Guidelines
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Introduction
1.1.1
Soil
The soil consists of four components, rocks, organic matter, water, and air (Dai &
Zhao, 2018). The weathered rock creates the mineral in the soil. Since rock comprises
one or more minerals, mineral particles of various particle sizes can be formed after
rock weathering, forming a soil structure with specific porosity and permeability.
Furthermore, natural soil is naturally rich in organic matter, primarily due to climatic
conditions. Since they contain more than 30% organic matter, it is for this reason that
they are not essential soils (Alexandra Bot & Benites, 2005).
Soil organic matter contains many materials ranging from the preserved initial
tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed collection of materials
known as humus. Additionally, humus also can be classified into humic compounds
and non-humified material, as shown in Figure 1. Humic compounds include humic
acid, fulvic acid, and humic acid, which account for up to 70% of humus and are
responsible for yellow to brown soil colour. Humic acid is the primary component of
organic matter. For non-humidified material, the main components are carbohydrates
and lipids, containing 10% to 30% and 2% to 6% of humus, respectively (Soriano &
Alfantazi, 2016).
Humus
(Decomposed material)
Humic Compound
Humic acid
Non-Humic compound
Humin acid
Carbohydrates
Lipid
Fulvic acid
Figure 1: Fractionation of soil organic matter (Moritsuka & Matsuoka, 2018; Soriano
& Alfantazi, 2016)
Water in the soil is considered soil water, in which different soluble organic
matter, inorganic salts, and gases are dissolved. Soil water occurs and flows into the
pores of the mineral system. The soil's oxygen is created in the soil pores connected to
the ambient air to exchange substances. Therefore, the oxygen of soil water comes
mainly from the air. In conclusion, most of the soil components discussed above have
a corrosive effect on the soil.
1.1
Soil Corrosion
Corrosion of soil can be explained as the capacity of producing and developing the
corrosion phenomena in which soil act as an electrolyte (Suganya et al., 2018). As per
IUPAC (1991), corrosion is an irreversible interfacial reaction of a material (metal,
ceramic, polymer) with its environment, which consequences in the material's
consumption into a component's material of the environment. While Davis (2000)
describes corrosion as "a chemical reaction or an electrochemical reaction between a
material, typically metal, and its environment that produces a weakening of the
material and its property." Meanwhile, Revie (2008) defines it as "the destructive
attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment."
There must be the same four components simultaneously for the occurrence of
electrochemical corrosion; the mechanism must be understood to regulate the
corrosion process to appropriate standards. Figure 2 shows the electrochemical cell
system, according to Norsworthy (2014).
Figure 2: Electrochemical corrosion (Norsworthy, 2014)
a. Anode: corrosion begins at the anode and electrolyte interface, where the electrons
(outer shell) exit the metal atoms and 'migrate' through the external path toward
the cathode. It leaves metal ions at the electrolyte-entry interface to interact with
the ions that might be present. This half-reaction is called 'oxidation and allows
electrons to lose out. As a result, negatively charged ions are drawn to the anode
in the electrolyte.
b. Cathode: This section of the system in which the electrons in the outer path enter
the cathode/electrolyte surface to be absorbed by the electrolyte ions. Positively
charged electrolyte ions would begin to migrate into the interface of the
cathode/electrolyte to absorb these 'free' electrons. This half-reaction is known as
'reduction' and results in electrons gain. Positively charged ions are drawn into the
cathode in the electrolyte.
c. Electrolyte: a solution that can conduct an ionic flow current. Positively charged
ions are attracted to the cathode, and negatively charged ions are mainly attracted
to the anode.
d. External path: an electrical interaction (metal or carbon) through anode and
cathode generates electrons at the anode to be consumed on the cathode surface.
The Iron, Fe corrosion mechanism occurs on the anode/electrolyte surface. The
iron atom forms an ion (Fe2+) that splits and joins the electrolyte solution, interacting
with other ions or compounds. The critical anodic reaction is shown in Equation 1
(Baboian, 2010)
𝐹ⅇ → 𝐹ⅇ 2+ + 2ⅇ
(1)
The free electrons flow through the metal into the cathode areas, where
oxidising agents accept them, such as dissolved air oxygen in the moisture. In the
cathodic reaction, the oxidising agents undergo a reduction mechanism (Equation 2)
𝑂2 + 2ℎ2 𝑂 + 4ⅇ − → 4𝑂𝐻 −
(2)
In strong acid soil, the principal oxidising agent is the hydrogen cation
(Equation 2.3):
2𝐻 + + 2ⅇ − → 𝐻2 ↑
(3)
Different oxygen contents can build local oxygen concentration cells in the soil
moisture at the metal surface. Wet soil with lower oxygen typically creates anodic
areas, whereas well-aerated soils form cathodic areas on metals' surfaces. Furthermore,
hydrogen would be created during the cathodic process. It has been acknowledged
(Hirth, 1980) that hydrogen atoms, once infiltrated into steel, could lead to steel
embrittlement, enhancing the possibility of steel corroding. Generally, hydrogen
trapped in steel includes micro-cracks, grain boundaries, and inclusions (Z. Y. Liu et
al., 2009).
