DOMAIN 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Objective 1.1
Define psychology.
Key Terms
 Psychology: the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychologists use the
scientific method to acquire knowledge.
 Levels of explanation:
o Lower levels: tied to biological influences (chemicals in the brain)
o Middle levels: interpersonal, abilities and characteristics of individuals (depending
on situation of each person)
o Highest levels: social groups, organizations, cultures (sex, race, etc.)
Exercises
1. Put a check mark by each statement that is true regarding psychology.
__o__ Psychologists study human behavior.
__o__ Psychologists study animal behavior.
__o__ Psychologists study emotions and mental processes.
_____ Psychology and "common sense" lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental
processes.
_____ Psychology is not a science.
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Objective 1.2
Define the scientific method and explain how it is used in psychology.
Key Terms
 Scientific method: set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct
empirical research. Scientific method demands procedure to be objective (free from
personal bias or emotions of the scientist).
 Type of psychologists and how they use the scientific method:
o Research psychologists: use scientific methods to create new knowledge about
causes of behaviors
o Practitioners: use existing research to help solve problems
o Academic psychologists: use research findings as evidence to support theoretical
concept
 Data: information gathered through observation or measurement.
 Hypothesis: tentative explanation of how or why something happens. An if-then
statement is a hypothesis.
o Conceptual variables: abstract ideas
o Measured variables: numbers that represent conceptual variables.
 Theory: integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many observed
relationships within a given domain of inquiry
Exercises
1. What is the main purpose of the scientific method?
Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge by providing a framework
for developing, organizing, and sharing information. Since the research is designed to be
repeated or appended to, it results in the refinement of the scientific knowledge.
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2. The steps of the scientific method are (1) identify a problem or research question, (2) design a
study, (3) collect data, (4) analyze data, (5) draw conclusions, and (6) communicate findings.
Identify the step associated with each of the following activities:
__3__ Dr. Lopez noted "absent" or "present" by each student's name on his class roll at each
class meeting. He recorded students' exam scores on his roll sheet as well.
__1__ Dr. Lopez hypothesized that students who consistently attend class get higher grades than
those who are absent more often.
__6__ Dr. Lopez published the results of his study in the Journal of Community College
Teaching.
__4__ Dr. Lopez calculated the correlation between his students' rates of absence and their exam
scores and found that the two variables were positively associated.
__2__ Dr. Lopez planned to track students' attendance and exam scores and to correlate these
two variables at the end of the semester.
__5__ Dr. Lopez inferred that the data he collected supported his hypothesis regarding the
relationship between attendance and exam scores.
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Objective 1.3
Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology.
Key Terms
behaviorism
cognitive psychology
psychoanalysis
evolutionary psychology
humanistic psychology
biological psychology
Exercises
1. Fill in the chart below.
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sociocultural approach
School of
Important Theorist(s)
Main Ideas
John B. Watson, B.F.
Based on the premise that it’s not possible to
Skinner
objectively study the mind, and the focus
Thought
Behaviorism
should shift to the behaviors themselves.
Heavily relied on stimuli and response
concept.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud,
Also known as psychodynamic psychology, an
Alfred Adler, Carl
approach to understanding human behavior
Jung, Karen Horney,
that focuses on the role of unconscious
Erik Erikson
thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Theorists believe that forgotten events are the
drive to current human behaviors. These
events are to be explored through
psychoanalysis (talk therapy, dream analysis)
Humanistic
Abraham Maslow
Embraces the concepts of self-esteem, selfactualization, and free will. More focused on
psychology
self-concept as opposed to outside influence,
and the innate good within all humans.
Cognitive
Hermann Ebbinghaus,
Focused on mental processes like perception,
psychology
Sir Frederic Bartlett,
thinking, memory, and judgement. A
Jean Piaget, Donald E. counterpart to behaviorism.
Broadbent, Daniel
Information-processing theory:
Kahneman, George
 Associates the brain to a computer.
Miller, Eleanor Rosch,
 Human mind would receive input,
Amos Tversky
process, then produce output based on
the processing result.
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School of
Important Theorist(s)
Main Ideas
William James
Evolved from functionalism, evolutionary
Thought
Evolutionary
psychology
psychology is a brand of psychology that
applies the Darwinian theory of natural
selection to human and animal behavior.
 Evolutionary psychologists use
evolutionary theory to explain romantic
attractions, stereotypes, prejudice, and
causes of some psychological disorders.
 Fitness is a key component. Advantage
of one in passing on the characteristic
to later generations.
