Mechanisms of Heat
Transfer, Chapter 1
Dr.Eng. Hamdy A. Kandil
17th February 2013
Lecture 1
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Lecture 1
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What is heat transfer?
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Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfer is heat transfer.
In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat
tranfer (heat tranfer per unit time) than the amount of heat
transfer, e.g.
Heat treatment of metals: (a) quenching and (b) annealing.
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Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Barn
Water
1- Radiation
2-conduction
3-convection
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MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
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Heat can be transferred in three
different ways: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
All modes of heat transfer require
the existence of a temperature
difference, and all modes of heat
transfer are from the hightemperature medium to a lower
temperature one.
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Conduction, Convection & Thermal Radiation
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Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium due to
a temperature gradient.
In contrast, the convection refers to heat transfer that occurs
between a surface and a fluid (at rest or in motion) when they
are at different temperatures.
Thermal radiation refers
to the heat transfer that
occurs between two
surfaces at different
temperatures. It results
from the energy emitted
by any surface in the form
of electromagnetic waves.
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Conduction
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Physical Mechanism of Conduction
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Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the molecules.
In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the molecules is due to the
random motion of the molecules as well as the vibrational and
rotational motions.
When two molecules possessing different kinetic energies collide,
part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic (higher
temperature) molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower
temperature) particle,
In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects: the lattice
vibrational waves induced by the vibrational motions of the
molecules positioned at relatively fixed position in a periodic manner
called a lattice, and the energy transported via the free flow of
electrons in the solid.
The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice
and the electronic components.
The thermal conductivity of pure metals is primarily due to the
electronic component, whereas the thermal conductivity of
nonmetals is primarily due to the lattice component.
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The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends
on the way the molecules are arranged.
For example, the thermal conductivity of diamond, which is a
highly ordered crystalline solid, is much higher than the thermal
conductivities of pure metals, as can be seen from Table 1-1.
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Conduction
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is the transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases.
In gases and liquids, conduction is
due to the collisions of the molecules
during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination
of vibrations of molecules in a lattice
and the energy transport by free
electrons.
A cold canned drink in a warm room
eventually warms up to the room
temperature as a result of heat
transfer from the room to the drink
through the aluminum can by
conduction
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Conduction
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It is observed that the rate of heat conduction
through a layer of constant thickness Δx is
proportional to the temperature difference ΔT
across the layer and the area A normal to the
direction of heat transfer, and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer, Δx .
where the constant of proportionality kt is the thermal conductivity
of the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to
conduct heat (Table 1-1).
Materials such as copper and silver, which are good electric
conductors, are also good heat conductors, and therefore have high
kt values.
Materials such as rubber, wood, and styrofoam are poor conductors
of heat, and therefore have low kt values.
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Heat Transfer depends on the
thermal conductivity of the material
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The range of
thermal
conductivity
of various
materials at
room
temperature.
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
temperature
profile
In the limiting case of  x → 0,
the equation above reduces to
the differential form
hot wall
dT
dx
cold wall
x
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which is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
It indicates that the rate of heat conduction in a direction is
proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,
and the temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. Therefore, a
negative sign is added in the Eq. to make heat transfer in the
positive x direction a positive quantity.
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Example:
The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and
0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal
conductivity is k 0.8 W/m · °C . The temperatures of the inner and
the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 25°C
and 0°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine:
(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and
(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of
electricity is $0.2/kWh.
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0C
25 C
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Solution:
(a) Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and
the area of the roof is:
A= 6 m×8 m=48 m2.
The steady rate of heat transfer through the roof is determined
to be
Q·=kA(T1-T2)/L= (0.8)(48 )(25-0)/0.25= 3840 W= 3.84 kW
(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour
period and its cost are determined from
Q = Q·t =(3.84 kW)(10 h) = 38.4 kWh
Why is the
bill so high?
Cost/day = (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy)
= (38.4 kWh)($0.2/kWh) =$7.68
Cost/month = (cost/day)×(30day/month)= $7.68×30=$230.4
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Thermal Diffusivity
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The thermal diffusivity is a
measure of how quickly a material
can carry heat away from a hot
source.
Since material does not just
transmit heat but must be warmed
by it as well,  involves both the
conductivity, k, and the volumetric
heat capacity, ρ cp.
k
Heat conducted