1.2
Forms of environmental corrosion
A closer look at the review shows that several environmental corrosion forms,
especially in three environments, are deliberated here, including atmospheric,
seawater, and underground corrosion.
1.2.1
Atmospheric corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is a process that occurs when metallic materials are uncovered
in outdoor or indoor atmospheric environments. It is an electrochemical process that
usually happens when thin layers of moisture are present on the steel surfaces. It has
been detected that corrosion in natural atmospheres explains more failures on a cost
basis than in any other environment. Usually, atmospheric corrosion causes damage to
infrastructures, such as electrical transmission equipment, bridges, railroad rails, and
oil and gas pipelines (Dean, 2001). The following types of atmospheric corrosion have
been categorised by Ahmad (2006):
a. Dry corrosion: (also known as chemical corrosion). In the absence of adequate
water vapour, many typical metals generate oxide film. Copper, silver, and other
non-ferrous metals undergo film-forming, known as tarnishing, in the presence of
traces of gaseous contaminants. Silver is known to tarnish in the air. Hydrogen
sulphide squeezing can be slowed by moisture when present in minimal amounts.
Figure 3: Images of the bare silver coin (a) and the coated silver coin (b) after tarnish
(Liang et al., 2009)
b. Wet corrosion: This is the most frequently observed type of atmospheric corrosion,
where on the metal surface, water layers or pockets are formed, and the metal
surface continually remains in contact with water. The corrosion rate will be
dependent upon the corrosion product's solubility. Higher solubility means higher
corrosion rates since dissolved ions increase electrolytic conductivity.
c. Damp corrosion: Humidity corrosion will occur only when the relative humidity
exceeds 70%, which is commonly considered the critical value for corrosion onset.
The exact degree of essential humidity differs with the form of pollutants, such as
particles of dust and salt, and the composition of metals
The most comprehensive study for wet/dry corrosion exposure of X100 steel was
conducted by Gong et al. (2020). The author has found that exposure to the rust layer
layers' wetness led to an accelerated corrosion process. The rust layer formation, which
is γ-FeOOH, β-FeOOH, α-FeOOH, and Fe3O4, is significant under dry/wet rotational
conditions dry/wet compared to immersion in the environment. They also stated that
forming a thin liquid layer in dry/wet conditions was complex after a rust layer
combination. In addition, studies on atmospheric corrosion exposure have been
conducted by Thierry et al. (2019) in several continents such as Europe, East Asia, and
the USA. They have exposed steel that has been coated Zn2% Al2% Mg coated steel
for six months, one year, and two years with oriented towards the sea. The corrosion
attack on the coated steel was localised and contained corrosion products of sulphate
and chloride after analyse using XRD analysis.
1.2.2
Underground corrosion
Underground corrosion can be characterised as electrochemical deterioration of steel
(pipe) due to its reaction to the natural soil environment. Corrosion on the exterior
surface pipes occurs in the soil environment by the reaction of oxygen (El-Shamy et
al., 2015) and humidity, while local corrosion is more likely to occur due to soil nonhomogeneity contact between the pipe and soil (Wasim et al., 2018a). Also, several
studies have explored the corrosive soil phenomena due several to soil parameters,
including porosity, soil moisture (Norhazilan et al., 2012), soil pH (Anyanwu, 2014),
dissolved salts, electrical conductivity (Xiaojing Li et al., 2016), and bacteria (Chu et
al., 2020).
Figure 4: Underground pipelines corrosion
Arriba-Rodriguez et al. (2018) also published a thorough analysis of soil
corrosion for ferrous steel pipes, including the soil conditions that lead to corrosion
and how they have been studied. Soil texture, water presence, aeration redox potential,
pH, resistivity, ion content, and bacteria are among the variables that have been
suggested. However, the author also states that it must be noted that corrosion is the
result of the iteration of different variables that are characteristic of the local conditions
of each type of soil. Therefore, considering the complexities of the parameters that
influence corrosion and the high interconnections between them, it is apparent that it
could be risky to use strategies to estimate soil corrosion's effect by simplistic solutions
that consider only a few of the many variables involved.
