framework.
(3) Case studies are discussed in the context of tradition and heritage in a ‘Beit Midrash’ (‘house
of study’) model of instruction in which students study classical texts in pairs or small
groups.
(4) Mentoring of each educator by one of the training program staff members.
(5) Educators’ Forum: Staff members share experiences, problem-solve, and brainstorm.
Research questions
The purpose of the study was to develop a methodology to examine the effectiveness of a PDP for
in-service teachers in developing near and far transfer skills. The methodology was tested in the
‘Village Way’ PDP through the specific research question: How does the seniority of participants in
the PDP impact their near and far transfer skills?
Research tools
The study is part of a more comprehensive research that also includes perspectives of students and
graduates. The study was approved by the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education.
We used two methodologies for assessing transfer skills: self-report by interviews and written
performance tests. Performance tests that include two parts – a learning task and a set of scoring
criteria or rubric – are perceived as powerful tool that provides rich information about student
competence (Darling-Hammond 1994, Perlman 2003). Humphry and Heldsinger (2014) refer to
the structural design features of the rubrics and suggest that to ensure validity criteria should
contain descriptions of performances free of obvious overlap or redundancy to allow raters to focus
on distinctive and complementary aspects of participants’ performances, and to capture individual
differences in each aspect within ratings. In developing the rubrics in the current study, we have
adopted their recommendations for validation and in addition we will report on the rater training
and its contribution towards achieving inter-rater reliability.
Near transfer assessment
A scale of three levels of near transfer skill was developed: naive, awareness, and mastery. Table 1
presents the characteristics of each level.
Semi-structured in-depth interviews were used to assess participants’ near transfer skills.
Interviewees were asked to present examples of their educational fieldwork that express
Table 1. The near transfer scale – characteristics.
Near
transfer
level
Naive
Awareness
Mastery
Characteristics
Expression of intuitive learning that lacks acquaintance with the world of terms and knowledge acquired in the
professional training (the educational philosophy)
Awareness of the connection between understanding and application, expression of basic and simple
applications
Expression of deep understanding and the ability to use terms and procedures in the field, together with
integrative thinking, critique, flexibility and creativity and in interdisciplinary settings
6
I. SASSON AND S. MIEDIJENSKY
understanding and implementation of the educational philosophy. Based on content analysis,
participants’ responses were classified to one of the three levels on the near transfer scale.
Far transfer assessment
We used performance tests to assess far transfer skills. Four new and different educational dilemmas
were developed. All dilemmas related to the core components of the educational philosophy learned
in the PDP. Educators were requested to choose two out of four situations and respond to
a questionnaire. Special assessment rubrics were developed for each dilemma. The educators’
answers to the open questions were coded quantitatively using the rubrics and the data were
interpreted statistically. Due to the use of different dilemmas and rubrics, the comparative statistical
analysis was performed on standardised scores. Figure 1 presents an example for one of the
performance tests and Table 2 presents the assessment rubric (see Appendix for full explanation
of terms).
The measurement tools were validated by two researchers. In the first stage of the validation
process, the researchers analysed together three interviews and 10 performance tests for discussion
and coordination. In the second stage, 10 interviews and 20 performance tests were analysed by
each researcher separately. A matching rate of 87% between researcher’s analysis for the near
transfer measurement tool and of 85% for the far transfer measurement tool was found.
Research participants and procedure
The study was conducted in full coordination with the professionals who guide the training
program for educators. Educators were updated on the research accompanying the PDP and
were invited to collaborate. The study was conducted with the participants’ consent and anonymity.
The participant group interviewed to measure near transfer skills included 114 educators from
among second-year, third-year, and program graduates of the PDP. Since the interviews focused on
applied examples of the educational philosophy, it was decided not to include first-year educators in
the sample. Table 3 presents the distribution of interviewees by seniority in the PDP.
The performance test group for measuring far transfer skills included 554 educators representing
a different seniority breakdown than for near transfer skills and included first, second, and thirdyear PDP participants (data collection among PDP graduates was limited and therefore they were
not included in the sample). Table 4 presents the distribution of respondents by seniority in
the PDP.
The annual eleventh grade class trip is about to take place. All but two students are
participating. It has been decided not to allow these two students to participate in the trip since
during the past month, they have been involved in a number of dangerous and irresponsible
acts. The administration informed them of the decision not to let them go on the trip the day
before the trip was to take place. Their friends heard about this decision the following morning
and decided to “strike”. It is eight o’clock in the morning: the buses are ready and all of the
students are present but are refusing to get on the buses.
What is the dilemma? Is there reason for uncertainty? About what? In your opinion, how
should the staff respond and why?
