Part II Lectures 8-14 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Circuits University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 1 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) Basic Construction: The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n- and one p-type layers of material or two p- and one n-type layers of material. The former is called an npn transistor, while the latter is called a pnp transistor. Both (with symbols) are shown in Fig. 8-1. The middle region of each transistor type is called the base (B) of the transistor. Of the remaining two regions, one is called emitter (E) and the other is called the collector (C) of the transistor. For each transistor type, a junction is created at each of the two boundaries where the material changes from one type to the other. Therefore, there are two junctions: emitter-base (E-B) junction and collector-base (C-B) junction. The outer layers of the transistor are heavily doped semiconductor materials having widths much greater than those of the sandwiched p- or n-type material. The doping of the sandwiched layer is also considerably less than that of the outer layers (typically 10:1 or less). This lower doping level decreases the conductivity (increases the resistance) of this material by limiting the number of "free" carriers. n E p n C (Emitter) p n E p C (Collector) E-B junction C-B junction B B (Base) C E C E B Fig. 8-1 B The dc biasing is necessary to establish the proper region of operation for ac amplification or switching purposes. Table 8-1 shows the transistor operation regions and the purpose with respect to the biasing of the E-B and C-B junctions. Table 8-1 Operation region Purpose 1 Active region 2 Cutoff region 3 Saturation region Amplification Switching Junctions biasing E-B junction bias C-B junction bias Forward-biased Reverse-biased Forward-biased Reverse-biased Reverse-biased Forward-biased The abbreviation BJT, from bipolar junction transistor, is often applied to this three-terminal device. The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the injection process into the oppositely polarized material. If only one carrier is employed (electron or hole), it is considered a unipolar device. Such a device is the field-effect transistor (FET). University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 2 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Active Region Operation: The basic operation of the transistor will now be described using the pnp transistor of Fig. 8-2. The operation of the npn transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged. When the E-B junction is forward-biased, a large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material (base). Since the base is very thin and has a low conductivity (lightly doping), a very small number of these carriers will take this path of high resistance to the base terminal. The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased C-B junction into the p-type material (collector). The reason for the relative ease with which the majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased C-B junction is easily understood if we consider that for the reverse-biased diode the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type base region material. Combining this with the fact that all the minority carriers in the depletion region will cross the reverse-biased junction of a diode accounts for the flow indicated in Fig. 8-2. Fig. 8-2 Applying Kirchhoff's current law to the transistor of Fig. 8-2, we obtain I E = IC + I B [8.1] The collector current, however, is comprised of two components: the majority and minority carriers as indicated in Fig. 8-2. The minority-current component is called the leakage current and is given the symbol ICO (IC current with emitter terminal Open). The collector current, therefore, is determined in total by Eq. [8.2]. I C = IC majority + ICO minority [8.2] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 3 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Common-Base (CB) Configuration: The common-base configuration with npn and pnp transistors are indicated in Fig. 8-3. The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both input and output sides of the configuration. In addition, the base is usually terminal closest to, or at, the ground potential. IE C E − IE + VBE VEE IC + B IB VCB − C IC E − + VCC VEE VEB IB − VBC + VCC B Fig. 8-3 In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha (αdc) and defined by the following equation: α dc = IC IE [8.3] Where IC and IE are the levels of current at the point of operation and αdc ≈ 1, or for practical devices: 0.900 ≤ αdc ≤ 0.998. Since alpha is defined solely for the majority carriers and from Fig. 8-4, Eq. [8.2] becomes I C = αI E + I CBO [8.4] Fig. 8-4 The input (emitter) characteristics for a CB configuration are a plot of the emitter (input) current (IE) versus the base-to-emitter (input) voltage (VBE) for a rage of values of the collectorto-base (output) voltage (VCB) as shown in Fig. 8-5. Since, the exact shape of this IE-VBE carve will depend on the reverse-biasing output voltage, VCB. The reason for this dependency is that the grater the value of VCB, the more readily minority carriers in the base are swept through the C-B junction. The increase in emitter-to-collector current resulting from an increase in VCB means the emitter current will be greater for a given value of base-to-emitter voltage (VBE). Fig. 8-5 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 4 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The output (collector) characteristics for CB configuration will be a plot of the collector (output) current (IC) versus collector-to-base (output) voltage (VCB) for a range of values of emitter (input) current (IE) as shown in Fig. 8-6. The collector characteristics have three basic region of interest, as indicated in Fig. 8-6, the active, cutoff, and saturation regions. W Active region: VCB > 0 and I C = αI E . W Cutoff region: IE = 0 and I C = I CBO . W Saturation region: Fig. 8-6 VCB < 0 and I C ( sat .) ≈ I E ( sat .) . For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristic carve, an ac alpha (αac) is defined by α ac = ΔI C ΔI E [8.5] VCB =const . The ac alpha is formally called the common-base, short-circuit, amplification factor, and for most situations the magnitudes of αac and αdc are quite close, permitting the use of the magnitude of one for other. Fig. 8-7 shows how the common-base output characteristics appear when the effects of breakdown are included. Note the sudden upward swing of each curve at a large value of VCB. The collector-to-base breakdown voltage when IE = 0 (emitter open) is designed BVCBO. Fig. 8-7 Transistor Amplification Action: The basic voltage-amplifying action of the CB configuration can now be described using the circuit of Fig. 8-8. The dc biasing does not appear in the figure since our interest will be limited to the ac response. For the CB configuration, the input resistance between the emitter and the base of a transistor will typically vary from 10 to 100 Ω, while the output resistance may vary from 100 kΩ to 1 MΩ. The difference in resistance is due to the forward-biased junction at the input (base to emitter) and the reverse-biased junction at the output (base to collector). Using effective values and a common value of 20 Ω for the input resistance, we find that University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 5 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin I i = Vi / Ri = 200mV / 20Ω = 10mA . If we assume for the moment that αac = 1 (Ic = Ie), I L = I i = 10 mA and VL = I L R = (10 mA)(5kΩ) = 50V . The voltage amplification is Fig. 8-8 Av = VL / Vi = 50V / 200mV = 250 . Typical values of voltage amplification for the common-base configuration vary from 50 to 300. The current amplification (IC/IE) is always less than 1 for the CB configuration. This latter characteristic should be obvious since IC = αIE and α is always less than 1. The basic amplifying action was produced by transferring a current I from a low-to a high-resistance