1.2.3
Seawater
Corrosion of pipeline steel is an electrochemical reaction that occurs concurrently with
the pipeline's dissolution into seawater or sea bed sediment (Azam et al., 2020). If the
seawater is well oxygenated, ferrous ions will electrochemically combine with it to
generate oxides, hydroxide, and ferric salts (S. J. Wang & Wasylenki, 2017). Because
of the decreased oxygen level, pipelines buried undersea should be less susceptible to
corrosion; however, offshore pipelines are frequently prone to corrosion attacks,
aggravated by undersea biochemical factors (Zaki, 2006). The resistivity and pH value
are affected by the concentration of salts in the environment and the local temperature,
and so both the potential corrosiveness of the environment and the coating will degrade
(Malik et al., 1999).
In addition, steel corrosion in the seawater desalination process involves both
general and localized corrosion. Both corrosions can seriously harm seawater
desalination systems' service life and the system's safe operation (X. Hou et al., 2018).
Because of the more excellent conductivity for ion transfer associated with salt
solution and the more remarkable penetration ability of chloride ions by oxide film,
seawater corrosion has a greater corrosion rate than freshwater corrosion (Little, Ray,
et al., 2014; Marcus, 2013)
Seawater usually absorbs a 3.5 percent sodium chloride, which means that
about 35 grams of dissolved salts are found in any seawater kilogram (Little, Lee, et
al., 2014). Thus, seawater is one of the most available and most corrosive natural
electrolytes formed by dissolved salts, mainly NaCl. However, seawater's extremely
corrosive nature is replicated because these salts and aerated water strike much of the
typical structural alloys and metals under differing degrees of turbulent flow
conditions (Ike et al., 2018).
1.3
Factors influencing oil and gas pipelines corrosion in soil
Soil pipe corrosion is a reaction between the components of the pipe and the condition
of the soil (Y. Hou et al., 2016). Many stimulating factors in the soil condition
contribute to external corrosion of the pipe (Abdeen et al., 2019; Wasim et al., 2018b).
The key factors that lead to external corrosion of soil pipes are soil texture, soil
resistivity, temperature, pH values, moisture, microbial and so on (Ahmad Saupi et al.,
2016; Ezuber et al., 2020; Han et al., 2017; Shabangu et al., 2015). The cumulative
influence of these factors mainly calculates the corrosion of metals in soils. However,
it all relies on the soil's physical and chemical properties. Therefore, it is crucial to
study soils' physical and chemical properties and their contribution to pipe corrosion.
1.3.1
Soil Texture
Soil texture contains the size distribution of the mineral particles that form the soil.
The terrain is made up of clays (with diameters of less than 0.002 mm), silts (with
diameters between 0.002 and 0.5 mm), and finally, sands, exhibiting the most abundant
particles (with diameters greater than 0.05). Several soil properties can be determined
by the proportion of the three size classes. While various methods have been used to
define soils by texture, as shown in Figure 4, they represent the most widely used terms
for varying sand, silt, and clay quantities. Since soils contain organic matter, moisture,
gases, living organisms, and mineral particles, it is clear that the relative size spectrum
does not define the entire essence of the soil structure. The aggregation of soil particles
provides a crumb-like texture to the soil, contributing to flowability, more ready
infiltration of moisture, more excellent aeration and wind degradation, and generally
more significant biological activity. Loss of aggregate structure may occur due to
mechanical action or electrochemical properties, such as excess cation exchange.
Figure 5: Soil texture (Arriba-Rodriguez, 2018)
The worst corrosive medium for buried steel structures is measured by finer
soil particles (Ismail & El-Shamy, 2009). The smaller the particle size of soil, the more
water is held (e.g., clay). Evaporation primarily influences the sodium chloride and
sodium sulphate concentrations, whereas accumulation of water and low filtration rate
leads to higher carbon dioxide concentrations. Besides that, the liquid is the necessary
electrolyte needed for electrochemical corrosion reactions. A difference is made
between saturated and unsaturated water flow in the soil. Saturated water flow depends
on pore size and distribution, shape, texture, and organic matter. The existence of water
is a necessary condition for the functioning of the corrosion cells.
To provide more insight, Suganya & Jeyalakshmi (2019) have shown that soil
texture plays an essential role in correlation with metal loss. It proves that when the
author measures the corrosion rate for three years, they reported around 4.5 mpy for
clay and 0.2 mpy for sand. The corrosion rate also decreases as the depth increases as
the soil composition changes from site to site. Metals are susceptible to corrosion in
clay soil due to their plastic nature that retains moisture content. They also believe the
results allowed us to propose a qualitative model for determining the soil texture on
metal corrosion.