Figure 1. Performance test – An example.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
7
Table 2. The assessment rubric.
Score
Key features of the educator’s response
0
A suggestion to cancel the trip and have a regular schedule at school. A complete disregard for the educational
opportunity for dialogue. The answer deals only with the punishment and severe response to the specific event.
1
The answer reflects a basic educational concept that expresses caring and sensitivity to others, without significant
expressions reflecting an understanding of the three core components of the educational philosophy:
Community of Meaning, Tikkun Halev (repairing the heart), and Dialogue. There is a suggestion for response – not
absolute punishment.
2
There is an expression of understanding of at least two of the three core components of the educational philosophy:
Community of Meaning, Tikkun Halev (repairing the heart), and Dialogue.
Table 3. Distribution of interviewees by seniority in the PDP.
Seniority in the PDP
Second year
Third year
Graduates
No. of participants
38
61
15
%
33%
54%
13%
Table 4. Respondents’ distribution of the performance test by senior­
ity in the PDP.
Seniority in the PDP
First year
Second year
Third year
No. of participants
187
229
138
%
34%
41%
25%
Results
Near transfer skill
Content analysis of the interviews by the three near transfer levels indicated many more naive level
expressions among second-year educators and more mastery level expressions among third-year
educators and graduates. Interviewees at the naive level presented general educational concepts not
directly related to the educational philosophy taught in the PDP or intuitively referred to the
educational philosophy without giving actual examples and modes of action linking the core
conceptual components to implementation. Naive level statements expressed a primary level of
understanding, sometimes reiterating core component concepts, but it was apparent that the
essence of the concept was not understood. Most of the statements attributed to the naive level of
near transfer were from interviewees in the second year of training:
For me, it is first of all to look at a much broader picture that I think the student is at the center of. That’s one
thing. And secondly, it basically covers the student from all directions, which means also from the boarding
school, the school, and additional factors. (Interviewee no. 13, Second year)
Greeting them here with a welcoming smile and hug is already the first step in the educational path. It’s like
a guest coming to your home – you make him feel comfortable, make him feel good, answer all his questions.
I come to work to give service to the children, to give the parents a good feeling that this place will take good care
of their child. (Interviewee no. 32, Second year)
It takes a whole village to raise a child – this is something I learned in the training program. To raise a child, to
lead a child, and to let him be the leader himself, eventually it takes a number of people, a number of approaches,
a number of perceptions, and a number of perspectives. (Interviewee no. 73, Third year)
Awareness level expressions included those indicating a connection between understanding of
the educational philosophy core components and simple applications. These expressions do not
represent a deep understanding, rather reflect an understanding of parts of the core
components:
8
I. SASSON AND S. MIEDIJENSKY
We don’t talk about designing parental perfection, but we do talk a lot about cooperation with parents and how
their role is very significant in the child’s progress. (Interviewee no. 16, Third year)
When a student graduates from school, he faces many difficulties. We do not accompany him enough, do not
have enough contact with him, do not ask what happens to him, if he needs help. I think these are very important
things. We are now planning a graduate mentoring process. They will feel that they have not been abandoned
and will come here with love, because we are with them all the way. (Interviewee no. 6, Second year)
This year, for example, I focused on the “Earth” component, I needed to learn more, to understand how it affects
student progress, how it causes change in his behavior, how to create a safe environment for him, how to increase
his sense of belonging to the school, or how to reduce school vandalism. (Interviewee no. 11, Third year)
The level of mastery includes expressions reflecting a deep understanding of an essence of the
educational philosophy core components accompanied by a concrete and relevant practical exam­
ple. Most of the statements attributed to the mastery level of near transfer were from interviewees in
the third year of training and graduates:
“For example, if we talk about “Anchors in the Future”, this is expressed when I discuss with a student his
aspirations for the future and how he sees his future, what can help him realize this vision of the future. The
matter of Reliable Representations of Parental Wholeness – I talk to the parents, we do parental counseling,
I share with them their child’s educational process. Due to the professional training there is more planning, more
focus. (Interviewee no. 20, Second year)
Punishment by exclusion from school is not necessarily the automatic solution now. I think about relating
educationally to whatever he has done, for example, a violent reaction. So, in my view, he prepares a paper
connected to the topic of violence or respect or friendship, that is to say, a number of values which were harmed
by what he did. Maybe this boy could lead an activity for the group, about violence. If it’s one of the older boys,
maybe he could lead an activity for a group of younger boys, because that makes a very clear statement, you also
have to serve as a personal example. (Interviewee no. 26, Third year)
We used to work more intuitively, today things are more coherent around the world of concepts we learned in the
training program. For example, we have developed a confectionery course for parents and students. This is part of
the component “Reliable Representations of Parental Wholeness”, which emphasizes the connection between the
parent, the student, and the teacher. When the student and his parents come to school in the afternoon and bake
together with a social worker and a teacher, there is a process of socialization. (Interviewee no. 5, Graduate)
Far transfer skill
Here are two examples of two educators’ answers to the performance test. The first example, coded
in grade 2, according to the rubric developed, has an expression of understanding of two core
components of the educational philosophy: Community of Meaning and Dialogue. The second
example, coded in grade 0, none of the core components of the educational philosophy are
expressed:
The dilemma that arises is related to two factors involved in the educational event – the two students who were
not allowed to participate in the trip and the other students. On the one hand it is clear that there are boundaries
to be set for the students with the behavior problems, but it is also important to respond to the other students who
wanted to support them as part of a joint community. They felt responsible for their friends. I suggest handling
the event in several ways at the same time. Back up the educational staff’s decision not to allow the two students
to join the trip but to engage in a dialogue with the other students so they will see that their behavior is valued.