circuit. The combination of the two terms in italics results in the label transistor; that is, transfer + resistor → transistor. Common-Emitter (CE) Configuration: The common-emitter configuration with npn and pnp transistors are indicated in Fig. 8-9. The external voltage source VBB is used to forward bias the E-B junction and the external voltage source VCC is used to reverse bias C-B junction. The magnitude of VCC must be greater than VBB to ensure the C-B junction remains reverse biased, since, as can be seen in the Fig. 8-9, VCB = VCC − VBB . IC C + IB VCB B − + VCE + VBB − VBE − IC E C − IB VCC VBC + B − VEC − IE VBB + VEB + E IE Fig. 8-9 From Eqs. [8.1] and [8.4], we obtain I C = α ( I C + I B ) + I CBO Rearranging yields I αI [8.6] I C = B + CBO 1−α 1−α From Fig. 8-10, Eq. [8.6] becomes I CEO = I CBO 1−α [8.7] I B =0 Fig. 8-10 VCC University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 6 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin In the dc mode the levels of IC and IB are related by a quantity called beta (βdc) and defined by the following equation: β dc = IC IB [8.8] Where IC and IB are the levels of current at the point of operation. For practical devices the levels of βdc typically ranges from about 50 to over 500, with most in the mid range. On specification sheets βdc is usually included as hFE with h derived from an ac hybrid equivalent circuit. For ac situation an ac beta (βac) has been defined as follows: β ac = ΔI C ΔI B [8.9] VCE =const . The formal name for βac is common-emitter, forward-current, amplification factor and on specification sheets βac is usually included as hfe. A relationship can be developed between β and α using the basic relationships introduced thus far. Using β = I C / I B we have I B = I C / β , and from α = I C / I E we have I E = I C / α . Substituting into I E = I C + I B we have I C / α = I C + I C / β and dividing both sides of the equation by IC will result in 1 / α = 1 + 1 / β or β = αβ + α = ( β + 1)α so that α= β β +1 or β = α 1−α [8.10] In addition, recall that I CEO = I CBO /(1 − α ) but using an equivalence of 1 /(1 − α ) = β + 1 derived from the above, we find that I CEO = ( β + 1) I CBO or I CEO ≅ βI CBO [8.11] Beta is particularly important parameter because it provides a direct link between current levels of the input and output circuits for CE configuration. That is, I C = βI B + I CEO ≈ βI B [8.12] and since I E = I C + I B = βI B + I B we have I E = ( β + 1) I B [8.13] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 7 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The input (base) characteristics for the CE configuration are a plot of the base (input) current (IB) versus the base-to-emitter (input) voltage (VBE) for a range of values of collector-to-emitter (output) voltage (VCE) as shown in Fig. 8-11. Note that IB increases as VCE decreases, for a fixed value of VBE. A large value of VCE results in a large reverse bias of the C-B junction, which widens the depletion region and makes the base smaller. When the base is smaller, there are fewer recombinations of injected minority carriers and there is a corresponding reduction in base current (IB). Fig. 8-11 Fig. 8-12 The output (collector) characteristics for CE configuration are a plot of the collector (output) current (IC) versus collector-to-emitter (output) voltage (VCE) for a range of values of base (input) current (IB) as shown in Fig. 8-12. The collector characteristics have three basic region of interest, as indicated in Fig. 8-12, the active, cutoff, and saturation regions. W Active region: IB > 0 and I C = βI B . W Cutoff region: IB = 0 and I C = I CEO . W Saturation region: VCE ≈ 0 and I B ( sat .) = I C ( sat .) / β . Common-Collector (CC) Configuration: The third and final transistor configuration is the common-collector configuration, shown in Fig. 8-13 with npn and pnp transistors. The CC configuration is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes since it has a high input impedance and low output impedance, opposite to that which is true of the common-base and common-emitter configurations. From a design viewpoint, there is no need for a set of common-collector characteristics to choose the circuit parameters. The circuit can be designed using the common-emitter characteristics. For all practical purposes, the output characteristics of the CC configuration are the same as for the CE configuration. For the CC configuration the output characteristics are a plot of emitter (output) current (IE) versus collector-to-emitter (output) voltage (VCE), for a range of values of base (input) University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bipolar Junction Transistors Lecture Eight - Page 8 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin current (IB). The output current, therefore, is the same for both the common-emitter and common-collector characteristics. There is an almost unnoticeable change in the vertical scale of IC of the common-emitter characteristics if IC is replaced by IE for the common-collector characteristics (since α ≅ 1 , I E ≈ I C ). IE E − IB VBE + B − VCE − VBB + VCB + IE C E + IB VCC VEB − B + VEC + VBB IC − VBC − C VCC IC Fig. 8-13 Transistor Casing and Terminal Identification: Whenever possible, the transistor casing will have some marking to indicate which leads are connected to the emitter, collector, or base of a transistor. A few of the methods commonly used are indicated in Fig. 8-14. Fig. 8-14 Exercises: 1. Given an αdc of 0.998, determine IC if IE = 4 mA. 2. Determine αdc if IE = 2.8 mA and IB = 20 µA. 3. Find IE if IB = 40 µA and αdc is 0.98. 4. Given that αdc = 0.987, determine the corresponding value of β. 5. Given βdc = 120, determine the corresponding value of α. 6. Given that βdc = 180 and IC = 2.0 mA, find IE and IB. 7. A transistor has ICBO = 48 nA and α = 0.992. i. Find β and ICEO. ii. Find its (exact) collector current (IC) when IB = 30 μA. iii. Find the approximate collector current, neglecting leakage current. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 1 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin DC Biasing Circuits of BJTs Basic Concepts: The analysis or design of a transistor amplifier requires a knowledge of both the dc and ac response of the system. Too often it is assumed that the transistor is a magical device that can raise the level of the applied ac input without the assistance of an external energy source. In actuality, the improved output ac power level is the result of a transfer of energy from the applied dc supplies. The analysis or design of any electronic amplifier therefore has two components: the dc portion and the ac portion. Fortunately, the superposition theorem is applicable and the investigation of the dc conditions can be totally separated from the ac response. However, one must keep in mind that during the design or synthesis stage the choice of parameters for the required dc levels will affect the ac response, and vice versa. The term biasing appearing in the title of this lecture is an all-inclusive term for the application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of current and voltage. For transistor amplifiers the resulting dc current and voltage establish an operating point on the characteristics that define the region that will be employed for amplification of the applied signal. Since the operating point is a fixed point on the characteristics, it is also called the quiescent point (abbreviated Q-point). By definition, quiescent means quiet, still, inactive. Fig. 9-1 shows a general output device characteristic with four operating points indicated. The biasing circuit can be designed to set the device operation at any of these points or others within the active region. The maximum ratings are indicated on the characteristics of Fig. 9-1 by a horizontal line for the maximum collector current ICmax and a vertical line at the maximum collector-to-emitter voltage VCEmax. The maximum power constraint is defined by the curve PCmax in the same figure. At the lower end of the scales are the cutoff region, defined by IB ≤ 0 μA, and the saturation region, defined by VCE ≤ VCE(sat). Fig. 9-1 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 2 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Standard Biasing Circuits: 1. Fixed-Bias Circuit: Fig. 9-2a shows a fixed-bias circuit. Analysis: W For the input (base-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-2b: + VCC − I B RB − VBE = 0 V − VBE I B = CC [9.1a] RB W For the output (collector-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-2c: I C = βI B + VCE + I C RC − VCC = 0 VCE = VCC − I C RC [9.1b] W For the transistor terminal voltages: VE = 0V [9.1c] VB = VCC − I B RB = VBE (a) VC = VCC − I C RC = VCE (b) Load-Line Analysis: From Eq. [9.1b] and Fig. 9-3: W At cutoff region: VCE = VCC I =0 [9.2a] (c) Fig. 9-2 C W At saturation region: V I C = CC RC V =0 [9.2b] CE Design: For an optimum design: 1 VCEQ = VCC 2 V 1 I CQ = I C ( sat ) = CC 2 2 RC ICQ [9-3] VCEQ Fig. 9-3 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 3 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 2. Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit: Fig. 9-4a shows an emitter-stabilized bias circuit. Analysis: W For the input (base-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-4b: + VCC − I B RB − VBE − I E RE = 0 I E = ( β + 1) I B VCC − VBE IB = [9.4a] RB + ( β + 1) RE W For the output (collector-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-4c: + I E RE + VCE + I C RC − VCC = 0 I E ≅ IC VCE = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) [9.4b] W For the transistor terminal voltages: VE = I E R E [9.4c] VB = VCC − I B RB = VE + VBE VC = VCC − I C RC = VE + VCE Load-Line Analysis: From Eq. [9.4b] and Fig. 9-5: W At cutoff region: VCE = VCC I =0 C W At saturation region: VCC IC = RC + RE V =0 (a) (b) (c) Fig. 9-4 [9.5a] [9.5b] CE Design: For an optimum design: 1 VCEQ = VCC 2 VCC 1 I CQ = I C ( sat ) = 2 2( RC + RE ) VE = 1 VCC 10 ICQ VCEQ [9-6] Fig. 9-5 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 4 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 3. Voltage-Divider Bias Circuit: Fig. 9-6a shows a voltage-divider bias circuit. Analyses: W For the input (base-emitter circuit) loop: Exact Analysis: From Fig. 9-6b: RTh = R1 R2 [9.7a] From Fig. 9-6c: RV ETh = VR2 = 2 CC [9.7b] R1 + R2 From Fig. 9-6d: + ETh − I B RTh − VBE − I E RE = 0 I E = ( β + 1) I B ETh − VBE IB = [9.7c] RTh + ( β + 1) RE I C = βI B Approximate Analysis: From Fig. 9-6e: If Ri >> R2 => I 2 >> I B . Since I B ≈ 0 => I1 ≅ I 2 . Thus R1 in series with R2. That is, RV VB = 2 CC [9.8a] R1 + R2 Since Ri = ( β + 1) RE ≅ βRE the condition that will define whether the approximation approach can be applied will be the following: βRE ≥ 10R2 [9.8b] and VE = VB − VBE [9.8c] V IC ≅ I E = E RE W For the output (collector-emitter circuit) loop: VCE = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) [9.9] (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Fig. 9-6 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 5 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Load-Line Analysis: The similarities with the output circuit of the emitter-biased configuration result in the same intersections for the load line of the voltage-divider configuration. The load line will therefore have the same appearance as that of Fig. 9-5. The level of IB is of course determined by a different equation for the voltage-divider bias and the emitter-bias configuration. Design: For an optimum design: 1 VCEQ = VCC 2 VCC 1 I CQ = I C ( sat ) = 2 2( RC + RE ) 1 VE = VCC 10 1 R2 ≤ βRE 10 [9.10] Example 9-1: Determine the dc bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage-divider configuration of Fig. 9-6a with the following parameters: VCC = +22 V, β = 140, R1 = 39 kΩ, R2 = 3.9 kΩ, RC = 10 kΩ, and RE = 1.5 kΩ. Solution: Exact: RTh = R1 R2 = 39k 3.9k = 3.55Ω RV (3.9k )(22) ETh = 2 CC = = 2V R1 + R2 39k + 3.9k ETh − VBE IB = RTh + ( β + 1) RE 2 − 0.7 = = 6.05μA 3.55k + (141)(1.5k ) I CQ = βI B = (140)(6.05μ ) = 0.85mA VCEQ = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) = 22 − (0.85m)(10k + 1.5k ) = 12.23V Approximate: Testing: βRE ≥ 10R2 (140)(1.5k ) ≥ 10(3.9k ) 210kΩ > 39kΩ (satisfied) RV (3.9k )(22) VB = 2 CC = = 2V R1 + R2 39k + 3.9k VE = VB − VBE = 2 − 0.7 = 1.3V V 1.3 I CQ = I E = E = = 0.867 mA RE 1.5k VCEQ = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) = 22 − (0.867 m)(10k + 1.5k ) = 12.03V University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 6 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 4. Voltage-Feedback Bias Circuit: Fig. 9-7a shows a voltage-feedback bias circuit. Analysis: W For the input (base-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-7b: + VCC − I C′ RC − I B RB − VBE − I E RE = 0 I C′ = I C + I B = I E ≅ I C = βI B + VCC − βI B RC − I B RB − VBE − βI B RE = 0 VCC − VBE IB = [9.11a] RB + β ( RC + RE ) W For the output (collector-emitter circuit) loop as shown in Fig. 9-7c: + I E RE + VCE + I C′ RC − VCC = 0 I C′ = I E ≅ I C VCE = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) [9.11b] (a) Load-Line Analysis: Continuing with the approximation I C′ = I C will result in the same load line defined for the voltage-divider and emitter-biased configurations. The levels of IBQ will be defined by the chosen base configuration. (b) Design: For an optimum design: 1 VCEQ = VCC 2 VCC 1 I CQ = I C ( sat ) = 2 2( RC + RE ) [9-12] 1 VCC 10 RB ≤ β ( RC + RE ) VE = (c) Fig. 9-7 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 7 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Other Biasing Circuits: Example 9-2: (Negative Supply) Determine VC and VB for the circuit of Fig. 9-8. Solution: − I B RB − VBE + VEE = 0 (KVL) V − VBE 9 − 0.7 I B = EE = = 83μA RB 100k I C = βI B = (45)(83μ ) = 3.735mA VC = − I C RC = −(3.735m)(1.2k ) = −4.48V VB = − I B RB = −(83μ )(100k ) = −8.3V Fig. 9-8 Example 9-3: (Two Supplies) Determine VC and VB for the circuit of Fig. 9-9a. Solution: From Fig. 9-9b: RTh = R1 R2 = 8.2k 2.2k = 1.73kΩ V + VEE 20 + 20 I = CC = = 3.85mA R1 + R2 8.2k + 2.2k ETh = IR2 − VEE = (3.85m)(2.2k ) − 20 = −11.53V From Fig. 9-9c: − ETh − I B RTh − VBE − I E RE + VEE = 0 (KVL) I E = ( β + 1) I B V − ETh − VBE I B = EE RTh + ( β + 1) RE 20 − 11.53 − 0.7 = = 35.39 μA 1.73k + (121)(1.8k ) I C = βI B = (120)(35.39μ ) = 4.25mA VC = VCC − I C RC = 20 − (4.25m)(2.7k ) = 8.53V VB = − ETh − I B RTh = −(11.53) − (35.39 μ )(1.73k ) = −11.59V (a) (b) (c) Fig. 9-9 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 8 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Example 9-4: (Common-Base) Determine VCB and IB for the common-base configuration of Fig. 9-10. Solution: Applying KVL to the input circuit: − VEE + I E RE + VBE = 0 V − VBE 4 − 0.7 I E = EE = = 2.75mA RE 1.2k Applying KVL to the output circuit: + VCB + I C RC − VCC = 0 VCB = VCC − I C RC with I C ≅ I E VCB = 10 − (2.75m)(2.4k ) = 3.4V I 2.75m IB = C = = 45.8μA β 60 Fig. 9-10 Example 9-5: (Common-Collector) Determine IE and VCE for the common-collector (emitter-follower) configuration of Fig. 9-11. Solution: Applying KVL to the input circuit: − I B RB − VBE − I E RE + VEE = 0 I E = ( β + 1) I B VEE − VBE IB = RB + ( β + 1) RE 20 − 0.7 = = 45.73μA 240k + (91)(2k ) I E = ( β + 1) I B = (91)(45.73μ ) = 4.16mA Applying KVL to the output circuit: − VEE + I E RE + VCE = 0 VCE = VEE − I E RE = 20 − (4.16m)(2k ) = 11.68V Fig. 9-11 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 9 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Example 9-6: (PNP Transistor) Determine VCE for the voltage-divider bias configuration of Fig. 9-12. Solution: Testing: βRE ≥ 10R2 (120)(1.1k ) ≥ 10(10k ) 132kΩ ≥ 100kΩ( satisfied ) RV (10k )(−18) VB = 2 CC = = −3.16V R1 + R2 47 k + 10k VE = VB − VBE = −3.16 − (−0.7) = −2.46V V 2.46 IC = I E = E = = 2.24mA RE 1.1k − I E RE + VCE − I C RC + VCC = 0 (KVL) VCE = −VCC + I C ( RC + RE ) = −18 + (2.24m)(2.4k + 1.1k ) = −10.16V Fig. 9-12 Exercises: 1. For the fixed-biased configuration of Fig. 9-2a with the following parameters: VCC = +12 V, β = 50, RB = 240 kΩ, and RC = 2.2 kΩ, determine: IBQ, ICQ, VCEQ, VB, VC, and VBC. 2. Given the device characteristics of Fig. 9-13a, determine VCC, RB, and RC for the fixed-bias configuration of Fig. 9-13b. (a) (b) Fig. 9-13 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 DC Biasing Circits of BJTs Lecture Nine - Page 10 of 10 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 3. For the emitter bias circuit of Fig. 9-4a with the following parameters: VCC = +20 V, β = 50, RB = 430 kΩ, RC = 2 kΩ, and RE = 1 kΩ, determine: IB, IC, VCE, VC, VE, VB and VBC. 4. Design an emitter-stabilized circuit (Fig. 9-4a) at ICQ = 2 mA. Use VCC = +20 V and an npn transistor with β =150. 