1.3.2
Soil Resistivity
Soil resistivity measures a soil's ability to conduct a current. The lower a soil's
resistivity caused, the greater the soil's electrolytic properties, the greater the corrosion
rate. The lower the resistivity, the higher the corrosivity, as indicated in Table 1. It
relates to specific other characteristics of the soil, which are provided by the following
formula:
𝑅=
𝜌𝐿
𝐴
(1)
where ρ = specific gravity, L = length of the electrical path and A = cross-sectional
area of the electrodes. Based on these simple criteria, sandy soil is strong in resistivity
and thus known to be the least corrosive. The soil resistivity parameter is commonly
utilised and is usually known as a dominant feature in the absence of microbial activity
(Stott et al., 2018). However, taking into account the nature of resistivity alone, it
cannot prove the soil's total corrosiveness, and therefore most schemes need other
parameters to be determined.
Table 1: Corrosivity ratings based on soil resistivity (Shabangu et al., 2015; Stott et
al., 2018)
Soil Resistivity (Ω. m)
>200
100-200
50-100
30-50
10-30
<10
Corrosivity Rating
Essentially non-corrosive
Mildly corrosive
Moderately corrosive
Corrosive
Highly corrosive
Extremely corrosive
In her extensive field research, Sing et al. (2013) established a clear association
between the resistance and corrosion of buried pipes. They measured the effect of soil
resistance on metal loss as observed by corroding steel over 12 months. They reported
that soil resistance alone could be used as a general predictor to estimate corrosion and
soil corrosion rate. There appears to be a positive association between soil resistance
and soil corrosiveness when a more extended exposure period has been conducted.
1.3.3
Soil pH
Soil pH is a soil acidity or alkalinity measurement and is calculated in pH units. It has
also regarded as the logarithm of H+ ion concentration. With pH seven as a neutral
value, the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil
grows, the soil's pH becomes more acidic as well. Thus, the soil is gradually acidic
from pH 7 to 0, while from pH 7 to 14, the soil is increasingly alkaline or neutral. As
a product of (1) rainwater leaching away critical ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium,
and sodium); (2) carbon dioxide from decomposing organic matter and dissolving root
respiration in soil water to create inadequate organic acid; (3) the production of strong
organic and inorganic acids such as nitric and sulphuric acid from rotting organic
matter and the degradation of ammonia, soils begin to become acidic. Typically, firmly
acidic soils are the result of both organic and inorganic acids.
According to Y. Hou et al. (2016), they just studied steel and cast iron
specimens. These specimens were corroded over three times in replicated soil
solutions: three, six, and nine months, respectively, at three distinct pH values of 8.0,
5.5, and 3.5. The corrosion findings revealed that the steel and cast-iron specimens
deteriorated faster than the other pH solutions in the simulated soil solution of pH 3.5.
CaCl2 is the chemical structure of the soil solution used in the corrosion examination.
CaCl2.H2O, MgSO4.7H2O, KCL, NaHCO3 were developed based on the theory that
the soil sample's main chemical elements were detected. They also described that in a
more acidic setting, more corrosion attacks might occur.
Wu et al. (2010) analysed the effect of the simulated soil's pH (from Yingtan,
China) on steel coupons' corrosion. The original simulated soil pH was 8.1 and
modified to 7.0, 5.5, 4.0, and 3.0.0. In these numerous pH solutions, Q235 steel
coupons are submerged. For one month, researchers experimented and noticed that
when reducing the solution's pH, the corrosion rates of steel coupons were amplified.
Ikpi & Okonkwo (2017) observe the corrosion in simulated soil solutions of
API 5L X52 carbon steel. It was calculated that the rhythms of corrosion were varied
according to different pH values (4.9, 7.0, and 9.0) and various ranges of temperature
(30 ° C to 50 ° C). The polarisation curves findings suggest corrosion of steel as a pH
feature as rising acidity has been reported. Rp improved, and Icorr values decreased
with higher pH values were observed.
1.3.3.1.
X70 steel corrosion under acidic soil environment
X70 steel pipelines are notable candidates due to a good combination of strength and
durability, high weld capability, low crack sensitivity coefficient, and low ductile to
brittle transition temperature (S. Wang et al., 2015). These advantages are enhanced
due to controlled hot rolling and cold rolling techniques used in original coil
manufacturing (Dwivedi et al., 2017), and it is widely used in the petroleum industries.
Therefore, several reports have been tabulated in Table 1 to investigate the corrosion
behaviour of X70 steel in acidic soils, but researchers have not thoroughly researched
this topic.
