The Iliad : Book 6 Homer used a variety of techniques to engage his audience and create in their minds a vivid perception of what is happening; the epithets, similes, metaphors, direct speech by characters, lavish imagery (ekphrasis), characterisation, all add to the narrative and to his audience’s appreciation of the dramatic tale he had to tell. As for how he knew what the audience would respond to , well like all artists from all time he must have been in tune with what his audience would appreciate and understand otherwise his work would not have been passed on to future generations. The question of oral tradition vs individual artist is a tricky one. There really is no firm ground here. Firstly there is debate about whether the Iliad was written or orally composed. The revival of writing and Homer seem to have happened at about the same time ie 800 to 700 BCE so it is possible that the Iliad was written. However the structure of the poem and the use of stock phrases and epithets suggests that it was probably part of an oral tradition. However there were written copies extant in the Classical world, for example Alexander the Great took a copy with him on his invasion of the Persian Empire. Some have suggested that the alphabet may have been invented in order to be able to write Homer down. The oldest written copy that exists dates back to the 10th century CE (AD) SOCIO-HISTORICAL CONTEXT I am not sure about how much socio-historical commentary the examiners want from you but some of the things that have been suggested include: The war against Troy was a Pan-Hellenic (all Greek) expedition. At the time the Iliad was being composed the concept of Hellenism, ie what it means to be Greek was emerging. In the Iliad itself the word Hellene barely appears, instead the Greeks are referred to as Achaeans, Argives or Danaans. It is possible that the Iliad itself actually contributed to the growing sense of being Greek as opposed to barbarian. In 776 BCE the Olympic Games were established, roughly the time of the composition of the Iliad. Oracles of Apollo at Delphi and of Zeus at Dodona were established at this time. Changes in climate (more rain) resulted in a growth in population which in turn led to an expansion of the Hellenic world through colonisation and an increase in trade. There was more competition for arable land and with that more war therefore more value placed on martial qualities. This I think is one of the key points about the work. The audience was probably the warrior elite of the time. I say that because it is warrior values that are highlighted and would be easily understood by the audience. Also passages in the Odyssey which describe bards (Demodocus in Book 8) are set in the palaces of Kings who are surrounded by their court and their warriors. Warfare at the time was an aristocratic business. It was about great feats of arms by individual champions engaged in single combat with their foes. Therefore it is on such contests that Homer’s poem focuses and it is the deeds of these champions that are held up as examples for the audience. This is very different to the collective style of warfare that we will encounter when studying the 5th century BCE, where fighting focused on either the disciplined hoplite phalanx, where every man depended on his comrades keeping their place, or on naval battles where men had to work as a disciplined team , rowing together in a synchronised way to ram their enemy’s ships. One thing to remember though is that whilst the story is set in Mycenaean times (c 1200 BCE), and there are elements of the work that suggest it has incorporated parts of an older oral tradition (the catalogue of ships , Book 2) the socio-historical context of the story is Homers time c 800 to 700 BCE. It is hard to tell what the author’s intent was but part of it may have been to present a story about a heroic past that would inspire, entertain and possibly to highlight to his audience what is important in life. It may also have been a conscious attempt to provide all Greeks with a Pan Hellenic narrative to inspire and unite them. At the time of Homer city states were emerging, most places were still ruled by kings and the Greeks were spreading or about to spread throughout the Mediterranean. THEMES The 5 themes of Book 6 are: The city and its people are doomed. This is illustrated in Book 6 by on the one hand Agamemnon when he chastises Menelaus for even thinking about showing mercy to a Trojan foe and by Hector when he speaks to Andromache of how doesn’t want to live to see his city destroyed and his wife enslaved. Brothers: Hector and Paris and how they differ both in weaponry and values. Hector feels shame to be entering the city whilst the battle rages outside the walls whilst Paris is quite happy back in the palace fondling his battle gear. The weapons each brother favours also are an indication of their virility, Hector with his long spear, Paris with his flexible bow. One represents the courage it takes to take on an opponent face to face whilst the other prefers to strike his foes from a distance. Agamemnon and Menelaus; Agamemnon the ruthless warlord seeking the genocide of his foes, Menelaus, the cuckolded husband, who is so weak willed as to consider letting an enemy live. The Heroic Quest: Belerophon and his adventures and how he embodies the heroic ideal, though even he falls foul of the gods and is struck down. Athena: Despite the lavish sacrifice to her by the Trojans she turns her back on them. This shows how the gods cannot be bought, they do things for their own reasons. Mortals cannot expect the gods to be grateful for what is offered. The Women of Troy: Helen, Andromache and Hecuba each serve an important role. Hecuba has the duty of arranging the details of the sacrifice, basically she attempts to intercede with Athena. Andromache represents the young mother, concerned for her husband and child as well as offering sensible if not heroic advice to Hector. Hellen who sings Hector’s praises whilst castigating Paris, but who nevertheless represents the dangerous sensuality that women represent. IDEAS The ideals held up by Homer as worthy of admiration, things such as wrath ( menis) , glory (kudos), material honour (timé ), fame or undying renown (Kleos), prizes of war ( geras), fate ( kêr), and personal excellence ( areté) were all values that were highly esteemed by the people of both Homer’s time and later Classical Civilisation. That these are very much martial or warrior values is self evident and this fits in with the fact that in both Homer’s time and in Classical times, Greeks were almost constantly at war, either with each other or with barbarians ( ie everyone else). To a modern audience this warlike tone can grate and would undoubtedly cloud our perception of the characters and events. For instance to the Greeks Achilles was THE great hero, to us he appears as a bit like the kid who takes his football