The Journal of Experimental Education
ISSN: 0022-0973 (Print) 1940-0683 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjxe20
School Belonging, Ethnic Identity, and
Psychological Adjustment Among Ethnic Minority
College Students
Praveena Gummadam, Laura D. Pittman & Micah Ioffe
To cite this article: Praveena Gummadam, Laura D. Pittman & Micah Ioffe (2016) School
Belonging, Ethnic Identity, and Psychological Adjustment Among Ethnic Minority College Students,
The Journal of Experimental Education, 84:2, 289-306, DOI: 10.1080/00220973.2015.1048844
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2015.1048844
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THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION, 84(2), 289–306, 2016
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Copyright ISSN: 0022-0973 print/1940-0683 online
DOI: 10.1080/00220973.2015.1048844
MOTIVATIONS AND SOCIAL PROCESSES
School Belonging, Ethnic Identity, and Psychological
Adjustment Among Ethnic Minority College Students
Praveena Gummadam, Laura D. Pittman, and Micah Ioffe
Northern Illinois University
This study considers how the psychological adjustment of ethnic minority college students may be
linked to a sense of school belonging and ethnic identity, two constructs related to individuals feeling
like they belong to a larger group. Using self-reports from 311 undergraduates from ethnic minority
backgrounds, school belonging was found to be negatively associated with depressive symptoms,
and positively associated with perceived self-worth, scholastic competence, and social acceptance,
while ethnic identity was only found to be positively associated with self-worth. Furthermore, the
interaction between ethnic identity and school belonging was significantly associated with self-worth,
suggesting that in the absence of a sense of belonging at school, stronger ethnic identity was linked
to higher self-worth. College students reported the lowest levels of self-worth when they were neither
connected to their college nor connected to their ethnic group.
Keywords school belonging, ethnic identity, college students, self-worth, self-concept, depressive
symptoms, ethnic groups
OVER THE LAST few decades, college campuses have become more diverse, with 36% of college
students being from minority backgrounds in 2010 (Synder & Dillow, 2013). This growth in ethnic
diversity among undergraduate students is expected to continue in the decade ahead (Hussar &
Bailey, 2011). Yet students from minority backgrounds struggle in college, reporting worse
psychological adjustment than Caucasian students (Smith, Chesin, & Jeglic, 2014). Multiple
theories point to the importance of individuals feeling like they belong to a larger group in order
to enhance their psychological well-being (e.g., sociometer theory: Leary & Baumeister, 2000).
Among college students from minority backgrounds, two factors related to belonging to a group, a
sense of school belonging and ethnic identity, have been linked to better psychological adjustment
(e.g., Phinney & Alipuria, 1990; Pittman & Richmond, 2007); however, to date, these constructs
Address correspondence to Dr. Laura D. Pittman, Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb,
IL 60115, USA. E-mail: lpittman@niu.edu
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GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
have not been considered as independent variables simultaneously. This study examined how
these two constructs are associated, individually and collectively, to ethnic minority college
students’ psychological adjustment.
School Belonging
Growing evidence suggests that a sense of school belonging may be an important factor contributing to the psychological adjustment of college students. While likely linked to other constructs
related to the school environment (e.g., teacher support, school affiliation; for a discussion of this
issue see Barber & Schluterman, 2008), school belonging goes beyond these constructs. Goodenow (1993) defined school belonging as “the extent to which students feel personally accepted,
respected, and included by others in the school environment” (p. 80). This sense of belonging
is more than specific relationships with individuals in the school; it assesses the broader sense
of feeling connected to the larger school community. Much of the research examining school
belonging has focused on its links to educational outcomes, such as school engagement, academic
motivation, and academic achievement (e.g., Cham, Hughes, West, & Im, 2014; Eccles & Roeser,
2003). Yet the positive associations between school belonging and psychological adjustment have
also been well documented (e.g., Resnick et al. 1997). Specifically, a stronger sense of school
belonging has been associated with lower levels of depression (e.g., Anderman, 2002; Shochet
& Smith, 2014), increased self-esteem (e.g., Galliher, Rostosky, & Hughes, 2004), and increased
academic self-efficacy (e.g., Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996).
Although the majority of the research on school belonging has been conducted with middle
school and high school students, some studies have considered a “sense of belonging” at the
college level (e.g., Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods, 2007). Like research with younger ages,
most of this research has considered either factors predicting a sense of belonging at college (e.g.,
Hurtado & Carter, 1997; Wilson & Gore, 2013) or the links between sense of college belonging
and academic-related outcomes such as grades, academic engagement, persistence, or retention
(e.g., Faircloth & Hamm, 2005; Hausmann et al., 2007; Zumbrunn, McKim, Buhs, & Hawley,
2014). However, a smaller literature has considered the links between a sense of school belonging
at college and psychological outcomes (e.g., Freeman, Anderman, & Jenson, 2007; Pittman &
Richmond, 2007). For example, among college students, a sense of school belonging, both at
the classroom and at the broader school level, has been found to be positively associated with
aspects of the self, including academic self-efficacy, scholastic competence, social acceptance,
and global self-worth (Freeman et al., 2007; Pittman & Richmond, 2007, 2008; Zumbrunn et al.,
2014). Similarly, among graduate students, a sense of connection with their department was
associated with academic self-concept (Curtin, Stewart, & Ostrove, 2012). School belonging
among college students has also been linked with lower levels of depression and loneliness
(Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, & Early, 1996; Mounts, 2004; Pittman & Richmond, 2007, 2008).