5. Determine the dc bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage-divider configuration of Fig. 9-6a with the following parameters: VCC = +18 V, β = 50, R1 = 82 kΩ, R2 = 22 kΩ, RC = 5.6 kΩ, and RE = 1.2 kΩ. 6. Design a beta-independent (voltage-divider) circuit to operate at VCEQ = 8 V and ICQ = 10 mA. Use a supply of VCC = +20 V and an npn transistor with β = 80. 7. Determine the quiescent levels of ICQ and VCEQ for the voltage-feedback circuit of Fig. 9-7a with the following parameters: VCC = +10 V, β = 90, RB = 250 kΩ, RC = 4.7 kΩ, and RE = 1.2 kΩ. 8. Prove that RB ≤ β ( RC + RE ) is the required condition for an optimum design of the voltage-feedback circuit. 9. Prove mathematically that ICQ for the voltage-feedback bias circuit is approximately independent of the value of beta. 10. Fig. 9-14 shows a three-stage circuit with a VCC supply of +20 V. GND stands for ground. If all transistors have a β of 100, what are the IC and VCE of each stage? + 20V 10μF 2kΩ vi 3kΩ 10μF 10μF 100kΩ 0.56kΩ 8kΩ 3kΩ 50kΩ 10μF vo 0.68kΩ GND Fig. 9-14 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bias Stabilization Lecture Ten - Page 1 of 5 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Bias Stabilization Basic Definitions: The stability of system is a measure of sensitivity of a circuit to variations in its parameters. In any amplifier employing a transistor the collector current IC is sensitive to each of the following parameters: W ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 10oC increase in temperature. W |VBE| (base-to-emitter voltage): decrease about 7.5 mV per 1oC increase in temperature. W β (forward current gain): increase with increase in temperature. Any or all of these factors can cause the bias point to drift from the design point of operation. Stability Factors, S(ICO), S(VBE), and S(β): A stability factor, S, is defined for each of the parameters affecting bias stability as listed below: S ( I CO ) = S (VBE ) = S (β ) = ΔI C ∂I = C ΔI CO ∂I CO ∂I ΔI C = C ΔVBE ∂VBE ΔI C ∂I C = Δβ ∂β [10.1a] VBE , β =const . [10.1b] I CO , β =const . [10.1c] I CO ,VBE =const . Generally, networks that are quite stable and relatively insensitive to temperature variations have low stability factors. In some ways it would seem more appropriate to consider the quantities defined by Eqs. [10.1a - 10.1c] to be sensitivity factors because: the higher the stability factor, the more sensitive the network to variations in that parameter. The total effect on the collector current can be determined using the following equation: ΔI C = S ( I CO )ΔI CO + S (VBE )ΔVBE + S ( β )Δβ [10.2] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bias Stabilization Lecture Ten - Page 2 of 5 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Derivation of Stability Factors for Standard Bias Circuits: For the voltage-divider bias circuit, the exact analysis (using Thevenin theorem) for the input (base-emitter) loop will result in: and and or ETh − I B RTh − VBE − I E RE = 0 , I E = I C + I B => I C RE + I B ( RE + RTh ) + VBE = ETh , I C = βI B + ( β + 1) I CO , I β +1 IB = C − I CO => β β ⎡ ( β + 1) RE + RTh ⎤ ⎡ ( β + 1)( RE + RTh ) ⎤ IC ⎢ − I CO ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ + VBE = ETh β β ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ [10.3] The partial derivation of the Eq. [10.3] with respect to ICO will result: ∂I C ( β + 1) RE + RTh ( β + 1)( RE + RTh ) =0 ⋅ − ∂I CO β β S ( I CO ) = ( β + 1)( RE + RTh ) ( β + 1) RE + RTh [10.4a] Also, the partial derivation of the Eq. [10.3] with respect to VBE will result: ∂I C ( β + 1) RE + RTh +1 = 0 ⋅ ∂VBE β S (VBE ) = −β ( β + 1) RE + RTh [10.4b] The mathematical development of the last stability factor S(β) is more complex than encountered for S(ICO) and S(VBE). Thus, S(β) is suggested by the following equation: S (β ) = ( I C 1 / β1 )( RE + RTh ) ( β 2 + 1) RE + RTh [10.4c] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bias Stabilization Lecture Ten - Page 3 of 5 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin For the emitter-stabilized bias circuit, the stability factors are the same as these obtained above for the voltage-divider bias circuit except that RTh will replaced by RB. These are: S ( I CO ) = ( β + 1)( RE + RB ) ( β + 1) RE + RB [10.5a] S (VBE ) = −β ( β + 1) RE + RB [10.5b] S (β ) = result: ( I C 1 / β1 )( RE + RB ) ( β 2 + 1) RE + RB [10.5c] For the fixed-bias circuit, if we plug in RE = 0 the following equation will S ( I CO ) = β + 1 S (VBE ) = − S (β ) = β RB IC 1 β1 [10.6a] [10.6b] [10.6c] Finally, for the case of the voltage-feedback bias circuit, the following equation will result: S ( I CO ) = ( β + 1)( RC + RE + RB ) ( β + 1)( RC + RE ) + RB [10.7a] S (VBE ) = −β ( β + 1)( RC + RE ) + RB [10.7b] S (β ) = ( I C 1 / β1 )( RC + RE + RB ) ( β 2 + 1)( RC + RE ) + RB [10.7c] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bias Stabilization Lecture Ten - Page 4 of 5 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Example 10-1: 1. Design a voltage-divider bias circuit using a VCC supply of +18 V, and an npn silicon transistor with β of 80. Choose RC = 5RE, and set IC at 1 mA and the stability factor S(ICO) at 3.8. 2. For the circuit designed in part (1), determine the change in IC if a change in operating conditions results in ICO increasing from 0.2 to 10 μA, VBE drops from 0.7 to 0.5 V, and β increases 25%. 3. Calculate the change in IC from 25o to 75oC for the same circuit designed in part (1), if ICO = 0.2 μA and VBE = 0.7 V. Solution: VCC + 18V Part 1: VCE = VCC / 2 = 18 / 2 = 9V . RC 7.5kΩ Co R1 36kΩ VCE = VCC − I C ( RC + RE ) , RC = 5 RE => 9 = 18 − (1m)(5RE + RE ) => RE = 1.5kΩ . Ci RC = 5(1.5k ) = 7.5kΩ . vi β = 80 I E ≅ I C = 1mA , VE = I E RE = (1m)(1.5k ) = 1.5V . VB = VE + VBE = 1.5 + 0.7 = 2.2V . R2 5kΩ RE 1.5kΩ R2 VB 2.2 R2VCC = = VB = => [10.8a] R1 + R2 VCC 18 R1 + R2 ( β + 1)( RE + RTh ) S ( I CO ) = => Fig. 10-1 ( β + 1) RE + RTh (81)(1.5k + RTh ) 3.8 = => RTh = 4.4kΩ . (81)(1.5k ) + RTh R R2 4.4k RR = Th = RTh = 1 2 => [10.8b] R1 + R 2 R1 R1 R1 + R2 From Eqs. [10.8a] and [10.8b]: 4.4k 2.2 = => R1 = 36kΩ . 18 R1 From Eq. [10.8a]: R2 2.2 = => R2 = 5kΩ . 36k + R2 18 Fig. 10-1 shows the final circuit. vo University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Bias Stabilization Lecture Ten - Page 5 of 5 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Part 2: S ( I CO ) = 3.8 , ΔI CO = 10 μ − 0.2 μ = 9.8μA . − 80 −β S (VBE ) = = = −0.635mS , ( β + 1) RE + RTh (81)(1.5k ) + 4.4k ΔVBE = 0.5 − 0.7 = −0.2V . β 2 = β1 (1 + 25 / 100) = 1.25β1 = 1.25(80) = 100 , ( I C 1 / β1 )( RE + RTh ) (1m / 80)(1.5k + 4.4k ) S (β ) = = = 0.473μA , ( β 2 + 1) RE + RTh (101)(1.5k ) + 4.4k Δβ = 100 − 80 = 20 . ΔI C = S ( I CO )ΔI CO + S (VBE )ΔVBE + S ( β )Δβ = (3.8)(9.8μ ) + (−0.635m)(−0.2) + (0.473μ )(20) = 0.174mA . Part 3: Since ICO, doubles in value for every 10oC increase in temperature. ΔT 75 − 25 Thus N = = = 5 , I CO (75 o C ) = 2 N ⋅ I CO (25 o C ) = (2 5 )(0.2 μ ) = 6.4 μA . 10 10 ΔI CO = 6.4 μ − 0.2 μ = 6.2 μA . Since VBE, decreases about 7.5 mV per 1oC increase in temperature. Thus ΔT = 75 − 25 = 50 o C , VBE (25o C ) = 0.7V => VBE (75o C ) = 0.7 − 50(7.5m) = 0.325V . ΔI C = S ( I CO )ΔI CO + S (VBE )ΔVBE = (3.8)(6.2 μ ) + (−0.635m)(−0.375) = 0.262mA . Exercises: 1. Derive a mathematical expression to determine the S (VCC ) = ΔI C ΔVCC for the emitter-stabilized bias circuit. stability factor 2. Discuss and compare (by equations) between the relative levels of stability for the following biasing circuits: i. the fixed-bias circuit, ii. the emitter-stabilized bias circuit, iii. the voltage-divider bias circuit, and iv. the voltage-feedback circuit. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Switching Circuits Lecture Eleven - Page 1 of 3 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin BJT Switching Circuits Basic Concepts: The application of transistors is not limited solely to the amplification of signals. Through proper design it can be used as a switch for computer and control applications. The circuit of Fig. 11-1a can be employed as an inverter in computer logic circuitry. Note that the output voltage VC is opposite to that applied to the base or input terminal. In addition, note the absence of a dc supply connected to the base circuit. The only dc source is connected to the collector or output side and for computer applications is typically equal to the magnitude of the "high" side of the applied signal-in this case 5V. VCC + 5V RC VC + 5V 0V Vi RB + + VBE (a) + 5V 0V VCE − − (b) Fig. 11-1 Proper design for the inversion process requires that the operating point switch from cutoff to saturation along the load line depicted in Fig. 11-1b. For our purposes we will assume that I C = I CEO ≈ 0 mA when I B = 0 μA (an excellent approximation in light of improving construction techniques), as shown in Fig. 11-1b. In addition, we will assume that VCE = VCE ( sat ) ≈ 0 V rather than the typical 0.1 to 0.3 V level. When Vi = 5 V, the transistor will be "on" and the design must ensure that the circuit is heavily saturated by a level of IB greater than that associated with the IB curve appearing near the saturation level. The base current IB for the circuit of Fig. 11-1a is determined by V − VBE IB = i [11.1] RB The saturation level for collector current IC(sat) for the same circuit is defined by V I C ( sat ) = CC [11.2] RC The level of IB in the active region just before saturation results can be approximated by the following equation: I C ( sat ) I B (max) ≅ [11.3] β For the saturation level we must therefore ensure that the following is satisfied: I B > I B (max) [11.4] University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Switching Circuits Lecture Eleven - Page 2 of 3 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Example 11-1: Verify that the circuit shown in Fig. 11-2 behaves like an inverter when the input switches between 0 V and +10 V. Assume that the transistor is silicon and that β = 50. Solution: It is only necessary to verify that the transistor is saturated when Vi = +10 V. V − VBE 10 − 0.7 IB = i = 42.3μA . = RB 220k I C ( sat ) VCC 10 I B (max) = = = = 32.3μA . β βRC (50)(6.2k ) Thus, we have I B > I B (max) , therefore the transistor is saturated, and the circuit is inverter. VCC + 10V RC 6.2kΩ Vo RB Vi β = 50 220kΩ Fig. 11-2 Example 11-2: Verify that the circuit shown in Fig. 11-3 is an inverter when the input switches between 0 V and -5 V. What minimum value of β is required? Assume that the transistor is silicon. Solution: (4)(5k ) = 0.8V , hence the 20k + 5k transistor is at cutoff, so that D1 and D2 are on and Vo = −4 − 0.7 − 0.3 = −5V . When Vi = −5V , RTh = 5k 20k = 4kΩ , (+4)(5k ) (−5)(20k ) ETh = + = −3.2V , 20k + 5k 20k + 5k E − VBE 3.2 − 0.7 I B = Th = = 625μA . RTh 4k We assume the transistor is at saturation, Vo = 0V , so that D1 and D2 are off and V 20 I C ( sat ) = CC = = 12.5mA , RC 1.6k I B (max) = I C ( sat ) / β = 12.5mA / β . VCC − 20V When Vi = 0V , VB = For the transistor to be in saturation, I C ( sat ) 12.5m = = 20 . I B > I B (max) => β > IB 625μ − 4V Vi R1 D1 D2 Si RC 1.6kΩ Ge 5kΩ R2 20kΩ + 4V Fig. 11-3 Vo University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Switching Circuits Lecture Eleven - Page 3 of 3 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Exercise: 1. Design the transistor inverter of Fig. 11-4 to operate with a saturation current of 8 mA using a transistor with a beta of 100. Use a level of IB equal to 120% of IB(max) and standard resistor values. VCC + 5V RC Vi Vo 5 Vi 0 RB β = 100 t Fig. 11-4 2. Verify that the circuit shown in Fig. 11-5 is a positive NAND when the input switches between 0 V and +12 V. Neglect source impedance and junction saturation voltages and diode voltages in forward direction. Find the minimum value of β. + 12V VA VB VCC + 12V RC 2.2kΩ Vo R1 15kΩ D1 R2 D2 15kΩ R3 100kΩ − 12V Fig. 11-5 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 1 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Basic Concepts: The key to the transistor small-signal analysis is the use of ac equivalent circuits or models. A model is the combination of circuit elements, properly chosen, that best approximates the actual behavior of a semiconductor device (BJT) under specific operating conditions. Once the ac equivalent circuit has been determined, the graphical symbol of the device can be replaced in the schematic by this circuit and the basic methods of ac circuit analysis (mesh analysis, nodal analysis, and Thevenin's theorem) can be applied to determine the response of the circuit. There are two schools of thought in prominence today regarding the equivalent circuit to be substituted for the transistor: hybrid and re model. In summary, the ac equivalent circuit of the BJT amplifier is obtained by (see Fig. 12-1): 1. Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a short-circuit equivalent. 2. Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent. 3. Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit equivalents introduced by stapes 1 and 2. 4. Redrawing the circuit in a more convenient and logical form. 5. Use the hybrid or re equivalent circuit of the BJT to complete the equivalent circuit of the amplifier. 6. Finally, the following parameters are determined for the amplifier: a. Input impedance (Zi). b. Output impedance (Zo). c. Voltage gain (Av). d. Current gain (Ai). e. Phase relationship (θ). (a) (b) (c) Fig. 12-1 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 2 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The Hybrid (h-parameters) Equivalent Model: For the general hybrid two-port system of Fig. 12-2: Vi = h11 I i + h12Vo I o = h21 I i + h22Vo [12.1a] [12.1b] Fig. 12-2 where h11 = h12 = h21 = h22 = Vi Ii Vi Vo Io Ii Io Vo = hi (Ω) , short-circuit input impedance parameter. Vo =0 = hr (unitless ) , open-circuit reverse transfer voltage ratio parameter. I i =0 = h f (unitless ) , short-circuit forward transfer current ratio parameter. Vo =0 = ho ( S ) , open-circuit output admittance parameter. Ii =0 From the BJT hybrid equivalent circuit of Fig. 12-3, Eqs. [12.1a] and [12.1b] becomes: Vi = hi I i + hrVo I o = h f I i + hoVo [12.2a] [12.2b] Fig. 12-3 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 3 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Gain and Impedance Computation of the Complete Hybrid Equivalent Circuit: For the circuit of Fig. 12-4, RS + VS − Ii + Vi − Io hi Zi hrVo + h f Ii − Zo 1 / ho + Vo − RL Fig. 12-4 the voltage gain (Av = Vo/Vi); V V − hrVo , I o = − o , and I o = h f I i + hoVo => Ii = i hi RL − h f RL V Av = o = [12.3a] Vi hi + (hi ho − h f hr ) RL the current gain (Ai = Io/Ii); h f Ii 1 ho Io = h f Ii = => 1 ho + RL 1 + ho RL hf I Ai = o = I i 1 + ho RL [12.3b] the input impedance (Zi = Vi/Ii); Vi V V I = hi + hr o , and Vo = − I o RL => i = hi − hr RL o = hi − hr RL Ai => Ii Ii Ii Ii h f hr RL V Z i = i = hi − [12.3c] Ii 1 + ho RL the output impedance (Zo = Vo/Io when VS = 0 V); hV VS = I i ( RS + hi ) + hrVo = 0 => I i = − r o , and I o = h f I i + hoVo => RS + hi h f hr I o = hoVo − Vo => RS + hi V 1 Zo = o = [12.3d] h f hr Io ho − RS + hi University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 4 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Types of Hybrid Parameters: Since there are three types of BJT configuration (CE, CC, and CB), there are three different ways that the input and output can be defined and therefore three corresponding sets of h-parameters as shown in Table 12-1. If all of the h-parameters values in one configuration are known, then the values corresponding to any other configuration can be determined. The