Impact of Mobile Applications and Assisted
Language Learning
Table of Content
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Background & Literature review ............................................................................................................. 4
Discussion................................................................................................................................................ 6
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 7
References .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Abstract
Making use of technology in teaching and learning environments is an important aspect which has
warranted researchers’ attention since the past two decades. Technology plays a significant role in
teachers’ and students’ lives since it has brought about transformations in the way teaching and learning
were previously being delivered. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Mobile-Assisted
Language Learning (MALL) are examples of such changes brought about with the advent of technology.
Recent developments in mobile technology has revolutionised language learning and continues to be
viewed as a boon to the English language teaching. Although MALL has gained in popularity in the past
decade, research in CALL continues to grow and more subsets emerge as a result. MALL is a subset of CALL
and share the common language assisted learning component. However, the portability of mobile devices
has made MALL more popular and mobile technology has brought about novel methods to suit diverse
learning styles and pedagogies which can be tailored to learners’ needs and enable active learning to take
place, thus, enhancing English language teaching and learning. Taking digital technologies as an enabling
platform for developments in MALL , this review illustrates how digital technologies has tremendous
advantages and also come with its associated drawbacks in the SLA context when using technology. For the
purpose of this review, only the constructivist theory, relating to Second Language Acquisition theory, has
been considered with respect to to technology integration in language learning. It also points towards the
direction of the digital divide, which illustrates the gap between those who have adequate access to and
are able to use digital technologies, linking language, culture and identity. As a result, we understand that
implied characteristics cannot be applied by default whereby one would assume that if people were to have
regular access to, frequently make use of, and possess the required competencies, then other associated
benefits would inevitably find their way into one’s lifestyle, rather we are geared towards a more universal
conclusion that shows factors relating to technology and society are inextricably complex when viewed in
relationships among one another, as evidenced by digital social inequalities perpetrated by a number of
causes such as slow economic development and unjust political decisions contributing towards more social
injustice.
1
Introduction
Recent advances in digital technologies have brought about tremendous changes in our lives and facilitated
numerous processes. The way we used to travel, communicate, teach and learn two decades ago have
remarkably changed in the sense we have now adopted ubiquitous technology in almost every aspect of
our daily lives (Bell & Dourish, 2007), ranging from the moment that we wake up with alarms set on our
mobile phones, to scheduling activities on online calendars with effective reminders, to teaching and
learning using Digital Technologies (DTs), which include mobile and collaborative technologies enabled by
the Internet and other telecommunication networks. With the advent of DTs, the value-creation process
has been digitalized and their adoption have enhanced productivity and performance (Kleis et al., 2012).
Likewise, the different facets and the diverse features of language learning have also been exposed to the
unobtrusive nature of technology whereby developments in Educational Technology have enabled Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) to be seamlessly integrated into language practice using computers and mobile
devices. SLA, or sometimes also referred to as, L2 acquisition can be defined as the process of acquiring
another language once the native language or first language (L1) acquisition has already been established
(Chapelle & Sauro, 2017).
For the purpose of this review, the scope has been delimited only to two selected papers (Ortega, 2017;
Seibert Hanson & Brown, 2020), since there has been a growing focus on DTs that support L2 acquisition,
specifically, whereby Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Mobile-assisted Language Learning
(MALL) have emerged as potential tools in language instruction and SLA.
Ortega (2017), in the first paper selected for this review, provides an insight into the normalization process
of technology that has occurred around the world, and uses the United Kingdom as example. The study also
illustrates the connection that can be established between multilingualism, digital literacy, and social justice
whereby schooling creates both a marginalized setting for some, while it can also benefit those who can be
considered as already-privileged, due to social status, for example. Those who continue to make use of the
same language at home and at school, for instance, English, they are more likely to continue to adopt the
language, and add other languages. Therefore, we become conscious that while differences in the way that
continuity in language use alongside family support and access to education, technology, and regular
exposure to the English language continue to exist, then digital social inequalities will also remain.