Further, a sense of belonging in college was found to mediate the association between social class
and academic and social adjustment in college, such that lower social class predicted lower levels
of school belonging, which in turn predicted lower academic and social adjustment (Ostrove &
Long, 2007). Therefore, school belonging seems to be relevant in predicting the psychological
adjustment of college students, and may be important to consider when looking specifically at
ethnic minority college students.
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
291
Considerable research has examined how the sense of school belonging is linked to academic outcomes and retention among minority college students (e.g., Hurtado & Carter, 1997).
In fact, interventions aimed at enhancing African American college students’ sense of school
belonging have been associated with higher grade point averages (GPAs) over time (Shook &
Clay, 2012; Walton & Cohen, 2011); however, these interventions did not influence Caucasian
college students’ GPAs. While one of these interventions also found prospective links to improved
physical health and self-reported happiness (Walton & Cohen), few have considered how school
belonging is associated with psychological adjustment among ethnic minority college students.
For adolescents in middle or high school, school belonging has been negatively associated with
lower levels of depressive symptoms among Hispanic Americans, gifted African Americans and
Hispanic Americans, and refugees from Somalia (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007; Maurizi, Caballo,
Epstein-Ngo, & Cortina, 2013; Mueller & Haines, 2012). In addition, school belonging has been
positively linked to perceived academic competence among African American, Asian American,
and Hispanic American high school students (Faircloth & Hamm, 2005). Interestingly, Mounts
(2004) found no mean level differences in school belonging across four different ethnic groups
in a college sample; however, school belonging was found to be a stronger mediator between
campus racial climate and psychological adjustment (i.e., symptoms of depression and anxiety)
for African American as compared to Caucasian college students. In summary, while evidence
suggests a sense of school belonging is an important influence on psychological outcomes during
middle school and high school, more research is needed to examine these associations during
college.
Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity is another factor that has been linked to psychological adjustment among ethnic
minority adolescents and college students (e.g., Phinney & Alpuria, 1990; Umaña-Taylor et al.,
2014). Phinney (1996) defines ethnic identity as “an enduring, fundamental aspect of the self
that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings associated
with that membership” (p. 222). Specifically, those with a stronger identity have been found to
have a clearer commitment and sense of belonging to their group (Roberts et al., 1999). Ethnic
identity is a dynamic and complex construct involving exploration and commitment that develops
over time (Phinney, 1989) and is a part of a person’s inner feelings, daily experiences, and
interpersonal interactions (Gaylord-Harden, Ragsdale, Mandera, Richards, & Petersen, 2007).
During adolescence, identity formation is a central developmental task (Erikson, 1968), and the
development of one’s ethnic identity is considered particularly important among ethnic minority
youth (Phinney, 1989). Multiple theories posit that adolescents begin to formulate their ethnic or
racial identity by exploring and learning about their own group (e.g., Cross, 1994; Helms, 1990).
Recent work has found that ethnic identity continues to develop during emerging adulthood, with
most of this research focused on college students (e.g., Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014).
Previous research has found that ethnic minority college students who have a stronger ethnic
identity have more positive self-esteem, more self-confidence, and better overall psychological
adjustment (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990; St. Louis & Liem, 2005). Conversely, those who have
a less well-defined ethnic identity report more symptoms of anxiety and depression (Brittian,
Umaña-Taylor, Lee et al., 2013; Yip, Seaton, & Sellers, 2006). Findings have been consistent
across studies focused on specific ethnic groups, including Hispanic Americans (e.g., Cronin,
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GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
Levin, Branscombe, van Laar, & Tropp, 2012), Asian Americans (e.g., Lee, Yun, Yoo, & Nelson,
2010; Tran & Lee, 2010), and African Americans (e.g., Lorenzo-Hernández & Ouellette, 1998).
In fact, a meta-analysis of 184 studies revealed a moderate association between ethnic identity and
the well-being of ethnic minority individuals (r = .17), although stronger effect sizes were found
with measures of positive well-being (i.e., self-worth) as compared to maladaptive functioning
(i.e., depressive symptoms; Smith & Silva, 2011). Furthermore, the association appeared to be
stronger among individuals under 40 years of age, and no significant differences emerged based
on race, gender, or socioeconomic status (Smith & Silva, 2011). Thus, it appears that individuals
from a variety of ethnic minority groups in the United States benefit from having a stronger ethnic
identity.