common-emitter values of the h-parameters are the ones most often given. Table 12-1 BJT configuration h-parameters sets 1 2 3 Common-Emitter Common-Collector Common-Base hie , hfe , hre , hoe hic , hfc , hrc , hoc hib , hfb , hrb , hob The hybrid equivalent circuits of the CE and CB transistor configuration are shown in Fig. 12-5 (a) and (b) respectively. (a) (b) Fig. 12-5 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 5 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Table 12-2 lists typical parameter values in each of the three transistor configurations (CE, CC, and CB) for the broad range of transistors available today. h-parameters hi hr hf ho 1/ho Table 12-2 CE CC 1kΩ 2.5×10-4 50 25 μS 40 kΩ 1kΩ ≈1 −50 25 μS 40 kΩ CB 20kΩ 3.0×10-4 −0.98 0.5 μS 2 MΩ Graphical Determination of the CE Hybrid Parameters: The parameters hie and hre are determined from the input or base characteristics, while the parameters hfe and hoe are obtained from the output or collector characteristics as shown in Fig. 12-6. hie = h fe = Δvbe Δib Δic Δib = 1.5kΩ hre = VCE =const . = 100 hoe = VCE =const . Fig. 12-6 Δvbe Δvce Δic Δvce = 4 × 10− 4 I B = const . = 33μS I B =const . University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 6 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin For the transistor whose characteristics have appeared in Fig. 12-6, the resulting hybrid small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 12-7. Fig. 12-7 The typical values of h-parameters for CE transistor configuration are shown in Table 12-3. Table 12-3 hxe parameters Min. Input impedance Voltage feedback ratio Small-signal current gain Output admittance hie hre hfe hoe Max. Unit 7.5 8.0 250 30 kΩ ×10-4 − μS 0.5 0.1 20 1.0 Approximate CE Hybrid Equivalent Model: Since hre is normally a relatively small quantity, its removal is approximated by hre ≈ 0 and hreVce = 0, resulting in a short-circuit equivalent for the feedback element. The resistance determined by 1/hoe is often large enough to be ignored in comparison to a parallel load permitting its replacement by an open-circuit equivalent for the CE model as shown in Fig. 12-8. b + Vi Ib Ic c Zi Zo + − hie h fe I b e Vo − Io Z o′ RL e Fig. 12-8 For the circuit of Fig. 12-8, Z i = hie , and Z o = ∞ . V I R I R Z′ R I Ai = c = h fe , and Av = o = − o L = − c L = − h fe L = − Ai o . Ib Vi I b hie I b hie hie Zi University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 7 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The re Equivalent Model: CB Transistor Configuration: From Fig. 12-9, the input impedance at the emitter of CB transistor configuration (dynamic resistance of the forward diode) can de determined by: re = 26mV IE [12.4] the output impedance at the collector (dynamic resistance of the reverse diode) is: ro ≈ ∞ also; Z i = re , and Z o = ∞ . Vo = − I o RL = −(− I c ) RL = αI e RL , and Vi = I e Z i = I e re => V αR R Av = o = L ≈ L . Vi re re I I I c = αI e , and Ai = o = − c => Ii Ie Ai = −α ≈ −1 . (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) Fig. 12-9 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 8 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin CE Transistor Configuration: From Fig. 12-10; I c = βI b , I e = I c + I b = βI b + I b = ( β + 1) I b ≈ βI b , and Vbe = I e re ≈ βI b re . V V Z i = i = be = β ⋅ re . Ii Ib Z o = ro ≈ ∞ . Vo = − I o RL = − I c RL = − βI b RL , βI R V V R Av = o = o = − b L = − L . Vi Vbe βI b re re Ai = I o I c βI b = = =β . Ii Ib Ib (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (g) Fig. 12-10 University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Modeling and AC Equivalent Circuit Lecture Twelve - Page 9 of 9 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Hybrid Versus re Model: The hybrid versus re model for CE and CB transistor configurations are shown in Figs. 12-11 (a) and (b) respectively. (a) (b) Fig. 12-11 Approximate Conversion Formulas for Hybrid and re Models: The approximate conversion formulas for hybrid and re models for CB and CC configurations are listed in Table 12-4. Table 12-4 CB Configuration hib ≅ hie (1 + h fe ) ≅ re hrb ≅ hie hoe (1 + h fe ) − hre CC Configuration hic ≅ hie ≅ βre h fb ≅ − h fe (1 + h fe ) ≅ −α hrc ≅ 1 − hre ≅ 1 h fc ≅ −(1 + h fe ) ≅ − β hob ≅ hoe (1 + h fe ) hoc ≅ hoe ≅ 1 / ro Exercise: Given IE = 1.3 mA, β = 100, and ro = 40 kΩ, sketch: 1. The CE and CB hybrid equivalent models. 2. The CE and CB re equivalent models. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 1 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin BJT Small-Signal Analysis Common-Emitter Configuration: The voltage divider circuit of Fig. 13-1 includes an emitter resistor (RE) that may or may not be bypassed by an emitter capacitor (CE) in the ac domain. + VCC R1 I i CS RS Vs C B Zi Zb Vi R2 + + RC C C Io − Zo + Vo − Z o′ RL E RE − CE Z in Fig. 13-1 Bypassed (absence of RE): For the ac equivalent circuit of Fig. 13-2, b Ib Ii RS + Vs Zi + Vi − Zb R′ Ic βre βI b ro hie e h fe I b 1 / hoe − Z in Fig. 13-2 Using re equivalent model: Input impedance: R′ = R1 R2 Z b = β re Z i = R′ Z b = R′ βre Z in = RS + Z i = RS + ( R′ βre ) Io c Zo + RC Vo − Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Output impedance: Approximate (neglecting ro); Z o = RC Z o′ = RL Z o = RL RC Voltage gain: Approximate (neglecting ro); Vo = − I c Z o′ = − βI b ( RL RC ) BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 2 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Exact (including ro); Z o = RC ro Z o′ = RL RC ro Exact (including ro); R R r Av = − L C o re Vi V = i Z b βre R R V Av = o = − L C Vi re V V V Zi Avs = o = o ⋅ i = Av ⋅ Vs Vi Vs Z i + RS Ib = Current gain: Approximate (neglecting ro); I I I I Ai = o = o ⋅ c ⋅ b Ii Ic Ib Ii RC R′ = ⋅β ⋅ RC + RL R′ + Z b βRC R′ = ( RC + RL )( R′ + βre ) I I I RS Ais = o = o ⋅ i = Ai ⋅ I s Ii I s RS + Z i Exact (including ro); βro RC R′ Ai = [ro + ( RC RL )]( RC + RL )( R′ + βre ) As an option: V −I R I R R Av = o = o L = − o ⋅ L = − Ai ⋅ L Vi Ii Zi Ii Zi Zi I − Vo RL V Z Z Ai = o = = − o ⋅ i = − Av ⋅ i Ii Vi Z i Vi RL RL Phase relationship: The negative sign in the resulting equation for Av reveals that a 180o phase shift occurs between the input and output voltage signals. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 3 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Using hybrid equivalent model: Approximate (neglecting hoe); Z b = hie h fe ( RL RC ) Av = − hie h fe RC R′ Ai = ( RC + RL )( R′ + hie ) Exact (including hoe); Av = − Ai = h fe ( RL RC 1 / hoe ) hie h fe RC R′ / hoe [1 / hoe + ( RC RL )]( RC + RL )( R′ + hie ) Unbypassed (include of RE): For the approximate ac equivalent circuit ( ro = 1 / hoe ≈ ∞Ω ) of Fig. 13-3, b Ib Ii RS + Vs Zi + Vi − Zb R′ − Ic βre hie βI b e h fe I b Io c Zo RC Vo Ie RE Fig. 13-3 Using re equivalent model: Input impedance: Vi = I b βre + I e RE = I b [ βre + ( β + 1) RE ] V Z b = i = βre + ( β + 1) RE ≈ β (re + RE ) ≈ βRE Ib Z i = R′ Z b = R′ [ β re + ( β + 1) RE ] ≈ R′ β (re + RE ) ≈ R′ β RE Output impedance: Z o = RC Z o′ = RL Z o = RL RC Voltage gain: Vo = − I c Z o′ = − βI b ( RL RC ) V Vi Ib = i = Z b β (re + RE ) + − Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Av = BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 4 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin R R R R Vo =− L C ≈− L C Vi re + RE RE Current gain: I I I I Ai = o = o ⋅ c ⋅ b Ii Ic Ib Ii RC R′ = ⋅β ⋅ RC + RL R′ + Z b βRC R′ βRC R′ = ≈ ( RC + RL )[ R′ + β (re + RE )] ( RC + RL )( R′ + β RE ) Phase relationship: Vo and Vi are out-of-phase by 180o. Using hybrid equivalent model: Z b = hie + (h fe + 1) RE ≈ hie + h fe RE ≈ h fe RE Av = − Ai = h fe ( RL RC ) hie + h fe RE ≈− RL RC RE h fe RC R′ h fe RC R′ ≈ ( RC + RL )( R′ + hie + h fe RE ) ( RC + RL )( R′ + h fe RE ) Common-Base Configuration: The common-base configuration of Fig. 13-4 is characterized as having a relatively low input and a high output impedance and a current gain less than 1. The voltage gain, however, can be quite large. I i CS RS + Vs − E Zi + Vi − Zb RE C B VEE CC I o Zo RC VCC Fig. 13-4 + Vo − Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 5 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Using re equivalent model: For the approximate ac equivalent circuit ( ro ≈ ∞Ω ) of Fig. 13-5, Input impedance: Z b = re Z i = RE re [low] Zi RS Output impedance: Z o = RC [high] Z o′ = RL RC e Ie Ii + Vi + Vs − Ic Zb Zo αI e re RE + RC Vo − b − Io c Z o′ RL Fig. 13-5 Voltage gain: Vo = I c Z o′ = αI e ( RL RC ) I e = Vi / re α ( R L RC ) R L RC Av = ≅ re re [high] Current gain: I I I I RC RE Ai = o = o ⋅ c ⋅ e = − ⋅α ⋅ Ii Ic Ie Ii RC + RL RE + re αRC RE =− [less than 1] ( RC + RL )( RE + re ) Phase relationship: Vo and Vi are in-phase. Using hybrid equivalent model: For the approximate ac equivalent circuit (1 / hob ≈ ∞Ω ) of Fig. 13-6, Z b = hib Z i = RE hib Av = − Ai = h fb ( RL RC ) hib h fb RC RE RS + Vs − ( RC + RL )( RE + hib ) [hfb: -ve quantity] Ic e Ie Ii Zi + Vi − Zb RE Io c Zo h fb I e hib b Fig. 13-6 + RC Vo − Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 6 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Common-Collector (Emitter-Follower] Configuration: When the output is taken from the emitter terminal of the transistor, an amplifier circuit is referred to as emitter-follower as shown in Fig. 13-7. The emitter-follower configuration is frequently used for impedance-matching purposes. It presents a high impedance at the input and a low impedance at the output. Also, the output voltage is always slightly less than the input signal with an in-phase relationship between them. + VCC RB I i CS B Zi RS + Zb Vi + Vs C − − CC E Zo RE Io Z o′ RL + Vo − Fig. 13-7 Using re equivalent model: For the ac equivalent circuit of Fig. 13-8, b Ib Ii RS + Vs Zi + Vi − Zb Ic βre hie RB − βI b Input impedance: R ′ = RL RE Vi = I b βre + I e R′ = I b [ βre + ( β + 1) R′] Z b = Vi / I b = β re + ( β + 1) R′ ≈ β (re + R′) ≈ β R′ [high] Z i = RB Z b h fe I b e Ie RE Fig. 13-8 c Io Zo + Vo − RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 7 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Output impedance: [KVL] Vs − I i RS − I b βre − I e R′ = 0 For the circuit of Fig. 13-9a, VR RTh = RS RB , and ETh = s B RS + R B where RB >> RS => RTh ≈ RS , ETh ≈ Vs , and I i ≈ I b Vs − I b RS − I b β re − I b ( β + 1) R′ = 0 Vs Ib = RS + βre + ( β + 1) R′ ( β + 1)Vs I e = ( β + 1) I b = RS + β re + ( β + 1) R′ Vs ≈ RS / β + re + R′ RS RB + Vs − Thevenin (a) RS / β + RS / h fe Vs − re + Ie hie / h fe Vi Z o = RE ( RS / β + re ) Z o′ = RL Z o [low] Voltage gain: V I e R′ R′ = Av = o = Vi I e ( R′ + re ) R′ + re Avs = [less than 1] Vo R′ = Vs R′ + Rs / β + re Current gain: I I I I RE RB Ai = o = o ⋅ e ⋅ b = − ⋅ ( β + 1) ⋅ Ii Ie Ib Ii RE + RL RB + Z b β RE RB [high] ≈− ( RE + RL )( RB + β R ′) Phase relationship: Vo and Vi are in-phase. Zo + RE Vo − − (b) Fig. 13-9 Drawing the circuit to "fit" the above last equation will result in the configuration of Fig. 13-9b. Thus Io Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 8 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Using hybrid equivalent model: Z b = hie + (h fe + 1) R′ ≈ h fe R′ Z o = RE ( RS + hie ) / h fe R′ Av = R′ + hie / h fe R′ Avs = R′ + ( Rs + hie ) / h fe Ai = − h fe RE RB ( RE + RL )( RB + h fe R′) Example 13-1: For the BJT amplifier circuit of Fig. 13-10 with the following parameters: VBE = 0.7 V, β = hfe ≈ 250, and ro = 1/hoe ≈ ∞ Ω, determine: (a) re, and dc output voltage (VC). (b) hie, Zb, Zi, Zo, and Z o′ . (c) Av = Vo/Vi, and Ai = Io/Ii. (d) Avs = Vo / Vs , and ac output voltage (Vo). VCC + 20V R1 91kΩ RC I i CS RS 750Ω + Vs − 25mV 3kΩ C Zo Zi + Io C + Vo RL − Zb Vi R2 10kΩ RE1 180Ω − RE 2 Fig. 13-10 820Ω CE Z o′ 12kΩ University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 9 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Solution: Testing: βRE ≥ 10R2 , RE = RE1 + RE 2 = 0.18k + 0.82k = 1kΩ , 250(1k ) ≥ 10(10k ) , 250k > 100k Satisfied, V ⋅R V − VBE 1.98 − 0.7 20(10k ) = 1.28mA , = 1.98V , I E = B = VB = CC 2 = R1 + R2 10k + 91k RE 1k 26mV 26m re = = = 20.3Ω , I C ≈ I E = 1.28mA , and IE 1.28m VC = VCC − I C RC = 20 − 1.28m(3k ) = 16.16V . hie = βre = 250(20.3) = 5.075kΩ , Z b = hie + (h fe + 1) RE1 = 5.075k + 251(0.18k ) = 50.26kΩ , R′ = R1 R2 = 91k 10k = 9.01kΩ , Z i = R′ Z b = 9.01k 50.26k = 7.64kΩ , Z o = RC = 3kΩ , and Z o′ = RL RC = 12k 3k = 2.4kΩ . h fe Z o′ Z 250(2.4k ) 11.94(7.64k ) Av = − =− = −11.94 , and Ai = − Av i = = 7.6. Zb 50.26k RL 12k Zi V − 11.94(7.64k ) Avs = Av i = Av = = −10.87 , and Vs Z i + RS 7.64k + 0.75k Vo = Avs ⋅ Vs = −10.87(25m) = −271.75mV . Example 13-2: Design the BJT amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 13-11 to have a voltage gain magnitude of 4, Zi = 3.37 kΩ, Zo = 3 kΩ, and Z o′ = 2kΩ. Assume that the transistor is silicon with β = 100 , hie = 1 kΩ, ro = 1/hoe ≈ ∞ Ω, and βRE > 10R2 . VCC + 20V R1 RC C C Io I i CS RS + Vs Zo Zi Zb Vi R2 + − + Vo − RE − Fig. 13-11 Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 10 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Solution: RC = Z o = 3kΩ , Z o′ = RL RC ⇒ 2k = RL 3k ⇒ RL = 6kΩ . Z′ 2 Av ≈ o ⇒ 4 ≈ ⇒ RE ≈ 0.5kΩ . RE RE 26mV 26m hie = β re ⇒ 1k = 100re ⇒ re = 10Ω , re = ⇒ 10 = ⇒ I E = 2.6mA . IE IE VE = I E RE = 2.6m(0.5k ) = 1.3V , VB = VE + VBE = 1.3 + 0.7 = 2V . V R2 R2 R2 2 Q βRE > 10 R2 ⇒ B = ⇒ = ⇒ = 0.1 ----- [a] VCC R1 + R2 20 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 Z b = hie + ( β + 1) RE = 1k + 101(0.5k ) = 51.5kΩ . Z i = R′ Z b ⇒ 3.37 k = R′ 51.5k ⇒ R′ = 3.6kΩ . RR R2 3.6k R′ = R1 R2 = 1 2 ⇒ = ----- [b] R1 + R2 R1 R1 + R2 3.6k = 0.1 ⇒ R1 = 36kΩ . From Eqs. [a] and [b]: R1 R2 From Eq. [a]: = 0.1 ⇒ R2 = 4kΩ . 36k + R2 Example 13-3: Complete the design of the BJT amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 13-12 for a voltage gain of 125, Zo = 2.4 kΩ, Z o′ = 2 kΩ. Assume that α = 0.985 , |VBE| = 0.7 V, and ro = 1/hob ≈ ∞ Ω. Calculate Avs , and Vo. VCC − 9V RC RS + Vs − 20Ω 10mV CC Zo CS + Vo − Zi + Vi − RE VEE + 4V Fig. 13-12 Zo RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 11 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Solution: RC = Z o = 2.4kΩ . Z o′ = RL RC ⇒ 2k = RL 2.4k ⇒ RL = 12kΩ . αZ ′ 0.985(2k ) Av = o ⇒ 125 = ⇒ re = 15.76Ω . re re 26mV 26m re = ⇒ 15.76 = ⇒ I E = 1.65mA . IE IE V − VBE 4 − 0.7 RE = EE = = 2kΩ . IE 1.65m Z i = re RE = 15.76 2k = 15.64Ω . Zi 125(15.64) = = 55 . Avs = Av Z i + Rs 15.64 + 20 Vo = Avs ⋅ Vs = 55(10m) = 550mV . Exercises: 1. For each one of the circuits shown in Fig. 13-13, write a mathematical expression to determine each of the following parameters by using hybrid or re equivalent model. (b) Zo and Z o′ . (c) Ai and Av. (a) Zb and Zi. + VCC RF 1 RF 2 CF I i CS RC + VCC CC I o Zo Z o′ RL + Vo − RS + Vs Zi + Zb Vi R1 I i CS RS + − RE − CE RC Vs Zi Zb Vi R2 + − − (a) (b) Fig. 13-13 CC I o Zo RE + Vo − Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 BJT Small-Signal Analysis Lecture Thirteen - Page 12 of 12 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 2. For the common-base amplifier of Fig. 13-14, determine the following parameters using the complete hybrid equivalent model and compare the results to these obtained using the approximate model. (a) Zb and Zi. (b) Zo and Z o′ . (c) Ai and Avs . (d) Ai and Ais . CS Ii RS 1kΩ + Vs − hie = 1.6kΩ hre = 2 × 10 −4 Zi + Vi RE − VEE h fe = 110 hoe = 20 μS Zb CC Zo 3kΩ RC VCC 6V Io Z o′ + 3kΩ V R o L − 12V 8.2kΩ Fig. 13-14 3. Complete the design of the BJT amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 13-15 for a voltage gain magnitude of 205, Zi =1.5k Ω, and Z o′ = 3.2 kΩ. Assume that β = 100 , VBE = 0.7 V, RF1/RF2 =1.95, and ro = 1/hoe ≈ ∞ Ω. Sketch Vo to the same time scale as Vs. VCC RF 1 RS + Vs − CF I i CS 1kΩ 2Sinwt mV RF 2 + 10V RC CC I o Zo + Vo − Zi + Zb Vi − Fig. 13-15 Z o′ RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 1 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Low-Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers: For the high-pass filter circuit of Fig. 14-1a, the output and the input voltages are related by the voltage-divider rule in the following manner: RVi Vo = , R + XC with the magnitude of Vo determined by R ⋅ Vi . Vo = 2 2 R + XC For special case where XC = R, 1 Vo = Vi , and 2 V 1 = 0.707 X = R . Av = o = C Vi 2 In "deciBel" (dB): G (dB) = 20 log 10 Av = 20 log10 1 = −3dB . 