25
Character Development and Good
Sporting Behavior
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. define character development and good sporting behavior,
2. explain how character and good sporting behavior develop,
3. identify the important link between moral reasoning and moral
behavior,
4. explain what bullying and hazing involves and how they can be
prevented in sport and physical activity contexts,
5. discuss how character and good sporting behavior can be
influenced, and
6. describe the effects of winning on character development and
good sporting behavior.
For years we
have heard that sport and physical activity build character and
develop moral values. There are dozens of shining examples. Historically, one of the best
examples of all time occurred in the 1936 Olympic Games held in Nazi Germany. Olympic
legend Jesse Owens, the world record holder in the long jump, stepped over the start line and
foot faulted twice on his first two attempts. Luz Long, his German rival, gave him advice on
how to adjust his run-up. Owens went on to win the gold medal and Luz the silver. More
recently, in the 2016 Rio Olympic Games, New Zealand’s Nikki Hamblin and Abbey
D’Agostino of the United States collided with each other during their 5,000-meter prelims
and both fell to the track. D’Agostino got up quickly, helped Hamblin up, and encouraged
her to continue. The two resumed racing, but D’Agostino had trouble running and soon fell
to the track again. Hamblin, who had hung back to offer encouragement, helped up her
fellow competitor. When it became apparent to D’Agostino that she was injured, she
encouraged Hamblin to go on without her. Hamblin finished 16th and D’Agostino finished
nearly 30 seconds later. They were both awarded the Olympic Fair Play Award.
Yet some of the most popular role models have been the “bad boys and girls” of sport.
During the 2014 World Cup soccer tournament in Brazil, Uruguay’s Luis Suarez actually bit
the shoulder of Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini during their match. He later tried to justify
is actions by indicating these things happen on the pitch. It is not just professional athletes
who behave badly. The Internet is filled with examples of poor sporting behavior, such as the
University of North Dakota ice hockey player who sucker punched his opponent during the
postgame handshake or the University of New Mexico soccer player who physically attacked
her Brigham Young University opponent by pulling her to the ground by her hair.
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In the face of such occurrences, can we really say that sport participation builds character?
Not really. Evidence shows that 13% of youths report trying to hurt an opponent, 31% argue
with officials, and 27% act like bad sports after losing (Shields, LaVoi, Bredemeier, & Power,
2005). High school athletes also feel that gamesmanship is just part of their sport and report
that they at times put morals aside in order to win (Camire & Trudel, 2010). College student
basketball fans reported that it is legitimate to distract opponents or engage in abusive
cheering to win (Rudd & Gordon, 2009). In this chapter we focus on the role sport and
exercise science professionals play in character development. Let’s first delineate what we
mean by character and good sporting behavior.
Activity 25.1 helps you understand what good sporting behavior
involves.
Defining Character, Fair Play, and Good Sporting
Behavior
Defining character and good sporting behavior is difficult. We all generally know what these
terms mean, but we seldom define them precisely (Martens, 1982) or agree exactly on their
meaning. Tennis legend Chris Evert, for example, says that sportspersonship (or what we
refer to as good sporting behavior) is acting in a classy, dignified way (Ross, 1992). Basketball
great David Robinson defines it as playing with all your heart and intensity, yet still showing
respect for your opponents (Ross, 1992). These are two very different definitions. And what
exactly does acting respectfully or in a classy and dignified manner mean? A golfer might say
it means you don’t talk to your opponent during play, but a baseball player might think it’s
fine to talk to the opposing pitcher. Similarly, sliding hard into second base to break up a
double play is expected and not inappropriate in college baseball, yet most of us would
discourage it in tee ball with 6- and 7-year-olds.
In their book Character Development and Physical Activity, Shields and Bredemeier (1995)
indicated that although character and good sporting behavior are difficult to define, they fall
in the general area of morality in the context of sport. That is, they have to do with our
beliefs, judgments, and actions concerning what is right and ethical and what is wrong and
unethical in sport. Specifically, Shields and Bredemeier contended that morality in sport
comprises three related concepts: fair play, good sporting behavior, and character.
Key Point
No universally accepted definition of good sporting behavior exists.
Fair Play
Fair play is necessary if all participants are to have an equitable chance to pursue victory in
competitive sport. Fair play requires that all contestants understand and adhere not only to
the formal rules of the game but also to the spirit of cooperation and unwritten rules of play
necessary to ensure that a contest is fair (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). For example, a youth
football program that maximizes participation of all the children may require that each player
take part in each quarter of the contest. However, a coach may violate the spirit of the rule by
having substitutes enter the game to play only one play per quarter or to bring in plays and
then leave before the play is actually executed. It is essential that parents, coaches, and
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officials espouse the virtue of fair play early, often, and throughout the athletic careers of the
participants.
Good Sporting Behavior
Good sporting behavior is the second component of morality in sport. Shields and
Bredemeier (1995) contended that good sporting behavior “involves an intense striving to
succeed, tempered by commitment to the play spirit such that ethical standards will take
precedence over strategic gain when the two conflict” (p. 194). In other words, you adhere to
fair play even when it may mean losing. For example, U.S. Open tennis champion Patrick
Rafter demonstrated good sporting behavior when he informed an official that a line call was
incorrect—even though doing so meant that he lost the match. Tennis great Andy Roddick
demonstrated the same type of good sporting behavior during a match in Italy.
Whereas Shields and Bredemeier defined good sporting behavior based on their
conceptual understanding of the literature, Canadian sport psychologist Robert Vallerand and
colleagues (Vallerand, Briere, Blanchard, & Provencher, 1997; Vallerand, Deshaies, Cuerrier,
Briere, & Pelletier, 1996) conducted an extensive study to understand how athletes
themselves define the term. The researchers constructed a sporting behavior survey and
administered it to 1,056 French-Canadian athletes between the ages of 10 and 18 years who
represented seven sports. Factor analysis (a statistical technique that
Helping up a fallen athlete is an example of good sporting behavior.
groups like response patterns in data) revealed that good sporting behavior consists of these
five factors:
1. Full commitment toward participation (showing up and working hard during all
practices and games; acknowledging one’s mistakes and trying to improve)
2. Respect and concern for rules and officials (even when the official appears
incompetent)
3. Respect and concern for social conventions (shaking hands after the contest;
recognizing the good performance of one’s opponent; being a good loser)
4. Respect and concern for the opponent (lending one’s equipment to the opponent;
agreeing to play even if the opponent is late; refusing to take advantage of injured
opponents)
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5. Avoiding poor attitudes toward participation (avoiding a win-at-all-costs approach;
not showing temper after a mistake; not competing only for individual trophies and
prizes)
Hence, this research suggests that athletes define good sporting behavior as “concern and
respect for the rules and officials, social conventions, the opponent, as well as one’s full
commitment to one’s sport, and the relative absence of a negative approach toward sport
participation” (Vallerand et al., 1997, p. 198).
Although these attempts to define good sporting behavior are helping to guide research in
the area, from a practical perspective Martens’ (1982) conclusion still holds true—no one
universally accepted definition of good sporting behavior exists. Rather, good sporting
behaviors must be specifically identified: They are tied to the type of sport, level of play, and
age of the participant. So although there is no universal definition of the term, it is still
important that we each identify good sporting behavior and try to develop situation-specific
definitions of it as we work professionally in sport, physical education, and exercise settings.
Finally, in discussing morality, psychologist Albert Bandura (1999) indicated that two
important aspects of these behaviors need to be considered: engaging in positive social
behaviors and refraining from engaging in negative social behaviors. Thus, in sport and
physical activity settings we should be concerned with people exhibiting good sporting
behavior while simultaneously refraining from bad sporting behaviors.
Character
Character, the third concept in morality, refers to an array of characteristics (usually
connoting a positive moral overtone—we all want participants to develop good character in
sport) that can be developed in sport. Those who espouse the character-developing benefits of
sport contend that participants learn to overcome obstacles, cooperate with teammates,
develop self-control, and persist in the face of defeat (Ewing, Seefeldt, & Brown, 1996).
Shields and Bredemeier (1995) view character as an overarching concept that integrates fair
play and good sporting behavior with two other important virtues, compassion and integrity.
Hence, character in sport comprises four interrelated virtues: compassion, fairness, good
sporting behavior, and integrity.
Kids Take on Moral Issues in Sports
Sport psychologist Moira Stuart (2003) was interested in identifying what moral
issues children aged 10 to 12 years experienced in sport. The children said
such things as these:
A big problem with my coach is that his daughter is on the team and he
(coach) lets her play most of the game and some of the players who are
better don’t get to play as much as his (coach) daughter … he should not
play favorites because then we all can’t play as much as her and that’s
not fair to the rest of us. (p. 451)
They know that they are supposed to shake hands, so when we went to shake
their hand after the game, the other team spit on their hands before they
would shake our hands … that isn’t right … that’s not how you act after a
game. (p. 451)
These and the many other statements the children made were classified into
three general categories of moral issues. These included concerns about
the fairness of adult actions (e.g., unfair decisions by officials,
coaches playing favorites, parents pressuring them to play or win),
negative
game
behaviors
(e.g.,
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verbal
intimidation
by
opponents,
intentional fouls, violations of the spirit of the game), and
negative team behaviors (e.g., selfish teammates, dishonesty, teammate
misbehavior).
In another study, Long, Pantaleon, Bruant, and d’Arripe-Longueville (2006)
interviewed 10 young elite athletes and found that both respect for and
transgression of competitive rules depended on the athletes’ individual
characteristics (e.g., the desire to win), the social environment (e.g., team
norms and pressure from the coach), sport values and virtues (e.g., fair play),
and sport rewards (e.g., media recognition). Most interesting were the findings
of moral disengagement: These young athletes justified rule breaking in the
name of defending sport values such as team spirit or playing smart.
Although these findings confirm and extend adult perspectives on moral issues
in sport, they also show that issues of rightness and wrongness occur in
practices, before and after games, and at home, not just during the game. These
findings also highlight the importance of obtaining children’s perspectives
when studying moral issues in sport.
We have already defined fair play and good sporting behavior, but not compassion and
integrity. Compassion is related to empathy and is the ability to take on and appreciate the
feelings of others. Hence, when we have compassion, we feel for our competitors and seek to
understand their feelings and perspectives. Integrity is the ability to maintain one’s morality
and fairness coupled with the belief that one can (and will) fulfill one’s moral intentions. In
essence, integrity is an athlete’s or a coach’s moral self-efficacy—the belief that she will do the
right thing when faced with a moral dilemma. In summary, when we discuss character in
sport we are referring to knowing the rules and standards of behavior expected of participants
(good sporting behavior); adhering to the rules and the spirit of the rules while competing
(fairness); being compassionate, or being able to take on the feelings of others; and having
integrity, or being confident that we know what is right and will exhibit behaviors in line
with what is right even when alternative choices make doing so difficult.
Developing Character and Good Sporting Behavior
Although people have differing views about how character and good sporting attitudes and
behaviors develop, three particular approaches are the most widely accepted today: the social
learning, structural–developmental, and social–psychological approaches.
Social Learning Approach
Aggression and character development are linked in many ways, and they are explained by
similar theories. According to the social learning approach to character development, best
summarized in the classic work of Albert Bandura (1977), specific positive sporting attitudes
and behaviors deemed appropriate by society are learned through the following:
Modeling or observational learning: learning by watching what others do and noticing
what they don’t do
Reinforcement: being reinforced or penalized for one’s actions
Social comparison: exhibiting behaviors in an effort to fit in with one’s peers or
comparison groups
These components are internalized and used to guide behavior. This approach, then,
contends that people’s social learning history determines their level of good sporting behavior
(Shields & Bredemeier, 2001), although more recent versions also emphasize that behavior is
determined by an interaction of personal and situational factors (Bandura, 1991).
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For example, by observing that other children are being praised for reporting false sit-up
scores to the instructor, Zoe learns in physical education class that it is acceptable to cheat on
a fitness test. Wanting praise and attention from the teacher, she copies, or models, the
behavior of the other students, whom she compares herself with, and begins to report more
sit-ups than she has really done. The physical educator notes the reported improvement in
the number of sit-ups executed and praises her. Thus, Zoe learns from observing the other
children and through her own experience that if she lies about the number of sit-ups, she
receives reinforcement. Conversely, a selfish child may learn to share and be more caring by
observing that classmates receive attention and praise for helping. And, over time, when the
child models these helping actions and is praised, the prosocial behavior is reinforced. Thus,
the social learning process affects both positive and negative attitudes and behaviors. In one
study of social learning theory, fifth-grade boys who acted in unsportspersonlike ways saw the
appropriate behaviors modeled and took part in a reinforcement system (they could earn
points leading to desired prizes for exhibiting good sporting behaviors). Over time the
reinforcement system was effective, although more so in eliminating undesirable behaviors
than in getting the boys to exhibit desirable behaviors (Geibenk & McKenzie, 1985).
Tennis great Bjorn Borg was known for his good sporting behavior, but he hadn’t always
behaved that way. When he was 12, Borg threw his racket in disgust, exhibiting a temper
tantrum on the court. Such actions were quickly curtailed because his mother would not
tolerate them. Borg had his racket taken away and was not allowed to play for 6 months.
The latest research on social learning suggests that learned self-regulatory mechanisms
such as negative affective efficacy (the ability to regulate one’s negative emotions) or resistive
self-efficacy (the ability to resist reacting to negative emotions) operate together to influence
the acceptability and likelihood of cheating in athletes. The higher one’s negative affective
efficacy, the less likely the individual would cheat or engage in moral disengagement (the
disengagement of moral self-sanctions), whereas the lower one’s resistive self-efficacy, the
more likely the individual will engage in moral disengagement and view cheating as
acceptable (d’Arripe-Longueville, Corrion, Scoffier, Roussel, & Chalabaev, 2010).
Structural–Developmental Approach
Instead of focusing on modeling, reinforcement, and social comparison, the structural–
developmental approach focuses on how psychological growth and developmental changes in
a child’s thoughts and judgments underlying behavior interact with environmental
experiences to shape moral reasoning (Weiss & Bredemeier, 1991). Moreover, sport
psychologists have derived specific definitions of moral reasoning, moral development, and
moral behavior. Note that when we use the term moral, we do not mean to imply religious
values.
Moral reasoning is defined as the decision process in which a person determines the
rightness or wrongness of a course of action. Thus, moral reasoning pertains to how one
decides whether some course of action (e.g., if a coach violates National Collegiate Athletic
Association rules by paying to fly a player home to see his dying mother) is right or wrong. In
contrast, moral development is the process of experience and growth through which a person
develops the capacity to reason morally. For example, in planning a system-wide physical
education curriculum, a district coordinator would want to understand what experiences and
cognitive developmental changes are most likely to enhance the children’s abilities to
determine the rightness or wrongness of an action. Last, moral behavior is actually carrying
out an act that is deemed right or wrong. So, moral reasoning results from individual
experiences, as well as the psychological growth and development of the child, and is thought
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to guide moral behavior. Moreover, moral reasoning is seen as a series of general ethical
principles that underlie situationally specific acts of good sporting behavior.
Key Point
Moral reasoning is the decision process through which one determines the rightness or
wrongness of a course of action. Moral development is the process of experience and
growth through which a person develops the capacity to reason morally. Moral behavior
is the execution of an act that is deemed right or wrong.
Structural developmentalists contend that the ability to reason morally depends on a
person’s level of cognitive or mental development (e.g., a child’s ability to think in concrete or
abstract terms). Thus, if a 4-year-old boy, able to think in only very concrete terms, is
inadvertently pushed in line at preschool, he responds by hitting the child who was pushed
into him. This child, not able to judge intent, knows only that the other child pushed him.
However, given the process of normal growth and cognitive development, an 11-year-old
child who is inadvertently pushed in line will not necessarily push back because she can judge
intent and realizes the other child didn’t bump her on purpose. Thus, structural
developmentalists view moral reasoning and behavior as dependent, in large part, on cognitive
development.