School Belonging and Ethnic Identity
School belonging and ethnic identity have been linked to both positive and negative psychological
outcomes in adolescent and college student samples. Yet only one study was identified where both
constructs were considered. Specifically, Brown and Chu (2012) reported a positive association
between ethnic identity and school belonging among Mexican immigrant children in elementary
school, but in this study school belonging was considered a dependent, not independent, variable.
We argue that both of these constructs include the underlying concept of belonging to a larger
group, which has been discussed by a number of theories as important for individuals’ well-being.
According to the belongingness hypothesis (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), humans have a need for
belonging and social attachments, and when people feel that they belong, they feel more positive
about themselves. While Baumeister and Leary (1995) focused on specific relationships, they
acknowledged that the sense of belonging can also develop based on involvement with a larger
group (e.g., a political movement). Similarly, sociometer theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000)
suggests that individuals are motivated to enhance feelings of inclusion and decrease feelings of
rejection from groups in order to maintain their self-esteem. Therefore, those who feel excluded
or do not have a sense of belonging to a group are likely to experience lower levels of self-esteem
and more negative affect.
As stated earlier, individuals with a stronger ethnic identity have a clearer commitment and
stronger sense of belonging to their ethnic group (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Roberts et al., 1999),
while those with a stronger sense of school belonging feel more connected to their school
(Goodenow, 1993). Accordingly, ethnic minority college students can experience a sense of
belonging to a larger group through at least two ways: feeling connected to their college or
feeling connected to their ethnic group. Consideration of how these two factors function both
independently and collectively provides new information in understanding college students’
psychological adjustment. It may be that those with a stronger sense of belonging to both
these groups have particularly enhanced psychological adjustment. However, based on both
the belongingness hypothesis (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and sociometer theory (Leary &
Baumeister, 2000), a lack of connection to either their college or their ethnic group likely leads to
lower self-worth and negative psychological outcomes. Consequently, considering the combined
influence of these constructs on ethnic minority college students’ psychological adjustment is
warranted.
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
293
Current Study
This study examined how school belonging and ethnic identity, both individually and collectively,
were associated with psychological adjustment among ethnic minority college students. While
both of these constructs have been operationalized as being related to belonging to a larger
group (Goodenow, 1993; Phinney & Ong, 2007), they have not been considered as independent
variables simultaneously. Walton and Cohen (2011) suggested that members of minority groups
may be especially prone to feeling unsure about belonging to mainstream institutions like colleges,
making it particular relevant to study. In addition, the ethnic identity of ethnic minority college
students may be more salient on college campuses, where students are often experiencing more
diversity than in their high schools (Locks, Hurtado, Bowman, & Oseguera, 2008). Theoretically,
this more diverse context may make ethnic identity more important than when students are living
among others with a similar ethnic background (Brittian, Umaña-Taylor, & Derlan, 2013). Hence,
there may be two pathways that enhance the psychological adjustment of ethnic minority college
students, and exploring how they function together is needed.
Given the call to include both positive and negative outcomes when considering minority
populations (e.g., Garcı́a Coll et al., 1996), psychological adjustment was conceptualized as
including the presence of more positive perceptions of the self and fewer depressive symptoms.
Since college students focus on both academic and social pursuits (e.g., Arnett, 2004), aspects
of the self-system considered in this study were scholastic competence (i.e., how individuals
perceive themselves in the academic domain) and social acceptance (i.e., how individuals perceive
themselves in the social domain). In addition, the study assessed students’ perceptions of selfworth, which is thought to be influential in how individuals interact with their environment (e.g.,
Harter, 2012). Finally, self-reported depressive symptoms were assessed, as previous research has
frequently used lower levels of depressive symptoms as an indicator of psychological adjustment
(e.g., Brody, Yu, Chen, Miller, Kogan, & Beach, 2013; Chen, Benet-Martinez, Wu, Lam, &
Bond, 2012). Considering these four constructs, this study adds to our understanding of how both
school belonging and ethnic identity may be important to the psychological adjustment of ethnic
minority college students.
METHOD
Participants and Procedure
In total, 322 college students completed questionnaires during either the fall or spring semester at
a large, public Midwestern university, receiving credit for their introductory psychology course.
Eleven international students were excluded from the sample, leading to a final sample size of 311
(56% female; age M = 19.33 years; SD = 2.25 years). On average participants had been enrolled
at this university for 1.75 semesters (SD = 1.62), with 55% being freshmen. Most students (59%)
reported their family as being financially comfortable or having more than enough money, yet
others reported their families as only having enough money for basic necessities (27%), living
under meager conditions (12%), or experiencing extreme financial hardships (2%).
Participants were recruited through an online listing of all possible studies available to students
enrolled in Introduction to Psychology. On this listing, participants were informed that only those
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GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
“who identify as being an ethnic minority” were eligible. The final sample included 154 African
Americans, 47 Asian Americans, 64 Hispanic Americans, and 46 who identified as a part of
another ethnic minority (e.g., mixed heritage, Serbian, or Polish). The majority of the sample
(55%) identified themselves as third-generation Americans, with 37% and 8% identifying as
first- and second-generation Americans, respectively. It should be noted that approximately 30%
of the undergraduate population at this university were ethnic minorities.