2 Av , G ( dB) C + + Vi R − 1,0dB 0.707,−3dB Vo − fL (a) f (Hz ) (b) Fig. 14-1 At the frequency of witch XC = R, the output will be 70.7 % of the input (a 3 dB drop in gain, see Fig. 14-1b) for the RC circuit. The frequency (fL) at witch this occurs is determined from: 1 1 XC = = = R => ωC 2πfC fL = 1 2πRC fL: the low-cutoff frequency. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 2 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The Capacitors CS, CC, and CE will determine the lower-cutoff frequency (fL) of the loaded voltage divider BJT bias configuration shown in Fig. 14-2, but the results can be applied to any BJT configuration. For the amplifier circuit of Fig. 14-2: + VCC The cutoff-frequency of CS, f LS 1 = 2π ( RS + Ri )C S where Ri = R′ hie , and R′ = R1 R2 . The cutoff-frequency of CC, f LC 1 = 2π ( RL + Ro )CC where Ro = RC 1 / hoe . The cutoff-frequency of CE, f LE = 1 2πRe C E where Re = RE RS′ + hie , and h fe + 1 RS′ = RS R′ . The lower-cutoff frequency, f L = Max.[ f LS , f LC , f LE ] R1 I i CS RS + Vs RC C C Io C B + − + Vo − Ri Vi Ro R2 E − RE Re Fig. 14-2 CE RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 3 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Miller's Theorem and Its Dual: For the circuit of Fig. 14-3a, V V − Vo Vi − AvVi (1 − Av )Vi Vi V = = . I i = i , I1 = i , and I 2 = i = Zi Ri ZF ZF ZF Z F /(1 − Av ) V V Vi 1 1 1 = + I i = I1 + I 2 => i = i + => . Z i Ri Z F /(1 − Av ) Z i Ri Z F /(1 − Av ) R 1 1 1 when Z F = RF => , where RM i = F . = + Z i Ri RM i 1 − Av As shown in Fig. 14-3b, X CF 1 1 1 1 when Z F = X CF => = + , where X CM = => = i Z i Ri X CM 1 − Av ω (1 − Av )C F i C M i = (1 − Av )C F I2 Ii I1 Vi Z i Ri + − CF ZF Ii Io Av = Vo Vi Ro + + Zo V Vi o − − Io CM i (a) Av = Vo Vi CM o + Vo − (b) Fig. 14-3 In a similar way, RF 1 1 1 = + => RM o = , and Z o Ro Z F /(1 − 1 / Av ) 1 − 1 / Av X CF 1 => X CM = = o 1 − 1 / Av ω (1 − 1 / Av )C F C M o = (1 − 1 / Av )C F The above shows us that: For any inverting amplifier (phase shift of 180o between input and output resulting in a negative value for Av), the input and output capacitance will be increased by a Miller effect capacitance sensitive to the gain of the amplifier and the interelectrode capacitance connected between the input and output terminals of the active device. University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 4 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin High-Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers: A frequency response of the low-pass filter circuit of Fig. 14-4a is given by Fig. 14-4b, where the high-cutoff frequency is determined from: fH = 1 2πRC fH: the high-cutoff frequency. Av , G ( dB) R + + C Vi 1,0dB 0.707,−3dB Vo − − f (Hz ) fH (a) (b) Fig. 14-4 At the high-frequency end, there are two factors that will define the -3 dB point: the circuit capacitance (parasitic and introduced) and the frequency dependence of hfe. Circuit (Capacitances) Parameters: In high-frequency region the capacitive elements of the importance are the inter-electrode (between terminals) capacitances internal to the active device and the wiring capacitance between leads of the circuit. In Fig. 14-5, the various parasitic capacitances (Cbe, Cbc, and Cce) of the transistor have been included with the wiring capacitances ( CWi and CWo ) introduced during construction. + VCC RC R1 CS CC Cbc C B RS + Vs − Cce CWo E R2 Cbe CWi RE Fig. 14-5 CE RL University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 5 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin The high-frequency equivalent model for the amplifier circuit of Fig. 14-5 appears in Fig. 14-6. Note the absence of the capacitors CS, CC, and CE, which are all assumed to be in the short circuit state at these frequencies. RS Vo + Vs Ri RThi − Ci βI b Ro RThi + RTho + ETho Ci − − Fig. 14-6 For the circuit of Fig. 14-6: The input high cutoff frequency, f Hi = 1 2πRThi Ci where RThi = RS Ri , and Ri = R1 R 2 hie . Ci = CWi + Cbe + C M i = CWi +C be +(1 − Av )Cbc . The output high cutoff frequency, f Ho = 1 2πRTho Co where RTho = RL Ro , and Ro = RC 1 / hoe Co = CWo + Cce + C M o = CWo +C ce +(1 − 1 / Av )Cbc . The higher-cutoff frequency, f H = Min.[ f H i , f H o ] Co C o = CWo + C ce + C M o Ci = CWi + Cbe + C M i EThi RL RTho Co University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 6 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin hfe (β) Variation: The beta cutoff frequency (fβ) is another important transistor cutoff frequency. The fβ, the frequency where the β of the transistor drop to 0.707 of its low-frequency value, is given by fβ ≅ 1 2πβre (Cbe + Cbc ) If the frequency of operation is increased above the fβ of the transistor, the β will continue to decrease. Eventually, we find a frequency where the β = 1; this frequency is called the fT of the transistor. The fT of a transistor is much higher than the fβ. The relation between these two frequencies is f T ≅ β ⋅ f β ≈ h fe ⋅ BW fT: the gain-bandwidth product frequency. Finally, in data sheet, the CB high-frequency parameters rather than CE parameters are often specified for a transistor. The following equation permits a direct conversion for determining fβ if fα and α are specified. f β = fα (1 − α ) Example 14-1: For the BJT amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 14-7, with the following parameters: Cbe = 36 pF, Cbc = 4 pF, Cce = 1 pF, CWi = 6 pF, CWo = 8 pF, and ro = 1/hoe = ∞ Ω. 1. Determine fL, fH, BW, fβ, and fT. 2. Sketch the frequency response. VCC + 20V R1 40kΩ RC 1μF β = 100 CS RS 1kΩ 10 μF + Vs − 4kΩ C C R2 10kΩ RE 2kΩ C E Fig. 14-7 RL 2.2kΩ 20μF University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 7 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin Solution: Testing: βRE ≥ 10 R2 , 100(2k ) ≥ 10(10k ) , 200kΩ > 100kΩ Satisfied. V ⋅R V V − VEB 4 − 0.7 20(10k ) VB = CC 2 = = 4V , I E = E = B = = 1.65mA. R1 + R2 40k + 10k RE RE 2k 26mV 26m = = 15.76Ω , hie = βre = 100(15.76) = 1.58kΩ . re = IE 1.65m 2.2k 4k R R Avmid = − L C = − = −90 . re 15.76 Ri = R1 R2 hie = 40k 10k 1.58k = 1.32kΩ , 1 1 f LS = = = 7 Hz . 2π ( RS + Ri )C S 2π (1k + 1.32k )(10μ ) Ro = RC 1 / hoe = 4kΩ , 1 1 f LC = = = 26 Hz . 2π ( RL + Ro )CC 2π (2.2k + 4k )(1μ ) RS′ = RS R1 R2 = 1k 40k 10k = 0.89kΩ , R′ 0.89k Re = RE [ S + re ] = 2k [ + 15.76] = 24.35Ω . 100 β 1 1 f LE = = = 327 Hz . 2πRe C E 2π (24.35)(20 μ ) The lower-cutoff frequency, f L = Max.[ f LS , f LC , f LE ] = Max.[7,26,327] = 327 Hz . RThi = RS Ri = 1k 1.32k = 0.57 kΩ . Ci = CWi + Cbe + C M i = CWi +C be +(1 − Av )Cbc = 6 p + 36 p + (1 + 90)(4 p ) = 406 pF . f Hi = 1 1 = = 687.732kHz . 2πRThi Ci 2π (0.57 k )(406 p ) RTho = RL Ro = 2.2k 4k = 1.42kΩ . Co = CWo + Cce + C M o = CWo +C ce +(1 − 1 / Av )Cbc = 8 p + 1 p + (1 + 1 / 90)(4 p ) = 13 pF . f Ho = 1 1 = = 8.622 MHz . 2πRTho Co 2π (1.42k )(13 p ) The higher-cutoff frequency, f H = Min.[ f H i , f H o ] = Min.[687.732k ,8.622 M ] = 687.732kHz . The bandwidth, BW = f H − f L = 687.732k − 327 = 687.405kHz . University of Technology Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department Second Year, Electronics I, 2009 - 2010 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers Lecture Fourteen - Page 8 of 8 Dr. Ahmed Saadoon Ezzulddin 1 2πβre (Cbe + Cbc ) 1 = = 2.52 MHz . 2π (100)(15.76)(36 p + 4 p ) The beta cutoff frequency, f β = The gain-bandwidth product, f T = β ⋅ f β = 100(2.52 M ) = 252 MHz . The frequency response for the low- and high-frequency regions, bandwidth, beta cutoff frequency, and gain-bandwidth product frequency are shown in Fig. 14-8. Av Avmid dB f LS f LC 1 10 f Hi f LE 100 1k 10k 100k 1M fβ fT 10M 100M 0 - 3 dB fL -5 f (log scale) fH f Ho BW - 10 - 15 Fig. 14-8 Exercise: For the BJT amplifier circuit of Fig. 14-9, determine the lower- and higher-cutoff frequencies. Cbc = 18 pF CWi = 8 pF Cbe = 24 pF CS RS + Vs − Cce = 12 pF 10 μF 0.1kΩ RE VEE β = 80 CWo = 10 pF CC 10 μF 1.2kΩ 4V RC VCC Fig. 14-9 3.3kΩ 16V RL 4.7 kΩ