The second article selected for this review, by Seibert Hanson and Brown (2020), considers the effectiveness
of a spaced-repetition smartphone application (Anki) for long-term memory retention so as to improve
learners’ second language learning (Spanish) at university level. Anki was provided as a course requirement
and learners needed to use the app regularly. It has been reported that students trying to acquire a second
language often study using methods suitable for short-term performance. The factors considered in this
experimental study included existing abilities, motivation, self-efficacy, and beliefs of learners. However,
irregular usage and low enjoyment have been reported due to learners’ reluctance to use the app. This
could be due to the fact that learners did not have control over the choice of the app to learn Spanish,
which does not tally with the constructivist theory. Therefore, it would be interesting to have more
experimental research which takes into consideration groups of learners where one group can be given the
choice to use an app, while another control group can be imposed a specific app, so as to advance SLA’s
empirical base.
These two articles further the research in CALL and MALL while also shedding light on the importance of
language, culture and identity in the face of rapidly-changing technologies, while discussing the different
ways that new technologies, mainly CALL and MALL, can be used to facilitate SLA, along with the
competencies required for learners to participate in an increasingly digital world, without being
2
discriminated against due to differences such as race, ethnicity, gender, social class amongst others. The
two chosen papers for this review differ significantly in their methodologies and study approach in the
sense that while Ortega (2017) contributed to the CALL-SLA literature, Seibert Hanson and Brown (2020)
have advanced MALL research with an experiment involving university students and using a control group
to test for the effectiveness of the Anki smartphone application in learning Spanish. Nonetheless, both
address relevant matters pertinent to SLA and sociolinguistics which have become intertwined in terms of
technology usage and adoption with regards to language learning.
While CALL can be broadly defined as the application of computing in language teaching and learning (Levy,
1997) with highly interactive computer-based resources widely facilitated by the Internet, MALL harnesses
the potential of mobile phones to support language learning where convenience, accessibility and
portability are often perceived key benefits (Kukulska‐Hulme, 2012).
Both CALL and MALL have impacted language acquisitions to such an extent that a modern language class
can be clearly discernible from a traditional one, in the sense that mobile technology has revolutionised
language learning with a plethora of multimedia features not present 30 years ago (Sato & Burden, 2020).
Researchers as well as practitioners have observed the potential and the importance of technology in
enhancing the teaching and learning of the English language, especially when the COVID-19 pandemic
affected the whole world in 2020 and imposed a rather drastic shift to remote learning which in turn
promoted independent learning. At the same time, this accelerated switch to digital platforms and
increased usage of DTs meant that learners as well had to be equipped with the relevant digital
competencies in order to allow them to effortless navigate the digital world and take control of their own
learning. Compared to those who can be considered as underprivileged due to technological and
educational barriers, those who have access to adequate resources could learn more effectively and
increase their retention of the language with the appropriate technological tools (Yaman & EKMEKÇİ, 2016;
Yang, 2013).
3
Background & Literature review
Table 1 provides a brief overview of the two selected papers for the purpose of this review.
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Smartphones have been characterized as highly convenient and readily available for use due to their
portable nature. Their omnipresence in students’ and teachers’ lives implies that language learning
can be broadly simplified with the continuous usage of installed smartphone applications related to
language learning. Studies related to the use of smartphone applications, commonly referred to as
apps, for language learning have found promising results on language improvement and learner
engagement. However, they have mostly focused on small samples of learners using apps that were
selected by the researchers or the teacher rather than on learners using apps of their own choice
(Falloon, 2013; García Botero et al., 2019) which is in line with what Seibert Hanson and Brown (2020)
have found since the chosen app was considered a requirement for the course and could have felt to
be cumbersome by learners. Another language learning app, busuu, has been found to be highly
suitable for learning languages, and comprises over 60 million of registered users (Nushi &
Jenabzadeh, 2016). The app features popular activities such as reading, writing, and listening along
with vocabulary practice and translations. Additionally, activities can be shared with other users,
either online and offline, who are native speakers of 12 different languages to obtain authentic
feedback and accurate corrections when learning a particular language. This social component turns
the app into a collaborative environment, which has been found to be essential when learning new
languages in general (Kukulska‐Hulme & Viberg, 2018; Lin et al., 2011; Su & Zou, 2020). Therefore, it
would be interesting to incorporate social elements in apps or while using these apps among learners
to enhance the learning experience and sustain user engagement for longer periods of time.