Participants completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires in small-group sessions that lasted
approximately 45 minutes. They were informed that the purpose of the study was to understand
factors related to psychological adjustment among ethnic minority college students. All procedures were approved by the university’s internal review board. After reviewing and signing
the consent form, participants filled out demographic information and specific questionnaires
described in the following.
Measures
Demographic Information
Questions were asked to gather information regarding participant gender, ethnicity, age, and
generational status in the United States, as well as family socioeconomic status and parental
education level. To gather information on ethnicity, participants were asked to complete the
following open-ended item based on Phinney and Ong (2007): “In terms of ethnic group, I
.” In addition, a closed-ended item asked them to select which
consider myself to be
one of seven ethnic groups best fit their ethnicity, where one group was “mixed” and one group
was “other.” Responses between the open-ended and closed-ended items were compared and
were found to be consistent. Participants were classified as first generation if they were the only
person in their family born in the United States or if the individual and his or her parents and
grandparents were born in another country. Participants were classified as second generation if
at least one parent or grandparent and the individual were born in the United States. Individuals
were classified as third generation if at least one grandparent, one parent, and the individual were
born in the United States. Since many students are not aware of their family’s income, they were
asked to report their family’s standard of living using the following categories: 1 = has extreme
financial hardships/is living in poverty; 2 = is living under meager conditions; 3 = has enough
money for the basics; 4 = is comfortable; and 5 = has more than enough money.
School Belonging
The 18-item revised Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM; Goodenow, 1993)
measure was used to assess school belonging among participants. The PSSM was originally
devised to assess school belonging in high school students, but has been adapted to be used with
college students related to the university setting (Pittman & Richmond, 2007). For example, a
question was changed to “most professors at this university are interested in me” instead of the
original question, which was “most teachers at this school are interested in me.” It uses a 5-point
rating scale format with responses ranging from not at all true (1) to completely true (5). Both the
original and the college student revision of the PSSM have been found to have adequate internal
consistency and were linked to individual and school characteristics in expected ways (Goodenow,
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
295
1993; Pittman & Richmond, 2007). In this sample, the PSSM had good internal consistency
(α = .89 for total sample; α = .87–.89 across ethnic groups). While recent research suggests
that school belonging as measured by the PSSM is a multidimensional construct, across studies
there is not consistency in the factor structure supported (e.g., Ye & Wallace, 2014; You, Ritchey,
Furlong, Shochet, & Boman, 2011). Thus, like most research using the PSSM (e.g., Cham et al.,
2014; Shochet & Smith, 2014), this study continued to conceptualize school belonging as a single
dimension in our analyses.
Ethnic Identity
The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R; Phinney & Ong, 2007) was used
to measure the strength of ethnic identity among participants. The MEIM-R is a self-report scale
that consists of six items. There are an additional two items that are used to obtain demographic
information regarding ethnic group, for a total of eight items. This measure is a revision of the
original Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992) and is designed to better reflect the
two core factors of exploration and commitment believed to be integral to ethnic identity (Phinney
& Ong, 2007). Items are answered using a 5-point response format with choices ranging from
strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5). When research focuses on the overall strength of ethnic
identity, as was done in this study, Phinney and Ong (2007) suggest using the single overall score,
which is calculated by taking the mean of the items. Higher scores indicate a stronger ethnic
identity. The internal consistency of the MEIM-R has been shown to be acceptable in previous
research (Phinney & Ong, 2007) and in this sample (α = .88 for total sample; α = .84–.92 across
ethnic groups).
Self-Competence and Self-Worth
Three subscales from the Self-Perception Profile for College Students (Neemann &
Harter, 1986) were used to measure three separate aspects of self-competence among participants. Specifically, the four-item social acceptance and scholastic competence subscales and
the six-item global self-worth subscale were used. For each item participants were asked which
type of student they are most like (e.g., “Some students are not satisfied with their social skills
BUT other students think their social skills are just fine”). Once participants chose which type
of student they are most like, they were asked to choose a response option of either “Sort of
true for me” or “Really true for me.” This question format was used by the authors in order to
reduce the tendency of respondents to give socially desirable answers. Each subscale has half of
the items negatively worded. Composite scores were calculated by taking the average of all items
from each subscale, after reversing appropriate items. Higher scores indicate a greater sense of
competence and self-worth (Neemann & Harter, 1986). The internal consistencies of these scales
were acceptable in this sample for each subscale: social acceptance (α = .84 for total sample;
α = .81–.91 across ethnic groups), scholastic competence (α = .76 for total sample; α = .73–.82
across ethnic groups), and global self-worth (α = .84 for total sample; α = .81–.88 across ethnic
groups).