Limitations:
 Difficult to test some theories
 Data we have gathered might be
observed and not fact
Biological
Focuses on the interaction between biology
psychology
and emotions, thoughts, and behaviors; taking
in consideration the role of the brain, nervous
system, hormones, chemicals, nutrition, and
exercise.
Sociocultural
Study of how social situation and cultures can
approach
influence human behaviors and thinking.
Follow the concept of conformity – that our
behavior is dependent on others around us.
Social norms – way of thinking/feeling that is
deemed appropriate by a group (customs,
traditions, etc.)
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Objective 1.4
Define positive psychology and explain how it differs from other perspectives.
Key Terms
positive psychology
Exercises
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Objective 1.5
Define and explain the differences among the various descriptive research methods.
Key Terms
 Types of research designs:
o Descriptive research: provide snapshot of the current state of affairs
o Correlational research: find the relationships between variables to help future
hypotheses
o Experimental research: find the impact of experimental manipulation on dependent
variable. Provide definitive conclusions from correlational research.
 Variables in research designs:
o Predictor variable
o Outcome variable
o Common-causal variable: variable that is not part of research hypothesis but causes
both predictor and outcome, thus producing a relationship between them
Exercises
1. Fill in the chart below.
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Method
Uses
Limitations
Naturalistic
 Descriptive research
 Limited to static
observation
 Observe and record behavior that occurs in
pictures
everyday settings
 May not apply to
other individuals in
Laboratory
 Descriptive research
other situations
observation
 Conducted in setting created by researcher
 Does not explain
 Allows researcher to control more aspects of
why things happen or
behave a certain way
the experiment
 Does not give
insight on long term
Case study
 Descriptive research
effects
 Records of one or more individual’s
experience and behavior
 Works under the concept of individual
observations leads to understanding of human
nature
 Provide detailed information about a single
person or small group of people
Survey
 Descriptive research
 Interview or questionnaire to get a picture of
the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of
interest
 Capture the thoughts or reported behaviors of
a large population of people
Correlation
 Systematic relationship
 No conclusion
 Involves measurement of two or more
about cause and effect
variables and the relationship between them
can be drawn
 Can be used in place of experimental
research if a variable cannot be manipulated
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Method
Uses
Limitations
Correlation
 Value ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
Coefficient
 Positive correlations mean variables both
increase or decrease
 Negative correlations mean variables move
in opposite direction
 Zero correlation indicates no relationship
2. Classify each of the following as an example of (a) naturalistic observation, (b) laboratory
observation, (c) case study, (d) survey, or (e) correlation.
a. A professor compared his students' attendance rates to their grades. She found that students
with fewer absences tended to get higher grades. (e)
b. Psychologists studying aggression in early childhood found that an average of four instances
of hitting or pushing occurred during each hour that they spent watching a group of two-yearold’s interact in a day-care classroom. (a)
c. A telephone poll found that 37% of respondents had a favorable opinion of "Sparkle"
toothpaste. (d)
d. A hidden camera recorded the behavior of male and female research participants who were
asked to wait for a long period of time in a room in which a researcher had placed a stack of
pornographic magazines. (b)
e. A psychologist who was interested in job satisfaction gathered in-depth, detailed information
about organizations whose workers reported being highly satisfied with their jobs. (c)
3. Why does correlation fail to prove causation?
It is not possible to measure every variable that could cause the predictor and outcome
variables, there will always be the possible existence of common-causal variables and
reverse causation
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Objective 1.6
Define representative sample and explain why it is important.
Key Terms
 Sample: people chosen to participate in the research
 Population: everyone that researcher wishes to know about
 Representative sample: representation of the population within a sample. Representative
sample must take into consideration the diversity of the population to produce a more
accurate result
Exercises
1. Barry reached into his bag of M&Ms and pulled out three pieces of candy, each of which was
red. All of the M&Ms in Barry's bag are the (sample/population) of M&Ms. The three that he
took out are the (sample/population).
2. Each bag of M&Ms has candies of several colors. Thus, the three red M&Ms that Barry took
out of his bag (are/are not) a representative sample.
3. Why are researchers concerned about the representativeness of the samples in their studies?
a. They don't want to offend anyone.
b. They hope to generalize the findings of their studies to populations of interest.
c. Representative samples are usually large enough to ensure statistical significance.
d. Scientific journals will not publish a study unless the sample is representative.
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Objective 1.7
Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between
independent and dependent variables.
