Unit I
Concept of system
A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to
form a unified whole.[1] A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by
its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of
study of systems theory.
Systems analysis is "the process of studying a procedure or business to identify its goal and
purposes and create systems and procedures that will efficiently achieve them". Another view
sees system analysis as a problem-solving technique that breaks down a system into its
component pieces, and how well those parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose.[1]
The field of system analysis relates closely to requirements analysis or to operations research. It
is also "an explicit formal inquiry carried out to help a decision maker identify a better course of
action and make a better decision than they might otherwise have made."[2]
The terms analysis and synthesis stems from Greek, meaning "to take apart" and "to put
together," respectively. These terms are used in many scientific disciplines, from mathematics
and logic to economics and psychology, to denote similar investigative procedures. The analysis
is defined as "the procedure by which we break down an intellectual or substantial whole into
parts," while synthesis means "the procedure by which we combine separate elements or
components to form a coherent whole."[3] System analysis researchers apply methodology to the
systems involved, forming an overall picture.
System analysis is used in every field where something is developed. Analysis can also be a
series of components that perform organic functions together, such as system
engineering. System engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering that focuses on how
complex engineering projects should be designed and managed.
Definition of a System and Its Parts
system is an interrelated set of business procedures (or components) used within one business
unit, working together for some purpose. For example, a system in the payroll department keeps
track of checks, whereas an inventory system keeps track of supplies. The two systems are
separate. A system has nine characteristics. A detailed explanation of each characteristic
follows, system exists within a larger world, an environment. A boundary separates the system
from its environment. The system takes input from outside, processes it, and sends the resulting
output back to its environment.
Elements of a System:
1. Components : An irreducible part or aggregation of parts that makes up a system; also
called a subsystem.
2. Interrelated components : Dependence of one part of the system on one or more other
system parts.
3. Boundary : The line that marks the inside and outside of a system and that sets off the
system from its environment.
4. Purpose : The overall goal or function of a system.
5. Environment : Everything external to a system that interacts with the system.
6. Interfaces : Point of contact where a system meets its environment or where subsystems
meet each other.
7. Constraints : A limit to what a system can accomplish.
8. Input : Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
9. Output : The main objective of a system is to get an output which is helpful for its
user. Output is the final outcome of processing.
Characteristics and types of system

Organization

structure and order

Example: Hierarchical organization in a company.

Computer system: organization of various components like input devices, output
devices, CPU and storage devices



Interaction

Between sub systems or the components

Example: the main memory holds the data that has to be operated by the ALU.
Interdependence

Component linkage

Component dependence
Integration


How subsystems are tied together to achieve the system objective
Central Objective

Should be known in early phases of analysis
Types of Systems

Physical or Abstract System

Physical system: tangible entities

static or dynamic in nature.

Example : system-computer centre

Desks and chairs are the static parts

Programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's needs.

Abstract systems are conceptual. These are not physical entities. They may be
formulas, representation or model of a real system.

Open Closed System- Majority of systems are open systems

open system has many interfaces with its environment

can also adapt to changing environmental conditions

can receive inputs from, and delivers output to the outside of system

Closed systems: Systems that don't interact with their environment. Closed
systems exist in concept only.

Man made Information System

Information system is the basis for interaction between the user and the analyst.

Main purpose-manage data for a particular organization.
Further Categorized as:
1. Formal Information Systems: Responsible for flow of information from top
management to lower management But feedback can be given from lower authorities to
top management
2. Informal Information Systems: Informal systems are employee based. These are made
to solve the day to day work related problems.
3. Computer-Based Information Systems: This class of systems depends on the use of
computer for managing business applications
Information systems (IS)
in organizations capture and manage data to produce useful information that supports an
organization and its employees, customers, supliers, and partners. Many organizations consider
Information systems to be essential to their ability to compete or gain competitive advamage.
Most organizations have come to realize that ail workers need ro participate in the
development of informatlon systems.
1. Transaction processing systems (TPSs)
2. Management Information systems (MISs)
3. Decision support systems (DSSs)
4. Executive information system (EIS)
5. Expert systems
6. Communications and collaboration system
7. Automation systems

Transaction processing systems (TPSs) process business transactions such as orders,
thne cards, payments, and reser'latlons.

Management Information systems (MISs) use the transaction data to produce
lnformatlon needed by managers to run the business.

Decision support systems (DSSs) help various decision makers Identify and choose
between options or decisions.

Executive information system (EIS) are tailored to the unique information needs of
executives who plan for the business and assess performance against those plans.

Expert systems capture and reproduce the knowledge of an expert problem solver or
decision maker and then slmulate the “thinking" of that expert.

Communications and collaboration system enhance communlcatlon and collaboration
between people, both Internal and extenal to the organization.