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GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
TABLE 1
Descriptive Statistics of Measures for Total Sample and Ethnic Subgroup (N = 311)
Measure
Total
(N = 311)
Means (SD)
Asian
(n = 47)
Mean (SD)
Hispanic
(n = 64)
Mean (SD)
African American
(n = 154)
Means (SD)
Other
(n = 46)
Means (SD)
F Ratio
Family standard of living
Generational status
School belonging
Ethnic identity
Depression
Global self-worth
Scholastic competence
Social acceptance
3.46(0.83)
2.19(0.94)
3.71(0.59)
3.90(0.79)
15.91(8.93)
3.24(0.61)
2.86(0.67)
3.12(0.78)
3.82(0.67)
1.11(0.43)
3.64(0.56)
3.69(0.87)
17.30(8.72)
3.00(0.63)
2.66(0.67)
2.98(0.84)
3.48(0.80)
1.48(0.76)
3.84(0.57)
3.82(0.87)
14.16(9.41)
3.30(0.60)
2.98(0.64)
3.14(0.72)
3.29(0.88)
2.86(0.50)
3.66(0.62)
4.04(0.69)
16.68(9.07)
3.32(0.58)
2.90(0.68)
3.12(0.81)
3.59(0.75)
2.04(0.89)
3.75(0.55)
3.77(0.81)
14.39(7.61)
3.15(0.64)
2.76(0.61)
3.22(0.65)
5.61∗∗
134.40∗∗∗
1.58
3.43∗
2.04
3.96∗∗
2.69∗
0.76
∗p
< .05, ∗∗ p < .01.
Depressive Symptoms
The 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977)
was used to assess depressive symptoms. Participants indicate how often they have experienced,
in the past week, each of 20 symptoms, using a 4-point rating scale format with choices ranging
from 0 and 3 (i.e., 0 = rarely or none of the time, less than 1 day to 3 = most or all of the
time, 5–7 days). The measure is scored by adding all of the responses, after reversing positive
items. The range of the overall score is between 0 and 60, with higher scores indicating a greater
presence of depressive symptoms (Radloff, 1991). The CES-D has been found to have good
internal consistency in previous research with a college population (Radloff, 1991) and in this
sample (α = .86 for the total sample; α = .82–.88 across ethnic groups). The validity of the CESD has been supported through expected positive correlations with other measures of depressive
symptoms (Radloff, 1977; Skorikov & Vandervoort, 2003), as well as the ability to discriminate
between a psychiatric inpatient sample and a nonclinical sample (Radloff, 1977).
RESULTS
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics of the independent and dependent variables for the total sample and each
ethnic group are presented on Table 1. One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted
to determine if there were significant differences in the variables by ethnicity. No significant differences were found between ethnic groups on school belonging, depressive symptoms, scholastic
competence, or social acceptance. However, there were significant differences between ethnic
groups in ethnic identity, global self-worth, family standard of living, and generation status. Post
hoc Bonferroni comparisons indicated that African Americans, on average, reported a stronger
ethnic identity and a lower family standard of living than Asian Americans. In addition, Asian
Americans had significantly lower global self-worth than either African Americans or Hispanic
Americans. Finally, the generational status of participants was significantly different for each
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
297
TABLE 2
Bivariate Correlations of Variables (N = 311)
School belonging
Ethnic identity
Depressive symptoms
Global self-worth
Scholastic competence
Social acceptance
∗p
School
belonging
Ethnic
identity
Depressive
symptoms
Global
self-worth
Scholastic
competence
Social
acceptance
1.00
.19∗∗∗
−.52∗∗∗
.43∗∗∗
.35∗∗∗
.39∗∗∗
1.00
−.11
.21∗∗∗
.18∗∗
.08
1.00
−.49∗∗∗
−.39∗∗∗
−.35∗∗∗
1.00
.56∗∗∗
.53∗∗∗
1.00
.22∗∗∗
1.00
< .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001.
pairwise comparison between ethnic groups, where African Americans had the highest generational status (i.e., their families had been in this country the longest), followed by those who
reported being from an ethnic group categorized as “other,” followed by Hispanic Americans and
then Asian Americans.
Preliminary analyses were run to determine whether there were associations between demographic and dependent variables. Significant correlations were found between dependent variables
and both students’ family standard of living and generational status. Specifically, the family standard of living was significantly correlated with depressive symptoms and scholastic competence
(r = -.26, p < .001, and r = .17, p = .002, respectively)1. In addition, generational status was
positively correlated with global self-worth (r = .12, p = .05). However, age, semester at the
university, and year in college (i.e., freshman, sophomore, etc.) were not significantly associated
with any of the dependent variables. In addition, based on independent-samples t-tests, using a
two-tailed test of significance, no gender differences were found on any of the dependent variables. Based on these analyses, the following variables were added as controls in the remaining
analyses: family standard of living, generational status, and ethnicity. Ethnicity was dummy
coded, with the African American ethnic group serving as the comparison group because it had
the greatest number of participants (n = 154).
