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UNIVERSE
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Universe
Contents
What Is the
Universe?
Page 6
What Is in the
Universe?
Page 18
The Solar
System
Page 38
The Earth
and the Moon
Page 66
Observing
the Universe
Page 80
PICTURE ON PAGE 1
Image of a planetary nebula.
Planetary nebulae are among
the most photogenic objects
in astronomy.
CONE NEBULA
This nebula got its name
from its cone shape, as
shown in the image.
The Secrets of
the Universe
T
here was a time when people believed
that the stars were bonfires lit by
other tribes in the sky, that the
universe was a flat plate resting on the shell
of a giant turtle, and that the Earth,
according to the Greek astronomer Ptolemy,
was at the center of the universe. From the
most remote of times, people have been
curious about what lies hidden beyond the
celestial sphere. This curiosity has led them
to build telescopes that show with clarity
otherwise blurry and distant objects. In this
book you will find the history of the cosmos
illustrated with spectacular images that
show in detail how the cosmos was formed,
the nature of the many points of light that
adorn the night sky, and what lies ahead.
You will also discover how the suns that
inhabit space live and die, what dark matter
and black holes are, and what our place is in
this vastness. Certainly, the opportunity to
compare the destiny of other worlds similar
to ours will help us understand that for the
time being there is no better place than the
Earth to live. At least for now.
I
n the Milky Way—according to
mathematical and physical
calculations—there are more than 100
billion stars, and such a multitude leads to
the question: Is it possible that our Sun is
the only star that possesses an inhabited
planet? Astronomers are more convinced
than ever of the possibility of life in other
worlds. We just need to find them. Reading
this book will let you become better
acquainted with our neighbors in the solar
system—the other planets—and the most
important characteristics that distinguish
them. All this information that explores the
mysteries of space is accompanied by
recent images captured by the newest
telescopes. They reveal many details about
the planets and their satellites, such as the
volcanoes and craters found on the surface
of some of them. You will also learn more
about the asteroids and comets that orbit
the Sun and about Pluto, a dwarf planet,
which is to be visited by a space probe for
the first time. Less than a decade ago,
astronomers began observing frozen worlds,
much smaller than a planet, in a region of
the solar system called the Kuiper belt. We
invite you to explore all of this. The images
and illustrations that accompany the text
will prove very helpful in studying and
understanding the structure of all the visible
and invisible objects (such as dark matter)
that form part of the universe. There are
stellar maps showing the constellations, the
groups of stars that since ancient times have
served as a guide for navigation and for the
development of calendars. There is also a
review through history: from Ptolemy, who
thought the planets orbited around the
Earth, and Copernicus, who put the Sun in
the center, and Galileo, the first to aim a
telescope skyward, up to the most recent
astronomical theories, such as those of
Stephen Hawking, the genius of space and
time who continues to amaze with his
discoveries about the greatest mysteries of
the cosmos. You will find these and many
more topics no matter where you look in this
fantastic book that puts the universe and its
secrets in your hands.
What Is the Universe?
DARK MATTER
Evidence exists that dark matter, though invisible
to telescopes, betrays itself by the gravitational
pull it exerts over other heavenly bodies.
X-RAY OF THE COSMOS 8-9
THE INSTANT OF CREATION 10-13
EVERYTHING COMES TO AN END 14-15
THE FORCES OF THE UNIVERSE 16-17
T
he universe is everything that
exists, from the smallest
particles to the largest ones,
together with all matter and
energy. The universe includes
visible and invisible things, such as dark
matter, the great, secret component of
the cosmos. The search for dark matter
is currently one of the most important
tasks of cosmology. Dark matter may
literally determine the density of all of
space, as well as decide the destiny of
the universe. Did you know that, second
by second, the universe grows and
grows? The question that astronomers
are asking—the question that concerns
them the most—is how much longer the
universe can continue to expand like a
balloon before turning into something
cold and dark.
8 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 9
Corona Borealis
Supercluster
X-Ray of the Cosmos
Capricornus
Supercluster
6.
