The Scientific Approach and Alternative Approaches to Investigation Scientific Research • Managers frequently face issues that call for critical decision making. • Managerial decisions based on the results of “good” research tend to be effective. Scientific Research • Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step‐by‐step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions from them. • Scientific research is purposive and rigorous. Scientific Research • Scientific investigation tends to be more objective than subjective, and helps managers to highlight the most critical factors at the workplace that need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize, or solve problems. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD • The hypothetico‐deductive method, popularized by the Austrian philosopher Karl Popper, is a typical version of the scientific method. • The hypothetico‐deductive method provides a useful, systematic approach for generating knowledge to solve basic and managerial problems. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD • The hypothetico‐deductive method involves the seven steps listed and discussed next. 1. Identify a broad problem area. 2. Define the problem statement. 3. Develop hypotheses. 4. Determine measures. 5. Data collection. 6. Data analysis. 7. Interpretation of data. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 1. Identify a broad problem area • A drop in sales, • frequent production interruptions, • incorrect accounting results, • low‐yielding investments, • disinterestedness of employees in their work, • customer switching, and the like, could attract the attention of the manager and catalyze the research project. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 2. Define the problem statement • Scientific research starts with a definite aim or purpose or objective. • To find solutions for identified problems, a problem statement that includes the general objective and research questions of the research should be developed. • Gathering initial information about the factors that are possibly related to the problem will help us to narrow the broad problem area and to define the problem statement. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 3. Develop hypotheses • In this step, variables are examined to ascertain their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved. • From a theorized network of associations among the variables, certain hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated. • For instance, at this point, we might hypothesize that specific factors such as overpricing, competition, inconvenience, and unresponsive employees affect customer switching. • A scientific hypothesis must meet two requirements. • The first criterion is that the hypothesis must be testable. • The second criterion, and one of the central tenets of the hypothetico‐deductive method, is that a hypothesis must also be falsifiable. That is, it must be possible to disprove the hypothesis. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 4. Determine measures • Unless the variables in the theoretical framework are measured in some way, we will not be able to test our hypotheses. • To test the hypothesis that unresponsive employees affect customer switching, we need to operationalize unresponsiveness and customer switching. How do we measure Success (Operationalize) • Conceptual Definition of Success: • Success is the positive consequence or outcome of an achieved accomplishment. Operational Definition of Success - 1 Income Success BMW House Operational Definition of Success - 2 Happiness Success Relationships Work Life Balance Conceptual Definition of Intelligence • The capacity of abstract thought, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, planning and problem solving. Operational Definition of Intelligence - 1 IQ test Intelligence GMAT Score GPA Operational Definition of Intelligence - 2 Emotional Strength Intelligence Logical Reasoning Verbal Skills THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 5. Data collection • After determining how to measure variables, data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis need to be obtained. 6. Data analysis • In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported. • For instance, to see if unresponsiveness of employees affects customer switching, we might want to do a correlational analysis to determine the relationship between these variables. THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 7. Interpretation of data • Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis. • For instance, if it was found from the data analysis that increased responsiveness of employees was negatively related to customer switching (say, 0.3), then we can deduce that if customer retention is to be increased, our employees have to be trained to be more responsive. • Another inference from this data analysis is that responsiveness of our employees accounts for (or explains) 9% of the variance in customer switching (0.32). • Based on these deductions, we are able to make recommendations on how the “customer switching” problem may be solved (at least to some extent); we have to train our employees to be more flexible and communicative. Deductive vs. Inductive Approach • Deductive reasoning to test a theory (a theory is an organized set of assumptions that generates testable predictions) about a topic of interest. • In deductive reasoning, we work from the more general to the more specific. • We start out with a general theory and then narrow down that theory into specific hypotheses we can test. • Analysis of these specific observations ultimately allows us to confirm (or refute) our original theory. Deductive vs. Inductive Approach • Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction. • It is a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at general conclusions. • In inductive reasoning, we work from the more specific to the more general. • The observation of a first, second, and third white swan (this is a very famous example) may lead to the proposition that “all swans are white.” In this example, the repeated observation of a white swan has led to the general conclusion that all swans are white. According to Karl Popper it is not possible to “prove” a hypothesis by means of induction, because no amount of evidence assures us that contrary evidence will not be found. Observing 3, 10, 100, or even 10 000 white swans does not justify the conclusion that “all swans are white” because there is always a possibility that the next swan we observe will be black. Instead, Popper proposed that (proper) science is accomplished by deduction. Deductive vs. Inductive Approach • Induction and deduction are often used in a sequential manner. John Dewey describes this process as “the double movement of reflective thought.” Induction takes place when a researcher observes something and asks, “Why does this happen?” In answer to this question, the researcher may develop a provisional explanation – a hypothesis. Deduction is subsequently used to test this hypothesis. Deductive vs. Inductive Approach Research Paradigm or Philosophical world views • A research paradigm is an approach or model or a pattern to conduct a research. • A research paradigm is a framework of thought or beliefs or understanding within which theories and practices operate. • When researchers talk about different approaches to research, they actually talk about paradigms. • A paradigm is a “world view” or a set of assumptions about the way to conduct the research (i.e. starts, process, and findings). Philosophical Assumptions • Ontology Greek word (What is Reality) • Onto = Existence or Being Real. • Logia = Science or Study • There is single reality • There are multiple realities • Reality is constantly interpreted, debated, or negotiated. • Ontology is concerned with the being or reality. • Ontology is the theory of objects (Dependent & Independent) and their ties (Relations). Philosophical Assumptions • Epistemology How individuals understand knowledge., their thinking process, and how they think others, Or How can I know reality. • Knowledge can be measured by using reliable design and tools. • Reality needs to be interpreted to discover the underlined meaning. • Should be examined using best tool to solve the problem. • Epistemology focuses on Knowledge gathering process and is concerned with developing new models or theories that are better than competing models and theories. Philosophical Assumptions • Three Most Common Paradigms (Beliefs about Research). • Positivists believe that there is single reality, which can be measured and known, and therefore they are more likely to use quantitative methods to measure the reality. • There are absolute truths out there to discover. • Facts are objective. • It is important for research to be generalizable, replicable, and scientific. Philosophical Assumptions • Constructivists believe that there is no single reality or truth, and therefore reality needs to be interpreted, and therefore they are more likely to use qualitative methods to get those multiple realities. • The truth is context dependent and socially constructed. • Facts are subjective. • It is important for research to seek understanding of context and experiences. Philosophical Assumptions • Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly re-negotiated, debated, interpreted, and therefore the best method to use is the one that solves the problem. Philosophical Assumptions • Positivism • There is single reality or truth • Knowledge can be measured • Constructivism • There are multiple realities • Reality needs to be interpreted • Pragmatism • Reality is contently interpreted • Should be examined using best tool Philosophical Assumptions • Methodology Refers to general principles which underline how we investigate the social world and how we demonstrate that the knowledge generated is valid. • How can we go about acquiring knowledge. Learnings.. Learnings.. Learnings..