Finally, office automation systems help employees create and share documents that
support day-to-day oftlce activities
Important Information System Concepts
Systems analysts need to know several other important systems concepts:
1. Decomposition
2. Modularity
3. Coupling
4. Cohesion
Decomposition
is the process of breaking down a system into its smaller components. These components may
themselves be systems (subsystems) and can be broken down into their components as well.
Decomposing a system also allows us to focus on one particular part of a system, making it
easier to think of how to modify that one part independently of the entire system.
Decomposition is a technique that allows the systems analyst to:
1. Break a system into small, manageable, and understandable subsystems
2. Focus attention on one area (subsystem) at a time, without interference from other areas.
Concentrate on the part of the system pertinent to a particular group of users, without
confusing users with unnecessary details
3. Build different parts of the system at independent times and have the help of different
analysts
Modularity
is a direct result of decomposition. It refers to dividing a system into chunks or modules of a
relatively uniform size. Modules can represent a system simply, making it easier to understand
and easier to redesign and rebuild. For example, each of the separate subsystem modules for the
MP3 player shows how decomposition makes it easier to understand the overall system.
Coupling
means that subsystems are dependent on each other. Subsystems should be as independent as
possible. If one subsystem fails and other subsystems are highly dependent on it, the others will
either fail themselves or have problems functioning. components of a portable MP3 player are
tightly coupled. The best example is the control system, made up of the printed circuit board
and its chips. Every function the MP3 player can perform is enabled by the board and the chips.
A failure in one part of the circuit board would typically lead to replacing the entire board rather
than attempting to isolate the problem on the board and fix it. Even though repairing a circuit
board in an MP3 player is certainly possible, it is typically not cost-effective; the cost of the
labor expended to diagnose and fix the problem may be worth more than the value of the circuit
board itself. In a home stereo system, the components are loosely coupled because the
subsystems, such as the speakers, the amplifier, the receiver, and the CD player, are all
physically separate and function independently. If the amplifier in a home stereo system fails,
only the amplifier needs to be repaired.
Cohesion
is the extent to which a subsystem performs a single function. In the MP3 player example,
supplying power is a single function. This brief discussion of systems should better prepare you
to think about computer-based information systems and how they are built. Many of the same
principles that apply to systems in general apply to information systems as well. In the next
section, we review how the information systems development process and the tools that have
supported it have changed over the decades.
Meaning of Business Information System:
Business information systems are sets of inter-related procedures using IT infrastructure in a
business enterprise to generate and disseminate desired information.
Such systems are designed to support decision making by the people associated with the
enterprise in the process of attainment of its objectives.
The business information system gets data and other resources of IT infrastructure as input from
the environment and process them to satisfy the information needs of different entities associated
with the business enterprise.
There are systems of control over the use of IT resources and the feedback system offers useful
clues for increasing the benefits of information systems to business. The business information
systems are sub-systems of business system and by themselves serve the function of feedback
and control in business system.
Features of Business Information System:
Characteristics & features of business information system are:
1. The business information systems are subject to the dynamics of business environment and
need to be flexible enough to absorb the inevitable changes in the information needs of business.
They have to be efficient to satisfy the demanding and ‘hard task masters,’ the business
managers. Thus, there is need to balance the conflicting objectives in the process of designing
business information systems.
2. Business information systems need to be proactive. They should anticipate changes in
information needs of users and accordingly adapt themselves to suit their needs. This has become
important because of the fact that the managers get involved in the routine activities to the extent
that the decision making becomes a matter of imitating what competitors are doing or planning
to do, rather than making an informed choice.
3. The purpose of business information system is to cater to the information needs for decision
making in business.
4. The business information systems have to be designed keeping in view the availability of
financial and human resources to the business enterprise.
5. The cost effectiveness is a matter of prime concern in the development and maintenance of
business information systems. Economic justification for investment in IT infrastructure for
business information systems is a pre condition for its existence and sustenance.
Key Components of Business Information System:
Information systems can be described by four of their key components which are:
1. Decisions
2. Transactions and processing
3. Information and its flow
4. Individuals or functions involved.
It is difficult to observe the decision process through we can see and review the results of a
decision. Transactions are usually more visible, though many current systems use computer
programs, which are not easy to understand, to process transactions. In principle, an observer can
see information and its flows. Individuals can be observed too, but it is not always easy to figure
out the information processing functions they perform.
The 6 Main Types of Information Systems
Though organizational growth is optimal for both small and large companies, it comes with
many different challenges. With expansion comes more responsibilities, strategic planning, and
the
need
for
better
communication.
As a startup evolves from 5 employees to 200, new business units are created to handle specific
functions and optimize efficiency. Managers are required to monitor each department to ensure
everyone is meeting targets on time. The owner must track competitors who would like nothing
more
than
to
lure
away
customers.
These new requirements make it essential to have an information system in place that uses
artificial intelligence to allow employees and managers to communicate, collaborate, and quickly
process
transactions.
Furthermore, both an evolving and established company can benefit from using different types of
information systems that help each unit make structured decisions and enhance problem-solving
skills.
Information System Classification:



Operational Management - Includes transaction processing system, office automation
system, and knowledge management system, handles structured data, and used by
workers and employees to streamline daily operations
Tactical Management - Used by business unit managers, handles semi-structured data,
and includes management information systems
Strategic Management - Used by executives, handles unstructured data, and includes
the decision support system and executive support system
6 Types of Information Systems
Most businesses utilize six different information technology systems, each with functionality that
assists
in
managing
a
particular
business
unit
or
organizational
level.
Because the business environment has a wide range of data requirements, business intelligence
technology systems help each department manage and organize all of their data in a manner that
helps
unit
members
meet
key
objectives.
If the data collected by an IS is relevant and accurate, the organization can use it to streamline
tasks,
pinpoint
inefficiencies,
and
enhance
customer
service.
Successful companies typically employ six different systems to ensure that every aspect of the
organization's data is properly managed and used to improve decision-making and problemsolving.
This allows a company to maintain a competitive edge, find growth opportunities, and keep an
accurate audit trail of financial and transactional data for compliance purposes.
Here is an overview of the six types of information systems and how they work1. Transaction Processing Systems
A transaction encompasses all of the purchases and sales of products and services, along with
any daily business transactions or activities required to operate a company.
Quantities and the types of transactions performed vary, depending on the industry and
size/scope of the company. Examples of typical transactions include billing clients, bank
deposits, new hire data, inventory counts, or a record of client-customer relationship
management
data.
A transaction processing system ensures that all of the contractual, transactional, and customer
relationship data is stored in a safe location and accessible to everyone who needs it. It also
assists in the processing of sales order entries, payroll, shipping, sales management, or other
routine
transactions
needed
to
maintain
operations.
By utilizing a TPS, organizations can have a high level of reliability and accuracy in their
user/customer data while minimizing the potential for human error.
2. Office Automation Systems
An office automation system is a network of various tools, technologies, and people required to
conduct
clerical
and
managerial
tasks.
Typical examples of functions performed by an OAS include printing documents, mailing
paperwork, mailing, maintaining a company calendar, and producing reports. Primarily, an office
automation system assists in enhancing communication among different departments so
everyone
can
collaborate
to
complete
a
task.
An OAS can integrate with e-mail or word processing applications to ensure all communication
data is easily accessible and in one centralized location. By utilizing an office automation
system, businesses can improve communication between workers, streamline managerial
activities, and optimize knowledge management.
3. Knowledge Management Systems
A knowledge management system stores and extracts information to help users enhance their
knowledge and optimize collaboration efforts to complete tasks. Examples of documents found
in a knowledge management system include employee training materials, company policies, and
procedures,
or
answers
to
customer
questions.
A KMS is used by employees, customers, management, and other various stakeholders involved
with the organization. It ensures that technical abilities are integrated throughout the company
while providing visuals to help employees make sense of the data they see.
This information system also provides intuitive access to external information required by
workers who need outside knowledge to complete their roles. For example, a KMS may hold
competitor data that helps a sales team member optimize his/her strategy when pitching to a
customer.
Because a KMS shares expertise and provides answers to essential questions, using one can
improve communication among team members and assist everyone in meeting performance
goals.
4. Management Information Systems
A management information system uses various transaction data from a TPS to help middle
management
optimize
planning
and
decision-making.
It retrieves TPS information, aggregates it, and generates reports to help those at the management
level know important details of a situation. Summaries and comparisons are utilized to allow
senior managers to optimize the decision making process to achieve better results.
Most of the report formats encompass summaries of annual sales data, performance data, or
historical records. This provides a secure and systemized way for managers to meet their targets
and oversee business units.
5. Decision Support Systems
A decision support system processes data to assist in management decision-making. It stores and
gathers the information required for management to take the proper actions at the correct time.
For example, a bank manager can use a DSS to assess the evolving loan trends to determine
which
yearly
loan
targets
to
meet.
Decision models are programmed into the IS to analyze and summarize large quantities of
information
and
put
it
into
a
visual
that
makes
it
understandable.
Because a DSS is interactive, management can easily add or delete data and ask important
questions. This provides the evidence required for mid-management to make the right choices
that will ensure the company meets its targets.
6. Executive Support System
Executive support systems are similar to a DSS but are primarily used by executive leaders and
owners
to
optimize
decision-making.
An expert system helps enterprise leaders find answers to non-routine questions so they can
make choices that improve the company's outlook and performance. Unlike a DSS, an executive
support system provides better telecommunication functionality and a bigger computing
functionality.
Graphics software is integrated within an ESS to display data about tax regulations, new
competitive startups, internal compliance issues, and other relevant executive information. This
allows leaders to track internal performance, monitor the competition, and pinpoint growth
opportunities.
Specific Use Cases for Information Systems:


Enterprise Resource Planning - Provides organization-wide integration of important
business activities, handles the allocation of resources to optimize efficiency
Accounting Information System - Manages all of the accounting information in an
organization, including payroll to streamline human resource tasks

Sales Management System - An information system that manages and monitors all of
the sales and marketing data in an organization to streamline each step of the sales
process
In conclusion, here are the key takeaways to remember about each type of IS





Transaction processing systems TPS handles all of the customer and employee
transaction data so an organization can streamline workflows and easily retrieve the
required information.
An office automation system manages all of the clerical and managerial daily tasks in a
business to help optimize communication and improve collaboration efforts.
A knowledge management system handles expertise on a variety of subjects and assists in
knowledge-sharing so users can become more informed and enhance their job
performance.
An information system MIS uses processing system TPS data to help middle managers
optimize decision-making and monitor performance.
A support system DSS processes information to help managers make the right choices at
the right time.
An executive system information system manages all of the required information needed
for enterprise leaders to monitor the competition, track internal performance, and
pinpoint growth opportunities.
Systems Development - Overview of systems and design, System development management
life-cycle
Systems development is the procedure of defining, designing, testing, and implementing a new
software application or program. It comprises of the internal development of customized
systems, the establishment of database systems, or the attainment of third party developed
software. In this system, written standards and techniques must monitor all information systems
processing functions. The management of company must describe and execute standards and
embrace suitable system development life cycle practise that manage the process of developing,
acquiring, implementing, and maintaining computerized information systems and associated
technology.
System development methodologies are promoted in order to improve the management and
control of the software development process, structuring and simplifying the procedure, and
standardizing the development process and product by stipulating actions to be done and
methods to be used. It is often implicitly presumed that the use of a system development
methodology will increase system development output and excellence.
System Development Management Life-cycle
It is maintained in management studies that effectual way to protect information and information
systems is to incorporate security into every step of the system development process, from the
initiation of a project to develop a system to its disposition. The manifold process that begins
with the initiation, analysis, design, and implementation, and continues through the maintenance
and disposal of the system, is called the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Walsham
(1993) stated that system development life cycle is an approach to developing an information
system or software product that is characterized by a linear sequence of steps that progress from
start to finish without revisiting any previous step. It is one of the oldest systems development
models and is commonly used (Walsham, 1993). According to Dennis, Wixom, and
Tegarden(2009) �the systems development life cycle is the process of understanding how an
information system (IS) can support business needs by designing a system, building it, and
delivering it to users� .
The SDLC model is basically a project management device that is used to plan, execute, and
control systems development projects (Whitten and Bentley, 1998). System development life
cycles are usually deliberated in terms of the conventional development using the waterfall
model or the prototyping development spiral model. Major objectives of systems development
lifecycle are to ensure that high quality systems are delivered, provide strong management
controls over the projects, and maximize the productivity of the systems staff. In order to fulfil
these objectives, the systems development lifecycle has many specific requirements that include
being able to support projects and systems of various scopes and types, supporting all of the
technical activities, supporting all of the management activities, being highly usable, and
providing guidance on how to install it.
Phases of System Development
A system development project comprises of numerous phases, such as feasibility analysis,
requirements analysis, software design, software coding, testing and debugging, installation and
maintenance.
1. A feasibility study is employed to decide whether a project should proceed. This will include
an initial project plan and budget estimates for future stages of the project. In the example of
the development of a central ordering system, a feasibility study would look at how a new
central ordering system might be received by the various departments and how costly the new
system would be relative to improving each of these individual systems.
2. Requirement analysis recognises the requirements for the system. This includes a detailed
analysis of the specific problem being addressed or the expectations of a particular system. It
can be said that analysis will coherent what the system is supposed to do. For the central
ordering system, the analysis would cautiously scrutinize existing ordering systems and how
to use the best aspects of those systems, while taking advantage of the potential benefits of
more centralized systems.
3. The design phase consist of determining what programs are required and how they are going
to interact, how each individual program is going to work, what the software interface is going
to look like and what data will be required. System design may use tools such as flowcharts
and pseudo-code to develop the specific logic of the system. For this central ordering system,
the design phase would lay out the comprehensive steps of how orders would take place and
who in the organization would be involved at each step.
4. Implementation stage include the design which is to be translated into code. This requires
choosing the most suitable programming language and writing the actual code needed to make
the design work. In this stage, the central ordering system is essentially coded using a
particular programming language. This would also include developing a user interface that the
various departments are able to use efficiently.
5. Testing and debugging stage encompasses testing individual modules of the system as well as
the system as a whole. This includes making sure the system actually does what is expected
and that it runs on intended platforms. Testing during the early stages of a project may involve
using a prototype, which meets some of the very basic requirements of the system but lacks
many of the details. Testing of the central ordering system could take place in one department
or use only a few key individuals. That makes it possible to recognise needed improvements
before execution in all departments.
6. In Installation phase, the system is implemented so that it becomes part of the workflows of
the organization. Some training may be needed to make sure employees get happy with using
the system. At this stage, the central ordering system is installed in all departments, replacing
the older system.
7. All systems need some types of maintenance. This may consist of minor updates to the system
or more drastic changes due to unexpected circumstances. As the organization and its
departments evolve, the ordering process may require some modifications. This makes it
possible to get the most out of a new centralized system.
phases of the system development cycle
Whitten and Bentley (1998) recommended following categories of system development project
lifecycle:
1. Planning
2. Analysis
3. Design
4. Implementation
5. Support
There are many different SDLC models and methodologies, but each usually consists of a series
of defined steps such as Fountain, Spiral, rapid prototyping, for any SDLC model that is used,
information security must be integrated into the SDLC to ensure appropriate protection for the
information that the system will transmit, process, and store.
System development life-cycle models (Source: Conrick, 2006))
Fountain Model Recognizes that there is considerable overlap of activities throughout the
development cycle.
Spiral model
Emphasis the need to go back and reiterate earlier stages like a series of short
water fall cycle, each producing an early prototype representing the part of
entire cycle.
Build and fix Write some programming code, keeps modifying it until the customer is happy.
model
Without planning this is very open ended and risky.
Rapid
Emphasis is on creating a prototype that look and act like the desired product in
prototyping
order to test its usefulness. Once the prototype is approved, it is discarded and
model
real software is written.
Incremental
Divides the product into builds, where sections of the projects are created and
model
tested separately.
Synchronize
Combines the advantages of spiral models with technology of overseeing and
and
stabilise managing source code. This method allows many teams to work efficiently in
model
parallel. It was defined by David Yoffe of Harvard University and Michael
Cusumano of Massachusetts institute of technology who studied Microsoft
corporation developed internet explorer and how the Netscape communication
corporation developed communicator finding common thread In the ways the
two companies worked.
Waterfall Model
The Waterfall Model signifies a traditional type of system development project lifecycle. It
builds upon the basic steps associated with system development project lifecycle and uses a topdown development cycle in completing the system.
Walsham (1993) outlined the steps in the Waterfall Model which are as under:
1. A preliminary evaluation of the existing system is conducted and deficiencies are then
identified. This can be done by interviewing users of the system and consulting with support
personnel.
2. The new system requirements are defined. In particular, the deficiencies in the existing system
must be addressed with specific proposals for improvement.
3. The proposed system is designed. Plans are developed and delineated concerning the physical
construction, hardware, operating systems, programming, communications, and security
issues.
4. The new system is developed and the new components and programs are obtained and
installed.
5. Users of the system are then trained in its use, and all aspects of performance are tested. If