T
he universe, marvelous in its majesty, is an ensemble of a hundred
billion galaxies. Each of these galaxies (which tend to be found in
large groups) has billions of stars. These galactic concentrations
surround empty spaces, called cosmic voids. The immensity of the
cosmos can be better grasped by realizing that the size of our fragile
planet Earth, or even that of the Milky Way, is insignificant
compared to the size of the remainder of the cosmos.
Boötes
Void
Shapley
Supercluster
Centaurus
Supercluster
Sculptor
Void
VIRGO
Coma
Supercluster
250
Pisces-Cetus
Superclusters
Ursa Major
Supercluster
Hydra
Leo
Supercluster
750
1.
Boötes
Supercluster
180°
Pavo-Indus
Supercluster
1,000
Pisces-Perseus
Supercluster
EARTH Originated, together
with the solar system, when
the universe was already 9.1
billion years old. It is the only
known planet that is home to life.
EARTH
Pluto
Neptune
Jupiter
Saturn
Virgo III
Group
0°
The Universe
Sextans
Supercluster
Originating nearly 14 billion years ago
in an immense explosion, the universe
today is too large to be able to conceive. The
innumerable stars and galaxies that populate it
promise to continue expanding for a long time.
Though it might sound strange today, for many
years, astronomers thought that the Milky Way,
where the Earth is located, constituted the entire
universe. Only recently—in the 20th century—was outer
space recognized as not only much vaster than previously
thought but also as being in a state of ongoing expansion.
180°
Horologium
Superclusters
Columba
Supercluster
NGC
6744
NGC
7582
12.5
25
Dorado
2.
Ross
128
Lalande
21185
Fornax
Cluster
12.5
Procyon
7.5
Luyten’s
Star
2.5
SUN
Alpha
Centauri
Sirius
270°
Bernard’s
Star
Ross
248
Groombridge
34
61 Cygni
Ross
154
NGC
3109
Antila
Dwarf
Leo I
Ursa
Minor Dwarf
L789-6
Epsilon
Eridani
L726-8
MILKY WAY
L789-6
Epsilon
Lacaille
Indi
Ceti
9352
L725-32
0.37
0.5
Carina
Dwarf
0.25
Canis
Major
Sagittarius
Dwarf
0.12
Large
Magellanic
Cloud
Small
Magellanic
Cloud
0°
Virgo
Group
Draco
Dwarf
1.2
Leo I
Ursa Major
Group
NGC
2997
0°
Leo III
Group
NEAREST GALAXIES. At a scale
of one hundred million light-years,
the galactic clusters nearest to
the Milky Way can be seen.
3.7
IC 10
NGC
147
M110
NGC
185
2.5
Andromeda I
Andromeda
NGC
6822
LOCAL GROUP. Ten
million light-years away
is Andromeda, the
closest to the Earth.
0°
Phoenix
Dwarf
Tucana
Dwarf
M32
Triangle
LGS 3
Aquarius
IC
1613 Dwarf
Cetus
Dwarf
Sagittarius
Irregular
Dwarf
WLM
Pegasus
Dwarf
NGC
4697
Maffei
Leo II
MILKY WAY
4.
Canis
180°
Sextans
Dwarf
0°
180°
L372-58
5.
Leo A
NEIGHBORS Within a space
of one million light-years,
we find the Milky Way and
its closest galaxies.
3.
90°
Sculptor
NGC
5033
Eridanus
Cluster
Sextans B
Sextans A
Struve
2398
Wolf
359
NGC
5128 M101
NGC
1023
50
NEAR STARS Found closer
than 20 light-years from the
Sun, they make up our solar
neighborhood.
LOCAL
GROUP
M81
37.5
G51-15
FILAMENTS. From five billion
light-years away, the immensity of
the cosmos is evident in its
galactic filaments, each one home
to millions and millions of galaxies.
7.
Hercules
Supercluster
Sculptor
Supercluster
Uranus
SUPERCLUSTERS. Within a
distance of a billion light-years,
groups of millions of galaxies,
called superclusters, can be seen.