Table 2: Influences of pH towards X70 steel corrosion under soil environments
Material
X70
Corrosive
medium
The test solution
was a nearneutral pH
solution
pH
6.8
Findings
 There are two types of complex oxide
inclusions in the steel, which are Ds
(single globular type) and D (globular
oxide type) type with and without CaS
(calcium sulfide) shell, respectively.
Author
(L. Wang et al.,
2019)
X70
an artificial liquid
containing
sulfate-reducing
bacteria (SRB)
6
8
10
X70
Red soil (acidic
soil in China)
3.56.0
X70
Simulated acidic
soil
3.56.5
1.3.4
 Chemical dissolution of the inclusions
or part of them induces the formation of
pits at the inclusions
 The pH value of the sea mud solution
can affect the growth of SRB
 Under the condition of pH 8,
microbiological corrosion is severe. The
metal corrosion rate is the fastest
 Rate corrosion decrease with exposure
time
 - α-FeOOH is the dominant product
during corrosion
 pH value significantly affects the
susceptibility of Stress Corrosion
Cracking (SCC) and its electrochemical
mechanism.
 - There is no crucial impact on the
electrochemical phase with a pH greater
than 5
(Xin Li et al.,
2018)
(S. Wang et al.,
2015)
(Z. Liu et al.,
2013)
Moisture content
Water in liquid form is the necessary electrolyte required for electrochemical corrosion
reactions. A differentiation is made in soil between saturated and unsaturated water
flow/accumulation. Unsaturated water flow refers to the transfer of water from
wetlands to dry surface fields. Saturated water flow depends on pore size and
distribution, form, composition, and organic matter. High moisture content enables the
rapid transfer of ions between the pipeline surface and the soil, making the soil more
corrosive (Revie, 2015).
A long time ago, a study about the influence of moisture content on the
underground pipeline had been conducted by Gupta & Gupta (1979). Their pioneering
studies determined the critical soil moisture content the most significant factor
deciding the corrosion's intensity. Furthermore, it was found that in all the soils, the
corrosivity reached its maximum value at 65% moisture content of their water holding
capacity, which can be considered the critical soil moisture content. Recently,
awareness about the factor of moisture content has been taken seriously in their
research study.
Later in Azoor et al. (2019) and Deo et al. (2014) have demonstrated an optimal
moisture level at which corrosion's optimal risk is reached in soil conditions. This
effect's explanations were generally due to the combined effects of electrical
conductivity and diffusion of oxygen or the active region and oxygen diffusion. After
that, Jiang et al. (2009) prove that the soil-metal interface area is an active area that
focuses on the soil's composition and moisture distribution. The author also states that
oxygen diffusion is also a soil-dependent moisture-dependent property that
specifically impacts underground corrosion.
The impact of moisture content on the corrosion activity of oil and gas
pipelines in the soils of various cities in Saudi Arabia at ambient temperature (29 ±1
°C) was continuously studied by Noor & Al-Moubaraki, (2014). Electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, potentiodynamic, polarisation, and open circuit potential
were the experiments' instruments. A rise in soil moisture content by up to 10% was
observed to increase the corrosion rate of the sample oil and gas pipelines in each soil
and consequently decrease with a further increase in moisture content. Their research
confirms that moisture quality and the resulting degradation of buried pipes depend on
the soil's properties and form. This review section discusses the moisture content
factor, causing the corrosion of X70 steel listed in Table 3 below.
Table 3: Effect of various soil moisture content on corrosion behaviour of X70 steel
Corrosive
medium
Black clay soil
in
Skikda,
Algeria
Moisture
content %
20%100%
Findings
Author
 The corrosion current is (Hendi et al.,
directly proportional to the 2018)
moisture content up to 50%.
 50% to 100% the corrosion
current becomes almost
constant
 Metal loss increases with an (Lim et al., 2017)
increase in moisture content
Five
sites 5% - 55%
located on the
east coast of
Peninsular
Malaysia
Clay
0 % - 60 %  Soil moisture content was (Yahaya
found
to
have
more 2011)
significant influence than
clay
content
towards
corrosion dynamic at most of
the sites
et
al.,
1.3.5
Temperature
The temperature may significantly affect the corrosion rate, specifically by enhancing
the corrosion process and implicitly, in terms of scale, fluid flow, and fugacity, by
altering the formation of gases found in the air. In industrial environments, corrosion
in CO2 and H2S gases in the pipeline system caused the corrosion mechanism to be
more complex due to high temperatures (Asadian et al., 2019). Both of these gases
have high corrosion properties when the temperature rises. These environments also
contribute to the mostly deterioration of pipelines if CO2 and H2S gases exist in the
systems (Asmara, 2018). Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. have shown
several studies that the previous researcher has conducted under the influence of
temperature toward X70 steel corrosion.