necessary, adjustments must be made at this stage.
6. The system is put into use. This can be done in various ways. The new system can be phased
in, according to application or location, and the old system is gradually replaced. In some
cases, it may be more cost-effective to shut down the old system and implement the new
system all at once.
7. Once the new system is up and running for a while, it should be exhaustively evaluated.
Maintenance must be kept up rigorously at all times.
8. Users of the system should be kept up-to-date concerning the latest modifications and
procedures.
On the basis of the Waterfall Model, if system developers find problems associated with a
step, an effort is made to go back to the previous step or the specific step in which the problem
occurred, and fix the problem by completing the step once more.
the model's development schedule
Fountain model: The Fountain model is a logical enhancement to the Waterfall model. This
model allows for the advancement from various stages of software development regardless of
whether or not enough tasks have been completed to reach it.
Prototyping Model: The prototyping paradigm starts with collecting the requirements.
Developer and customer meet and define the overall objectives for the software, identify
whatever requirements are known, and outline areas where further definition is mandatory. The
prototype is appraised by the customer/user and used to improve requirements for the software to
be developed. Iteration occurs as the prototype is tuned to satisfy the needs of the customer,
while at the same time enabling the developer to better understand what needs to be done.
Major Advantages of this Model include
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
When prototype is presented to the user, he gets a proper clearness and functionality of the
software and he can suggest changes and modifications.
It determines the concept to prospective investors to get funding for project and thus gives
clear view of how the software will respond.
It decreases risk of failure, as potential risks can be recognized early and alleviation steps can
be taken thus effective elimination of the potential causes is possible.
Iteration between development team and client provides a very good and conductive
environment during project. Both the developer side and customer side are coordinated.
Time required to complete the project after getting final the SRS reduces, since the developer
has a better idea about how he should approach the project.
Main drawbacks of this model are that Prototyping is typically done at the cost of the developer.
So it should be done using nominal resources. It can be done using Rapid Application
Development tools. Sometimes the start-up cost of building the development team, focused on
making the prototype is high. Once developers get proper requirements from client after showing
prototype model, it may be useless. It is a slow process and too much involvement of client is not
always favoured by the creator.
Uses of prototyping:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Verifying user needs
Verifying that design = specifications
Selecting the “best” design
Developing a conceptual understanding of novel situations
Testing a design under varying environments
Demonstrating a new product to upper management
Implementing a new system in the user environment quickly
Rapid Application Development
This model is based on prototyping and iterative development with no detailed planning
involved. The process of writing the software itself involves the planning required for developing
the product. Rapid Application development focuses on gathering customer requirements
through workshops or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using
iterative concept, reuse of the existing prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid
delivery. There are three main phases to Rapid Application Development:
i.
Requirements planning
ii.
RAD design workshop
iii.
Implementation
RAD Model
RAD is used when the team includes programmers and analysts who are experienced with it,
there are pressing reasons for speeding up application development, the project involves a novel
ecommerce application and needs quick results and users are sophisticated and highly engaged
with the goals of the company.
Spiral Model: The spiral model was developed by Barry Boehm in 1988 (Boehm, 1986). This
model is developed to Spiral Model to address the inadequacies of the Waterfall Model. Boehm
stated that “the major distinguishing feature of the Spiral Model is that it creates a risk-driven
approach to the software process rather than a primarily document-driven or code-driven
process. It incorporates many of the strengths of other models and resolves many of their
difficulties" (1988). A Spiral Model the first model to elucidate why the iteration matters. Spiral
model is an evolutionary software process model which is a grouping of an iterative nature of
prototyping and controlled and systematic aspects of traditional waterfall model. As originally
proposed, the iterations were usually 6 months to 2 years long. Each phase starts with a design
goal and ends with the client reviewing the progress. Analysis and engineering efforts are done at
each phase of the project. The spiral model consists of four phases:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Planning
Risk Analysis
Engineering
Evaluation
Major benefits of this model include:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Changing requirements can be accommodated.
Allows for extensive use of prototypes.
Requirements can be captured more accurately.
Users see the system early.
Development can be divided in to smaller parts and more risky parts can be developed earlier
which helps better risk management.
Main drawbacks of this model are as under:
1. Management is more complex.
2. Conclusion of project may not be recognized early.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Not suitable for small or low risk projects (expensive for small projects).
Process is difficult
Spiral may go indeterminately.
Large numbers of intermediate stages require unnecessary documentation.
The spiral model is normally used in huge projects. For example, the military had adopted the
spiral model for its Future Combat Systems program. The spiral model may suit small software
applications.
Phases of spiral model
Incremental model: Incremental model is a technique of software development in which the
model is analysed, designed, tested, and implemented incrementally. Some benefits of this model
are that it handles large projects, it has the functionality of the water fall and the prototyping
model. It is easier to manage the project as it is broken down into smaller pieces, changes can be
done through the development stages and errors are easy to be identified.
Disadvantages of this model are that when remedying a problem in a functional unit, then all the
functional units will have to be corrected thus taking a lot of time. It needs good planning and
designing.
Increment model of SDLC
There are numerous benefits of integrating security into the system
1. Early documentation and alleviation of security vulnerabilities and problems with the
configuration of systems, resulting in lower costs to implement security controls and
mitigation of vulnerabilities;
2. Awareness of potential engineering challenges caused by mandatory security controls.
3. Identification of shared security services and reuse of security strategies and tools that will
reduce development costs and improve the system’s security posture through the application
of proven methods and techniques.
4. Assistance of informed executive decision making through the application of a comprehensive
risk management process in a timely manner.
5. Documentation of important security decisions made during the development process to
inform management about security considerations during all phases of development.
6. Enhanced organization and customer confidence to facilitate adoption and use of systems, and
improved confidence in the continued investment in government systems.
7. Improved systems interoperability and integration that would be difficult to achieve if security
is considered separately at various system levels.
Strengths of System Development Life Cycle
1.
2.
3.
4.
Methodologies incorporating this approach have been well tried and tested.
This cycle divides development into distinct phases.
Makes tasks more manageable.
It Offers opportunity for more control over development process.
5. It Provides standards for documentation.
6. It is better than trial and error.
Weaknesses of System Development Life Cycle
1.
2.
3.
4.
It fails to realise the “big picture” of strategic management.
It is too inflexible to cope with changing requirements.
It stresses on “hard” thinking (which is often reflected in documentation that is too technical).
It unable to capture true needs of users.
To summarize, the systems development life cycle is a theoretical model which is used in project
management. It explained various phases involved in an information system development
project, from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of the completed application.
SDLC system life cycle is a step by step systematic approach from planning to testing and
deployment of the project. There are some rudimentary phases that are firmly followed in the
order as analysis, designing, coding, testing and implementation. Different SDLC models are
used to develop numerous projects.
Role and need of systems analyst
Although many people in organizations are involved in systems analysis and design, the
systems analyst has the primary responsibility. A career as a systems analyst will allow you to
have a significant impact on how your organization operates. This fast-growing and rewarding
position is found in both large and small companies. IDC, a leading consulting group, predicts
that growth in information technology (IT) employment will exceed 3 percent per year through
at least 2013. The Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts additional increases in the numbers of IT
jobs from 2004 to 2014. During this period, the professional IT workforce is projected to add
more than 1 million new jobs in the United States. Information technology workers remain in
demand.
Role
Of
System
Analyst
The primary role of a systems analyst is to study the problems and needs ofan organization in
order to determine how people, methods, and information technology can best be combined to
bring about improvements in the organization. A systems analyst helps system users and other
business managers define their requirements for new or enhanced information services.
Systems analysts are key to the systems development process. To succeed as a systems analyst,
you will need to develop four types of skills:

analytical,

technical,

managerial, and

interpersonal.
Analytical skills enable you to understand the organization and its functions, to identify
opportunities and problems, and to analyze and solve problems. One of the most important analytical skills you can develop is systems thinking, or the ability to see organizations and
information systems as systems. Systems thinking provides a framework from which to see the
important relationships among information systems, the organizations they exist in, and the
environment in which the organizations themselves exist.
Technical skills help you understand the potential and the limitations of information
technology. As an analyst, you must be able to envision an information system that will help
users solve problems and that will guide the system’s design and development. You must also
be able to work with programming languages such as Cand Java, various operating systems
such as Windows and Linux, and computer hardware platforms such as IBM and Mac.
Management skills help you manage projects, resources, risk, and change.
Interpersonal skills help you work with end users as well as with other analysts and
programmers. As a systems analyst,you will play a major role as a liaison among users,
programmers, and other systems professionals. Effective written and oral communication,
including
competence
in
key
that
skills
leading
analysts
meetings,
must
interviewing
master.
end
Effective
users,
analysts
and
listening,
successfully
are
combine
these four types of skills,
Examples:
Let’s consider two examples of the types of organizational problems you could face as a
systems analyst.
First,
you work in the information systems department of a major magazine company. The company
is having problems keeping an updated and accurate list of subscribers, and some customers are
getting two magazines instead of one. The company will lose money and subscribers if these
problems
continue.
To
create
a
more
efficient
tracking
system,
the
users
of the current computer system as well as financial managers submit their problem to you and
your colleagues in the information systems department.
Second,
you work in the information systems department at a university, where you are called upon to
address an organizational problem such as the mailing of student grades to the wrong addresses.
A system analyst is responsible for analyzing, designing and implementing systems to fulfill
organizational needs. He/she plays a vital role in making operational the
management information system. The role of the system analyst has however changed.
The role of the analyst has however changed with time. Now a system analyst is seen more as a
change agent responsible for delivering value to an organization on its investments in
management information systems (that includes a heavy dose of information communication
technology investment). A dictionary definition of a system analyst (as per Random House
Dictionary) defines it as, ‘a person who conducts a methodical study and evaluation of an
activity such as business to identify its desired objectives in order to determine procedures by
which these objectives can be gained.
An organization requires system analysts as line managers normally do not have an
understanding of the kind of information-based solutions that are possible for their business
problems. A system analysts bridges this gap as he/she is has a thorough knowledge of both the
business systems and business processes. A system analyst is therefore in a position to provide
information system based solutions to organizations after having studied the problem that the
organization is facing. They understand both business and technology. They study a business
problem or opportunity and devise an information system enabled solution for it by detailing the
information system specifications. This set of specification that the analyst delivers is in a
technical format which is easily understandable to a technical (IT) specialist. The technical
specialist might not understand the business issue, if it comes directly from the line managers as
he has very little knowledge of business processes. The system analyst then bridges the gap
between the two by translating and transforming the business problem/opportunity into a
information systems solution and supplying the specification of such a system to the
technologist who can then take up the task and build the actual system.
This may sound very easy but it is actually not an easy task. In most cases, the analyst works as
a change agent. When devising a solution, the analyst does not restrict him/ her to the
immediate problem/opportunity at hand but also focuses on the future. This requires that an
analyst suggest some changes in the process of doing business to bring in greater efficiency in
future. Inevitably, the process of creating an information systems enabled solution is coupled
with the activity of business process reengineering through which change is brought in. The
analyst uses the opportunity of devising a solution to bring in change and make the organization
more efficient. Thus, a system analyst may also be considered as a change agent.
As we have pointed out in the previous section, the role of the analyst encompasses both the
business and technology domain. In addition, the analyst also works, as a change agent hence
the work of an analyst not only requires very good understanding of technical knowledge but
also of business and interpersonal skills.
CASE Tools for systems analyst
Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) technologies are tools that provide automated
assistance for software development . The goal of introducing CASE tools is the reduction of the
time and cost of software development and the enhancement of the quality of the systems
developed. The interest in CASE tools and environments is based on expectations about
increasing productivity, improving product quality, facilitating maintenance, and making
software engineers' task less odious and more enjoyable. A survey of the CASE tool
market showed that the annual worldwide market for CASE fools was $4.8 billion in 1990 and
grew to $12.11 billion in 1995. Behind such a prosperous CASE market, however, another result
gained from the real investigation about the use of CASE tools revealed that CASE tools seem to
be sparsely used after being bought in many enterprises.
CASE is the use of computer-based support in the software development process; a CASE tool is
a computer-based product aimed at supporting one or more software engineering activities within
a software development process; a CASE environment is a collection of CASE tools and other
components together with an integration approach that supports most or all of the interactions
that occur among the environment components, and between the users of the environment and
the environment itself.
Introduction to CASE Tools
The set of application programs to automate software development lifecycle activities and are
used by managers in a project, engineers and analysts to build a software system is called CASE
tools and the software development cycle stages can be simplified using several tools such as
design, analysis, project management, database management, documentation, etc. and the use of
these tools speeds up the project development to obtain desired results.
Components of CASE Tools
There are several components are based on their usage in different stages of the software
development life cycle. They are:




Central Repository: A central repository is required by the tools to serve as a common
source of integrated and consistent information. The central place of storage consisting of
specifications of product, documents requirement, diagrams and reports and information
about the management is a central repository. The central repository also acts as a data
dictionary.
Upper: Planning, analysis, and designing of different stages of the software development
life cycle can be performed using upper case.
Lower: Implementation, testing, and maintenance can be performed using lower case.
Integrated: All the stages of the software development life cycle right from the gathering
of requirements for testing and documentation can be performed using integrated tools.
This that have similar functionality, process activities and based on their capacity of integration
with other different tools can be grouped together. This has scope throughout all the stages of the
software development life cycle.
Top 13 Types of CASE Tools
There are several types of tools available.
They are:
1. Diagram Tools
The components of the system, data flow, control flow among the various components of
software and the structure of the system can be represented in graphical form using diagram
tools.
Example: The state-of-the-art flowcharts can be created using flow chart maker tool.
2. Process Modeling
The software process model can be created using process modelling tools for software
development. The managers can choose a process model using process modelling tools or make
modifications depending upon the software product requirements
Example: EPF composer.
3. Project Management
Planning of the project, estimation of cost and efforts, scheduling of project and planning of
resources can be done using project management tools. All the steps in the execution of the
project must be strictly followed by the managers in management of software project. The
project information can be stored and shared in real time using the tools of project management
throughout the organization.
Examples: Creative Pro Office, trac project, Basecamp etc.
4. Documentation Tools
Before the beginning of software process, documentation of the software project must begin.
This documentation must cover the all the software development life cycle phases and the
completion of the software development phase as well. The documents are generated by the
documentation tools for both technical and end users. The in-house professionals in the
development team who refer the manual maintained for the system, manual maintained for
reference, manual for training, manuals for installation etc. make the technical users. The
functioning of the system and how system works is described in the end user documents.
Example: Doxygen, adobe robohelp, DrExplain etc.
5. Analysis
Requirements gathering, inconsistency checks, diagrams inaccuracy, redundancies in the data
etc. can be checked using analysis.
Example: For requirement analysis are Accept 360, Accompa, casecomplete etc. Total analysis
can be done using visible analyst.
6. Design
The block structure of the software can be designed by the software designers using design tools
which are again broken down into smaller modules using techniques of refinement. The detailing
of every module and the interconnections between the modules can be done using this.
Example: Animated software design.
7. Configuration Management Tools
Whenever one version of software instance is released, configuration management tools deals
with the following:



Management of revision and version
Configuration management of baseline
Change control management
Automatic tracking, management of version, and management of release can be done with the
help of configuration management.
Example: Git, Accu Rev etc.
8. Change Control
Change Control are a part of configuration management. The changes that occur in the software
after fixing its baseline or after the first release of the software are dealt by change control tools.
Tracking the changes, management of files, management of codes etc. can be automated using
change control. The change policy of the organization can be enforced by using change control.
9. Programming
The programming environments like integrated development environment , library consisting of
in built modules, simulation are all included in programming tools. The development of software
product is aided by these and simulation and testing features are included.
Example: Cscope for searching code in C, Eclipse.
10. Prototyping
The simulated version of the software product to be built is called a prototype in software. The
look and feel of the product is provided by the prototype and several aspects of the actual
product can be simulated using prototyping. Graphical libraries are contained in the prototyping
tools. User interfaces and design that are hardware independent can be created using prototyping.
Rapid prototypes can be built using prototyping based on the existing information. The software
prototype can be simulated using prototyping tools.
Example: Mockup builder, Serena prototype composer etc.
11. Web Development
The web pages like forms, text, script, graphic etc. can be designed using web development
tools. The web page that is being developed can be previewed to see how it looks after
completion using web development.
Example: Adobe Edge Inspect, Foundation 3, brackets etc.
12. Quality Assurance
Monitoring the engineering process and methods used for software development to ensure the
quality is as per the standards of the organization can be performed using quality assurance tools.
The configuration change control and software testing tools come under the category of QA
tools.
Example: SoapTest, Jmeter, AppsWatch, etc.
13. Maintenance
If there are any modifications after the delivery of the software product can be done through
software maintenance tools. Techniques for automatically logging, error reporting, generation of
error tickets automatically and root cause analysis are used in the maintenance phase of the
software development life cycle to help the software organizations.
Example: Bugzilla for tracking defects etc.
What Is a Feasibility Study?
A feasibility study is an analysis that considers all of a project's relevant factors—including
economic, technical, legal, and scheduling considerations—to ascertain the likelihood of
completing the project successfully.
Whether a project is feasible or not can depend on several factors, including the project's cost
and return on investment, meaning whether the project generated enough revenue or sales from
consumers.
However, a feasibility study isn't only used for projects looking to measure and forecast financial
gains. In other words, feasible can mean something different, depending on the industry and the
project's goal. For example, a feasibility study could help determine whether a hospital can
generate enough donations and investment dollars to expand and build a new cancer center.
Although feasibility studies can help project managers determine the risk and return of pursuing
a plan of action, several steps and best practices should be considered before moving forward.
Understanding a Feasibility Study
A feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a proposed plan or project. A feasibility
study analyzes the viability of a project to determine whether the project or venture is likely to
succeed. The study is also designed to identify potential issues and problems that could arise
from pursuing the project.
As part of the feasibility study, project managers must determine whether they have enough
people, financial resources, and the appropriate technology. The study must also determine the
return on investment, whether it's measured as a financial gain or a benefit to society, as in the
case of a nonprofit.
In some cases, a feasibility study might include a significant change in how a business operates,
such as an acquisition of a competitor. As a result, the feasibility study might include a cash
flow analysis, measuring the level of cash generated from revenue versus the project's operating
costs. A risk assessment must also be completed to determine whether the return is enough to
offset the level of risk of undergoing the venture.
Benefits of a Feasibility Study
There are several benefits to feasibility studies, including helping project managers discern the
pros and cons of undertaking a project before investing a significant amount of time
and capital into it. Feasibility studies can also provide a company's management team with
crucial information that could prevent them from entering into a risky business venture.
Feasibility studies also help companies with new business development, including determining
how it will operate, potential obstacles, competition, market analysis, and the amount and source
of financing needed to grow the business. Feasibility studies aim for marketing strategies that
could help convince investors and banks that investing in a particular project or business is a
wise choice.
Tools for Conducting a Feasibility Study
Suggested Best Practices
Although each project can have unique goals and needs, below are some best practices for
conducting a feasibility study.