home when the game doesn’t go his way. Yet in the socio historical context of a warrior culture such as Homer’s he is perfectly justified in his action because his timé and geras have been impugned and therefore his honour has been insulted. Likewise it would be hard to understand Agamemnon without understanding how the values of the time. He had to give up his prize therefore he felt justified to take Achilles’ prize otherwise his position and standing as warlord was at risk. With specific reference to book 6 , Hector feels shame at the thought of not going back out from behind the safety of Troy’s walls when it would have been perfectly reasonable and tactically sound to stay inside the walls. There was no glory to be gained by staying safe. It is in this socio historical context that we must try to understand and discuss Homer, problematic as that may be due to our own inculcated values. Interestingly (at least to me) pre 1914 European civilisation placed much greater value on Homeric warrior ideals. This might have something to do with the fact that Europeans were busy conquering most of the world in that time. After the bloodbath of the Great War the taste for such bellicose values sharply declined. Idea Greek Term Description Wrath Menis Honour Timé Glory Kudos Fame Kleos Prize of War Geras Fate Mira Excellence Arete Guest friendship Xenia Friend Justice Excessive pride Philo Dike Hubris Family Competition Genos Agon Manliness Andreia City Respect The Gods Polis Aidos Theoi Women Gynaikes Hero Heroas Uncontrollable rage, completely possessed by bloodlust. Honour, the esteem in which someone was held, usually expressed in material terms. A man’s honour had to be recognised by others to truly count. To earn glory, usually on the battlefield and thus earn fame. To gain undying renown was the only way that a mortal could achieve some measure of immortality. A material possession grated in recognition of someone’s martial prowess. A person’s fate was immutable and even the gods could not change it. To strive to be as excellent as you can be was the most honourable thing a mortal could be. To offer hospitality and exchange gifts with a friend. Such a relationship can span many generations. A friend whom you will not kill in battle To say or do what is fair and just To put oneself on the same level as the gods and thereby courting their wrath. Loyalty to ones kin. The glory inherent in any contest. This can be athletic, martial or verbal. To behave in a manly way, which implies to defend ones family (genos) and city ( polis) One’s home city to which loyalty is owed To behave in a way that avoids shame The immortal gods are so much greater than mortals and it is madness to challenge them. The Gods play an active role in the lives of mortals. Women are there to provide children, intercede with the gods and serve as material prizes for men. A hero is a warrior who is of noble birth, a favourite of the gods, who achieves great deeds by action or oratory and who earns great honour from his peers. TECHNIQUES Homer used a variety of techniques to engage his audience and create in their minds a vivid perception of what is happening; the epithets, similes, metaphors, direct speech by characters, lavish imagery (ekphrasis), characterisation, all add to the narrative and to his audience’s appreciation of the dramatic tale he had to tell. As for how he knew what the audience would respond to , well like all artists from all time he must have been in tune with what his audience would appreciate and understand otherwise his work would not have been passed on to future generations. Ekphrasis A graphic, often dramatic, description of any, thing, person or experience. These detailed descriptions serve to highlight the importance of the subject and to create a vivid image in the minds of the audience. Characterisation Homer gives important details on each character so that we can appreciate that these characters are all individuals not simply expendable extras. He does this to some extent in order to heighten the drama of the events; that the death and destruction meted out in the battle doesn’t happen to anonymous spear fodder but to human beings with families, friends and lovers. Whilst it could be argued that Homer glorifies war he also seems to want his audience to appreciate its true cost. It is hard to say how this affected the audience of his time, but the impact must have been profound. If nothing else it would have evoked powerful emotions both for and against certain characters. Hector has remained the archetypal defender of his people against hopeless odds, Agamemnon remains the template for the ruthless warlord seeking the utter destruction of his foes, Achilles the supreme warrior, the embodiment of Ares and Paris is a byword for effeminacy and sensuality at the expense of duty and honour. Each characterisation is like a piece of a mosaic that together present an icon of what was valued and what was not in Homer’s time. For a long time after Homer the Iliad was considered a key text in Hellenic culture and no man or woman would consider themselves educated without at least having read it. It was that important. Epithets The epithets are shorthand ways of signalling the key characteristics of each character and generally reveal something important about that character. Some characters have more than one epithet and this may be because Homer is trying to make a particular point about that character at that time, but more likely because the “regular” epithet for that character doesn’t fit in to the Hexametric structure of the poem in Greek. Technique Description Direct Speech The characters speak for themselves rather than have the narrator speak for them Detailed visual descriptions of an even, object, or person To say something or someone is like something else To say something or someone is something else in order to emphasise the nature of what they are doing or what is happening. To repeat stock phrases again and again. Seen as a sign that the poem was originally an oral composition that was meant to be recited rather than read. The poet does not use measured neutral language, the language is full of passion. The feelings of the characters are made clear. Ekphrasis Similes Metaphor Repetition Emphatic words Emotions and feelings Characterisation Epithets Irony Epic tone Foreshadowing Digression We get a sense of the kind of person each character is. Many characters names have a little descriptive tag that tells something about their origin, characteristics, lineage or appearance. Sometimes Homer makes an ironic comment about a character or has them behave in a way that is ironic. This is a serious poem about serious things. At times Homer lets slip what the ultimate fate of a character or a city will be Homer sometimes leaves the main narrative to tell us a story that illustrates something important about a character’s background or an event.