Key Terms
 Experimental research: find the impact of experimental manipulation on dependent variable.
Provide definitive conclusions from correlational research
o Types of variable in experimental research:
 Dependent variable: measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the
experimental manipulation
 Independent variable: causing variable that is created or manipulated by the
experimenter
 Causal hypothesis: hypothesis that specify a relationship between two variables in which
changes in one variable cause changes in the other
 Experimental group: receives some amount of the independent variable
 Control group: comparison group, receives a different amount of the independent variable than
the experiment group, often zero
 Random assignment: most common method of creating equivalence among the experimental
conditions. Participants are assigned to a group through a random process. This is to make sure
the groups are equivalent on average on all possible variables.
Exercises
1. What is the primary advantage of the experimental method?
It allows the drawing of conclusions about the causal relationships among variables.
2. Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow it.
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In a laboratory study of sleep deprivation, researchers employed a variety of techniques to keep
volunteers awake for variable amounts of time. One group of participants was kept awake for 24
hours, and the other was kept awake for 48 hours. During periods of forced wakefulness,
participants were required to engage verbal learning tasks such as memorizing the definitions of
obscure English words. At the conclusion of the period of forced wakefulness, participants were
allowed to sleep for as long as they wanted to. When participants awakened, researchers tested
them on the learning tasks they completed during the periods of forced wakefulness. The
researchers discovered that participants who were deprived of sleep for 48 hours recalled less
than those who had been forced to remain awake for 24 hours.
1a. What is the independent variable? Time participant was forced to stay awake
1b. What is the dependent variable? How well participants were able to recall the words
1c. What is the control group? The group who was kept awake for 48 hours
1d. What is/are the experimental group(s)? The group who was kept awake for 24 hours
3. Why is random assignment critical to the experimental method?
To make sure the groups on average are equivalent, eliminating the influence of
common-causal variables
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Objective 1.8
Explain the rationale behind placebo-controlled experiments.
Key Terms
 Placebo: a treatment that has no effect on the dependent variable
 Placebo effect: when the control group participants are found to have responded to the
placebo. It results in a change in the outcome that’s due to the participant’s expectations
rather than to the effectiveness of a treatment.
 Experimenter bias: experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various
experimental conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research
hypothesis. A threat to the validity of a research experiment. This can be avoided if the
experimenter is blind to condition, meaning that they don’t know which conditions the
participants are assigned to.
 Double-blind technique: a variation of the condition blindness where both researchers and
participants are unaware of which subjects are receiving the active treatment.
 Statistical significance: the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that data are not
due to chance or random error.
Exercises
1. Why do researchers use placebos and double-blind designs?
To ensure there is no experimental bias thus proving the validity of the experiment.
2. Read the scenario and answer the questions.
Sam's psychology professor, Dr. Smith, recruited him to serve as a research assistant. Sam's
job was to teach study participants a new strategy for studying textbook material. Experimental
group participants were supposed to be taught the new strategy, while control group
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participants were to be told that they could increase their test scores by holding their textbooks
at a particular angle when reading. Each group was allowed to practice the techniques they
were taught on a chapter in a psychology textbook, after which Sam tested them over what they
had studied. Dr. Smith was surprised to discover that the control group scored higher on the
tests than the experimental group did.
(A) Did Dr. Smith's design include a placebo? Yes
(B) If so, what was the placebo? Holding the textbook at a particular angle when reading
(C) What term refers to the outcome of Dr. Smith's study? The placebo effects
(D) Would it be correct to conclude that the procedure that was taught to the control group is a
useful study strategy? If not, what is the correct conclusion? No. Sam’s experiment suffered
experimenter bias because Sam knows which group received the placebo and therefore is not blind
to condition. Sam also told the control group of the effectiveness of the placebo which leads to the
placebo effect.
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Objective 1.9
Outline the ethical standards that psychological researchers must follow.
Key Terms
 Ethical codes:
o Legality: research doesn’t violate any law
o Institutional approval: colleges or organizations need to have an institutional review
board to make sure of the ethics of a research
o Informed consent: participants must be made aware of risks or purpose of a research
o Deception: participants must be debriefed at the end of a research
o Participants under another’s authority: those who participated through a third party
must be free do join or leave research at any time. Those who opted out of the
research must be treated equally
o Payment for participation: participants should be compensated for their time
o Confidentiality: ensuring participants’ privacy
o Publication: results of research should be made publicly available
o Animal welfare: must protect animal from excessive discomforted and animals
should be cared for by trained professional
Exercises
Read the following statements and place a checkmark beside those that violate the APA code of
ethical conduct in animal or human research.