I suggest explaining them the significance of the educational decision and encourage them to support their friends
in other ways. It is important to share the parents of the students with all the details so that they can also explain
to the students at home the various considerations. In fact, it is an educational opportunity for learning and
growth for everyone involved in the event. (Participants no. 345, Third year)
I think students should have clear boundaries. I suggest canceling the trip and returning all students to a regular
learning day. They need to understand that they will not influence the educational decisions of the team. The
educational team understands the consequences of taking irresponsible students on a trip. (Participants no. 206,
Second year)
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
9
In the first stage of the performance test analysis, ANOVA results demonstrated no statistical
differences between the different dilemmas. Therefore, participants’ far transfer skill could be
compared regardless of the questionnaire dilemmas chosen for response. Results demonstrate
that seniority in the PDP did not have a statistically significant effect on far transfer skill, although
there was a positive increase in performance with seniority (Table 5).
Discussion
Professional development programs are very common in education, but the question that must be
raised is: does the investment yield tangible payoffs? To answer this question, an evaluation process
is required. Evaluation is ‘the systematic investigation of merit or worth’ (Joint Committee on
Standards for Educational Evaluation 1994, p. 3). This is a focused, thoughtful, and intentional
process which is based on the collection and analysis of relevant information through appropriate
methods and techniques in order to determine the value of something. Empirical study of evalua­
tion practice includes generation of information necessary to refine current practice and concep­
tions about the connection between theory and practice (Christie 2003). One of the complex
challenges in evaluating educational PDP is assessing participants’ ability to apply knowledge and
skills acquired. The goal of this article was to present a new methodology for assessing these transfer
skills, demonstrating its use through investigation of how a professional program for educators
affects the development of near and far transfer skills among participants.
Interviews were used to assess near transfer based on a three-level scale: naive, awareness, and
mastery. Educators were asked to connect new educational concepts with applications to demon­
strate the depth of their understanding. Performance tests seeking responses to dilemmas related to
the core components of the educational philosophy learned in the PDP were used to assess far
transfer skill. Educators had to apply their knowledge to new educational situations that required
a high level of understanding of material learned. Research results indicated that the training
program had a positive effect on near transfer skill but less on far transfer skill. As the training
program progressed, it was evident that educators had gained more skilful use of the world of
concepts from the educational philosophy, applying the concepts to examples in their educational
field. The level of understanding of the educational approach was highest among third-year
educators in the program and graduates. However, even though performance level in the far
transfer performance tests increased with seniority, no significant difference was indicated based
on seniority.
The analysis of the interviews shows that the more seniors the educators had in the training
program, the more they expressed an awareness of the connection between components of the
educational philosophy learned in the training program and their educational behaviours. The
seniority was also related to the level of deep understanding of the educational philosophy. These
results demonstrate two of the indicators for transfer of training suggested by Kirkpatrick (1967) –
learning (what trainees learned in the PDP) and behaviour (whether they apply what they learned in
their work). Egert et al. (2018) claim that effective in-service PDP causes a change among teachers in
their awareness, knowledge, and orientations.
Our research results provide evidences that the PDP has contributed to specific gains in teachers’
learning, although earlier studies indicate difficulties in developing transfer skills, evidenced by
failure to link knowledge from PDP learning to potentially applicable cases presented (Perkins and
Table 5. Far transfer skill by seniority in the PDP.
Seniority in the PDP
First year
Second year
Third year
Mean
(Standardised scores)
−0.049
0.042
0.100
S.D.