Key Point
Moral reasoning and behavior depend on an individual’s level of cognitive development.
Developmental psychologists have identified sequential stages of moral development in
children. Figure 25.1 depicts the five levels, or stages, of moral development first identified by
Norma Haan (Haan, Aeerts, & Cooper, 1985) and later explained in more practical sport
psychological terms by Maureen Weiss (1987; Weiss & Bredemeier, 1991). As a child
matures, she progresses in moral reasoning from level 1 through level 5. Not everyone reaches
level 5, however, and we don’t always use the highest level of moral thinking that we’re
capable of. In fact, we may use several different levels at once.
• Level 1 reasoning is at the external control stage—the “It’s okay as long as I don’t get
caught” stage. At this level a child determines what is right or wrong based on self-interest
and, in particular, the outcome of her actions. Thus, Kim would decide whether kicking an
opponent in soccer (illegally playing the person, not the ball) is right or wrong depending on
whether she got away with it. If she did get away with it, she would think it was an acceptable
course of action. But if she was penalized for it, she would view playing the person as
inappropriate behavior.
• Level 2 still focuses on maximizing self-interests, but the child now doesn’t see only the
action’s outcome. Instead, this is an “eye-for-an-eye” stage in which the individual can
compromise and make tradeoffs to maximize self-interest. For instance, Kim decides that it is
acceptable to illegally kick another player because Lee has been doing just that to her for most
of the first half. Or an elite track and field athlete takes illegal performance-enhancing drugs
and defends the action on the premise that “everybody does it.”
• In level 3, the person treats others as he or she would like to be treated. Unlike in the
first two levels, self-interest is not the sole focus. The person adopts a helping or altruistic
view. Kim now views illegally kicking another player as inappropriate because she would not
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want to be treated that way.
• Level 4 of moral reasoning focuses on following external rules. The person has learned
that not all people can be trusted to do the right thing and recognizes that official rules were
developed for the common good. At this stage, Kim views illegally kicking an opponent as
inappropriate because it is against the rules and believes that one must play by the rules
because they promote everyone’s self-interest.
• Moral reasoning at level 5 focuses on what is best for everyone involved, whether or not
it is in accordance with official rules and regulations. This reasoning is considered the most
mature because the individual seeks to maximize the interests of the group through mutual
agreements or “moral balances.” Kim reasons that it is inappropriate to kick another player
not only because it is against the rules but also because it violates the fundamental rights of
both parties—the right to play in a safe and healthy environment.
In summary, in moral development, reasoning progresses from decisions based on selfcentered interests to a concern with mutual interests of all the people involved. This
development depends on the person’s ability to think abstractly.
Social–Psychological Approach
Vallerand and colleagues (1996, 1997) offered a third approach to studying morality in
physical activity: a broader social–psychological approach. That is, in looking at morality and
character you would consider the personal elements in the structural–developmental approach
(e.g., the individual’s level of moral development) plus a wide range of social factors (e.g., type
of sport, competitive level of athletes, pressure from the coach) that go beyond the
reinforcement, modeling, and social comparison elements of the social learning approach. An
important feature of this view is the notion that social agents (e.g., parents and coaches) label
or define good sporting behavior. Vallerand’s team proposed taking a more complex, personby-situation perspective that considers a variety of both personal and situational factors in
determining good sporting behavior.
Key Point
Character development progresses from basing one’s decisions about the rightness or
wrongness of actions on self-centered interests to being concerned with the mutual
interests of all involved.
Evidence supporting the social–psychological approach has been found in studies such as
one conducted by
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FIGURE 25.1
Levels of moral reasoning.
Adapted from Weiss (1987).
Shields, LaVoi, Bredemeier, and Power (2007). Studying more than 600 youth soccer players
from different geographic regions of the United States, they found that poor sporting
behaviors were predicted by coach and spectator actions, team norms, participant attitudes
toward sportspersonship, and perceptions of parental and coach norms. Thus, it is necessary
to consider cultural attitudes, values, and norms of particular individuals and groups as well as
the stages of moral reasoning to understand how to enhance character development and good
sporting behavior. Consequently, it seems best to take advantage of what has been learned
through both the social learning and structural–developmental approaches and to adopt the
social–psychological approach.
Examining Moral Development Research
In comprehensive reviews of the literature (Kavussanu, 2008; Shields & Bredemeier, 2001,
2007) and research studies (e.g., Karamavrou, Mouratidou, Evaggelinou, Koidou, & Parisi,
2016; Kavussanu, Stanger, & Ring, 2015; Lucidi et al., 2017; Tsai, Wang & Lo, 2014), it has
been concluded that although much more needs to be known about moral development in
sport, the research to date leads to a number of general conclusions. These include the
following:
• Moral behavior is best understood from an interactive perspective that considers the
characteristics of the individual and the social environment.
• Professionalization of attitude occurs in athletes. Winning becomes the dominant value
the longer one stays involved in sport and the higher the competitive level attained.
• Game reasoning occurs. Many athletes use a pattern of moral reasoning in sport that
differs from their pattern in everyday life.
• Athletes in some sports (e.g., contact sports) have lower levels of moral reasoning than
nonathletes do.
• Athletes characterized by lower levels of moral reasoning are more likely to sanction and
use aggression.
• Moral identity, or how an athlete sees himself or herself relative to various moral traits
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such as caring, honesty, and generosity, influences antisocial behaviors by inducing guilt
when moral transgressions occur.
• Moral attitudes predict cheating and other morally questionable behaviors.
• Females tend to use higher levels of moral reasoning than males do.
• Moral variables are related to motivational orientations. Higher levels of ego orientation
are associated with lower levels of moral development and action, and higher levels of
task orientation are associated with higher levels of moral development and action.
• Personality factors such as conscientiousness and locus of control influence morality;
those higher in conscientiousness and having an internal
Measuring Good Sporting Behavior
Bolter and Weiss (2013) developed the Sportsmanship Coaching Behavior Scale,
(SCBS) which allows athletes to assess in their coaches’ behaviors that have
been shown to affect athletes’ sportspersonship outcomes. The scale comprises
six subscales:
1. Teaching
2. Modeling
3. Reinforcement
4. Prioritizing winning over sportspersonship
5. Punishing poor sportspersonship
6. Setting expectations for good sporting behavior
Scale validation results showed that the SCBS subscales were, for the most
part, related to athletes’ prosocial and antisocial actions in the expected
ways and that the SCBS was a valid and reliable measure of sportspersonship
coaching behaviors.
versus external locus of control exhibit more moral attitudes and actions.
• Social factors such as team norms and ego-oriented motivational climates created by
parents, spectators, and coaches influence sport morality in negative ways.
Understanding the Connection Between Moral
Reasoning and Moral Behavior
As Shields and Bredemeier (2001) found, a consistent relationship exists between aggression
and people with less mature moral reasoning: People whose moral reasoning is less mature
behave more aggressively. (Not surprisingly, the link between moral reasoning and behavior is
not perfect. Nor would you expect it to be—all of us, at one time or another, have known that
something was probably wrong but did it anyway.)
Key Point
Although aggression is linked with immature moral reasoning, the connection between
reasoning and behavior is not perfectly understood.
One reason the link between moral reasoning and behavior is not absolute is that several
steps must take place to translate moral reasoning into moral action. Basing their work on
that of Rest (1984), Miller, Bredemeier, and Shields (1997) identified four stages of moral
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action in the moral reasoning–behavior link:
1. Interpreting the situation as one that involves some sort of moral judgment
2. Deciding on the best course of moral action
3. Making a choice to act morally
4. Implementing a moral response
For instance, Brian, the captain of the tennis team, must judge whether his opponent’s
serve at match point is in or out (Brian believes that it is in). If he says it is out, he and his
team win the sectional tournament. If he says it is in, he and his team may lose. Following
the four stages of moral action, Brian must first interpret the situation and see it as involving
a moral choice. His compassion and his ability to see the perspective of others are critical
here. Brian remembers how he felt when an opponent cheated on line calls against him. If
Brian interprets the situation as involving a moral choice, he must then weigh various
competing moral choices (make the correct call, lie, or say he couldn’t tell whether the serve
was in or out). That is, he must use his moral reasoning to define a moral course of action.
Brian then engages in a process to decide whether to give priority to moral values or to selfgain. Will he do the honest thing by making the correct call and potentially losing the match?
Will he say the ball was out and receive the rewards associated with the victory? He may be
influenced in this stage by such factors as his coach’s leadership style and the team’s norms
about right and wrong. Finally, Brian must marshal his physical and psychological resources
to translate his moral decision into action. For example, Brian must be confident that he will
be able to deal with what his teammates might say if he makes the correct call and loses the
match. His integrity would be important here. Only after working through these stages will
Brian act.
Knowing how individuals morally reason and how they translate the reasoning into action
is important for understanding the people we work with and for guiding our practical
interventions. Miller and colleagues (1997) designed a sociomoral educational program for atrisk physical education students based on these moral action processes. They identified
specific psychological objectives related to those processes and then designed and developed
intervention strategies, such as cooperative learning, for achieving these goals and influencing
the moral action processes (see table 25.1).
Hazing and Bullying in Sport
Girls are forced to run naked across a football field.
In the back of the bus on the ride home, older team members hold freshmen down
and shove testicles in their faces.
Players are forced to drink a keg of beer as a part of team initiation.
An overweight child is afraid to pass from one classroom to the next at middle school
because of the ridicule and threats he has experienced from some of the members of
the football team. He was also crushed to see a photo of a pig with his head
superimposed on it on social media.
Athletes are forced to cross-dress and eat disgusting combinations of foods and are
physically beaten as a part of a team ritual.
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These are just a few examples of sport hazing and bullying incidents that have been reported
in recent years. Hazing and bullying are clearly moral issues in contemporary sport.
Fortunately, sport psychology researchers have begun to study these issues. Below is a
summary of what has been learned about each of these moral issues.
Hazing in Sport
Hazing is “any activity expected of someone joining a group that humiliates, degrades,
abuses, or endangers [that person], regardless of a person’s willingness to participate. This
does not include activities such as rookies carrying the balls, team parties with community
games, or going out with … teammates, unless an atmosphere of humiliation, degradation,
abuse, or danger exists” (Hoover, 1999, p. 8). Hazing can be physical (e.g., being paddled),
psychological (e.g., being made to perform embarrassing acts) or alcohol related (e.g., forced
binge drinking) (Diamond, Callahan, Chain, & Solomon, 2016). Since it was first identified
as a problem in the 1980s, reports of sport hazing have steadily increased. Many states have
even passed legislation making hazing illegal. Hazing does not appear to be specific to the
United States; professionals in the United Kingdom have also become more concerned with
these practices (Goves, Griggs, & Leflay, 2012).
Given the increased concern about sport hazing, researchers have been studying the topic.
Waldron and Kowalski (2009) interviewed 21 athletes about their experiences related to
hazing in sport and found that three types of hazing were evident: physical, psychological,
and alcohol related. Motives for hazing identified in the study included having fun, carrying
out part of an initiation, and intimidation and jealousy. Hazing was reported to occur more
often in contact, team, and competitive sports. It was also influenced by the athlete’s physical
ability, physical size, personal leadership style, and the presence of an older sibling on the
team. The authors concluded that athletes engaged in risky hazing practices in a desire to
adhere to sport values and to be accepted by teammates.
Studying university athletes, Hamilton, Scott, LaChapelle, and O’Sullivan (2016) found
that over 71% had participated in some form of hazing of rookie team members. Male
athletes and collision-sport athletes reported the most involvement. Most concerning was the
finding that the amount of hazing one received as a rookie corresponded to the number of
hazing activities initiated as a team veteran. Moral disengagement and favorable attitudes
toward team initiations also predicted involvement in rookie hazing.
The fact that hazing is viewed as a rite of passage and as part of team tradition does not
make it acceptable. If such activities degrade, abuse, or endanger participants, even if the
recipient is willing to participate, they are inappropriate. Scholars are concerned that many
athletes do not view hazing practices as risky and negative and are unknowingly practicing a
form of deviant overconformity—that is, doing things that would not be acceptable outside of
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sport under the justification that the activities are part of the sport’s tradition and history.
The athletes are motivated to be part of the team, and hazing is part of the process.
Sport psychologists contend that steps must be taken to ensure that sport environments do
not condone any form of hazing (Waldron & Kowalski, 2009). Waldron (2012) called for
coaches to conduct hazing-prevention workshops and outlined a five-step approach for
empowering athletes to prevent hazing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Notice the hazing event.
Interpret the hazing event as a problem.
Take responsibility for the solution.
Acquire or have the skills to react.
Intervene to prevent the hazing.
Other researchers have also designed interventions to combat the problem. For example,
Johnson & Chen (2016) examined the impact of athlete participation in an outdoor
adventure program designed as an alternative to hazing-type team initiation activities. Results
indicated that most of the athletes felt the program facilitated team bonding, forged a
welcoming environment, and established team goals while simultaneously allowing players to
learn about each other. In another study, Mattey, McCloughan, and Hanrahan (2014)
designed an antivilification program for adolescent volleyball players, and most players
indicated that the program helped them understand the consequences of bullying not only on
the individuals involved but also on the team and performance.
Bullying in Sport
Bullying is defined as the “… unwanted, repeated and intentional, aggressive behavior usually
among peers, and can involve a real or perceived power imbalance. Bullying can include
actions such as making threats, spreading rumors or falsehoods, attacking someone physically
or verbally and deliberately excluding someone” (Mountjoy et al., 2016, p. 1021). It can also
take place in person or online in the form of cyberbullying. Bullying, even in minor forms, is a
concern because it often has major psychological consequences on the victims such as
increased anxiety, lower self-esteem, and depression. The perpetrators of bullying often are
characterized by a host of psychological issues such as lack of social competencies, struggles
resolving peer conflicts, and aggression control (Shannon, 2013).
In a study of bullying in adolescent athletes, a vast majority indicated that they were not
victimized in sport (Evans, Adler, MacDonald, & Cote, 2016). However, participants
indicated they experienced more bullying and engaged more in bullying at school. When
those athletes who reported being bullied in sport (14%) or perpetrated bullying on their
teams (8%) were examined, those who bullied had weaker relations with teammates, whereas
those doing the bullying were found to have weaker relationships with their coaches.
Lastly, to help coaches and athletes combat bullying, sport psychologists have
implemented several antibullying programs. McCloughan, Mattey, and Hanrahan (2015)
conducted a program to educate coaches in how to prevent homophobic bullying in
adolescent sport. The hour-long program focused on conveying basic information about
bullying and the coaches’ role in preventing it. The coaches also completed a personality
inventory to highlight personality differences and communication styles, brainstormed and
created individual responses to prevent bullying behaviors, and received a resource handout
and online support materials. Similarly, Mattey and colleagues (2014) developed an
746
antivilification program for volleyball players. Through interactive activities geared toward
athletes of different ages, workshop participants learned about common bullying behaviors
and derived strategies for dealing with them. They also derived team values designed to form
an inclusive and fair team and created a poster to guide team behavior across the season.
Combatting Hazing and Bullying in Sport
Coaches must challenge athletes to think critically about the consequences of hazing and
bullying. Positive traditions and rituals that promote team unity and cooperation among
teammates should be substituted for hazing traditions that promote rivalry and hostility,
because hazing may do more to harm team chemistry than to contribute to it. Coaches have a
moral obligation to stop hazing practices and teach athletes how to team build in positive
ways.
Combating hazing and bullying is not the responsibility of just coaches and athletes.
Administrators and sport organizations must also be involved. However, a study of sport
organizations in Canada found that while most organizations had developed policies in line
with the requirements of Sport Canada (a governmental department that develops sport
policy, provides funding, and administers special projects), essential information was lacking.
This included outlining the rights of complainants and respondents and articulated complaint
processes (Donnelly, Kerr, Heron, and DiCarlo, 2016). Few had designated specific
individuals within the organization to oversee maltreatment complaints. It was concluded
that much more needs to be done by sport organizations to ensure athletes are protected from
maltreatment and abuse.