1. _____ A researcher has been approved to collect data at a shopping mall.
2. __o__ During new student orientation, a researcher appears before an assembly of orientation
participants and asks them to complete a survey of racial attitudes. Some students receive a survey
with a cover page that states that they must write their names on the survey so that their responses
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can be sent to the university counseling center to determine whether they are in need of cultural
sensitivity training. The cover page on the other students' surveys state that their responses are
anonymous. After collecting the surveys, the researcher discloses that the study was about the
effects of anonymity on survey responses and that none of the students' responses will actually be
sent to the counseling center.
3. __o__ An elementary school principal conducted a study of reading skills at her school in order
to complete her doctoral dissertation. Since she was the school's chief administrator, she assumed
that she did not need to get students' or parents' permission to carry out the study.
4. __o__ A researcher did a study in which intelligence tests were administered to all participants.
She refused to allow participants access to their test results because she feared that they might be
upset by them.
5. __o__ A researcher sacrificed his subjects (rats) by depriving them of food them at the end of
the study so that he could obtain additional data on how long a rat can live without food.
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DOMAIN 2: BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR
Objective 2.1
Describe the various methods for studying the brain and its functions.
Key Term
 Electroencephalograph (EEG): less invasive of the lesions approaches, EEG is a technique
that records the electrical activity produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of
electrodes that are placed around the research participant’s head. It can track brain waves
when the subject engages in different activities. Advantage: subject can move around and
researchers can observe changes over fast time periods. Disadvantage: does not provide a
clear image of the structure of the brain.
 Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scan): uses X-ray tube to encircle the head and
produce cross sectional series of X-rays which are then combined to get a 3D image of brain
structures. Only produce static image.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic fields used to differentiate between types of
tissue in the brain. Less dangerous than CT scan as it does not expose patients to X-ray.
Only produce static image.
 Positron emission tomography (PET scan): monitors decay of a radioactive isotope injected
into the patient. Often combined with CT scans or MRIs to allow radiologists to see how the
brain is functioning.
 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): type of brain scan that uses magnetic field
to create images of brain activity in each brain area. Detects the amount of blood flow in
each brain region to project neural activity. Can produce clear, detailed pictures of brain
structures. Noninvasive. Most commonly used method of learning about brain structure.
Exercises
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1. Write the name of each technique in the blank beside its description
A. Electroencephalography (EEG) produces a record of electrical activity in the brain
B. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) produces images of brain structure and function
C. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) produces images of metabolic activity in the brain
D. Computerized Axial Tomography (CT scan) uses X-rays to produce images of brain structures
E. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) uses magnetic impulses to produce images of
brain structures
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Objective 2.2
Identify the basic components of the neuron.
Key Terms
 Neuron: a cell in the nervous system whose function it is to receive and transmit
information. Made up of three parts: cell body, dendrites, and axon.
 Dendrites: collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma.
 Axon: segmented fiber that transmits information away from the cell body toward the other
neurons or to the muscles and glands.
 Cell body: also known as soma. Contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive.
 Myelin Sheath: layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an
insulator and allows faster transmission of the electrical signal.
Exercises
1. What is a neuron?
A cell in the nervous system that receives and sends information
2. Label each part of the neuron.
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1. soma
2. dendrites
3. myelin sheath
4. terminal buttons
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Objective 2.3
Identify the basic components of the synapse.
Key Terms
 Synapse: space between neurons that serve as the means through which neurons connect and
disconnect through an electrochemical process.
 Synaptic gap: space between neurons
 Presynaptic neuron: sending neuron
 Postsynaptic neuron: receiving neuron
Exercises
1. Which statement about the synapse is false?
a. The synapse is the place where the dendrites of one neuron link up with the axon of another.
b. One neuron can form synapses with many others.
c. Synapses are filled with fluid.
d. Communication between neurons takes place at the synapse.
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Objective 2.4
Define action potential and explain the processes that occur when a neuron is activated.
Key Terms
 Action potential: change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is
transmitted.
 Resting potential: state in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of
negatively charged ions than does the area outside the cell.
Exercises
1. Number the events in the action potential in the order in which they occur.
__4__ Positively charged ions flow out of the neuron.
__2__ Positively charged ions flow into the neuron.
__3__ The cell membrane potential is positive.
__1__ The cell membrane potential is negative.
2. What is the "all or none" law?
Either the action potential moves all the way down the axon and the neuron fires
completely, or it does not fire at all.