0.96
0.97
1.08
Anova test
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Salomon 1988, Bassok and Holyoak 1993, Novozhenina and López Pinzón 2018), with particular
difficulty in achieving far transfer (De Corte 2003). On the other hand, several recent studies
reported the successful transfer of knowledge and skills acquired in educational teacher training
programs to the practical field (Ma et al. 2018, Rodriguez et al. 2020).
In contrast to the near transfer assignment, in which teachers were required to describe examples
of applying principles from the educational philosophy learned in the training program, the task of
far transfer dealt indirectly with the content of the training program and required professional
reference, based on the relevant components of the educational philosophy. This of course increases
the difficulty in performing the task. Teachers’ ability to transfer knowledge and skills depends on
other factors such as teachers’ level of motivation and personal characteristics, which makes the
interpretation of the findings more complex. This is in line with Baldwin and Ford (1988) who
highlighted the effect of trainee characteristics such as ability, personality, and motivation on
transfer.
This study developed and tested a much-needed methodology for assessing transfer skills
following participation in a PDP in the field of education as an answer to the call of Bransford
and Schwartz (1999) who claim that transfer is often difficult to detect and suggest that new theories
and measures of transfer should be acquired. To enhance the success of professional development
efforts, transfer skills should be assessed. The methodology provides new tools for assessing near
and far transfer that are adaptable to any educational philosophy expressed in a training curricu­
lum. These tools address the claims of David Carraher and Analúcia Schliemann (2002) that
transfer research is overly dependent on the perspective of the researcher and on models of expert
performance. Assessing teachers’ transfer skills based on these tools may support the generalisation
of learning as suggested by Lobato (2006).
The ability to transfer knowledge and skills to new situations depends on the pedagogical
practices in early learning situations. Transfer occurs when it is explicitly guided (Judd 1908,
Detterman 1993, De Corte 2003, Marton 2006). This understanding emphasises the importance
of the pedagogical design of training programs for enhancing transfer skills (Strand and BoscoRuggiero 2011), particularly far transfer. De Corte (2003) suggested the following principles for the
design of powerful learning environments: (1) support constructive learning, (2) enhance cognitive
and motivational self-regulation, (3) include sociocultural supports for learning collaboration, (4)
include challenging problems, and (5) enhance reflection on learning processes. We assume that the
design features of the PDP investigated in our research, especially the case studies and the
mentoring, contributed to the development of transfer skills among participants.
Our research has several limitations. The first is related to the study’s focus on the effects of the
PDP to the exclusion of other factors. PDP take place in real-world settings that are complex and
include many intervening variables precluding simple causal interpretation; therefore, isolating the
effects of a single program under such conditions is usually impossible (Guskey and Sparks 1996,
Guskey 1997). Focusing on the development of transfer skills among participants in PDP did not
allow, in the present study, to address additional aspects that were recommended by Guskey (2000),
particularly student outcomes. Further studies are needed to examine these aspects. It is important
to note that the achievement of educational outcomes among students following a pedagogical
change takes between one and a half to three years (Timperley 2005, Lai et al. 2009).
Despite these limitations, important methodological and applied contributions are expected
from this study. The study will enable professional reference of educators leading training programs
to assess the development of transfer skills. The evidence gathered can be used to continually
improve the program.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
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Ten Core components in the ‘Village Way’ educational philosophy
Anchors in the Future: Designing a plan for the future and encouraging youth to change present actions accordingly,
teaching valuable life skills, providing support for graduates and letting youth know that the community will serve as their
safety net
Earth (the physical environment): Creating an aesthetically pleasing home-like atmosphere, using the physical
environment to convey lessons and communal values
Sky (the spiritual environment): Reinforcing communal values and national belonging, finding meaning in tradition and
holidays, promoting moral judgement
Tikkun Halev (repairing the heart): Providing diverse opportunities for success in academic and extracurricular activities,
providing programs for emotional healing, and using setbacks and crises as an opportunity for growth and learning
Tikkun Olam (repairing the world): Participating in community service to empower youth through helping others and
serving a valued role in the wider community, promoting a sense of responsibility to service, opening up the wider world to
the child
Reliable Representations of Parental Wholeness: Placing every educator in the role of a meaningful adult in children’s
lives, involving parents in community, empowering parents in the eyes of their children and the children in the eyes of their
parents
Community of Meaning: Crafting a sense of belonging to and pride in a supportive community with common values and
spreading values beyond the community’s borders
Dialogue: Opening up understanding, respectful dialogue between adult and youth, aimed at promoting the youth’s
progress, without blurring the role of the responsible adult
Minimising institutional characteristics: Building a living community that goes beyond the bureaucratic aspects of
institutional life, on the physical and interpersonal levels
communities. Universal access in the information society, 16 (2), 337–347. doi:10.1007/s10209-016-0461-4
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