Conduct a preliminary analysis, which involves getting feedback about the new concept
from the appropriate stakeholders; consider other business scenarios and ideas
Analyze and ask questions about the data obtained in the early phase of the study to make
sure that it's solid






Conduct a market survey or market research to identify the market demand and
opportunity for pursuing the project or business
Write an organizational, operational, or business plan, including identifying the amount
of labor needed, at what cost, and for how long
Prepare a projected income statement, which includes revenue, operating costs, and profit
Prepare an opening day balance sheet
Identify obstacles and any potential vulnerabilities, as well as how to deal with them
Make an initial "go" or "no-go" decision about moving ahead with the plan
Suggested Components
Once the initial due diligence has been completed, listed below are several of the components
that are typically found in a feasibility study:








Executive summary: Formulate a narrative describing details of the project, product,
service, plan, or business.
Technological considerations: Ask what will it take. Do you have it? If not, can you get
it? What will it cost?
Existing marketplace: Examine the local and broader markets for the product, service,
plan, or business.
Marketing strategy: Describe it in detail.
Required staffing (including an organizational chart): What are the human capital needs
for this project?
Schedule and timeline: Include significant interim markers for the project's completion
date.
Project financials.
Findings and recommendations: Break down into subsets of technology, marketing,
organization, and financials.
It's important that a project being considered should be able to generate a return that justifies the
risk involved in taking on the project.
Examples of a Feasibility Study
Below are two examples of a feasibility study. The first one involves the expansion plans for a
university. The second example is a real-world example conducted by the Washington State
Department of Transportation and had private contributions from Microsoft Inc.
Upgrading a University's Science Building
School officials at a local university were concerned that the science building—built in the
1970s—was outdated. Considering the technological and scientific advances of the last 20 years,
school officials wanted to explore the cost and benefits of upgrading and expanding the building.
As a result, a feasibility study was conducted.
In the preliminary analysis, school officials explored several options, weighing the benefits and
costs of expanding and updating the science building. Some school officials had concerns about
the project, such as the cost and public opinion. The new science building would be much larger,
and in the past, the community board had rejected similar proposals. The feasibility study would
need to address these concerns and any potential legal or zoning code issues.
The feasibility study explored the technological needs of the new science facility, the benefits to
the students, and the long-term viability of the college. A modernized science facility would
expand the school's scientific research capabilities, improve its curriculum, and attract new
students.
The financial projections showed the cost and scope of the project and how the school planned to
raise the needed funds, which included issuing a bond to investors and tapping into the
school's endowment. The projections also showed how the expanded facility would allow more
students to be enrolled in the science programs, increasing revenue from tuition and fees.
The feasibility study demonstrated that the project was viable, paving the way to enacting the
modernization and expansion plans of the science building. Without conducting a feasibility
study, the school administrators would never have known whether its expansion plans were
viable.
High-Speed Rail Project
The Washington State Department of Transportation decided to conduct a feasibility study to
construct a high-speed rail that would connect Vancouver, British Colombia, Seattle,
Washington, and Portland, Oregon. The goal was to create an environmentally responsible
transportation system to enhance the competitiveness and future prosperity of the Pacific
Northwest.1
The preliminary analysis outlined a governance framework for future decision-making. The
study involved researching the most effective governance framework by interviewing experts
and stakeholders, reviewing governance structures, and learning from existing high-speed rail
projects in North America. As a result, governing and coordinating entities were developed to
oversee and follow the project if approved by the state legislature.
A strategic engagement plan involved an equitable approach with the public, elected officials,
federal agencies, business leaders, advocacy groups, and indigenous communities. The
engagement plan was designed to be flexible, considering the size and scope of the project and
how many cities and towns would be involved. A team of the executive committee members was
formed and met to discuss strategies, lessons learned from previous projects and met with
experts to create an outreach framework.
The financial component of the feasibility study outlined the strategy for securing the project's
funding, which explored obtaining funds from federal, state, and private investments. The
project's cost was estimated to be between $24 billion to $42 billion. The revenue generated from
the high-speed rail system was estimated to be between $160 million and $250 million.
The report bifurcated the money sources between funding and financing. Funding referred to
grants, appropriations from the local or state government, and revenue. Financing referred to
bonds issued by the government, loans from financial institutions, and equity investments, which
are essentially loans against future revenue that needs to be paid back with interest.
The sources for the capital needed were to vary as the project moved forward. In the early stages,
most of the funding would come from the government, and as the project developed, funding
would come from private contributions and financing measures. Private contributors included
Microsoft Inc., donating more than $570,000 to the project.2
The benefits outlined in the feasibility report show that the region would experience enhanced
interconnectivity, allowing for better management of the population and spur economic growth
by $355 billion throughout the region. The new transportation system would provide people with
access to better jobs, affordable housing, and increase collaboration throughout the community.
The high-speed rail system would also relieve congested areas from automobile traffic.1
The timeline for the study began in 2016 when an agreement was reached with British Columbia
to work together on a new technology corridor that included high-speed rail transportation. The
feasibility report was submitted to the Washington State land Legislature in December 2020. As
of 2021, the project has yet to begin construction.1
Feasibility analysis is the process of confirming that a strategy, plan or design is possible and
makes sense. There are many feasibility study consultants in Singapore who provide services for
businesses. The feasibility analysis is classified into different categories. Listed below are the 5
types of feasibility analysis.
Financial Feasibility Analysis
A financial feasibility analysis projects how much start-up capital is needed, sources of capital,
returns on investment, and other financial considerations. The study considers how much cash is
needed, where it will come from, and how it will be spent. The study is an assessment of the
financial aspects of the business.
Market Feasibility Analysis
Market feasibility analysis is considered as the most important analysis. This part of the study
helps in describing the current market for your product or service, identifying the market
competition, and potential market.
Organizational Feasibility Analysis
Organizational feasibility analysis is conducted to determine whether a proposed business has
sufficient management expertise, organizational competence, and resources to successfully launch
its business. Two key aspects to consider include management ability and resource sufficiency.
Operational Feasibility Analysis
This assessment involves undertaking a study to analyze and determine whether — and how well
— the organization’s needs can be met by completing the project. Operational feasibility studies
also examine how a project plan satisfies the requirements identified in the requirements analysis
phase of system development.
Scheduling Feasibility Analysis
A project will fail if it is not completed on time. In scheduling feasibility, an organization
estimates how much time the project will take to complete.
The feasibility analysis helps in identifying any constrains the project may face. At Apeiron, we
provide feasibility study services in Singapore. Our comprehensive feasibility study will help
transform your business ideas and concepts into reality. The feasibility study services are tailored
to the needs of each client. Get in touch with us for devising a perfect plan.
Purpose and components of economic feasibility study
The purpose of an economic feasibility study (EFS) is to demonstrate the net benefit of a
proposed project for accepting or disbursing electronic funds/benefits, taking into consideration
the benefits and costs to the agency, other state agencies, and the general public as a whole.
The EFS is composed of two required forms:


Business Case
Cost Benefit Analysis
Economic Feasibility
Once the technical feasibility and market studies are complete, it is time to determine Business
Feasibility. The first purpose of this effort is to financially model the venture opportunity and
achieve a break-even analysis. In other words, based upon the costs of goods sold, capital costs,
and management and administration, how much revenue generated from units sold is required to
break-even and over what period of time.
Once a break-even analysis is developed, the entrepreneurs can develop realistic financial
projections for best case and worst case scenarios. These scenarios will be critical in strategic
planning, milestone development and venture valuation analysis. The simple objective is to
determine what level of revenue is required to satisfy the return on investment demanded by the
founder and/or the investors.
Definition: The economic feasibility step of business development is that period during which a
break-even financial model of the business venture is developed based on all costs associated
with taking the product from idea to market and achieving sales sufficient to satisfy debt or
investment requirements.
Objective: The objective of the economic feasibility is to develop a financial model of the
business venture.
Product: The product of this step is a complete integration of the technical product information
and the market study into one or more break-even financial models.
Business Activities
The business activities common to this step are those necessary to develop a conceptual plan for
a business venture based upon one or more financial scenarios.
During the economic feasibility step, the following activities must be completed:

Develop a financial analysis that identifies break-even scenarios based upon unit prices, volume
of sales, and costs
Determine whether the business opportunity presents sufficient profit margins to justify a
business venture
Assess the merits of licensing the opportunity compared to venturing


Milestones: A financial model accurately representing the business opportunity
Funding Sources: Personal finances, Friends and family
Business Information: Completion of the economic feasibility step will usually result in a
go/no-go decision concerning the business venture, and if the decision is positive, identification
of sources and uses of seed capital for the development phase.
Organizational feasibility focuses on how well a proposed information system supposes the
objective of the organization and its strategic plan for an information system. This may include
information about the founders, their professional background and the skills they possess
necessary to get the company off the ground and keep it operational. It also determines whether
the new system will have enough support from participants to be successfully implemented and
whether participants can operate the system. For example, projects that do not directly contribute
to meeting and organization strategic objective are typically not funded. It refers to how well a
proposed information system supports the objectives of an organization’s strategic plan for
information systems.
Organizational Feasibility Analysis includes the assessment of:


management prowess: what is the ability of the initial management team?
resource sufficiency: what nonfinancial resources such as human resources (management,
employees), facilities/location, equipment, intellectual property protection, etc. are required?
Technological Feasibility:
Technological feasibility refers to the adequacy of the proposed plant & equipment to produce
the product as per the required norms. This aspect requires a careful examination & a thorough
assessment of the various inputs of the projects, like land, machineries, trained labour,
transportation, power, fuel etc.
Technical Feasibility
The first step in the feasibility stage, Technical Feasibility, involves development of a working
model of the product or service. It is not necessary that the initial materials and components of
the working model represent those that actually will be used in the finished product or service.
The purpose of the working model is to demonstrate, to your own satisfaction, that the product or
service is functional and producible. It also provides a visual means to share your concept with
others.
The concept of a mechanical working model is easier to grasp and understand than software, ecommerce or service-related products. E-commerce models require verification of the ability to
integrate the computers, servers, software and programming needed to support the operational
concept. Services, packaged as a set of value-added activities, should deliver observable benefits.
Definition: The process of proving that the concept is technically possible.
Objective: The objective of the technical feasibility step is to confirm that the product will
perform and to verify that there are no production barriers.
Product: The product of this activity is a working model.
Technical Activities
During the technical feasibility step the following must be completed.






Test for technical feasibility
Examine the operational requirements
Identify potential safety and environmental hazards
Conduct a preliminary production feasibility assessment
Conduct a preliminary manufacturing assessment
Estimate engineering prototype costs
Milestones: A working model of the product
Funding Sources: Personal finances, Friends and family, SBIR (Ph I)
Technical Information: The technical feasibility will usually result in knowledge about the
product or process design, performance, production requirements, and preliminary production
costs.
Schedule feasibility: The process of assessing the degree to which the potential time frame and
completion dates for all major activities within a project meet organizational deadlines and
constraints for affecting change.
How long a project will run, analyzed by the schedule feasibility study?
A feasibility study not only collects the entire requirement and estimates the cost, but also
calculate the total time for the completion of any project. Sometimes customer gives the timeline
of the completion of the project, that time you have to set all the development according to the
timelines. And then helps the schedule feasibility study. In this analysis we analyzed the project
and estimates the time for the whole project.
This phase will help in many ways. For example, in the middle of the project you realize that the
project is not moving in the speed you want, you can hire more people to increase the efforts and
can complete the project in the given time. Also as the alternative, if your budget is not allowing
you to hire more staffs you can retrain your existing ones in order to make your work in speed.
You can also do the assessment of the risks. Like whether the project is going to complete in the
estimated timeline. And if not what are the problems going to come and what will the solutions
of these problems. Analyst can mention all the possible risk and their solutions to avoid any kind
of problem in the middle of the project. And these are to be done in schedule feasibility study.
Also in this assessment their must include some extension solutions like if project cant be
completed in the estimated time then is there any possibility to extend the time. And if possible
then what will be the extra cost coming and then also are we in the budget or not.
We can also include as an alternate for the timelines that we can avoid the holidays providing to
the staffs. That means if project is about to finish and there is not much time left to complete,
you can avoid the unwanted or not so much necessary holidays and can complete the project in
the given time. For this the experts should have the good communications and understanding
between the staffs and senior executives