Cp
Heat stored
J m 3 kg.K m 2

m  s.K kg J
s
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Convection
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Convection
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Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.
The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat
transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also
complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing of cool air over its
top surface. Energy is first transferred to the air layer adjacent
to the surface of the block by conduction. This energy is then
carried away from the surface by convection; that is, by the
combined effects of conduction within the air and the motion of
the air, which removes the heated air near the surface and
replaces it by the cooler air.
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Forced and Free Convection
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Convection is called forced convection if the
fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a
surface by external means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
In contrast, convection is called free (or
natural) convection if the fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces induced by density
differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
For example, in the absence of a fan, heat
transfer from the surface of the hot egg will
be by natural convection since any motion in
the air in this case will be due to the rise of
the warmer (and thus lighter) air near the
surface and the fall of the cooler (and thus
heavier) air to fill its place.
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Forced and Free Convection
The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.
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Newton’s law of cooling
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The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from
Newton’s law of cooling, expressed as
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
A is the surface area through which heat transfer takes place,
Ts is the surface temperature, and
Tf is bulk fluid temperature away from the surface.
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the
fluid.
It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on
all the variables that influence convection such as:
the surface geometry,
the nature of fluid motion,
the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.
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Convection
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Lecture 1
Typical values of h, in
W/m2·K, are in the range
of 2–25 W/m2·K for the
free convection of gases,
50–1000 W/m2·K for the
free convection of
liquids,
25–250 W/m2·K for the
forced convection of
gases, 50–20,000
W/m2·K for the forced
convection of liquids,
and 2500–100,000
W/m2·K for convection
in boiling and
condensation processes.
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Radiation
Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur
between two bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder
than both of them.
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Lecture 1
Radiation
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Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by
radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the
speed of light) in a vacuum. This is exactly how the energy of
the sun reaches the earth.
In heat transfer studies, we are interested in thermal radiation,
which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature. It differs from other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays,
microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not
related to temperature.
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
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Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation of varying degrees.
However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation such
as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by the
interior regions of such material can never reach the surface,
and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed
within a few microns from the surface.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature Ts is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as
where A is the surface area and  = 5.67 * 10-8 W/m2 · K4 is the
Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody
is called blackbody radiation.
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Emissivity, 
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The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperatures and
is expressed as
where  is the emissivity of the surface.
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The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0    1, is
a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody
for which  = 1.
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Emissivity, 
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Absorptivity, 
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Another important radiation property of a surface is its
absorptivity, , which is the fraction of the radiation energy
incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. Its value is
in the range 0    1.
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a
blackbody is a perfect absorber ( = 1) as well as a perfect
emitter ( = 1).
In general, both  and  of a surface depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the radiation.
Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface are equal at the same temperature and
wavelength.
In most practical applications, the dependence of  and  on the
temperature and wavelength is ignored, and the average
absorptivity of a surface is taken to be equal to its average
emissivity.  = 
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Absorpitivity
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The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined
from
where Qinc is the rate at which radiation is incident on the
surface and  is the absorptivity of the surface.
For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the portion of incident
radiation that is not absorbed by the surface is reflected back.
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Absorption and Emission of Radiation
Energy out = Energy in
Emitted energy/Incident energy = Emissivity = .
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Black Bodies
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Lecture 1
Summer clothing: white
reflects radiant energy
better than black.
Until equilibrium is
reached, white stripes on
roads are at a
lower temperature than
unpainted asphalt.
Wrap an ice-cube in black
cloth and another in
aluminum foil and place
both in the sunshine. What
will happen?
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The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the
surface and the radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat
transfer.
If the rate of radiation absorption is greater than the rate of
radiation emission, the surface is said to be gaining energy by
radiation. Otherwise, the surface is said to be losing energy by
radiation.
In general, the determination of the net rate of heat transfer
by radiation between two surfaces is a complicated matter since
it depends on the properties of the surfaces, their orientation
relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation.
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However, in the special case of a relatively small surface of
emissivity  and surface area A at absolute temperature Ts that
is completely enclosed by a much larger surface at absolute
temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation (i.e., the amount of radiation emitted,
absorbed, or scattered by the medium is negligible), the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is
determined from
In this special case, the
emissivity and the surface
area of the surrounding
surface do not have any
effect on the net radiation
heat transfer.
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Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
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Not all three can exist simultaneously in a
medium. For example, heat transfer is only
by conduction in opaque solids, but by
conduction and radiation in
semitransparent solids. Thus, a solid may
involve conduction and radiation but not
convection.
However, a solid may involve heat transfer
by convection and/or radiation on its
surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces. For example, the outer surfaces
of a cold piece of rock will warm up in a
warmer environment as a result of heat
gain by convection (from the air) and
radiation (from the sun). But the inner
parts of the rock will warm up by
conduction.
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Heat transfer is by conduction and
possibly by radiation in a still fluid and
by convection and radiation in a flowing
fluid.
In absence of radiation, heat transfer
through a fluid is either by conduction
or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection can be viewed as combined
conduction and fluid motion
Thus, when we deal with heat transfer
through a fluid, we have either
conduction or convection, but not both.
Also, gases are practically transparent
to radiation, except that some gases are
known to absorb radiation strongly at
certain wavelengths.
Liquids, on the other hand, are usually
strong absorbers of radiation.
Lecture 1
Combined Heat
transfer coefficient:
Q total = hcomb (Ts – T)
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Example :
Consider a person standing in a breezy
room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of
heat transfer from this person if the
exposed surface area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 6
W/m2 · °C . Convection can be viewed as
combined conduction and fluid motion.
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Solution :
Heat is transfered from the person by convection and radiation. From
the above table the emissivity of human skin is 0.95,

·
Q conv=hAs(Ts -T)= 6
W
m2  C
·
4
Q rad  εσA s (Ts4  Tsurr
)
 0.95  5.67  10
8
 1.6m2  (29  20 ) C  86.4W
W
m2  K 4
 1.6m2  (302 4  393 4 )K 4  81
.7W
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