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Objective 2.5
Identify the major neurotransmitters and explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior.
Key Terms
 Neurotransmitters: a chemical that relays signals across the synapses between neurons.
 Acetylcholine: hormone involved in memory, linked to Alzheimer’s.
 Dopamine: hormone involved in motivation and emotion, linked to schizophrenia.
 Serotonin: hormone involved in mood, sleep, and aggression, linked to depression.
 Norepinephrine: dual role chemical. Increases arousal and plays a role in learning and
memory as a neurotransmitter. Stimulates the biological responses associated with fear and
anxiety as a hormone. Linked to the fight-flight response.
 Endorphins: released by vigorous exercise, the body’s natural pain relievers.
Exercises
1. Which of the following statements about neurotransmitters is false?
a. Neurotransmitters allow impulses to flow from one neuron to another.
b. Neurotransmitters prevent impulses from flowing from one neuron to another.
c. Neurotransmitters are stored in the cell bodies of neurons.
d. Each neurotransmitter is associated with a unique receptor.
e. Unused neurotransmitter are recycled by neurons and used again.
2. Fill in the blank with the appropriate neurotransmitter:
A. __Norepinephrine__ influences eating, alertness, wakefulness.
B. __ Acetylcholine __ is involved in movement and memory.
C. __Serotonin__ affects mood and sleep.
D. __Endorphins__ provide pain relief
E. __Dopamine__ is involved in attention and movement
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Objective 2.6
Explain the difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Key Terms
 Central nervous system: system that is made up of the brain and the spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system: the neurons that link the CNS to skin, muscles, and glands.
Exercises
1. Label each structure as belonging to the (a) central nervous system or (b) peripheral nervous
system
A. __a__ spinal cord
B. __b__ nerves that carry messages from the brain to the body
C. __a__ brain
D. __b__ nerves that carry messages from the body to the brain
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Objective 2.7
Explain the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Key Terms
 Autonomic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that governs the
internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation,
perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal.
 Sympathetic nervous system: division of the ANS that is involved in preparing the body for
behavior, particularly in response to stress, by activating the organs and the glands in the
endocrine system.
 Parasympathetic nervous system: division of the ANS that calms the body by slowing the
heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from activities that the sympathetic
nervous system causes.
Exercises
1. During an emergency, your sympathetic nervous system prepares you for action.
2. After an emergency passes, your parasympathetic nervous system restores your physical
functions to a normal state.
3. Nerves that enable your body to carry out involuntary functions are part of the autonomic
nervous system.
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Objective 2.8
Identify the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, and describe their functions.
Key Terms
 Brain stem: oldest and innermost region of the brain. Designed to control the most basic
functions of life like breathing, attention, motor responses.
 Medulla: area of the brain stem that controls heart rate and breathing.
 Cerebellum: “little brain”, situates behind the brain stem. Coordinates voluntary movement
and thinking (through connections to the frontal and parietal cortex), contributes to
emotional responses, discriminates between different sounds and textures.
 Pons: spherical shape above the medulla that helps control the movements of the body,
playing a particularly important role in balance and walking.
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Exercises
1. Fill in the chart:
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION
BRAIN STEM
Oldest and innermost part of the brain, designed to control
most basic functions of life like breathing, attention, motor
responses.
MEDULLA
Controls breathing and heart rate. In some cases this alone is
enough to sustain life
CEREBELLUM Coordinates voluntary movement and thinking through
connections to the frontal and parietal cortex. Contributes to
emotional responses and helps differentiate between sounds
and textures.
PONS
Controls movements of the body and helps with balancing
and walking
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Objective 2.9
List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus.
Key Terms
 Hypothalamus: brain structure that contains a number of small areas that perform a variety of
functions, including linking the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland. Located just under the thalamus, it helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst,
and sex.
Exercises
1. List five processes that are regulated by the hypothalamus:
A. Body temperature
B. Hunger
C. Sex
D. Thirst
E. Creating feelings of pleasure based on the satisfactions of above needs
2. The hypothalamus is located in the
a. forebrain
b. hindbrain
c. midbrain
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d. spinal cord
Objective 2.10
Describe the limbic system, and list the responses and behaviors affected by it.
Key Terms
 Limbic system: responsible for memory and emotions, responses to reward and punishment.
Located between the brain stem and the two cerebral hemispheres. Includes the amygdala,
hypothalamus, and hippocampus.