It is important then, that all sport organizations take a strong stance on hazing and
bullying. Here are suggestions (Diamond et al., 2016; Donnelly et al., 2016; Mountjoy et al.,
2016; Shannon, 2013):
Develop a clear statement indicating a commitment to safe sport and a zero-tolerance
policy on bullying and hazing.
Assign organization leadership the responsibility or “ownership” for ensuring a safe
sport environment.
Develop clear rules and procedures for both preventing and dealing with maltreatment
complaints.
Have a qualified person who has been educated on hazing and bullying prevention and
treatment options be responsible for safe sport.
Educate staff about bullying, hazing, and other maltreatment issues.
Expand the organization’s focus from avoiding inappropriate behaviors to identifying
appropriate conduct (e.g., establishing appropriate team norms and inclusive
environments).
Establish relationships with other organizations (e.g., schools) to help create safe
environments for children both in and out of sport.
Studying the Connection Between Character
Development and Physical Activity
Most of us like to believe that participation in physical activity programs automatically builds
character, enhances moral reasoning, and teaches good sporting behavior, but little evidence
supports the belief that it builds character (Harvey, Kirk, & O’Donovan, 2014; Hodge,
747
1989). Participation in sport and physical education settings does not automatically produce
better or worse people. Character is not caught, but taught, in sport and physical activity
settings. Teaching moral reasoning and good sporting behavior involves the systematic use of
certain strategies.
Key Point
Character is not caught, but taught, in sport, exercise, and physical activity
settings.
Let’s look at an example of such a strategy. Gibbons, Ebbeck, and Weiss (1995)
investigated moral judgment, reason, intention, and prosocial behavior changes in fourth-,
fifth-, and sixth-grade children. The children were randomly assigned to one of three groups:
control, Fair Play for Kids activities during physical education only, and Fair Play for Kids
activities during all school subjects. The Fair Play for Kids (1990) program that the treatment
conditions were based on included activities from the teacher resource manual developed by
the Commission for Fair Play in Canada. Activities in the manual are based on both the
structural–developmental and social learning theories and are aimed at increasing respect for
rules, officials, and opponents; providing all individuals with an equal chance to participate;
and maintaining self-control (see “Fair Play for Kids Sample Activities”). The intervention
lasted for 7 months of the academic year, and moral development measures were taken before
and after the intervention.
Results revealed that children who participated in the treatment groups had significantly
higher posttest scores on all measures, whereas no changes were evident in the control
participants, validating the Fair Play for Kids curriculum for effecting change in moral
development in children. In addition, because no differences existed between the two
treatment groups, the results showed that addressing fair play in physical education alone or
in conjunction with academic classes was equally effective.
These results are consistent with those of Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, and Shewchuk
(1986) and Romance, Weiss, and Bockoven (1986), and they show that the systematic and
organized delivery of moral development information can change children’s character. Other
studies have shown that sport programs can enhance adolescents’ sense of community
(Warner & Leierer, 2015); encourage prosocial values associated with Olympism or the
fundamental principles like the spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play forming the
philosophy of the Olympic Games (Šukys & Majauskien, 2014); and develop assertiveness
related to personal and social responsibility (García-López & Gutiérrez, 2015). It is clear,
then, that under the right conditions moral reasoning and good sporting behavior can be
taught through physical education and sport.
Youth Sports as a Deterrent to Negative Behavior
It is not only physical educators who claim that participation enhances character development
and positive behaviors. Sport administrators, coaches, and community leaders often claim
that taking part in sport keeps youths off the street, out of trouble, and out of gangs. Youth
development expert Reed Larson (2000), for example, indicates that extracurricular activities
such as sport have tremendous potential to lead to positive youth development for several
reasons. First, sport is intrinsically motivating for many adolescents. Second, it involves
Fair Play for Kids Sample Activities
748
The problem-solving running shoe. This is a problem-solving activity in which
children learn to resolve moral conflicts. A drawing of a giant running shoe
with separate areas labeled problem, alternative, consequences, and solution is
posted. When children have conflict, they are instructed to go to a special
area (“the listening bench”) and complete a running shoe form or use the
running shoe steps to resolve peer conflicts.
Improv. Fair play dilemmas (e.g., a player argues with the umpire after a
perceived bad call in softball) are written on “improvisation cards.” Children
then make up skits that address how to deal with the situation outlined on the
card.
Relay games. Children take part in relay games in which they share ideas with
teammates, discuss strategy, learn to work within the rules, and show selfcontrol. A “Let’s Talk” time is built in at the end of each game to discuss
specific questions, such as “What conflicts did you have to resolve?”
Adapted from Gibbons, Ebbeck, and Weiss (1995).
sustained efforts on the part of the participant directed toward reaching a goal over time.
Third, it requires a youth to experience setbacks, make adjustments, and learn to overcome
challenges. The potential of sport as a vehicle for positive youth development has led sport
psychologists and sociologists to study two specific questions: Does sport participation deter
delinquency? Does participation in sport decrease gang violence?
Sport Participation and Delinquency
It has long been believed that sports participation is an effective deterrent to youth
delinquency. Previous research also supported the claim that participants in organized sport
are less likely than nonparticipants to engage in delinquent behavior (Seefeldt & Ewing,
1997; Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). Four possible explanations for these findings have been
forwarded: differential association, social bonding, the labeling hypothesis, and economic
strain.
1. Those who explain the negative relationship between sport participation and
delinquency by a differential association propose that athletes have less frequent,
shorter, and less intense interactions with delinquent others. In other words,
participation in sport keeps kids off the streets and out of trouble.
2. The social bonding view contends that kids who participate in sport develop
attachments with significant others who represent dominant, prosocial values. A
young athlete identifies with his coach and team and, in so doing, learns such values as
teamwork, hard work, and achievement.
3. The labeling hypothesis takes a different tack, contending that sport participation
does not facilitate youth values. Rather, because many people in society value sport,
being labeled an “athlete” often leads to special treatment. That is, because of their
athletic status, some youngsters receive preferential treatment and get away with more
delinquent behaviors than their nonathletic counterparts. At the same time, other
youngsters get labeled as “delinquents” and then fall into a self-fulfilling prophecy of
escalating trouble, meanwhile getting no breaks in the legal system.
4. The economic strain explanation for the sport–delinquency relationship holds that
delinquency occurs because many youths are impoverished but still desire the high
standard of living they see others enjoying. Sport participation, however, allows
impoverished youngsters to gain prestige and status and, in turn, reduces the strain
749
between their dreams of a better life and beliefs about attainable goals.
Although these explanations may help us better understand why sport participation is
associated with decreases in delinquency, they do not give us definitive conclusions (Shields
& Bredemeier, 1995). Most likely the sport participation–delinquency relationship is best
explained by some combination of these views, and in any case, requires further research.
While previous research has supported the sport participation–delinquency link, a metaanalytical review of 51 studies conducted on the topic failed to reveal a significant association
between sport participation and juvenile delinquency (Spruit, van Vugt, van der Put, van der
Stouwe, & Stams, 2016). Sport participation neither increased nor decreased delinquency in
the participants studied. However, the authors argued that because there was a great deal of
variability in the effect sizes of specific studies, sport participation might deter juvenile
delinquency under the right environments. Specifically, when a pedagogical sports climate
exists—one in which fair play is emphasized, personal development of the participant is
stressed more than winning, positive relationships exist between all parties involved (e.g.,
coaches, athletes), and mutual trust and respect are a shared social norm—sport participation
is more likely to deter delinquency.
Finally, in a follow-up intervention study of a sports program that incorporated many of
these pedagogical climate principles and was designed to assist youth who were at risk for
delinquency, several encouraging results were found (Spruit, van der Put, van Vugt, & Stams,
2017). Specifically, over the course of the intervention, the youth showed improvements in
conduct, acceptance of authority, resistance to social pressure, prosocial behavior, and
academic engagement. Youth, coach, sport, and other context factors were also noted to
influence the reported outcomes.
Sport Participation and Gang Behavior
Gangs and the negative behaviors associated with them (e.g., crime, fights, murder) are of
critical concern in both suburban and rural communities as well as many inner-city
neighborhoods. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reports that there are 1.4 million
gang members active in the United States and Puerto Rico (FBI, 2018). Not only do gangs
negatively influence their members and lead to increased crime, but they also affect physical
activity involvement by making neighborhoods so unsafe that parents are afraid to let their
children play outside or walk to physical activity settings such as gyms, pools, and parks
(Stodolska, Acevedo, & Shinew, 2009).
Sport participation is proposed as an alternative to gang behavior for several reasons
(Buckle & Walsh, 2013; Seefeldt & Ewing, 1997; Weintraub, 2009). First, some of the
reasons that youths join gangs are alienation from family and peers, low self-esteem, and a
lack of positive role models—all things that sport can alleviate. Second, kids maintain their
gang membership because the gang fills their needs in some way. That is, the gang provides
an identity for its members and serves many functions that a family might. Again, these are
things that membership in a sport team can provide. Finally, gang members often live in
communities where they have little access to healthy alternatives such as sport programs. An
interview study of gangs in Scotland showed, however, that many gang members resist or
move out of gangs if attractive alternatives such as sport are offered (Deuchar, 2009).
Historically, gang behavior has been associated with inner cities. However, gang activity is
now being observed in suburban and rural areas as well as in institutions like schools and the
military (Rojek, Decker, Alpert, & Hansen, 2013). More girls are becoming involved in
gangs, and some suspect that gang activities are starting to influence collegiate athletics. Two
750
studies have shed light on these issues. Rojek and colleagues (2013) examined the presence of
gang-involved individuals in college sports by surveying athletic directors and campus police
chiefs and interviewing college athletes. A very small gang presence was found in major
college athletics, but this presence is not widespread. Football and men’s basketball were the
most affected sports, followed by women’s basketball and men’s track. Interestingly, athletic
directors and police chiefs were more likely to view gang-involved athletes as an issue in other
programs rather than their own.
In another study, Taylor, Nanney, Welch, and Wamser-Nanney (2016) examined the
relationship between sports participation, gang involvement, and delinquency in rural high
school girls. Results indicate that girls who participate in sports are significantly less likely to
be involved in gangs than are girls who don’t participate in sports. The effect of sport
participation on delinquency rates is not as high, but it is significant.
Evidence reveals that sport participation can serve as an important substitute for gang
membership. Specifically, sport participation can fill the gap for underserved youths (e.g.,
children who are economically deprived or who have little or no parental supervision) by
facilitating increased self-esteem, providing an important source of identity, lending social
support, and giving participants positive role models. Some contend that putting youths from
different neighborhoods on the same teams helps prevent gang violence, which often results
from territorial disputes between groups that have little contact with each other and do not
see themselves as similar (Taylor, 2012). In fact, Ewing and Seefeldt (1996) observed that
selling sport participation as an alternative to gang activity has become an important
recruitment strategy for youth sport leaders.
Sport will serve as an alternative to negative behavior only if programs are properly run,
organized, and implemented. Sport does nothing by itself. As repeatedly emphasized in this
book, high-quality experiences in sport give rise to psychological benefits.
Nowhere is this principle better demonstrated than in Trulson’s (1986) study of
delinquent teenagers where boys were matched in background and important personality
characteristics (e.g., aggression) and assigned to one of three groups that met three times a
week for 1 hour. One group participated in a modern taekwondo program emphasizing
fighting and self-defense techniques. The second group took part in traditional taekwondo,
which emphasized philosophical reflection, meditation, and physical practice. The third
group served as a control and played football and basketball. After 6 months, members of the
modern taekwondo group were less well adjusted and scored higher on delinquency and
aggression measures than when the study had begun! Members of the traditional taekwondo
group, however, exhibited below-normal aggression, less anxiety, more social skills, and
enhanced self-esteem. Children in the control football and basketball group showed little
change in personality or delinquency but improved in self-esteem and social skills.
Buckle and Walsh (2013) described an inner-city soccer program that was guided by
Hellison’s (2011) model of teaching personal and social responsibility. Gang members took
part in a 28-week soccer program in which program providers used relational time (planned
times where adult leaders had opportunities to individually interact with program
participants), sport lessons, large-group meetings, awareness talks, and routines to teach
personal and social responsibility. After completing the program, one participant noted:
“ I learned five words that I always have with me wherever I go, and they are respect,
self-control, leadership, participation, and effort. Those five words helped me in so
many ways that I don’t have the words to express how these words have changed my life.
(Buckle & Walsh, 2013, p. 57)”
Most important, these findings reveal that sport participation alone was not enough to
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positively influence negative behaviors—the program had to blend the physical activities with
social and psychological teachings to accomplish this.
Key Point
People do not know what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable behavior if it is not
defined.
Strategies for Enhancing Character Development
The social learning, structural–developmental, and social–psychological approaches have
facilitated our understanding of good sporting behavior and enhanced character development.
Literature reviews outlining implications for enhancing sport-based moral education and fair
play have also been published (Harvey et al., 2014; Perry, Clough, & Crust, 2013). Ten
strategies have been derived from these approaches and sources. We discuss each of these
strategies to suggest how it can enhance character development.
Define Good Sporting Behavior in Your Program
As you have learned, there is no universal definition of good sporting behavior. And without
a specific definition, people in your program will not know what you mean by appropriate
and acceptable behavior or inappropriate and unacceptable behavior. Camire and Trudel
(2010) found that it was not enough for coaches to make simple references to broad concepts
such as character or good morals—athletes did not understand general definitions. The
authors concluded that coaches must define specific moral values and their meanings. These
definitions must also be repeatedly emphasized in the sport culture so everyone understands
them. Table 25.2 presents an example of such a written code that specifically identifies
positive and negative sporting behaviors for a children’s sport program.
Reinforce and Encourage Good Sporting Behaviors
Reinforce and encourage those behaviors and attitudes that you define in your program as
good sporting behavior. Do not fall into the trap of only rewarding winning and other
performance outcomes. Conversely, penalize and discourage inappropriate behaviors.
Consistency in reinforcing and penalizing these behaviors and actions is essential. Follow the
behavior modification guidelines in chapter 7.
Model Appropriate Behaviors
Many people look up to professionals in our field, identifying with them and modeling their
actions. Because actions speak louder than words, exercise and sport professionals must
provide a good model of positive sporting behavior. Easier said than done, you say? Indeed,
professionals may make mistakes (e.g., they may lose control and be charged with a technical
foul for
TABLE 25.2
A Written Code of Good Sporting Behavior for a
Youth Sports Program
Areas of concern
Positive sporting behaviors
Negative sporting behaviors
Behavior toward
officials
Questioning officials in the
appropriate manner (e.g., lodging an
official protest; having only
designated individuals, such as a
captain, address officials)
Arguing with officials
Swearing at officials
Behavior toward
opponents
Treating all opponents with respect and
dignity at all times
Arguing with opponents
Making sarcastic remarks about
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opponents
Making aggressive actions toward
opponents
Behavior toward
teammates
Giving only constructive criticism and
positive encouragement
Making negative comments or
sarcastic remarks
Swearing at or arguing with
teammates
Behavior toward
spectators
Making only positive comments to
spectators
Arguing with spectators
Making negative remarks and
swearing at spectators
Rule acceptance and
infractions
Obeying all league rules
Taking advantage of loopholes in
rules (e.g., every child must
play, so coach tells unskilled
players to be sick on day of
important game)
Adapted by permission from D. Gould, “Sportsmanship: Build Character or Characters,” in A Winning Philosophy for
Youth Sports Programs, edited by Youth Sports Institute (Lansing, MI: Institute for The Study of Youth Sports,
1981).
arguing with the officials). When they lose control, they should admit their error and
apologize to the players or students. Some coaches with strict guidelines for good sporting
behavior for their players believe it is their job to argue with officials and stick up for their
team. Their efforts may be well intended, but coaches should realize that by demonstrating
poor sporting behavior they send mixed messages that undermine their efforts to enhance
positive behaviors.