Table 4: Influence of temperature towards X70 steel corrosion
Corrosive
medium
CO2-containing
formation water
30–150 ◦C
Citrate
buffer
(pH 5.5)
1 mM sulfide
26°C
62°C
12°C
0.05 M Na2CO3,
0.1 M NaHCO3
0.1 M NaCl
Room
Temperature
40 ºC
60 ºC
1.3.6
Temperature
Findings
 uniform corrosion in the
temperature range of 30 ◦C–90 ◦C
 localized corrosion at 120 ◦C and
150 ◦C
 The stress corrosion cracking of
X70 pipe steel buffer electrolyte
(pH 5.5) becomes faster with an
increase in the temperature
 Pitting corrosion occurs at room
temperature
 Slightly effect at 40 ºC
 at 60 ºC, there was a marked
decrease in the corrosion resistance
Author
(Chen et al., 2021)
(Marshakov
2017)
et
al.,
(Carlos
Antonio
Vieira de Almeida
Machado et al., 2013)
Microbial activity
The MIC research has seen a revolution in applying the oil and gas sector of molecular
microbiological methods in the last decade. Bacteria are bound to the steel surface and
shape biofilm (Costerton, 1987). The biochemical processes associated with their
metabolism, development, and reproduction degrades the steel surface by modifying
its physical and chemical characteristics. The change in the corrosion behaviour of
material/steel in the presence of microorganisms is also known as microbiologically
induced corrosion (MIC) (Hubert et al., 2005). MIC influences the corrosion process
on the corrosion substance's surface through the presence and activity of various forms
of microorganisms in biofilms (Alamri, 2020), sulfate-reducing bacteria, acidproducing bacteria, and iron-reducing bacteria (Makhlouf & Botello, 2018).
Meanwhile, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and tension corrosion
cracking are the bulk of MIC-affected corrosion. Many researchers have identified
microbiologically affected corrosion as a source of significant economic losses for the
marine, oil and gas, power generation, and water delivery industries (El Hajj et al.,
2013). For example, Table 5 shown the influence of microbial bacteria on X70 steel at
different corrosive mediums.
Table 5: The influence of microbial activity towards X70 steel corrosion
Corrosive medium
sea mud simulated
solution (1 L
deionized water with
13.89 g Na2SO4,
27.78 g KCl,
and 16.44 g MgSO4)
Bacteria
coexistence
of SRB
simulated soil solution
at different immersion
times (varying from
24 h to 504 h)
Pseudomonas
simulated soil solution
at different immersion
times (varying from 7
days to 40 days)
Citrobacter
sp
1.3.7
Findings
 Electrochemical measurements
indicated that the corrosion rates
were far higher in SRB-inoculated
solution than that in a sterile
solution
 Mechanical SSRT tests showed
that the SCC susceptibility
increased with the cathodic
potentials either in sterile solution
or in SRB-inoculated solution
 Initially, the adhesion and
aggregation of microorganisms on
the steel surface culminated in
developing a dense biofilm on the
steel surface and, consequently, the
polarization resistance increased.
 a higher tendency toward pitting
corrosion in the presence of the
strains of Citrobacter.
Author
(M. Wu et al.,
2020)
(Shahryari et al.,
2019a)
(Shahryari et al.,
2019b)
Nanocoatings in corrosion prevention
Nanomaterials have recently been presented as a simple tool for minimizing corrosion.
Nanomaterials are products that have at least one of their morphological characteristics
on a nanoscale (less than 100 nm), such as grain size, particle size, structure size
(Abdeen et al., 2019). According to the constituent materials, it is possible to
distinguish nanocoatings, such as metallic and ceramic nanocoatings. They may also
be made up of two or more nanoscale materials, as in nanocomposite coatings. It would
be more effective to fill the gaps to block the corrosive elements from diffusing
through the substrate surface due to the very fine particle sizes used in this
nanocoating.
Nanocoatings have superior mechanical and electrical properties, making them
harder, lighter, and more resilient to lose and wear conditions. With the addition of
self-healing properties (Stankiewicz, 2019), self-cleaning (Ulaeto et al., 2020) and
good scratch and rub tolerance, nanocoating technology has significantly influenced
paint development. Thanks to nanocoating's excellent properties, they are used in
everyday practice such as garments, tablets, cell phones and eyeglasses. Furthermore,
they are used for bricks, curtains, boards, walls, paints and air filters (Boostani &
Modirrousta, 2016). In these appliances, the nanolayer's use allows them resistant to
fire, corrosion and scratching, anti-graffiti, rust, self-cleaning and electrically
conductive.