 Hippocampus: consists of two “horns” that curve back from the amygdala. Stores
information in long-term memory. A person cannot build new memories if it is damaged, but
older memories are untouched.
 Amygdala: consists of two almond-shaped clusters. Primarily responsible for regulating our
perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and fear.
Exercises
1. __Amygdala__ plays an important role in emotion, especially fear.
2. __Hippocampus__ enables the brain to store memories.
3. __Limbic system__ a group of structures that are involved in emotions and memory.
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Objective 2.11
Describe the components of the cerebrum and their functions.
Key Terms
 Cerebrum: newer part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex and corpus callosum.
 Corpus callosum: region that normally connects the two halves of the brain and supports
communication between the hemispheres.
 Cerebral hemispheres: cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left and right), and
each hemispheres into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.
 Cerebral cortex: wrinkled and folded as opposed to other animals, creating more surface area
and size for increase capacities for learning, remembering, and thinking. Outer bark-like
layer of the cerebrum that allows humans to use language, acquire complex skills, create
tools, and live in social groups.
Exercises
1. What happens in the cerebrum?
It’s made up of two cerebral hemispheres and is responsible for complex human
functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, languages, complex skills.
2. Label each of the following descriptions as (a) corpus callosum, (b) cerebral hemispheres, and
(c) cerebral cortex.
__c__ convoluted covering of the cerebrum
__a__ membrane that connects the cerebral hemispheres
__b__ right and left halves of the cerebrum
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Objective 2.12
Explain the functions of the frontal lobes.
Key Terms
 Association areas: areas in which sensory and motor information is combined and associated
with our stored knowledge. Involve higher mental functions like learning, thinking, planning,
judging, moral reflecting, figuring, and spatial reasoning.
 Frontal lobes: responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and judgement.
 Motor cortex: part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by
sending signals to the cerebellum and spinal cord.
 Broca's area: left frontal lobe, controls facial movements and the production of language.
 Broca's aphasia: resulted from a stroke or trauma to the Broca’s area that affects the ability to
speak.
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Exercises
1. Fill in the chart:
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION
ASSOCIATION Sensory and motor information combination to associate to
AREAS
stored knowledge. Serve to support higher mental functions like
learning, thinking, planning, judging, moral reflecting, figuring,
and spatial reasoning
MOTOR
Controls and executes movements of the body
CORTEX
BROCA'S
Controls facial movements and the production of language
AREA
2. Which is the best description of the language abilities of a person who suffers from
Broca's aphasia?
a. They cannot understand spoken language.
b. They can only understand the speech of others who speak very slowly.
c. Their speech cannot be understood by others.
d. They must put forth a great deal of effort to speak.
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Objective 2.13
Explain plasticity.
Key Terms
 Plasticity: the brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to
experience or damage, enabling us to learn and remember new things and
adjust to new experiences.
Exercises
1. What is plasticity?
The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to
experience or damage, enabling us to learn and remember new things and
adjust to new experiences.
2. What is the relationship between age and plasticity?
The brain is most “plastic” when young and continues to be observed as
adults as we learn new information.
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Objective 2.14
Define the endocrine system and explain the influence of the pituitary and adrenal glands
on behavior.
Key Terms
 Endocrine system: the chemical regulator of the body that consists of glands
that secrete hormones
 Hormones: chemical that moves throughout the body to help regulate emotions
and behaviors
 Pituitary gland: small pea-sized gland located near the center of the brain.
Responsible for controlling the body’s growth.
 Adrenal glands: located on top of each kidney. Produce hormones that regulate
salt and water balance in the body, and involved in metabolism, the immune
system, and sexual development and function.
Exercises
1. The endocrine system is a series of glands that produce hormones .
2. The adrenal glands produce norepinephrine and epinephrine.
3. The pituitary gland is the body's "master gland" and produces hormones that
contribute to growth.
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Objective 2.15
Define behavior genetics.
Describe the function of the mirror neuron system (MNS).
Key Terms
 Mirror neuron system (MNS): neurons in the frontal lobes that provide the
biological basis for observational learning.
 Behavior genetics: research techniques that scientists use to learn about the genetic
and environmental influences on human behavior by comparing the traits of
biologically and nonbiologically related family members.
Exercises
1. Behavioral geneticists use family studies and adoptive studies to examine the
relative effects of genetics and environments on behavior.
2. What is the role of the MNS in learning from and teaching other?
They support learning through mental imitation and contribute to perception of
others’ emotions and to empathy.
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