To further the analysis, it is important to compare and contrast CALL and MALL, although they both
share the common components of assisted language learning. Another study by Kukulska‐Hulme
(2012) makes a distinction between CALL and MALL in the sense that MALL particularly refers to the
use of portable devices to access novel ways of learning, with an emphasis on continuous and ad hoc
usage and interaction. Although in the past decade it would be more relevant to associate mobile
learning to learners compared to teachers, a new trend has emerged whereby teachers’ are now more
cognizant of the benefits of using assisted technologies to facilitate language as the evidence base
regarding this practice has considerably grown (Burston, 2016; Yavuz & Ozdemir, 2019). New teachers
are no longer considered as digital immigrants and they are well-versed in the use of DTs.
(Bărbuceanu, 2020). Additionally, the idea of the flipped classroom described by Hojnacki (2018) also
suggests that with the capabilities present in smartphones, a learner-centered environment can be
created where teachers only act as facilitators and provide adequate guidance to learners only
necessary, thereby promoting independent learning.
Delving deeper into the widespread use of technology and the way it has changed our lives and how
we communicate, this transformation has significantly influenced educational practices, the
opportunities available to learn in different contexts and to acquire lifelong learning skills. Young
learners who are termed as digital natives are at ease with using computer devices, mobile phones
and the Internet in their everyday lives and feel more engaged with activities that involve technology
(Bărbuceanu, 2020). Comparative to language learning, performing physical activities for the younger
generations in this day and age, consists of wearing smart fitness trackers such as FitBit or Apple Watch
to keep track of their physical activity levels, weight, water consumption, amongst others (Strath &
Rowley, 2018; Sullivan & Lachman, 2017).
In line with the above statement, it has been found that the social class of an individual has the
potential to influence his lifestyle. People who have regular access to and use technology frequently
for enabling purposes tend to have higher living standards. Research has shown that they are more
likely to have benefitted from higher education, earn higher incomes and have a lifestyle that includes
studying some foreign-language and being proficient in technology use, possessing various consumer
goods like their own houses, cars and household gadgets (Hargittai, 2010; Warschauer & Matuchniak,
2010). Villanti et al. (2017) and Jackson et al. (2008) have also found that race and ethnicity
consistently correlates with technology use. Age has also been found to be associated to less
technology use, whereby the older generations tend to be less technology-savvy (Gell et al., 2015; Yu
5
et al., 2016). However, the idea that younger age would be related to technological savviness has not
been established, rather it is older age which is associated with less frequent use and less proficiency
(Hargittai, 2010). Therefore, it would be wise not to make untested assumptions with respect to digital
literacy proficiencies without proper observation and experimentation of the various profiles so as not
to further widen the digital divide. It would be preferable to take proper measures regarding
technology access and usage that demarginalise people to enable social justice to prevail.
Discussion
Mobile devices, particularly smartphones and tablets, have provided with language teachers with
numerous opportunities to assist them in their teaching and learning approaches. As described earlier,
MALL has stemmed from a branch of CALL and has highly encouraged ubiquitous learning. Klimova
(2018) and Woodcock et al. (2012) have revealed that smartphones enabled students to learn
anywhere and anytime when they were equipped with their smartphones, learning apps, and
accessible digital learning materials. In the context of language learning, researchers have observed
that MALL has successfully entered students’ regimen of study in order to help them to acquire the
skills and learn the components of a second language and have been compared to the advantages to
that of hiring a private tutor.