Explain Why Certain Behaviors Are Appropriate
Only when people have internalized a guiding moral principle for determining right or wrong
can we expect them to consistently behave well in various situations. Thus, you should
include a rationale for the various components of your positive behavior code. Rationales
provide explanations based on the key elements underlying the levels of moral reasoning:
altruism, impartial rules, and moral balances based on mutually determined agreements
(Weiss, 1987). Most important, you should regularly convey rationales to participants. For
example, if several youngsters are excluding a less skilled classmate in a physical education
game, you need to ensure that the less skilled child is included and emphasize the reason
behind the decision (e.g., “It is important to treat others as you want them to treat you
instead of just doing what you want”).
Key Point
Frequently explain your rationales for the rightness or wrongness of actions.
Intention is important in regard to actions. The ability to judge intent starts developing at
about the age of 7 or 8 years (Martens, 1982). With children who are about 10 years old, you
can emphasize role taking (i.e., seeing one’s self in someone else’s role). Then you can add
higher levels of empathy—the ability of two people to take each other’s perspectives into
account when deciding how to act (Newman & Newman, 1991). Many coaches like to have
players officiate practice scrimmages of their teammates. The players can then better
understand the rules of the game and see things from an official’s perspective. With the
addition of a brief post scrimmage discussion, this role taking can be a valuable tool for
helping players learn to empathize.
Key Point
Fitness and sport professionals must be models of good sporting behavior.
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Discuss Moral Dilemmas and Choices
For effective moral education to occur, participants should engage in self-dialogue and group
discussions about choices and moral dilemmas. A moral dilemma requires participants to
decide what is morally correct or incorrect (see “When to Shoot Toward an Opponent’s
Injured Leg”). Rule violations, when and why injured participants should play, and who
should play are excellent topics for discussion (Bredemeier & Shields, 1987). Discuss various
gray areas of right and wrong that may or may not be against the rules. For example, is it okay
to intentionally say something upsetting to an opponent at the start of a contest (Weiss,
1987)?
Build Moral Dilemmas and Choices Into Practices
Some dilemmas you might pose to young athletes during practice include the following
(Weiss, 1987):
Not putting out enough of the “best” equipment for all athletes
Devising a drill with unequal opportunities for practice—for example, one person is
always on defense
Devising a drill in which players might be tempted to hurt with words (laughing,
yelling), such as having someone demonstrate weak skills or having unfair relay teams
Devising a drill that provides possible opportunities for rough play—for example, the
hamburger rebound drill, in which two individuals block out one person
simultaneously and go for the ball
Having players take on the role of the official or coach and then discussing the moral
implications of those experiences (Perry et al., 2013)
After the players try to solve the dilemmas, follow up with discussion about the underlying
moral reasoning. Implementing these strategies for enhancing character development and
good sporting behavior requires time, planning, and effort. For optimal effect they should be
repeated consistently across time, not just once or twice at the start of the season or when a
child is causing a problem.
When to Shoot Toward an Opponent’s Injured Leg
Rodd and Kevin are two evenly matched 150-pound wrestlers involved in a close
match. Rodd injures his left knee, takes an injury time-out for treatment, and
then returns to the mat. He is in obvious pain, his movement is greatly
constrained, and he cannot place weight on his injured leg. Imagine that you
are Kevin and respond to the following questions:
Should you execute moves to the side of the injured leg because it will be
easier to score points?
Once you are in contact with your injured opponent, should you put extra
pressure on his injured leg to cause him pain and allow you to turn him to
his back and pin him?
Should you avoid executing moves toward his injured leg unless the match
is close in score?
Should you avoid executing moves toward his injured leg entirely and try
to beat him at his best?
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Teach Cooperative Learning Strategies
Competition and cooperation are defined and discussed in chapter 6. Although both
competition and cooperation are necessary for the optimal development of achievement
motivation, children in Western society are much more often exposed to competition than to
cooperation. For this reason, physical activity participants should be taught cooperative
learning strategies. Researchers into moral development also have shown that learning how to
cooperate is critical to character development (Miller et al., 1997). This learning might
involve using superordinate goals (e.g., make the most possible passes in 3 minutes) rather
than competitive goals (e.g., score more points than your opponents) in games or focusing on
cooperative games. Finally, we look at contesting-theory research. Contesting theory focuses
on how an individual interprets athletic competitions: as a contest-is-partnership metaphor,
where one’s competitor is viewed as helping bring the best out of oneself, or as a contest-iswar metaphor, where one’s competitor is viewed as an enemy to be defeated. This research
suggests that moral transgressions are much more likely when contests are viewed as war
(Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, 2016).
Create a Task-Oriented Motivational Climate and Employ
Autonomy-Supportive Coaching
A task-oriented motivational climate stresses having participants adopt task, rather than ego,
goals (see chapter 4) so they can judge their ability by their own performance rather than
through socially compared improvements. Athletes who perceive an ego-oriented
motivational environment are characterized by lower moral judgments as well as a higher
sense of the legitimacy of using physical intimidation (Kavussanu & Ntoumanis, 2003;
Miller, Roberts, & Ommundsen, 2005). Ntoumanis and Standage (2009) also found that
athletes who perceived that their coaches supported their autonomy and better met their
autonomy, relatedness, and competence needs were more autonomy motivated. Autonomous
motivation, in turn, was found to positively predict good sporting behavior and negatively
predict antisocial attitudes. Controlling motivation, however, was positively related to
antisocial attitudes and negatively related to good sporting behavior. It is easier to teach good
sporting behavior and develop character, then, when social comparison and competition are
de-emphasized and individual improvement, learning, autonomy, and relatedness are
emphasized (Miller et al., 1997; Ntoumanis and Standage, 2009). However, this does not
mean that character cannot be developed in a competitive climate—only that there are major
benefits to initiating the efforts toward character development in a task-oriented and
autonomy-supportive motivational climate. Once participants have developed good character,
competition might indeed provide good tests of what values they have developed.
Implement Modified or Conditioned Games
In physical activity and sport settings where instructors or coaches have flexibility regarding
sport rules such as afterschool programs or in physical education classes, modifying games or
implementing conditional rules (e.g., three players must touch the ball before a shot can be
taken in basketball) has been found to be effective in helping facilitate moral development
(Harvey et al., 2014). For example, participants might be asked to modify a volleyball game
so that all players are involved in a meaningful way (e.g., more skilled players have a smaller
serving zone than less skilled players). By doing so activities can be more inclusive and
competition more equal.
Transfer Power From Leaders to Participants
Character development is best fostered in environments that progressively transfer power
755
from leaders to participants. Hellison and Templin (1991), for example, developed a physical
education curriculum designed to help students grow in their sense of personal and social
responsibility. This realistic program first focuses on children who are acting irresponsibly,
helping them regain their self-control by removing them from class so that they do not
disrupt others. Self-control is then developed, followed by later steps toward involvement,
self-direction, and caring (see “Hellison’s Levels of Responsibility”). Another way to transfer
power from leaders to participants is to form sport panels made up of athletes who help
adjudicate ethical breaches that may occur on teams (Harvey et al., 2014).
Guiding Practice in Character Development
To guide your practice, you should consider several philosophically oriented issues that cover
a broad range. These include the physical educator’s and coach’s roles in moral development
and making character development a mind-set versus an isolated activity. In addition, you
should look at the role of winning and the ways in which the moral behavior you teach can be
transferred beyond the playing field as well as recognize the imperfect nature of character
development.
Educator’s Role in Character Development
Some people believe that teachers and coaches have no business teaching morals and values to
youths. Character and morals are the domain of parents and the church, they argue, not the
school—especially not the public schools. We certainly agree that it is not sound practice to
mix religious values into the public school curriculum. However, avoiding character education
in basic values such as honesty, empathy, and methods of solving disputes is a grave mistake.
And we contend that physical educators, coaches, and exercise leaders do influence many
values, intentionally or not. As Shields and Bredemeier (1995) stated, “Despite the problems
associated with competitive sport, sport is replete with
Hellison’s Levels of Responsibility
Hellison and Templin (1991) developed a physical education program that focuses
on helping children grow in their sense of responsibility.
Level 0—Irresponsibility. This level characterizes students who are
unmotivated and whose behavior is disruptive. The goal of the physical
educator is to help them get their behavior under control (thereby
advancing them to level 1) or to remove them from the setting so they do
not interfere with others’ rights.
Level 1—Self-control. Students at this level may not participate in the
day’s activities, but they control their behavior enough to not need to be
removed from the setting. The goal of the physical educator is to help
these students become involved in the activities (thereby advancing them
to level 2) or, minimally, to learn to respect the rights and feelings of
others enough that their behaviors and attitudes do not interfere with
teaching and learning.
Level 2—Involvement. Students at level 2 participate in the physical
education activities. Involvement may take many forms, from going through
the motions to setting and pursuing objectives. The goal of the physical
educator is to encourage students to take increasing responsibility for
their own development and definitions of success. For example, students
may come to define success as effort, improvement, goal setting,
achievement of a norm or standard, or being socially responsible as a
player or leader.
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Level 3—Self-direction. This level characterizes students who can work
effectively and independently on self-improvement in areas of personally
identified need or aspiration. The goal of the physical educator is to
enable students to acquire the skills needed to work independently and set
realistic goals. A relevant knowledge base is also critical, and students
should be gradually confronted with broader philosophical issues that
connect with their self-defined objectives: “Who do I want to be? Why do I
want to …?”
Level 4—Caring. Up to this point, the only necessary regard for others is
a respect for their fundamental rights. At level 4, students move beyond
the focus on self and are motivated by a prosocial orientation. The goal
of the physical educator is to provide opportunities to cooperate, give
support, show concern, and help others.
Reprinted by permission from D. Shields and B. Bredemeier, Character
Activity (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1995), 208.
Development
and
Physical
opportunities to encounter, learn, transform, and enact moral values” (p. 3). For example,
coaches recommend whether to argue with officials, physical educators take positions on
teaching competitive or cooperative games, and athletic trainers recommend when to play an
injured athlete. Such decisions often affect the participants’ attitudes, so it is important to
develop a philosophical stance on these issues. It is much better to recognize the moral values
you’re fostering and discouraging than to affect someone else’s values haphazardly. It is also
important that you carefully study the contents of this chapter because findings reveal that
although coaches are strong proponents of sports’ potential to develop character, most have
little training in how to teach values that lead to the development of character (Trudel,
Lemyre, Werthner, & Camire, 2007).
Character Development as Mind-Set Versus an Isolated Activity
As we just argued, it is critical that sport and physical activity leaders make a strong
commitment to moral and character development education. However, just having a
character education goal, or from time to time implementing several character development
strategies, is not enough. Moral development and good sporting behavior must become part
of a leader’s mind-set whereby he or she is constantly looking for opportunities to develop
and enhance these positive qualities in participants. Too often physical educators and coaches
assume that, because they believe in the character-enhancing virtues of sport and physical
activity involvement, desirable characteristics will automatically result from participation or by
simply imparting one or two strategies from time to time. Drawing on the moral education
literature, however, Arnold (2001) indicated that to effectively develop morals and character
in young people, teachers and coaches must teach these values, become an enlightened leader
of moral discussions, be an exemplar of the values embodied in sport, and provide individual
mentoring to participants who have difficulty with moral issues. Clearly, developing morals
and positive sporting behavior takes forethought and consistent efforts on the part of physical
educators and coaches. It must be a mind-set that runs constantly versus an isolated activity
that occurs from time to time.
Activity 25.2 helps you learn how
development and good sporting behavior.
to
Reducing Youth Risk by Fostering Resiliency
757
enhance
character
Despite the strategies that physical educators and coaches can use to teach character and good
sporting behavior to children and youths, we must recognize that many children live in
environments that place them at risk for negative behavioral development (e.g., drug
addiction, teenage pregnancy, and gang activity). Moreover, it is unlikely that physical activity
specialists can eliminate such major risk factors as poverty, an absence of parental involvement
in someone’s life, abuse, and undesirable role models. Nevertheless, Martinek and Hellison
(1997), two physical educators who have spent countless hours working with underserved
youths, contend that psychological resiliency is one of the most important life skills that we
can foster in these children. Resiliency is the ability to bounce back successfully after exposure
to severe risk or distress; in essence, it is righting oneself in conditions in which one is
thwarted (Martinek & Hellison, 1997). Moreover, educators and social scientists have
studied resilient youths and found that they possess three primary attributes: social
competence, autonomy, and optimism and hope.
Social Competence
Social competence is the ability to interact socially with others and in so doing create strong
networks of social support. Flexibility and empathy are seen as critical to the development of
this important attribute. Especially important is learning how to negotiate, confront, and
handle challenges from others (e.g., learning nonviolent peer conflict resolution skills; see
chapter 24).
Autonomy
Resilient youths also have a clear sense of who they are, believe they can exert control over
their environments, and believe they can act independently. In essence, they feel a sense of
autonomy—that they can function as individuals on their own.
Optimism and Hope
In chapter 4 we discuss learned helplessness, a condition in which an individual feels that
little change will take place despite putting forth effort. Resilient youths are at the other end
of the spectrum: They haven’t learned helplessness. Rather, they have a sense of optimism
and hope and believe that their efforts will be rewarded. Martinek and Hellison (1997)
contended that one of the best ways to enhance resiliency in underserved youths is through
the development of physical activity programs. Moreover, these authors outlined specific
strategies for doing so (see “Strategies for Developing Resiliency in Youths”).
Double-Sided Role of Winning
Winning plays a dual role in character development (Martens, 1982). On one hand, an
emphasis on winning pressures some individuals to cheat, break rules, and behave in ways
they would consider inappropriate off the field. On the other hand, when a player resists
temptations to cheat or commit other immoral acts despite the high value placed on winning,
integrity develops and moral lessons become more meaningful. Winning itself is neutral to
moral development. The key is finding the right emphasis to place on winning.
Transferring Values to Nonsport Environments
It is a myth that the lessons and values learned in the gym or pool or on the athletic field
transfer automatically to other environments. For such a transfer to occur, the lesson must be
drawn out or extended (Danish & Nellen, 1997; Danish, Nellen, & Owens, 1996; Danish,
Petitpas, & Hale, 1992). If you want to teach values through sport and physical activity, you
758
must discuss how the values transfer to the nonsport environment. For instance, a coach who
wants to teach young athletes an attitude of cooperation to carry over to nonsport situations
can discuss how and when teamwork is useful in other contexts (e.g., working on a school
project). This is one advantage of a structural–developmental approach. Social learning
principles, which enhance specific good sporting attitudes and behaviors, tend to be highly
situation specific; that is,
Strategies for Developing Resiliency in Youths
Focus on athletes’
confidence.
strengths
rather
than
weaknesses.
Build
their
self-
Don’t focus only on the sport or physical activity. Focus on the whole child
and her emotional, social, economic, and educational needs.
Be sensitive to the youngster’s individuality and his cultural differences.
Get to know him as a person.
Encourage independence and control over one’s life by providing the athlete
with input about the program and leadership responsibilities.
Incorporate a strong set of values and clear expectations into the program.
Make sure the athlete knows what you expect and value.
Help youths see possible future occupations for themselves.
Provide a physically and psychologically safe environment.
Keep program numbers small and emphasize long-term involvement.
Provide leadership that makes the program work despite obstacles.
Make sure the program links with the community and neighborhood.
Provide quality contact with adult models who care and offer support.
Adapted from Martinek and Hellison (1997).
teaching a child to be honest in gym class will not transfer to math class. However, if you can
help raise someone’s underlying moral reasoning, the person’s behavior tends to be affected
across a variety of situations.
Key Point
If your goal is to teach values through sport and physical activities, learn to
discuss how these values transfer to nonsport environments.
Having Realistic Expectations
Unfortunately, enhancing good sporting behavior and developing character through sport and
physical activity are imperfect processes (Martens, 1982). We cannot reach all individuals at
all times. More likely, we’ll have some tremendous successes along with disappointing
failures. Recognizing the imperfect nature of character development and having realistic
expectations enable us to remain optimistic despite having some setbacks.