Correlations among the dependent variables were examined to determine whether they were
measuring distinct constructs (see Table 2). The three self-competence scales were positively
correlated with one another, as would be expected given that they are subscales of the same
measure. However, these correlations were only moderate, suggesting that they are measuring
related but distinct constructs. Additionally, as expected, depressive symptoms were negatively
correlated with the measures of self-competence. School belonging and ethnic identity were positively correlated, but at a relatively low level. School belonging was also significantly associated
with all the dependent variables, such that better outcomes were found when students reported a
1Analyses were run to determine if dichotomizing the family standard of living variable into low-income versus
not would alter the findings. While this variable was found to similarly predict depressive symptoms and scholastic
competence, when used in the regressions as a control variable it accounted for less of the variance than the 5-point scale.
Based on these analyses, the 5-point scale was utilized in these analyses as it was the more conservative approach to
testing the associations of interest.
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GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
greater sense of school belonging. However, ethnic identity was only positively correlated with
global self-worth and scholastic competence.
Hierarchical Regressions
Hierarchical ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions were run predicting each of the four
dependent variables (i.e., depressive symptoms, scholastic competence, global self-worth, and
social acceptance). The demographic control variables of ethnicity, family standard of living, and
generational status were entered into the first step of each regression. In Step 2, school belonging
and ethnic identity were entered into the equation simultaneously. In Step 3, the interaction
term between school belonging and ethnic identity, which was created by multiplying the two
centered variables together, was entered. Significant interaction terms were probed using methods
suggested by Aiken and West (1991).
As shown in Table 3, Step 1 of the regression found a similar pattern of findings related to
demographic variables. That is, a better family standard of living was associated with better
psychological adjustment across all four dependent variables. In addition, generational status
was positively associated with social acceptance. Finally, in comparison to African Americans,
Asian Americans reported lower levels of self-worth and scholastic competence. In addition,
students from other ethnicities reported lower levels of scholastic competence compared to
African American students.
In Step 2, school belonging was strongly associated with all four adjustment outcomes explored, including a negative association with depressive symptoms and positive associations
with global self-worth, scholastic competence, and social acceptance. In comparison, having a
stronger ethnic identity was positively associated with only global self-worth. This suggests that,
compared to ethnic identity, a sense of school belonging is more strongly linked to adjustment
among ethnic minority college students.
In Step 3, a significant interaction was found between school belonging and ethnic identity
when predicting global self-worth, but not the other dependent variables. Specifically, as shown
in Figure 1, when school belonging was stronger, ethnic identity was not significantly associated
with self-worth (slope = 0.01, t(309) = 0.13, p > .05), but when school belonging was lower,
ethnic identity was positively associated with greater global self-worth (slope = 0.18, t(309)
= 5.60, p < .001). Framed another way, when a student had neither a stronger sense of ethnic
identity nor a stronger sense of school belonging, the student were found to have the lowest levels
of self-worth.
DISCUSSION
This study suggests that a sense of school belonging at the university level is associated with
the psychological adjustment of ethnic minority college students. In contrast, ethnic identity
was not strongly associated with psychological adjustment, especially when considered at the
same time as a sense of school belonging. However, in the absence of a strong sense of school
belonging, ethnic identity was linked with self-worth. This suggests that a strong feeling of
belonging to one’s own ethnic group may protect minority students who feel disconnected from
their college. In addition, it supports the idea, based on previous theory (Baumeister & Leary,
299
B
SE B
Depressive symptoms
β
.25∗∗∗
.01∗
.18∗∗∗
.05∗∗
R2
SE B
.04
.13∗
β
.40∗∗∗
.11∗
−0.14 (0.06) −.11∗
0.41 (0.05)
0.08 (0.04)
−0.01 (0.12) −.01
−0.33 (0.14) −.20∗
−0.18 (0.11) −.10
0.02 (0.06)
0.10 (0.04)
B
Global self-worth
.17∗∗∗
.00
.11∗∗∗
SE B
β
.30∗∗∗
.10
−0.01 (0.07) −.01
0.34 (0.06)
0.08 (0.05)
−0.05 (0.13) −.03
−0.45 (0.15) −.24∗∗
−0.26 (0.12) −.14∗
−0.07 (0.06) −.10
0.17 (0.05)
.21∗∗∗
B
Scholastic competence
.07∗∗∗
R2
∗p
Note. Gen status = generational status; Std liv. = family standard of living; SB = school belonging; EI = ethnic identity.
<.05, ∗∗ p <.01, ∗∗∗ p <.001.
Step 1
.09∗∗∗
Gen status
0.23 (0.79)
.02
Std. liv.