Since mobile devices cater for instant access to the Internet and to several applications, language
learners now have more attractive opportunities in comparison to formal settings for language
learning, For instance, learners are able to listen to a foreign language on the go via YouTube on the
bus or playing online digital games related to language learning while waiting in a queue. Language
learning has improved with the existence of mobile devices and the accompanying applications
whereby vocabulary practice, reading skills, translations and other activities can be easily supported
to enhance the learning experience (Levy, 2009).
These findings are only consistent across studies that have reported the use of apps by learners who
have themselves participated in the selection process and chosen the apps to learn the elements of a
language. Low usage and attrition rate, drop-outs and few engagement have been associated with
apps that were imposed on learners and comprised of no or limited social features, which is in line
with the findings presented by Seibert Hanson and Brown (2020). In the same vein, a new term MALU
coined by Jarvis and Achilleos (2013) describes the opportunities available with the regular and daily
use of mobile devices where learners are able to easily “pick up” a language for a range of social or
academic purposes, such that the social tools act as a stimulus for second language learners to
accelerate their learning by communicating in real-time with native speakers, which in turn allows
them to be up-to-date and take control of their learning.
Along with the pervasiveness of technology, there are also associated drawbacks which became
apparent. Since there is not a single and direct way to integrate technology, challenges are abundant
which need careful consideration when using technology with young people, for instance privacy
concerns. With the ubiquity of smartphones, social media and various gaming applications, some
learners find it difficult to stay off their phones and the addiction is causing academic problems
(Aljomaa et al., 2016; Kibona & Mgaya, 2015). Additionally, digital technology tools evolve rapidly and
not everyone around the world can make use of upgraded systems at the same pace, hence delaying
access to technological progress in less developed countries remain an issue that needs to be tackled
in order to bridge the widening gap of digital inequalities.
Last but not least, Goldoni (2017) and Obasi (2021) have also investigated the ways that race, gender,
ethnicity, social class amongst other social factors have impacted language learning, leading us to the
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idea of social justice. Nieto (2004) also stated that for social justice to prevail in education, it needs to
be adaptable to the language needs of linguistically diverse learners. Numerous schools around the
world promote only English at the detriment of the learners’ first languages, which tends to lead to
fragmented identities and disengaged learning. Removing learners’ first languages corresponds to
stripping them of their true identities. A growing body of evidence shows the contribution of language
to one’s identity where the implication is that those who adopt another language other than their
mother-tongue, might be in danger of losing their identity. A foreign language sometimes emerged
from the coloniser’s language, who often were oppressors, but despite the invasion, younger and
newer generations not only speak the coloniser’s language but actually come to adopt the whole
culture that revolves around it.
Conclusion
Technological tools and applications offer the opportunity to cater for different learning styles while
also providing teachers and learners with a wealth of research to facilitate teaching and learning.
Although technology integration comes with its own set of challenges, where technological tools,
applications and platforms form the environment in which language materials are presented and
delivered, there is growing pressure to adhere to purposeful usage for improving language learning.
Technology has been considered as an effective tool for teaching English particularly in the context on
second language, whereby the subject is taught through the use of digital tools, notably digital devices
and applications. Teachers and learners use technology with a view to promote usage of English via
activities such as vocabulary practice, enhance reading and writing skills and translations. It is also
important to provide adequate training to teaching personnel so that technology awareness does not
become cumbersome in the teaching and learning process, which would lead ultimately to fewer longterm engagement rates of technology use in the classroom. Research in technology, identity and SLA
has successfully shown that second language acquisition is an intricate process which highly involves
cognition and social behaviour. There is no question that mobile technology is an invaluable tool for
teachers and learners alike, as in modern setting, a mobile educational device for language acquisition,
equipped with an accompanying application, leads to higher learner engagement and motivation
when they are provided with timely feedback about their work. This in turn promotes autonomous
learning in a collaborative environment whereby learners acquire knowledge sharing skills while also
feeling a sense of belonging to the language learning community. Therefore, we learn that linguistic
diversity prospers in the digital world and that technology is an essential tool in language learning,
especially in SLA. However, access to and usage of the Internet and other new technologies are not
the same everywhere with differences also occurring in the range of digital activities, as a result of
social and demographic characteristics.
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