LEARNING AIDS
SUMMARY
1. Define character development and good sporting behavior.
Character development and good sporting behavior concern morality in sport and
physical activity; that is, they have to do with our views and actions about what
759
is right or ethical and what is wrong or unethical in sport and physical activity
settings. Character comprises four interrelated virtues: compassion, fairness, good
sporting behavior, and integrity. These virtues are also closely related to moral
development, moral reasoning, and moral behavior.
2. Explain how character and good sporting behavior develop.
There are three views about how character and good sporting behavior develop in
athletes. The social learning approach emphasizes modeling, reinforcement, and
social comparison. The structural–developmental approach contends that moral
reasoning is related to a person’s level of cognitive development. The analysis of
five levels in moral reasoning reflects a progression from judging an action’s
rightness or wrongness according to self-centered interests to having concern for
the mutual interests of all involved. Third, the social–psychological approach
combines the first two approaches and suggests that a complex person-by-situation
interplay determines character development and good sporting behavior.
3. Identify the important link between moral reasoning and moral behavior.
One’s moral reasoning and moral behavior are linked by a moral action process that
includes four stages: interpreting the situation as one that involves some sort of
moral judgment, deciding on the best course of action, making a choice to act
morally, and implementing a moral response. Although a consistent relationship
exists between moral reasoning and moral behavior, the relationship is not perfect.
4. Explain what bullying and hazing involve and how they can be prevented in sport and
physical activity contexts.
Hazing is any activity expected of someone joining a group that humiliates,
degrades, abuses, or endangers them, regardless of a person’s willingness to
participate and can be physical (e.g., being paddled), psychological (e.g., being
made to perform embarrassing acts), or alcohol related (e.g., being forced to binge
drink). Bullying is unwanted, repeated, and intentional aggressive behavior usually
among peers and can involve a real or perceived power imbalance. Bullying can
include actions such as making threats, spreading rumors or falsehoods, attacking
someone physically or verbally, and deliberately excluding someone. Both hazing and
bulling are both prevalent in sport and physical activity contexts. Therefore,
coaches, athletes, and administrators all have a moral obligation to stop hazing
practices and teach athletes how to team build in positive ways. Sport
organizations must also take a strong stance on hazing and bullying by developing
clear rules and procedures for both preventing and dealing with maltreatment
complaints.
5. Discuss how character and good sporting behavior can be influenced.
Research shows that physical education and youth sports participation can deter
negative behaviors such as delinquency and gang violence and can enhance positive
character development. For this positive development to occur, it is necessary to
use well-thought-out, well-designed, and well-implemented strategies for character
development. Ten strategies for developing character and positive sporting behavior
can be delineated based on the social learning, structural–developmental, and
social–psychological approaches. These strategies are as follows: defining in
precise terms what you consider good sporting behavior; reinforcing and encouraging
good sporting behaviors and penalizing and discouraging bad sporting behaviors;
modeling appropriate behaviors; conveying rationales, emphasizing why actions are
appropriate or inappropriate considering the intent of actions, role taking,
compassion, and empathy; discussing moral dilemmas; building moral dilemmas and
choices into practice and class contexts; teaching cooperative learning strategies;
engineering
task-oriented
motivational
climates;
implementing
modified
or
conditioned games; and transferring power from leaders to participants.
6. Describe the effects of winning on character development and good sporting
behavior.
Some philosophically oriented issues to consider in facilitating character
development are the educator’s role in character development, the double-sided role
of winning, transferring values to nonsport environments, and maintaining realistic
expectations of the character development process. Physical activity specialists
also play an important role in fostering resiliency in underserved youths.
KEY TERMS
fair play
good sporting behavior
character
compassion
integrity
moral reasoning
moral development
moral behavior
760
moral identity
hazing
bullying
differential association
social bonding
labeling hypothesis
economic strain
role taking
moral dilemma
moral disengagement
resiliency
social competence
autonomy
optimism and hope
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define character and its components.
2. Describe the social learning, structural–developmental, and social–psychological
approaches to moral reasoning and development.
3. What are Haan’s five stages of moral reasoning? Why are these important?
4. What is the relationship between athletic participation and delinquency or gang
behaviors?
5. Describe the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior. What
implication does this have for guiding practice?
6. Explain each of the following strategies for enhancing character development and
good sporting behavior:
Defining good sporting behavior in your particular context
Reinforcing and encouraging positive sporting
discouraging negative sporting behaviors
behaviors;
penalizing
and
Modeling appropriate behaviors
Explaining your thinking about appropriate behaviors
Discussing moral dilemmas
Building moral dilemmas and choices into practices and classes
Teaching cooperative learning strategies
Engineering a task-oriented motivational climate
Implementing modified or conditioned games
Transferring power from leaders to participants
7. How can winning both enhance and deter the development of good sporting behavior
and moral reasoning?
8. Why is it important to teach how to transfer character lessons learned in sport to
nonsport settings?
9. Why is it important to think of developing character as a mind-set versus the use
of specific isolated activities?
10. Discuss the notion of hazing, including why it occurs and how it may be reduced.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
1. A family friend is president of the local school board. In a conversation you have
with her at your parent’s home, you tell her that you’ve taken a sport and exercise
psychology course. As she learns more about what you are studying and your career
goals, she reveals that the school board is dealing with an increasing number of
complaints of inappropriate behavior, cheating, bullying, and poor sporting
behavior in the athletic program. She asks you what the role should be of the sport
coaches and physical educators in enhancing character development and teaching good
sporting behavior. Can they do anything to lessen the kinds of problems the school
athletic program is experiencing? What would you tell her?
2. Design a moral dilemma for the following situations:
Physical education class
Youth sports team practice
Varsity high school contest
761
762
Continuing Your Journey
763
How can you put your knowledge into practice?
This section signals the end of your journey to developing an understanding of sport and
exercise psychology. You started your journey with an introduction to the field and an outline
of what it involves and ways to acquire knowledge and then use that knowledge to help
individuals achieve their personal development and performance-enhancement goals in
practical settings. The second stop on your journey focused on learning about participants—
what makes them tick, their personalities, and motivational orientations. The third stop
turned our attention to understanding sport and exercise environments and addressed
important topics such as competition and cooperation, feedback, and reinforcement of
diversity and inclusion. The fourth stop on our journey helped us learn about group processes
and discussed important issues such as how groups function, ways to build group cohesion,
effective leadership strategies, and the best ways to communicate. Improving performance
was the focus of the fifth stop. In this section you learned how to design psychological skills
training programs, the keys to regulating arousal, how to use imagery to improve performance
and help recover from injury, ways to become confident, the most effective ways to set and
monitor goals, and how to improve concentration. With many countries facing a crisis of
obesity and lack of physical activity, the sixth stop discussed ways to enhance health and wellbeing, the role physical activity plays in improving cognitive functioning, and strategies for
helping people adhere to their exercise programs. At this stop you also learned about the
psychology of athletic injuries, how to prevent and effectively deal with addictive and
unhealthy behaviors that can occur in sport and exercise contexts, and burnout and
overtraining. Finally, at the seventh and final stop we discussed ways to facilitate
psychological growth and development through physical education and participation in sport
and exercise. Critical psychological issues in sport and exercise for children were emphasized.
We also discussed aggression in sport and whether sport and physical activity involvement
can be used to develop character and good sporting behavior in participants.
This journey has provided you with a good grasp of strategies to foster performance
improvement, psychological change, and development. This knowledge will help you choose
the most appropriate ways to achieve the objectives of your psychological skills program.
However, unless you put this knowledge into practice, it will be of little use. In other words,
even though your journey through the field of sport and exercise psychology is now finished
in this text, your journey in the field is just beginning. You will continue to learn a great deal
more from your efforts to employ that knowledge or may study the field even further—some
of you may even desire to become sport psychologists.
As a professional in sport and exercise science, you will be responsible for implementing
what you have learned. You now know that a knowledge of sport and exercise psychology can
have tremendous payoffs when applied in professional practice settings. So adopt the active
approach to professional practice that we discussed in the beginning of this text, implement
the ideas conveyed here, and consistently evaluate your strategies in light of your professional
764
experience. Be aware of current research. Use the gym, pool, and athletic field as your
laboratory to continue your growth and professional development. Don’t make the mistake of
simply taking your final exam, finishing the course, and then never again thinking about the
material. Refer to the text when you are faced with practical problems. Use what you have
learned and try to improve on it. Take it from us: Seeing someone achieve his or her goals
through developing psychological skills is one of the most rewarding professional experiences
you can have.
Dr. Dan Gould recaps your journey through Foundations of Sport
and Exercise Psychology in this Introduction Activity.
In the first Journey activity you completed in the web study
guide, you were asked to record your expectations as you began
your semester studies. This final summary activity gives you a
chance to revisit those questions so that you can see how your
answers may have changed and how much you’ve grown on your
journey.
765
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841
842
INDEX
Note: The italicized f and t following page numbers refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A
AASP (Association for Applied Sport Psychology) 6, 11, 22
ABCs of sport psychology 339, 342
academic achievement 113, 428
accomplishment, as intrinsic motivation 133
acculturation 155, 165-167
achievement goal theory 66-69, 67f
achievement motivation
defined 62
developmental stages of 69-72, 70f
effects of 63
theories of 63-69, 63f, 65f, 66t, 67f, 70t
tips for guiding 71
using in professional practice 72-74
acquisition phase of PST 270
ACSI (Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28) 47
ACT (accepting, centering, thinking) 354
action stage 446
active listening 242-244
actual leader behavior 221
actual productivity model 186-187
acute effects 417
addictions. See also substance use and abuse
compulsive gambling 512-516
drugs 496
euphoric feelings 149
exercise 510-512
ADHD (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) 162
affiliation motive 549
African Americans 152, 163-165, 445
age effects and differences
coach burnout 535
coping strategies 302, 303
exercise participation 438-439, 445, 452
leadership preferences 224-225
aggression
vs. assertive behaviors 569
causes of 571-573, 574f
competition and 109
controlling 578-581
defined 568-569
hockey intervention 580
incidents of 567
ISSP position statement 581-582
moral reasoning and 593
play guidelines 581
sport-specific issues 574-578
test on 570
types of 569-570
Ahsen, A. 321-322
AIDS 424
843
alcohol use and abuse
aggression and 578
prevalence of 497-498
side effects of 500f, 504
American Psychological Association (APA) Division 47 6, 11
Amorose, T. 139
amotivation 133
Andersen, Mark 469-470
Anderson, C.A. 573
anecdotal reports (term) 313
anorexia nervosa 487
antisocial behavior 570
Antonelli, Ferruccio 12
anxiety
applying knowledge of 96-98
arousal relationship 81, 81f
defined 78
effects on performance 89-96
exercise effects on 417-419, 418f
as injury response 475
interpretation of 287-288
leadership preferences and 226
measuring 38, 80-82
reduction techniques 287-298
role in injuries 472
signs of 97-98
sources of 84-86
state vs. trait 78-79
in young athletes 551-552, 551f, 553
APA (American Psychological Association) Division 47 6, 11
Applied Psychology Program to Practice Sessions (APPPS) 271
approach goals 68, 72
Armstrong, Lance 486
Arnold, Rachel 222
arousal
anxiety relationship 81, 81f
applying knowledge of 96, 98
attentional alertness and 387
defined 78, 78f
effects on performance 86-96
in flow state 145
imagery for 313
inducing 304-306
measuring 80-82
self-awareness of 286-287
ASD (autism spectrum disorders) 162
assertive behavior 569
Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) 6, 11, 22
associative strategy 147, 384, 461
ATHENA (Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives) 509
Athlete Burnout Questionnaire 532
athletes
coach relationships 250, 255
mental skills assessment 275-278, 277t
migrant acculturation 165-167
personality traits 42-45, 44f
retirement of 429
stressors in 84, 470-472
use of PST 266-268
Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA) 509
Athletes Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) 509
athletic administrators 222, 535-536
Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI) 47
athletic scholarships 138-139
844
athletic trainers, burnout in 533-534
Atkinson, J.W. 63-65
ATLAS (Athletes Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids) 509
attendance charts 129, 459
attention. See also attentional focus
arousal, anxiety and 95-96, 95f
defined 382
in modeling 348
selective 382-383, 386
term usage 382
attentional alertness 387
attentional capacity 386-387
attentional disruption 472
attentional focus
assessing 403-405, 403t
as energizer 304
external distracters 396-397
in flow state 145
improving 405-409, 409f
internal distracters 390-396
maintaining 383-384
performance and 385-388
shifting 385
for stress management 303
theories of 385-387
types of 388, 389, 389f, 403-404, 404f
attentional processing 385
attention–arousal set theory 323
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 162
attention threshold hypothesis 394
attitude
confidence and 354
in flow state 145
in injury predisposition 472-473
attractiveness of the group 192
attributional feedback 72-73
attribution retraining 73-74
attribution theory 65-66, 65f, 66t
audience effects 16-17, 86-87
audio recordings, as imagery aid 329
auditory distracters 396-397
auditory sense 311, 317
authoritative parenting style 560
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) 162
autocratic-consultative style 229
autocratic style 224, 228-229
autogenic training 291
automatic processing 387
autonomous competence stage 69, 70f
autonomy 604
autonomy-supportive coaching 140-141, 536, 556, 602
avoidance goals 68, 72
aware listening 244-245
B
Bandura, Albert 345-351, 571, 587-588, 589
Bannister, Roger 336-337
baseball
as cooperative game 119
gambling in 486, 512
MLB drug testing 496
steroid use in 485, 495, 499