Radhamani et al. (2020) claim that nanostructured hydrophobic and superhydrophobic primer coatings will avoid steel corrosion in their analysis papers. It will
serve as an impressive water barrier and effectively prevent water absorption and
increase steels' service life and their alloys. Individual nanoparticles are applied to the
regular nanocomposite coating to increase the overall anti-corrosion efficiency.
Alumina, titanium, and silica nanoparticles are well-known components used in
coating formulations. Nanoparticles have altered the surface energy of the intrinsically
hydrophobic siloxane polymers, and hence the efficiency of nanocomposite coating
immersed in violent media has been increased.
1.4
Method evaluation for corrosion performance
Usually, the techniques used to perform corrosion testing can be divided into two
primary classes, electrochemical and non-electrochemical.
The typical cause of corrosion applies to electrochemical processes, which is
why this principle has been applied to other areas of corrosion engineering. The main
variables to be measured are voltage, current and impedance in electrochemical
experiments. Voltage may be referred to as electrode corrosion ability, while current
density is related to corrosion intensity or corrosion characteristics. Polarization
resistance is another parameter related to the corrosion rate counter to the existing
corrosion theory (Arriba-Rodriguez et al., 2018).
Electrochemical techniques were initially attempted by various researchers with
minimal technology and expertise accessible to determine the corrosion rate of ferrous
metals in soils in the early 1950s (Wasim et al., 2018a). The latest electrochemical
methods are made up of two groups. One is electrochemical direct current calculation
(DC) for calculating corrosion current (Icorr) at corrosion potential (Ecorr) for
equilibrium. The second form is AC electrochemical corrosion calculation, which uses
alternating current (AC). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a standard
electrochemical AC technique widely used in metal corrosion studies.
Non-electrochemical data, on the other hand, are focused on the direct
measurement of corrosion experienced by buried steel utilizing samples in certain
areas or a virtual laboratory environment. In addition, pictures of existing conditions
in the same environment will also be interpreted as data used to generate models for
corrosion calculation. Metal mass loss is one of the most common non-electrochemical
corrosion calculation measures. Weight will be reported before and after the sample is
planted on the scene. The process of weight loss calculation is a daunting job capable
of generating electrochemical measurements to estimate corrosion rate without
calculating buried pipe mass loss indirectly.
This section summarizes the implementation of electrochemical methods, their
shortcomings, drawbacks and precision in determining the corrosion rates of ferrous
metal pipes in soils and simulated soils. The goal is to choose the best techniques that
can be used to track corrosion and estimate the corrosion rate in soils for this study's
purposes.
Qin et al. (2018), from different analytical techniques (Polarization curves and
EIS), noticed that the corrosion rate legislation of X70 steel in each soil analysed
appears to vary with the shift in moisture content. They indicated that the risk of
corrosion rises with a soil moisture content of more than 20%; however, in some other
forms of soil where the corrosion rate decreases to lower with the same percentage of
moisture content. It shows that the corrosion rule is contradictory due to the reciprocal
activity of dissolved oxygen and chloride ions on the electrode surface.
The corrosion activity of the X70 and X80 pipelines under various AC
interferences in the simulated soil has been studied by X. Wang et al. (2018) using
open-circuit capacity and polarization curve. The salty soil around Qinghai Salt Lake
in China is a Golmud soil with a pH of 8.4. The corrosive atmosphere was selected for
this analysis. Simulated soil solution ion concentrations depended on Golmud soil
significant physicochemical data such as Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, and Na+. The solutions
were formulated with NaCl, Na2SO4, NaHCO3 grades and deionized water. During
immersion and electrochemical studies, various AC densities were added at a
frequency of 50 Hz: 0, 30, 100, 200 and 300 A/m2. The corrosion tolerance of the X70
and X80 steel samples decreased with an improvement in the applied AC density.
Corrosion potentials have changed adversely. The polarization curves included only
active dissolution areas and no passivation region, suggesting that the capacity for
corrosion of X70 and X80 steel under AC intervention increased significantly.
Overall, the usage of electrochemical methods is very effective in achieving
reliable and quick performance. At the same period, not to mention the nonelectrochemical techniques that lead to the creation to reduce the corrosion rate
calculation. Both techniques are also implemented by researchers when necessary and
as needed by their respective studies.