−2.90 (0.60) −.27∗∗∗
Ethnic group (control group = African American)
Hispanic
−1.64 (1.67) −.07
Asian
2.56 (2.00)
.10
Other
−1.24 (1.58) −.05
Step 2
.22∗∗∗
SB
−7.18 (0.75) −.48∗∗∗
EI
−0.14 (0.58) −.01
Step 3
.01
SB × EI
1.58 (0.88)
.09
Total R2
.32∗∗∗
R2
.18∗∗∗
.01
.14∗∗∗
.04∗
R2
TABLE 3
OLS Regression of Mental Health Outcomes by School Belonging and Ethnic Identity
SE B
−0.13 (0.08)
0.49 (0.07)
0.03 (0.06)
0.22 (0.15)
0.08 (0.18)
0.20 (0.14)
0.16 (0.07)
0.12 (0.05)
B
Social acceptance
−.08
.37∗∗∗
.03
.11
.04
.09
.20∗
.13∗
β
300
GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
FIGURE 1 Interaction between school belonging and ethnic identity predicting global self-worth.
1995; Leary & Baumeister, 2000), that not feeling connected to any group would be linked to
worse psychological adjustment.
This study adds to the growing literature suggesting that a sense of school belonging is an
important factor in the psychological adjustment of college students (e.g., Freeman et al., 2007;
Pittman & Richmond, 2008). Further, it extends this research by demonstrating these associations
among ethnic minority college students. While previous research has demonstrated a sense of
school belonging is linked to academic outcomes among minority college students (e.g., Hurtado
& Carter, 1997; Walton & Cohen, 2011), research examining its links to psychological adjustment
has been limited (but see Mounts, 2004). In this study, associations were found between school
belonging and multiple measures of psychological adjustment, including aspects of the self system
(i.e., scholastic competence, social acceptance, and global self-worth) and depressive symptoms.
School belonging may enhance psychological adjustment in multiple ways. For example, by
feeling like they belong at college, students may feel more comfortable approaching professors,
leading them to fare better academically and to have more positive perceptions of their scholastic
competence (Zumbrunn et al., 2014). Additionally, students who have a stronger sense of school
belonging have been found to have more positive peer relationships (e.g., Hamm & Faircloth,
2005), which has been linked to more positive self-perceptions of social acceptance (Parker,
Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz, & Buskirk, 2006). Further, college students who feel like they
belong to their college have been found to experience less loneliness (e.g., Mounts, 2004), which
has been linked to fewer depressive symptoms and improved feelings of self-worth (Vanhalst
et al., 2012). Future research could explore more explicitly the possible mechanisms through
which school belonging is associated with psychological adjustment. In addition, testing how
interventions targeting school belonging (e.g., Walton & Cohen, 2011) may impact indicators of
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
301
psychological adjustment is warranted, especially among ethnic minority college students (e.g.,
Smith et al., 2014).
Compared to school belonging, ethnic identity was less strongly associated with psychological adjustment in ethnic minority college students in this study. Specifically, while bivariate
correlations indicated ethnic identity was associated with both scholastic competence and global
self-worth, only a weak association was found with self-worth, after controlling for demographic
characteristics and school belonging. The lack of stronger support for a link between ethnic
identity and psychological adjustment was surprising based on previous research (e.g., Brittian,
Umaña-Taylor, Lee et al., 2013; Yip et al., 2006). However, this pattern of findings is consistent
with some previous research where ethnic identity has been more strongly linked to positive
outcomes (e.g., self-worth) as compared to negative outcomes (e.g., depressive symptoms; Silva
& Smith, 2011). Yet across all four outcomes, including self-worth, school belonging was the
stronger predictor. Thus, this study suggests that school belonging is more important to ethnic minority students’ psychological adjustment than feeling a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic group.
Considering that college students are often living away from home for the first time and
embedded within a new community, a sense of school belonging may be of particular importance.
Given that the majority of the sample were freshmen students, it may be that over time the
importance of school belonging decreases as students become more acclimated to school life.
In addition, the importance of both school belonging and ethnic identity could vary by context.
Benner and Graham (2007) found that the ethnic composition of a high school, especially in
comparison to the composition of their middle school, was associated over time with adolescents’
sense of school belonging. Similarly, the ethnic composition of the college campus has been
found to moderate the links between ethnic identity and psychological adjustment, such that it
has stronger associations when less diversity is present (Brittian, Umaña-Taylor, & Derlan, 2013).
Therefore, the strength of the associations between ethnic identity and psychological outcomes
may vary based on the level of diversity on the university campus.
However, as the significant interaction in the current study showed, when students were
not strongly connected to their school, ethnic identity was associated with self-worth. Using
longitudinal designs, future research should test whether there are two avenues available to
enhance feelings of self-worth among students from ethnic minority backgrounds: increasing their
connection to the broader campus community, and enhancing the strength of their ethnic identity.