BASES (British Association for Sport and Exercise Sciences) 506-507
basketball 129, 496
845
behavioral coaching 128
behavioral responses 524
behavioral tendency 64
behavior modification
cognitive behavior therapy and 131-132
for exercise adherence 458-459
in sport 128-131
of undesirable motives 61
behaviors
of exercise adherence 451t, 453
goal types and 362-363
leadership 214-216
moral reasoning and 593, 594t
reinforcement of 124-125
self-efficacy relationship 350
in stress process 83-84, 83f
Benson, Herbert 290
Bias, Len 486
bias awareness 153, 155, 168, 245
Big 5 model of personality 32-33, 45
bigorexia 490
biofeedback 289-290
bioinformational theory 321
biopsychosocial approach. See integrative approaches
body image
drug use and 498, 500
eating disorders and 490-491
exercise effects on 423-426, 427
social physique anxiety 85-86, 98
body mechanics, overanalyzing 392-394
body position language 239
bracketed morality (game reasoning) 575, 592
brain activity 405, 577
breath control 288-289, 304
Bredemeier, B.J.L. 104, 586, 593
British Association for Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) 506-507
broad attentional focus 388
bulimia 487
bullying 575, 595-596
Burke, S. 205
burnout
characteristics of 522
defined 522
factors in 526-529
individual differences in 529, 530f
measuring 532
models of 523-526, 524f, 527f
prevalence of 523
preventing 536-539
signs of 529-531
in sport professionals 532-536
in young athletes 553-554
Bushman, B.J 573
business
cooperation in 118
mental skills training in 272
bystander effect 188-189
C
Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology 6
cancer 424-425
capability, opportunity, motivation, behavior (COM-B) model 506-507
cardiovascular disease 425, 437
career mobility 113
846
careers, in sport psychology 4-5, 21, 23
caring climate 245
Carpenter, W.B. 320
Carron, A. 193-194, 193f, 205
case studies (term) 18, 313
Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology 6
catastrophe model 90-91, 90f, 93
catharsis 571
causal relationships 17
CBAS (Coaching Behavior Assessment System) 218, 219
CET (cognitive evaluation theory) 135-138, 136f
CG (cognitive-general) imagery 315
Chaikin, Tommy 497
challenges, vs. threats 92
change hypothesis 50
character, defined 588-589
character development
coaching efficacy in 355
educator’s role in 602-604
enhancing 599-602
sport participation and 596-599
theories of 589-592
Character Development and Physical Activity (Shields, Bredemeier) 586
Charney, Dennis 301
cheating 112, 499, 589
Checklist of Performance States 286
checklists and charts use
in behavior modification 129, 130
for exercise adherence 459
Chelladurai, P. 220-223, 224, 226, 229
children, and exercise 426-428, 453. See also youth sports and athletes
choking 299, 390-392, 391f, 395, 395f
chronic diseases, and exercise 424-425
chronic effects 417-418
chronic traumatic encephalopathy 473
clinical psychology 22
clinical sport psychologists 5-7, 267
cliques 205
clutch states 147
coaches
aggressive or abusive 575
athlete relationships 250, 255
autonomy-supportive 140-141, 536, 556, 602
burnout in 534-535
character development and 602-605
coping strategies 304, 535
effects on motivation 137, 139, 140-141
effects on self-talk 400
expectations of 343-345, 346
goal setting by 366
individualization by 20, 98
influences on 225
leadership in 215-216, 218-224
migrant acculturation 165-167
role in drug abuse 497
role in injuries 472-473
self-efficacy in 355, 357
stressors in 84
use of PST 267-268
view of PST 264
weight restriction pressure 490
of young athletes 218-220, 554-558
Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS) 218, 219
coactive sports 197
847
Coakley, J. 525
cocaine 504
cognitive-affective stress management training (SMT) 293-294
cognitive-affective stress model 523-524, 524f
cognitive anxiety
defined 78
effects on performance 90-91
measuring 80
reducing 290-292
cognitive appraisal 524
cognitive–behavioral orientation 21, 460-461
cognitive behavior therapy 131-132
cognitive evaluation theory (CET) 135-138, 136f
cognitive function, and exercise 427-428
cognitive-general (CG) imagery 315
cognitive-mediational model of leadership 218-220, 218f
cognitive neoassociation theory 572-573
cognitive-specific (CS) imagery 315
cognitive state anxiety 78, 81, 83, 90
cognitive strategies 46-48
cohesion
barriers to 207
building 204-207
Carron’s model 193-194, 193f
collective efficacy and 358
defined 192-193
enhancing 201-204, 202t, 203t
factors in 198-201
imagery for 314
as leadership consequence 226
measuring 195-196
performance and 196-198
collective efficacy 194, 356, 358
Collins, Jason 158
COM-B (capability, opportunity, motivation, behavior) model 506-507
commitment, and entrapment theory 525-526, 535
commitment stage 270
communication
asking questions 240-241, 240f
barriers to 247
breakdowns in 234, 246-247
for burnout prevention 536
cohesion and 204, 207
conflict and confrontation 250-254
constructive criticism 254-255, 256f
cross-cultural 169
electronic 242, 243
empathy and caring in 245
importance of 233-234
improving 237, 248-250
listening 242-244
nonverbal 238-242
process of 234-235, 235f
six Cs of 242
team-building activity 202
types of 235-236
verbal 236-238, 241-242
community programs 456, 457
compassion 588
COMPASS method 250
competence 74, 547
competence motivation theory 69
competition
cooperation and 111, 117-118
848
defined 104
effects of 110-112, 139, 421, 422
in game structure 115
gender differences in 115
as good or bad 112-114
imagery in 313
life skills and 110-111, 113
process of 105-108, 106f
research studies 104-105, 108-112
competition plans 407-408
competitiveness 62-63, 74, 107. See also achievement motivation
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) 80
compulsive gambling 512-516
concentration. See also attention; attentional focus
arousal, anxiety and 95-96
defined 382
imagery for 311
improving 405-409, 409f
self-confidence and 339
term usage 382
concussion 473, 474
confidence. See self-confidence
confidence profiling 351
conflict, conflict management
for aggression control 579-580
communication and 250-254
in peer relationships 191, 550-551
in teams 176, 207
conformity, and cohesion 198-199
confrontation 252-254
conscious processing hypothesis 394
consequences
in competition process 107-108
of training 295-296
consideration, in leaders 214
consultants 5, 21, 23
consultative-group style 229
consultative-individual style 229
contemplation stage 446
contesting theory 601-602
contextual intelligence 20
contingency management 128
contingency model of leadership 217
contracts, for exercise adherence 459
control groups 17
controllability, in imagery 324
controlled processing 386-387
controlling behaviors, in coaches 137, 141
control of variables 16
cooperation
blending with competition 111, 117-118
in business and military 118
in character development 601-602
defined 104
effects on performance 110-112
in game structure 115
research studies 108-112
cooperative games 114-119
coordination, and anxiety 94-95
coordination losses 186, 188
coping
categories of 299-301
in coaches 304, 535
defined 298
849
in injury recovery 480-481, 482
injury risk and 470
personality and 47-48
research studies 301-303
resilience 300-301, 604, 605
tips for 303-304
coping efficacy 346
Corban, R. 161
coronary heart disease 425, 437
Cotterill, S. 407
Coubertin, Pierre de 8
counseling 22
Counsilman, Coach “Doc” 20
Cratty, Bryant 10
critical analysis 16
criticism
constructive 254-255, 256f
eating disorders and 492
CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2) 80
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly 143, 144
CS (cognitive-specific) imagery 315
cue words 405-406
cultural awareness 155, 168
cultural competence 155, 168-170
cultural knowledge 155
cultural skills 155
culture, cultural influences
aggression 578
defined 154
diversity trends 24, 151-152
eating disorders 493
exercise adherence 452
exercise participation 152, 439
leadership preferences 225
motivation 58-59
punishment views 128
self-talk 399-400
Cummins, R. 8
cyclical (life cycle) theory 176, 177
D
D’Agostino, Abbey 109
debilitative anxiety 92-93, 92f
Deci, E.L. 57, 135-138
decisional balance 447
decision making
balance sheet for 461, 462f
in exercise adherence 461
imagery for 318
motivation and 142-143
styles of 229
decision-making efficacy 346
decode 234
decompetition 104
Deeter, T.E. 107
Definite Dozen principles 111
demands, in stress process 83, 83f
demands of training 295
dementia 428
democratic style 224, 228
demographics, and exercise adherence 450t, 451-452
depression 419-420, 437-438
DESC formula 204
deterrence theory 505-508
850
Deutsch, Morton 104-105, 108-109
deviant behavior 113, 597-599
diabetes 425
Dickey, R.A. 513
differential association 597
direction of causality 198
direction of effort 54
direct mechanistic view 366-367
disabilities
cooperative games and 119
elite athletes with 160-161
sport participation and 158-160, 161f
types of 158
using PST with 267
veterans with 160
working with disabled 161-162
disordered eating 487-488. See also eating disorders
dissociative strategy 147, 384, 461
distinctiveness 184, 201, 202, 205
distractions
external 396-397
internal 388-396
diversity and inclusion
acculturation 165-167
benefits of 167-168
definitions 152-154
disabilities 158-162
gender and sexuality 155-158
race and ethnicity 163-165, 166
strategies for 168-170
weight bias 162
diversity training 167-168
Donaghy, Tim 515
Donahue, E. 134
drive theory 86-87
dropouts, from youth sports 544-547
drug education programs 508
drug sport deterrence model (DSDM) 505-508
drug testing 496, 505-506
drug use and abuse. See substance use and abuse
DSDM (drug sport deterrence model) 505-508
Duckworth, A. 45
Dweck, C.S. 68
dysfunctional eating 492. See also eating disorders
E
early sport specialization 561, 562, 564
eating disorders
predisposing factors 489-493
prevalence in sport 488-489
preventing 494-495
in professional athletes 486
signs of 487, 492, 493
types of 486-487
working with 492
Ebbeck, V. 596, 597
e-cigarettes 503, 504
ecological model 447-448
economic strain 597
educational sport psychology specialists 5-7, 267
education phase of PST 269-270
EEG, as attention measure 405
effective attenders 403, 404f
effort
851
cohesion and 207
rewards for 125, 557
self-confidence and 339
ego-depletion 387
ego orientation 66-69
electronic communication 242, 243
ELITE (Enhancement of Leadership Interpersonal Teamwork and Excellence) 248
Elliot, A.J. 68
Elliot, D. 509
Embracing Victory (Nelson) 114
emergent leaders 212
emotional reactions
to injuries 475
in need achievement theory 64
postcompetition 539
emotional support 183
emotional well-being. See well-being
emotion-focused coping 299-301
emotions
aggression and 579
arousal-related 96
defined 79
as drug use motive 500
effects on performance 79, 89
in imagery 311, 312
rewarding appropriate 125
self-confidence and 339
as self-efficacy source 350
empathy 245, 249, 480, 579
empirical evidence 16
Empowering Coaching 555
encode 234
enculturation 155
energizing strategies 304-306
energy management, for leaders 230
Enhancement of Leadership Interpersonal Teamwork and Excellence (ELITE) 248
enjoyment of exercise
exercise adherence and 438, 454, 456, 463
exercise intensity and 422
underestimation of 439-440
entity view 68
entrapment theory 525-526, 535
environment
in achievement goal theory 67, 68-69, 71-72
in building motivation 59-60
for character development 602
in cohesion model 193-194, 193f
as disability barrier 160
effects on anxiety 84
exercise adherence and 451t, 453-456
in flow state 145
in imagery 315-316
for imagery practice 327
practice simulations of 405
environmental demands, in stress process 83, 83f
environmental factors. See environment
environmental management 271
environmental stressors 295
ephedra 500
ethical standards 22, 23
European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC) 6
event importance, and stress 84-85, 552
evidence-based practice 16
execution stage 270-271
852
exercise addiction 510-512
exercise adherence
behavior modification approaches 458-459
cognitive-behavioral approaches 460-461
cohesion and 199
decision-making approaches 461
determinants of 449-456, 450t-451t
improvement guidelines 463-464
intrinsic approaches 462-463
problem of 441-443, 443f
reinforcement approaches 459-460
social support approaches 461-462
exercise and physical activity
for ADHD and ASD 162
amount needed 454-455
barriers to 438-441
behavior theories and models 443-449, 446f, 449t
character development and 596-602
chronic diseases and 424-425
cognitive function and 427-428
cultural influence on 152
as eating disorder treatment 493
energy expenditure continuum 440f
gender differences in 155-156
imagery in 322
individualized interventions 448-449, 449t
mental health and 416-422, 418f
mirrors effects on 430
motives for 57-59, 61, 436-438
participation rates 152, 435-436
personality changes and 45-46, 423-427
promotion of 457
quality of life and 428-430
relapse prevention 443, 447
runner’s high 431
settings of 456
as therapy 431-432
well-being and 422-423, 422f
exercise groups
cohesion in 199, 201, 202t
exercise adherence and 455-456
exergames 464
exit interviews 547-548
expectations
effects on performance 342-345
of imagery 327
of young athletes 557
experimental groups 17
experiments, vs. studies 17
expertise development 281
external attentional focus 383, 388
external distracters 396-397
external imagery 318
external validity 17
extrinsic goals 460
extrinsic motivation 132-133, 132f, 462-463, 501
extrinsic rewards
controlling aspects 136-137, 136f, 138
defined 123-124
effective use of 140
informational aspects 136f, 137, 138
intrinsic motivation and 132-135, 138-141
eye contact 239-240
eye tracking 274
853
F
facial expressions 239-240
facilitative anxiety 92-93, 92f
fading 459
failure 63, 65-66
fairness, in teams 184
fair play, defined 586
Fair Play for Kids 596, 597
false consensus effect 502
Farrey, Tom 561
fatigue
anxiety effects on 94-95
effect on attention 396
as exercise barrier 440
Federer, Roger 335, 382
feedback
attributional guidelines 72-73
in behavior modification 131
in communication 242
effects on motivation 139-141
exercise adherence and 460
on goals 373, 374t
as LSS dimension 224
on performance 125-127
praise 142, 557
Feltz, D. 187
FEPSAC (European Federation of Sport Psychology) 6
First Nations 170
fitness instructors 535-536
FIT training 189
Fletcher, David 222
Flow in Sport (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi) 143
flow state
achievement of 145-146
vs. clutch states 147
controllability of 146-147
correlates of 146
elements of 143-144
negative side of 149
prevention or disruption of 147-149
skills and challenge in 144-145, 144f
focal dystonia 299
focus. See attentional focus
football 472, 473, 474, 496
forfeit stressors 295
formal roles 178
forming stage, in teams 177
foundation skills 279
frustration–aggression theory 571
fun 303, 545
future, focusing on 390
G
gambling addiction. See compulsive gambling
game modifications 118-119, 557
Game On (Farrey) 561
game plans and strategies
coaching efficacy in 355
communicating 249-250
concentration and 407-408
imagery for 312-313
self-confidence and 339
for stress management 303-304
game reasoning (bracketed morality) 575, 592
854
games, cooperative 114-119
gang behavior 598-599
gender differences
aggression 578
coach burnout 534
coaching efficacy 355
cohesion and performance 201
competition 115
confidence sources 353
coping strategies 302
eating disorders 488
exercise adherence 452
exercise barriers 438
goal setting 365
leadership preferences 225
moral reasoning 592
motivation 58
obesity 152
sport participation 155-156
team norms 182
gender prejudice 156-158
general aggression model 573, 574f
generalization stage 271
genetics, in eating disorders 492
GEQ (Group Environment Questionnaire) 195-196, 196f
Geron, Ema 12
Gerstein, A. 252-254
gestures 238-239
Gibbons, S.L. 596, 597
Gill, D.L. 107
Glasser, William 510
globalization 24, 151
goal achievement strategies 371, 375
goal difficulty 365
goal-directed self-talk 397-398
goal mapping 356
goal orientation 107
goal perspective 68, 378
goals, goal setting
adjusting 377, 378, 378f
athletes’ process of 365
burnout prevention and 536
by coaches 366
commitment to 372-373
effectiveness of 364-367
evaluation of 373, 374t, 376, 378
for exercise adherence 460-461
feedback and 126
group goals 373-374
imagery for 314-315
for injury recovery 480
motivation and 143
objective vs. subjective 362
Power 4W system 372
principles of 367-373, 368f, 369f
prioritizing 363
problems in 377-378
recording 371
sample goals 376t
self-confidence and 339
SMARTS 375
specificity in 377
support of 373, 376
system of 374-377
855
team cohesion and 200, 205
team guidelines for 200-201
types of 362-363
Goldberg, L. 509
good sporting behavior. See also character development
defined 586-588, 599, 600t
development of 589-592, 599-600
incidents of 585
measuring 592
Gould, D. 372
gravitation hypothesis 50
Greene, D. 135
grief response 475
Griffith, Coleman 8-9
Grit (Duckworth) 45
grit (personality trait) 45-46