1.5
Steel corrosion analytical technique
This part of the article addresses surface analytical techniques to evaluate steel (carbon
steel, iron steel) under corrosive soil conditions. It is essential to examine surface
morphology, elemental concentrations, surface roughness and their contributing factor
to steel corrosion. So it is since the results imposed by these conditions can only be
calculated by the usage of analytical surface characterization methods. In the following
section, we explain the analytical methods involved in assessing the surface structure
and the chemical composition of the steel surface.
1.5.1
The bulk of the steel surface using SEM-EDX and XRD
Chu et al. (2020) discussed the interaction of microorganisms on the steel surface about
their steel corrosion behaviour. In their works, Pseudomonas fluorescens and
Escherichia coli were selected to analyse the effect of mixed bacteria systems on the
corrosion of carbon steel. XRD was used to analyse corrosion products on the steel
surfaces with the change of time exposure under different conditions. The critical
components of the corrosion products under the conditions of sterile and Escherichia
coli were α- FeOOH and γ-FeOOH. FeOOh was loosely structured and smoothed the
way of dissolved oxygen and corrosion ion attract to it. For Pseudomonas fluorescent
CE, the main components corrosion products are Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeCO3. Both Fe2O3
and Fe3O4 were stable iron oxides, which could block the penetration of dissolved
oxygen and corrosive ions, inhibited the corrosion behaviour of carbon steel surface,
and reduced the corrosion rate under the mixed bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens
conditions.
Song et al. (2017) discuss the effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of ductile
iron and carbon steel in soil environments. SEM was conducted for 12 weeks to study
the effects of chloride ions on corrosion products layer on the steel surface. In addition,
XRD measurement was also implemented in their studies to evaluate the crystalline
structure corrosion products. All the surface morphology and rust compositions were
comprehensively studied by visual observation using SEM and XRD. From the
morphology analysis, corrosion continuously propagated to more severe levels with
higher chloride concentrations and prolonged exposure time.
1.5.2
Surface Degradation using AFM
Atomic force microscope (AFM) is a great tool to explore the structure of materials
and surface properties on a nanometric scale. Many potential signals and their
performance in numerous modes have supported researchers in studying different
surfaces and different media, including vacuum, air, and liquid (Aliofkhazraei & Ali,
2014). For detail, AFM could analyse the surface topography of oil and gas pipelines
surface, including surface roughness measurements.
1.5.3
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) for corrosion study
The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis technique allows studies of the
chemical changes in a surface as they occur naturally. Thus, this technique offers the
possibility to improve knowledge of the variations in the composition of surface layers
as they develop. Such knowledge would form the basis of a detailed theory of the early
stages of atmospheric corrosion (Neufeld & Cole, 1997).
Święch et al. (2018) present work focuses on the proof of corrosion identity
products made on the Copper, CU and Iron, Fe metals after expose to the chloride-
containing solution by the Raman spectroscopy (RS) and the Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The findings show that the dominant corrosion product
for the Fe sample is lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), while the Cu surface is covered mainly
with paratacamite (Cu2(OH)3Cl). Furthermore, the results specify that the vibrational
spectroscopic methods are an outstanding tool for analysing the corrosion products.
2.5.5
Surface chemical properties using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS)
Hussin & Lah (2017) have examined the surface of oxide that grows on the fusion
metal part of welded Aluminium 6061 (Al 6061). The surface of electron spectroscopy
was used to study the fundamental processes of high-temperature oxidation. X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) has been applied to determine the oxide growth on
oxidised fusion metal part of two different types of welded 6061 Al alloy, namely
AA6061 ER4043 and AA6061 ER5356. Samples were exposed at a temperature of
600 °C for 40 hours to oxidation. As a result, the presence of spectral lines of Al 2p,
Mg 2p, Si 2p, and O1s were shown at the sample surface.
Duchoslav (2013) used XPS to detect corrosion products generated on the
ZnMgAl galvanised hot-dip surface. Since the corrosion attack mostly starts from the
surface of the materials, sophisticated surface analytic methods such as X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) play an essential role in most recent corrosion
studies as a complementary method to another chemical, electrochemical, or
environmental analysis. XPS might also be a valuable tool for studying the initial
stages of corrosion, especially since the layer of formed corrosion products may be too
thin for bulk sensitive methods such as X-ray diffraction.
Zhang (2009) studied the effect of small additions of Mn on Zn coatings'
corrosion behavior. The presented XPS data were evaluated using a qualitative
approach: the measured peaks were de-convoluted with symmetric peaks. The binding
energies of the fitted peaks were then assigned to specific chemical components by
using external sources and databases from the literature.
Acknowledgments
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