In order to promote psychological adjustment among students, especially ethnic minority students,
college administrators may want to take two sets of actions. First, they could add components
to their new student orientation and/or advising programs that would enhance a sense of school
belonging. Second, they may want to add courses or campus events that target increasing the
knowledge and understanding of diverse populations. Given that college students are typically
still developing their ethnic identity (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014), such initiatives would likely
stimulate students to explore their ethnic heritage, which is related to developing a secure and
positive ethnic identity (Phinney, 2006). Taking steps to enhance both school belonging and ethnic
identity would likely help more students than either alone, as having a stronger ethnic identity
appears to be important when ethnic minority students do not feel like they belong at the university.
While school belonging and ethnic identity are two ways in which college students may feel
a sense of belonging to a broader community or group, they could have a sense of belonging
to multiple other groups not assessed in this study (e.g., religious or political organizations,
sororities/fraternities). Similar to how ethnic identity was linked to enhanced self-worth when
302
GUMMADAM, PITTMAN, AND IOFFE
school belonging was lower, students who feel a sense of belonging to these other groups may be
well adjusted, even when they do not feel connected to the university. In addition, the importance
of the quality of relationships with specific individuals would be important to consider and may
have an even more important influence on psychological adjustment than school belonging (e.g.,
Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Therefore, more research is needed considering the interplay between
school belonging and other ways in which college students may feel a sense of belonging.
This research was exploratory in nature and had multiple limitations that could be addressed
in future research. The cross-sectional nature of this study makes it impossible to infer causality
between the predictors and adjustment outcomes. In fact, it may be that those college students
who have more scholastic competence, self-worth, or social acceptance or fewer depressive
symptoms are better able to connect with individuals at their university, enhancing their sense
of school belonging. Similarly, those with more positive psychological adjustment may more
readily explore and actively strengthen their ethnic identity. Longitudinal studies, where changes
in psychological adjustment, school belonging, and ethnic identity could be assessed over time,
would be helpful to disentangle the direction of the effect. Furthermore, collecting data at the
same time point across all participants would help control variation in students’ psychological
adjustment that may be associated with confounding factors (e.g., presence of midterms, winter
blues). As suggested earlier, an experimental design would help in testing the influence of school
belonging and ethnic identity over time.
Another weakness that could be addressed in future research is the reliance on self-report data
for all aspects of functioning. Additional measures, such as actual academic performance, could
be obtained. In addition, while the measures selected for this study have been widely used, the
response options and subsequent composite scores are ordinal in nature. In using these scores in
correlational and regression analyses, an assumption was made that these variables were linear.
Further, while the current study assessed both ethnic identity and school belonging globally, some
have found specific factors underlying these constructs. Using the MEIM, ethnic identity has been
found to tap into two underlying components: (a) affirmation and belonging, and (b) exploration
and active involvement (e.g., Roberts et al., 1999). Similarly, school belonging has been found to
have an underlying factor structure including three components: caring relationships, acceptance,
and rejection (You et al., 2011). Studies examining these dimensions of ethnic identity and school
belonging may identify specific associations that are linked to the psychological adjustment of
college students, providing information about how best to target interventions.
Future research may also investigate whether these associations are only true for specific
ethnic/racial backgrounds. Given the sample sizes, analyses in this study collapsed across all
minority groups and only controlled for ethnic group. Exploration of whether these findings
are consistent across multiple ethnic groups as well as within specific subgroups (e.g., Mexican
Americans, Chinese Americans) would be informative. Finally, prior research has often found a
prospective link between academic achievement and a sense of school belonging among young
adolescents (e.g., Anderman, 2003; but see Hurtado and Carter [1997], where this link was not
supported among Hispanic college students). For that reason, future studies should assess and
control for current and past academic achievement (e.g., ACT test scores, GPA) when examining
the associations between school belonging and psychological adjustment.
Despite these limitations, this study highlights the importance of minority college students’
feelings of belonging, especially to the university. Striving for enhanced psychological adjustment among ethnic minority college students is itself a worthy goal; however, in doing so, these
SCHOOL BELONGING AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
303
students may also have increased academic success (e.g., Richardson, Abraham, & Bond, 2012).
Establishing intervention programs early in freshman year that enhance a sense of school belonging (e.g., Walton & Cohen, 2011) may start ethnic minority college students on a positive pathway
leading to better psychological adjustment and, in turn, better academic outcomes and eventual
graduation. Overall, this study suggests the continued need to consider a sense of school belonging among ethnic minority college students, not only because of its ties to academic outcomes
and retention in college (e.g., Hausmann et al., 2007), but to help improve students’ psychological
adjustment.
AUTHOR NOTES
Praveena Gummadam, MA, received her graduate training in clinical psychology at Northern
Illinois University. Laura D. Pittman, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology and
Director of Clinical Training at Northern Illinois University. She takes a risk and resilience approach to understand how family processes and broader contextual factors (e.g., schools, culture)
influence children’s and adolescents’ socioemotional and cognitive functioning. Micah Ioffe,
MA, is a doctoral candidate in the clinical psychology program at Northern Illinois University.
Her research interests focus on the influence of family dynamics and relationships on children’s
and adolescents’ psychological functioning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was conducted as part of the first author’s master’s thesis.
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