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) 195-196, 196f
group identity. See distinctiveness
groups, defined 176. See also cohesion; exercise groups; teams
group style (decision making) 229
GROW model 240-241, 240f
Gustafsson, H. 526
H
Hamblin, Nikki 109
Hanin, Yuri 89-90
Hanrahan, S.J. 169
hardiness 427
harmonious passion 134
Harris, Dorothy 11
Harrison, Kayla 513
Harter, S. 69
hate incidents 169
Havlicek, John 383-384
hazing 593-596
health belief model 443-444
heart rate, as attention measure 405
Heider, F. 65-66
Hellison, D. 603
Henry, Franklin 9, 10
Hispanics 165
HIV/AIDS 424
hockey 496, 572, 580
Holtz, Lou 305
home-court advantage 88
homonegativism 157
hope 372, 604
Horn, T. 139
hostile aggression 569
hot hand phenomenon 341
hypnosis 296-297
I
iceberg profile 43-45, 44f, 530, 531f
identifiability, and social loafing 190-191
identified regulation 133
identity loss, from injury 475
ideomotor principle 320
imagery
athletic use of 314-318, 315f, 395
characteristics of 311
defined 310
effectiveness of 313-314, 318-319, 323-324
energizing 306
856
in exercise 322
explanatory theories 319-322
internal vs. external 317-318
negative 316-317
script development 328
for self-confidence 349, 354-355
training programs 325-330, 331
types of 317
uses of 311-313, 478, 481
when to use 330-332
imaginal experiences 349
implicit bias 155
incentive value of success 64
inclusion, defined 153-154. See also diversity and inclusion
incremental focus 68
indirect thought-process view 366
individual differences
burnout 529, 530f
goal setting 378
reinforcement effects 122
stressors 296
individualism, in game structure 115
individualization
in coaching 20, 98
by stage of change 448-449
individualized zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) 89-90, 89f
individual sacrifice 202
ineffective attenders 404, 404f
informal roles 178-179
information-processing approach 386
Ingham, A.G. 188
initiating structure 214
injuries
aggressive play and 576
causes of 468-471
defined 467-468
effects on team cohesion 199
exercise adherence and 455
imagery for coping with 313, 314, 332, 478
poor adjustment to 476-477
predisposing attitudes 472-473
prevalence of 467
reactions to 475-477
recovery from 477-483, 479f, 499-500
return to play 478, 483
stress relationship 469-472, 469f, 476
instinct theory 571
instructional behavior 224
instructional feedback 126
instructional self-talk 397, 399
instrumental aggression 569
integrated regulation 133
integrated stage 70, 70f
integrative approaches
burnout 526, 527f
injuries 468
performance-enhancing drug use 502
personality 35-36
integrative conflict management 176
integrity 588
intellectual disabilities 119, 158, 159, 267
intensity of effort 54
intensity of exercise 422, 427, 454
intentions, and behavior 444
857
interactional approaches
aggression 573
anxiety 96-97, 97f
character development 591-592
leadership 216-218
motivation 55-56, 55f, 56f
personality 35
interactive sports 197
internal attentional focus 383, 388, 392-394
internal distracters 390-396
internal imagery 317-318
internal validity 17
International Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 6
International Journal of Sport Psychology 6
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 6
International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) 12, 581-582
interpersonal communication 235
interpersonal conflict 251
intraindividual approach 41
intrapersonal communication. See self-talk
intrinsic goals 460
intrinsic motivation
cognitive evaluation theory 135-138, 136f
continuum of 132f
drug use and 501
exercise adherence and 462-463
extrinsic rewards and 132-135, 138-141
flow state 143-149
increasing 141-143
leadership and 226
types of 133
intrinsic rewards 123-124
introjected regulation 133
introspection 18
intuition 18
inverted-U hypothesis 87-89, 87f
ISSP (International Society of Sport Psychology) 12, 581-582
IZOF (individualized zones of optimal functioning) 89-90, 89f
J
Jackson, S. 143, 145-147
Jacobson, Edmund 288
Jacobson, L. 343-344
jealousy, in peer relationships 191
Johnson, Warren 10
Jones, Graham 91-92
Jones, M. 248
Jordan, Michael 175, 214, 336, 512
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 6, 11
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology 6
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 6, 11
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action 6
judgment, of self 406
judgment stressors 296
juvenile delinquency 597-599
K
Kelley, H.H. 111-112
Kenttä, G. 161
kiap technique 305
kinesthetic sense 311, 317
King, Billie Jean 340
Kirschenbaum, D.S. 270-272, 271f
knowledge, as intrinsic motivation 133
858
knowledge of performance (KP) 126-127
knowledge of results (KR) 126-127
Kohler, O. 187
Kohn, A. 112-113
KP (knowledge of performance) 126-127
KR (knowledge of results) 126-127
Kramer, Jerry 59-60
Krane, Vikki 157
L
labeling hypothesis 597
Lafreniere, M. 134
Lane4 Management Group 25
Lang, P.J. 321
Lauer, Larry 580
Lavallee, D. 248
Laver, Rod 382
Lawther, John 9-10
Lazarus, Richard 79
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire 214
leaders and leadership
abusive 575
approaches to 212-218
as art 229-231
coach burnout and 535
cognitive-mediational model 218-220, 218f
cohesion and 194
consequences of 226
defined 211
development through sport 216
effective 227-229, 227f
energy management for 230
exercise adherence and 456
vs. managers 212
multidimensional model 220-223, 221f, 224-226
in organizational psychology 185
peer leaders 213, 215-216
prescribed vs. emergent 212
pursuit of excellence 221-223
servant 224
social laboring and 190
training programs 226-227
transactional 223
transformational 190, 205, 223
Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) 224
leadership traits 212-214
learned helplessness 72
learning, reinforcement of 124
learning disabilities 119
learning efficacy 346
Leggett, E.L 68
Lepper, M.R. 135
Leslie-Toogood, A. 130
Lewin, Kurt 16
life cycle (cyclical) theory 176, 177
Life Development Intervention 429
life skills 110-111, 113, 272
linear theory 176-177
listening support 183
LMS (lost move syndrome) 299
locus of causality 65, 136
locus of control
in attribution theory 65
burnout and 533, 535
859
goal setting and 378
leadership preferences and 226
Loehr, Jim 25, 230
Lombardi, Vince 59-60, 112, 305
long-term goals 368
lost move syndrome (LMS) 299
LSS (Leadership Scale for Sports) 224
Luiselli, J. 131
Luthe, W. 291
M
maintenance stage 446
major life changes, in athletes 470, 472
managers, vs. leaders 212
marijuana 504
Martens, R. 105-108, 551, 561, 562
Martin, G. 130
Martin, L. 205
Maslach Burnout Inventory 532
mastery-approach goals 370
matching hypothesis 297-298
McClelland, D. 63-65
McGwire, Mark 495, 499
means control 192
media violence 572
meditation 291
Meichenbaum, Donald 292
Memmert, D. 79
men. See gender differences
menopause 426
MentalApp 249
mental health model 43
mental plans 48, 49f
mental practice. See imagery
mental skills. See psychological skills training (PST)
mental toughness 262, 263
meta-analysis 44
methods (term) 262
Meyer, Urban 305
MG-A (motivational general-arousal) imagery 315
MG-M (motivational general-mastery) imagery 315
military
cooperation in 118
disabled veterans 160
mental skills in 272, 393-394
Miller, S.C. 593
Miller, V. 139
mindfulness 145, 146, 393-394, 463
Mindset (Dweck) 68
mirrors, in exercise classes 430
modeling
of aggression 571-572
character development and 589, 599-600
as self-efficacy source 348, 349
momentum, psychological 339, 341
mood states 420-422, 530, 531f
moral behavior 590
moral development 590-593, 591f. See also character development
moral dilemmas 601
moral disengagement 501, 575-576, 588, 589
moral identity 592
moral reasoning 590-591, 591f, 593, 594t
morals 508, 586-589, 588
Morgan, W.P. 43-44
860
motivation. See also achievement motivation; extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation
approaches to 54-56, 55f, 56f
attention and 396
coaching efficacy in 355
components of 54
defined 53-54
in flow state 145
goal setting and 371-372
guidelines for building 56-61
imagery for 311-312
in mental skill development 327
in modeling 348
moral development and 592
realistic view of 62
self-talk and 236
motivational climate. See environment
motivational feedback 126
motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery 315
motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery 315
motivational interviewing 458
motivational (positive) self-talk 397, 399
motivation losses 186, 188
motor imagery integrative model 325-326
motor reproduction 348
MS (multiple sclerosis) 424
multidimensional anxiety reduction 292-297
multidimensional anxiety theory 90
multidimensional model of sport leadership 220-223, 221f, 224-226
Multidimensional Sport Cohesion Instrument 195
multiple-baseline case studies (term) 313
multiple sclerosis (MS) 424
muscle tension 94-95, 287, 472
music, energizing 305-306
myPlaybook 509-510
N
narcissism 319
narrow attentional focus 388
NASPSPA (North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity) 6
Nassar, Larry 513
nationality. See culture, cultural influences
need achievement theory 63-65, 63f
negative addiction to exercise 510
negative reinforcement (punishment) 122, 127-128
negative self-talk 397, 399-402, 401f
negative-training stress response model 525
Nelson, Mariah Burton 114
neurofeedback 289-290
neurological measures of attention 405
Nicklaus, Jack 309, 357, 396
Nideffer, R.M. 388, 403
No Contest (Kohn) 112-113
nonverbal communication 235, 238-242
norming stage, in teams 177
norms 180-182, 181f, 202, 444
North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) 6
O
obesity and overweight
cultural differences in 152
exercise adherence and 452
prevalence of 152, 435-436
treatment in children 437
weight bias 162
861
objective competitive situation 106
objective goals 362
observation 18
observational learning. See modeling
obsessive passion 134
officials
burnout in 534, 538-539
coping in 303
gambling by 515
Ogilvie, Bruce 10
olfactory sense 311, 317
Olympic athletes 267-268, 486, 494, 496
opioid epidemic 503-504
optimism 604
organizational psychology 185
organizational resilience 185
organizational stress 185
organizational support 535
Orlick, Terry 115, 204, 554, 556
other efficacy 346
outcome goals 362-363, 369-370, 461
outcome interdependence 184-185
outcome-oriented collective efficacy 356
outcomes
in cohesion 194
imagery and 316-317, 328-329
self-fulfilling prophecy and 336
overconfidence 340
overlearning 408
overload training 520
overtraining
factors in 526-529
performance and 532
prevalence of 523
process of 520-521, 521f
signs of 529-531
OxyContin 504
P
Paiement, Craig 580
painkilling drugs 503-504
Paquet, Y. 134
Paralympic Games 158-159
parental influences
competition 108
gender stereotypes 156
in youth sports 558-561, 562, 564-565
Parkinson’s disease 425
participant-centered view (personality) 54
passion 134
past, focusing on 390
Patrick, G.T.W. 8
peer aggression 575
peer leadership 213, 215-216
peer relationships 191, 549-551, 579-580
pendular theory 176, 177
pep talks 305, 306
perceived competence 546
perception of control 92
perception of demand, in stress process 83, 83f
perfectionism 34, 299, 371-372
performance
aggression and 577
arousal, anxiety effects on 86-96
862
attentional focus and 385-388
body fat and 491
cognitive strategies and 46-48
cohesion and 196-198
competition, cooperation and 110-112
diversity effects on 167
effects on motivation 139
emotions effect on 79, 89
expectations and 342-345
expertise development 281
feedback on 125-127
as flow correlate 146
injury effects on 476
judgment of 406
leadership and 226
overtraining and 532
personality traits and 43-46, 44f
rewards and 124-125
self-confidence and 339-340, 340f
self-efficacy and 350-351
self-talk and 398-400
stress effects on 83-84, 83f
performance accomplishments 348, 351-354
performance-avoidance goals 370
performance blocks 299
performance-enhancing drugs 502, 503t. See also substance use and abuse
performance goals 362-363, 369-370
performance information 344
performance profiles 276, 276f
performance psychology 21
performance skills 279
Performance States Checklist 286
performance teams 275
performer stressors 295
performing stage, in teams 177
periodized training 520
personal-assistance support 183
personal development skills 279
personal factors
in cohesion model 193f, 194
effects on leadership 224-225
in exercise adherence 450t-451t, 451-453
situational factor interaction 55-56, 55f, 96-97, 97f
as stressors 85
personality
approaches to 31-36
cognitive strategies and 46-48, 49f
defined 29-30
in eating disorders 492
exercise adherence and 452
exercise effects on 423-427
as flow correlate 146
goal setting and 371-372
gravitation vs. change and 50
guidelines for understanding 49-50
imagery and 319
leadership preferences and 226
leadership traits 212-214, 228
measuring 36-38
morality and 592-593
nature vs. nurture in 50
psychological test use 38-42, 43, 47, 50
research studies 42-46
role in injuries 470
863
structure of 30-31, 30f
person-by-situation interaction. See interactional approaches
person cues 344
PETTLEP imagery 325, 326
Pfeiffer, K.A. 61
Phelps, Michael 500
phenomenological approach 35
physical activity. See exercise and physical activity
physical activity maintenance model 447
physical appearance 238. See also body image
physical conditioning and training
for burnout prevention 539
coaching efficacy in 355
as confidence source 357
overloading in 520-521, 521f
recovery strategies 538
training breaks 537
physical disabilities 158, 159-160, 267
physical factors, in injuries 468
physiological responses 524
physiological states 349-350
planned behavior theory 444
player positions 192
POMS (Profile of Mood States) 37, 38, 43-45, 530
poor sporting behavior 585
Positive Addiction (Glasser) 510
positive addiction to exercise 510
Positive Coaching Alliance 122, 554-555
positive psychology movement 23-24
positive reinforcement 122, 123-127, 207
positive (motivational) self-talk 397, 399
postural language 238
potential productivity 186
Power 4W goal-setting system 372
practice goals 370-371
practice phase of PST 270
praise 142, 557
precompetition routines 357
precompetition workouts 306
precontemplation stage 446
preferred leader behavior 221
prejudice 152
preparation
as confidence source 357
in flow state 145
TTM stage 446
preperformance routines 406-407, 408f
prescribed leaders 212
pressure training 295-296, 303, 395
prisoner’s dilemma 111-112
probability of success 64
problem-focused coping 299-301
problem identification stage 270
problem solving 313
process goals 362-363, 369-370, 461
processing efficiency theory 96
process-oriented collective efficacy 356
professionalization
of sport psychology 24
of youth sports 561-564
professional organizations 6
professional practice knowledge 18-19, 18t
Profile of Mood States (POMS) 37, 38, 43-45, 530
progressive relaxation 288, 292-293
864
projective tests 41-42
prompts, for exercise adherence 458-459
proxemics 239
proximity, in teams 184
PST. See psychological skills training (PST)
psychodynamic approach 31-32
psychological core 30, 30f
psychological explanations of imagery 322-323
psychological factors
in injuries 469
in motivation 133
in substance abuse 500-501
psychological intervention packages (term) 313
psychological momentum 339, 341
psychological skills training (PST)
in business and military 272
defined 262
for disabled 267
effectiveness of 268-269
goal of 270-272
guiding principles 280
implementation of 273-274
implementation problems 282
importance of 262-264
knowledge base 266-268
myths about 265-266
neglect of 264-265
online 273
phases of 269-270
program development 274-279
program evaluation 279-280
who should conduct 272-273
psychological support 176
psychological test use 38-42, 43, 47, 50
psychological well-being. See well-being
Psychology of Sport and Exercise 6, 11
psychoneuromuscular theory 320
psychophysiological assessments 404-405
psychophysiological orientation 21
Puni, Avksenty 11-12
punishment (negative reinforcement) 122, 127-128
pursuit of excellence 221-223
Q
qualitative research 23, 47-48
quality of life 428-430
quantitative research 23
quiet eye (QE) period 391-392
R
race and ethnicity 163-165, 166
Raedeke, T. 525-526, 532
Rathschlag, M. 79
rational choice perspective 505
rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) 402
Ravizza, Ken 269-270
reactive behaviors 218, 219
Reagan, J. 252-254
RE-AIM model 19, 19f
reality-confirmation support 183
reasoned action theory 444
REBT (rational emotive behavior therapy) 402
recovery strategies 538
recreational drugs 502-504. See also substance use and abuse
865
reductionistic knowledge 17
Rees, T. 182-183
refocusing plans 48, 49f
reinforcement
in character development 589
defined 121
of exercise adherence 459-460
negative (punishment) 122, 127-128
positive 122, 123-127, 207
principles of 122
systemic application of 128-131
relationship-oriented leaders 217
relaxation-set method 9
relaxation training
for children 554, 556
effect on imagery 327
in injury recovery 481
relaxation response 290-291
required leader behavior 221
research
vs. applied sport psychology 23
multidisciplinary 24
as professional role 5
resilience 300-301, 604, 605
resilience training 301
response, in competition process 107
response propositions 321
responsibility, teaching 603
resultant tendency 64
retention, in modeling 348
reversal theory 91, 93
revised frustration–aggression theory 572-573
rewards. See also extrinsic rewards; intrinsic rewards
for appropriate behaviors 124-125, 557
in behavior modification 131
exercise adherence and 459-460
types of 123-124
reward stressors 296
Riggs, Bobby 340
Ringelmann effect 187-188, 188t
RISE (Ross Initiative in Sports for Equality) 166
Rockne, Knute 305
role ambiguity 179, 180
role-related behavior 30, 30f
roles, in teams 177-180, 199, 202, 204
role taking 600
Rose, Pete 486, 512
Rosenthal, R. 343-344
Ross, Stephen M. 166
Ross Initiative in Sports for Equality (RISE) 166
routines 406-407, 408f
Rudik, P.A. 9
Runner’s high 431
Ryan, E.D. 138
Ryan, R.M. 57, 135-138
S
Sackett, R.S. 320
Sam, Michael 158
Sandusky, Jerry 513
sandwich approach to criticism 254-255, 256f, 557
satisfaction
in cohesion 194, 198
as leadership consequence 226
866
satisfaction with life 429-430
SCAPPS (Societe Canadienne d’Apprentissage Psychomoteur et de Psychologie du Sport) 6
SCAT (Sport Competition Anxiety Test) 80
scholarships 138-139, 562
school-based programs 457
Schulte, Robert 9
Schultz, Johannes 291
scientifically derived knowledge 16-17, 18t, 19
scientific experiments (term) 314
scientific method 16-17
Scripture, E.W. 8
SDT. See self-determination theory (SDT)
sedentary behavior 440-441, 442f
Seifried, C. 127
selective attention 382-383, 386
self-awareness 168, 286-287
self-concept 46, 146, 423-427
self-confidence
assessing 351
benefits of 339
building 351-358
defined 336
drug use for 500-501
exercise effects on 438
in flow state 145
imagery for 312
injury effects on 475-476
performance and 339-340, 340f
robust 338
self-efficacy theory 345-351, 347f
sources of 353
sport confidence model 340-342, 342f
state vs. trait 336
types of 337
self-control 501, 579
self-determination theory (SDT)
of burnout 526
of exercise behavior 445-446
intrinsic motivation and 133
needs in 57, 136
of youth sport participation 546
self-doubt 340
self-efficacy. See also self-confidence
in coaches 355
exercise adherence and 452
theory of 345-351, 347f, 445
self-esteem
coaching effects on 218-219
effect on anxiety 85
exercise addiction and 511
exercise effects on 423-427, 438
sport participation and 113
self-fulfilling prophecy 336
self-monitoring
in behavior modification 129, 130
exercise adherence 452, 459
sedentary behavior 442f
self-motivation, and exercise adherence 452
self-presentational efficacy 346
self-regulation 270-272, 271f, 537-538
self-regulatory efficacy 346
self-report measures 80
self-report scales 80
self-talk (intrapersonal communication)
867
confidence and 354
defined 236
energizing 305
five Ps of 403
improving 400-402, 401f
for injury recovery 481
matching to task 399
performance and 398-400
process of 397f
types of 397-398
uses of 398
servant leadership 224
SET (stress exposure training) 296
setbacks, in injury recovery 481
sexual harassment and abuse 513-514
sexual orientation 156-158
sexual prejudice 156-158
shame, and punishment 127, 128
shaping 124
shared public experience 18
Sherif, C.W. 111
Sherif, M. 111
Shields, D.L.L. 104, 586, 593
short-term goals 368, 368f, 369f, 536
Silva, J.M. 525
similarity, in teams 184, 194
Simon, J. 551
simulations, in physical practice 405
SIT (stress inoculation training) 295
situational approaches
leadership 216
personality 33-35
situational demands 524
situational factors
effects on leadership 224-225, 229
in flow state 145
in need achievement theory 64
personal factor interaction 55-56, 55f, 96-97, 97f
as stressors 84-85
situation awareness 383-384
situation-centered view of motivation 54-55
situation-specific measures of personality 36-37
skill level
concentration and 408
imagery and 318-319
skills (term) 261
Skinner, B.F. 121
sleep quality, and exercise 429, 430
SMARTS goals 375
smiles, for stress management 303
Smith, A.L. 532, 550
Smith, R.E. 47, 218, 523-524
Smith, Ronald 292
Smoll, F.L. 218
SMT (cognitive-affective stress management training) 293-294
soccer 119
social anxiety 552
social bonding 597
social cognitive theory 444-445
social cohesion 192-193, 197
social comparison 69, 70f, 589
social competence 604
social evaluation 105
social facilitation theory 16-17
868
social factors
in competition 108
as disability barrier 160
as injury cause 468-469
morality and 593
in motivation 132-133
in self-confidence 357-358
in substance abuse 502
socialization, and exercise 438
social laboring 190
social learning theory 571-572, 573, 589
social loafing 188-192
social media 242, 243, 462
social mobility 113
social physique anxiety 85-86, 98
social-psychological orientation 21, 591-592
social skills, reinforcement of 125
social support
coach burnout and 535
cohesion and 199
exercise adherence and 453, 461-462
injuries and 470, 481-483
as LSS dimension 224
performance and 226
in team climate 182-184
social support coping 300-301
Societe Canadienne d’Apprentissage Psychomoteur et de Psychologie du Sport (SCAPPS) 6
socioeconomic status, and exercise 452
sociograms 196, 197f
sociology of sport 164
somatic anxiety 78, 80, 288-290
somatic state anxiety 78-79, 90
SOQ (Sport Orientation Questionnaire) 107
Southwick, Steven 301
spaghetti toes exercise 556
SPC. See sport psychology consultants (SPCs)
specialization
athletic 561, 562, 564
within sport psychology 23
Special Olympics 118, 159
spectator violence 574-575, 580
spontaneous behaviors 218, 219
spontaneous self-talk 397-398
Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology 6
sport and exercise psychology
approaches to 20-21
as art 20
clinical vs. educational 5-7
defined 4
ethical standards 22, 23
history of 7-11
international 11-12
knowledge domains 7f
objectives of 4
organizations and journals 6
professional roles in 4-5
research-to-practice gap 19
training in 5-7
trends in 21-24
women in 9, 11, 12
Sport and Exercise Psychology Review 6
Sport Anxiety Scale 80-81, 82
Sport Cohesiveness Questionnaire 195
Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) 80
869
Sport Confidence Inventory 351, 352
sport ethic, and injuries 473
Sport Friendship Quality Scale 550
sport-general dropouts 547
Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire 327
Sport Imagery Questionnaire 326-327
Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) 107
sport parenting 558-561, 562, 564-565
sport participation
as advancement vehicle 164, 164t
character development and 596-599
disabilities and 159-161, 161f
dropouts 544-547
gender differences in 155-156
life skills and 110-111, 113
motives for 57-59, 544-549, 546f
unstructured sport 116
Sport Psychologist 6, 11
sport psychology consultants (SPCs)
in business and military 272
characteristics of 275
selection of 272-273
views on using 264
sport skills imagery 312
sport-specific dropouts 547
sport-specific measures of personality 37-38
sportspersonship. See good sporting behavior
sport types
cohesion and 197
leadership preferences and 225-226
spousal support of exercise 453
stability
in attribution theory 65
of teams 200
stages of change 446-447, 446f, 448-449
Stahelski, A.J. 111-112
staleness 521, 523
Starr, Bart 60
state anxiety
arousal, trait anxiety relationships 81, 81f
defined 78-79
effects on performance 95-96
exercise effects on 417-419, 418f
IZOF model 89-90, 89f
measuring 80
role in injuries 472
in young athletes 551-552, 551f, 553
state measures of personality 36, 39
state self-confidence 336
State Sport Confidence Inventory 36, 37
Steiner, Ivan 186-187
stereotypes 156, 165
steroid use 485-486, 498-499. See also substance use and abuse
stimulation, as intrinsic motivation 133
stimulus propositions 321
storming stage, in teams 177
stress
applying knowledge of 96-98
defined 82-83
as drug use motive 500
exercise effects on 427, 437-438
imagery and 312
mediational model 293, 294f
postcompetition 539
870
role in injuries 469-472, 469f, 476
role in overtraining and burnout 528, 529, 534
signs and symptoms of 97-98
sources of 84-86
stages of 83-84, 83f
in young athletes 551-554
stress management
cognitive-affective training 293-294
effectiveness of 297
hypnosis 296-297
pressure training 295-296
stress exposure training 296
stress inoculation training 295
tips for 303-304
stress response 83
structural-developmental theory 589-591
studies, vs. experiments 17
subgroups 192, 204-205
subjective competitive situation 106-107
subjective goal 362, 363
subjective norms 444
subjective well-being. See well-being
substance use and abuse
as cheating 112
diagnostic criteria 495
drug testing for 496
drug types and effects 502-504, 503t
inadvertent doping 506-507
incidents of 485-486
prevalence of 493-495, 496-499
preventing 508-510
reasons for 499-502
side effects of 497, 500f
signs of 505
sport deterrence model 505-508
success
in attribution theory 65-66
cognitive strategies and 46-48
in need achievement theory 63, 64
Sullivan, P. 248
Summitt, Pat 111, 312
supportive listening 244
symbolic learning theory 320-321
systematic approach 16
systematic desensitization 291-292
T
tactile sense 311
TAIS (Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style) 37, 38, 403, 403t, 404
talent development 563-564
Tarkanian, Jerry 215
task-appreciation support 183
task-challenge support 183
task cohesion 192-193, 197
task goals 72
task interdependence 184-185
task orientation 66-69, 602
task-oriented leaders 217
task preference 64
task stressors 295
taskwork knowledge 186-187
teachers 5, 535-536, 602-605
team building
for cohesion 197, 201-202
871
for cooperation, competition 117
effectiveness of 205
practical exercises 202, 206
principles of 203t
team values and 203-204
team efficacy 206
team factors, in cohesion 194
team meetings 205-206, 248-249
teams. See also cohesion
defined 176
development theories 176-177
effective climates in 182-185
efficacy in 194, 356, 358
FIT training for 189
flow state in 146
goal setting in 373-374
individual performance in 186-192, 188t
injury effects on 476
norms in 180-182, 181f, 577, 579
roles in 177-180
selection and test use 40, 43, 47
social loafing in 188-192
team skills 279
team turnover 205
teamwork, defined 176
teamwork knowledge 186-187
technique, coaching efficacy in 355
technology
advances in 24, 274
exergames 464
as motivation tool 61
Templin, T. 603
tennis 129-130
Tennis Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style 38, 39
termination stage 447
Terry, P. 44-45
Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) 37, 38, 403, 403t, 404
theory, defined 16
theory of planned behavior 444
theory of reasoned action 444
thinness, as value 490
Thomas-Kilmann model 253
thought-stopping 400
threats, vs. challenges 92
threshold of autonomy 133
time limits, as exercise barrier 440, 454
timing, in imagery 329-330
Tkachuk, G. 130
tobacco use 500f, 503
Tod, D. 248
touching 239
Tour de France 486
Tracy, David 9
traffic light analogy 269-270
Trail, G. 229
training
athletic. See physical conditioning and training
in sport psychology 5-7
trait anxiety
arousal, state anxiety relationships 81, 81f
defined 79
effect on stress 83, 85
measuring 80
in young athletes 552
872
trait approaches
leadership 212-214
personality 32-33
trait-centered view of motivation 54
trait measures of personality 36, 39
trait self-confidence 336
Trait Sport Confidence Inventory 36, 37
transactional leadership 223
transformational leadership 190, 205, 223
transtheoretical model (TTM) 446-447, 446f, 448-449, 449t
triple code model 321-322
Triplett, Norman 8, 108
Trulson, M.E. 599
TTM (transtheoretical model) 446-447, 446f, 448-449, 449t
Tuckman, Bruce 177
turnover, in teams 205
Tutko, Thomas 10
type A behavior 46
typical responses 30, 30f
U
unbiased data 17
uncertainty, as stressor 85
unidimensional identity development and external control model 525
unstructured sport 116
V
Vallerand, R.J. 134, 586-587, 591
values
eating disorders and 490-491
in team building 203-204, 206
transfer to nonsport environments 604-605
variety of activity, and motivation 60-61
Vealey, R. 278-279, 341-342, 342f, 354
verbal aggression 575
verbal communication 236-238, 241-242. See also communication
verbal persuasion 348-349
Vernau, D. 354
Verner-Filion, J. 134
Viagra 501
vicarious experiences (modeling) 348, 349
Vicodin 504
video uses 130, 329
virtual reality (VR) 274
visual distracters 396
visualization. See imagery
visual search patterns 95-96, 95f
visual sense 311, 317
visuomotor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) 313
vividness, in imagery 323-324
voice characteristics 240
volleyball 118
volume of training 528
VR (virtual reality) 274
W
Wagstaff, C. 185
weight bias 162
weight control 436-437, 494, 500
weight restrictions, in sports 489-490
Weiner, B. 65-66
Weiss, M.R. 549-550, 590, 596, 597
well-being
dimensions of 416
exercise effects on 422-423, 422f
873
retirement from sport and 429
term usage 416
Whitmore, Jon 240-241
Williams, Jean 469-470
winning
aggression and 109
in character development 604
competition and 112
in decompetition 104
injuries and 473
overemphasis on 117
win orientation 107
Wolpe, J. 291
women. See also gender differences
athlete characteristics 43
exercise effects on 426
exercising with mirrors 430
in sport and exercise psychology 9, 11, 12
in sport leadership 156, 157f
Wooden, John 125, 215
Woods, Tiger 504
workouts, precompetitive 306
Y
Yates, Dorothy Hazeltine 9, 10
yips 299
youth sports and athletes. See also children, and exercise
aggression in 573, 575, 577, 579-580
benefits of 110-111
burnout prevention 537
coaching in 218-220, 554-558
competition in 114
coping in 303
friends’ role in 549-551
meeting athlete needs 548
morals in 588
as negative behavior deterrent 596-599
negative role models 502
parents’ role in 558-561, 562, 564-565
participant and dropout motives 544-549, 546f
participation rates 543
professionalization of 561-564
sport psychology in 543-544
stress and burnout in 527, 529, 551-554
talent development 563-564
underserved youths 549
Z
Zajonc, R.B. 16-17, 86-87
874
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Robert S. Weinberg, PhD, is a professor in the department of physical education, health, and
sport studies at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. He has more than 40 years of experience
in both the scholarly and applied aspects of sport psychology. He has written numerous
research articles, including more than 150 refereed articles in scholarly journals, as well as
books, book chapters, and applied articles for coaches, athletes, and exercisers.
Weinberg was voted one of the top 10 sport psychologists in North America by his peers.
He is past president of the North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical
Activity (NASPSPA) and of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP). He is
also a certified AASP consultant, consulting with athletes of all sports and ages.
Weinberg was named a Distinguished Scholar at Miami University in 2005. In addition,
he was the editor of the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology and was voted Outstanding Faculty
Member in the School of Education and Allied Professions at Miami University in 1998. In
his leisure time, he enjoys playing tennis, traveling, and gardening.
875
Daniel Gould, PhD, is the director of the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports and a
professor in the department of kinesiology at Michigan State University. He has taught sport
psychology for more than 35 years. An active researcher, Gould was the founding coeditor of
The Sport Psychologist and has published more than 200 articles on sport psychology. He is
best known for conducting applied research that links research and practice.
Gould was voted one of the top 10 sport psychology specialists in North America and is
internationally known, having presented his work in more than 30 countries. When on the
faculty of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, he received the university’s
coveted Alumni Teaching Excellence Award, an all-campus teaching honor. He is certified as
a consultant by the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and is a member of
the United States Olympic Committee Sport Psychology Registry.
Gould is the former president of AASP and SHAPE America’s Sport Psychology
Academy. In addition to teaching sport psychology, he is extensively involved in coaching
education, from youth sports to Olympic competition. He also serves as a mental skills
training consultant for professional, Olympic, and world-class athletes. In recent years he has
served as an executive coach for business leaders interested in enhancing their organizations’
performance.
He lives in Okemos, Michigan, with his wife, Deb. He is a proud father of two sons,
Kevin and Brian. In his leisure time, he enjoys swimming, doing fitness activities, and
spending time with his family.
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