100 billion
The total number of galaxies that exist,
indicating that the universe is both larger
and older than was previously thought
10 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 11
The Instant of Creation
I
t is impossible to know precisely how, out of nothing, the universe began to exist. According to the big
bang theory—the theory most widely accepted in the scientific community—in the beginning, there
appeared an infinitely small and dense burning ball that gave rise to space, matter, and energy. This
happened 13.7 billion years ago. The great, unanswered question is what caused a small dot of light—filled
with concentrated energy from which matter and antimatter were created—to arise from nothingness. In
very little time, the young universe began to expand and cool. Several billion years later, it acquired the
form we know today.
Galaxy 1
The burning ball that gave rise to the universe remained a
source of permanent radiation. Subatomic particles and
antiparticles annihilated each other. The ball's high density
spontaneously produced matter and destroyed it. Had this state
of affairs continued, the universe would never have undergone the
growth that scientists believe followed cosmic inflation.
TIME
TEMPERATURE
NASA's WMAP project maps the background radiation of the universe. In the
image, hotter (red-yellow) regions and colder (blue-green) regions can be
observed. WMAP makes it possible to determine the amount of dark matter.
Although big bang theorists understood the universe as originating
in an extremely small, hot, and condensed ball, they could not
understand the reason for its staggering growth. In 1981, physicist Alan
Guth proposed a solution to the problem with his inflationary theory. In an
extremely short period of time (less than a thousandth of a second), the
universe grew more than a trillion trillion trillion times. Near the end of this
period of expansion, the temperature approached absolute zero.
Galaxy 2
Region 1
HOW IT GREW
Energetic Radiation
WMAP (WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE)
Cosmic Inflation Theory
Region 3
HOW IT DID
NOT GROW
Cosmic inflation was
an expansion of the
entire universe. The
Earth's galactic
neighborhood appears
fairly uniform.
Everywhere you look,
the types of galaxies
and the background
temperature are
essentially the same.
Galaxy 3
Galaxy 4
Galaxy 5
Had the universe not
undergone inflation,
it would be a
collection of different
regions, each with its
own particular types
of galaxies and each
clearly
distinguishable from
the others.
THE SEPARATION OF FORCES
Region 2
Region 5
Region 4
Gravity
Before the universe expanded, during a period of
radiation, only one unified force governed all
physical interactions. The first distinguishable
force was gravity, followed by electromagnetism
and nuclear interactions. Upon the division of the
universe's forces, matter was created.
Strong nuclear
SUPERFORCE
Weak nuclear
EXPANSION
Electromagnetism
0
10-43 sec
10-38 sec
10-12 sec
10-4 sec
5 sec
3 min
-
1032 ° F (and C)
1029 ° F (and C)
1015 ° F (and C)
1012 ° F (and C)
9x109 ° F (5x109 ° C)
2x109 ° F (1x109 ° C)
Scientists theorize that, from
nothing, something infinitely
small, dense, and hot appeared.
All that exists today was
compressed into a ball smaller than
the nucleus of an atom.
At the closest moment to
zero time, which physics has
been able to reach, the
temperature is extremely
high. Before the universe's inflation,
a superforce governed everything.
The universe is unstable. Only
10-38 seconds after the big
bang, the universe increases in
size more than a trillion trillion
trillion times. The expansion of the
universe and the division of its forces begin.
The universe experiences a
gigantic cooldown. Gravity
has already become
distinguishable, and the
electromagnetic force and the strong
and weak nuclear interactions appear.
Protons and neutrons
appear, formed by three
quarks apiece. Because
all light is trapped within
the web of particles, the universe
is still dark.
The electrons and their
antiparticles,
positrons, annihilate
each other until the
positrons disappear. The
remaining electrons form atoms.
The nuclei of the
lightest elements,
hydrogen and
helium, form.
Protons and neutrons unite to
form the nuclei of atoms.
1
2
3
4
5
1 sec
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
In its beginnings, the universe was a soup of particles that interacted with each other
because of high levels of radiation. Later, as the universe expanded, quarks formed the
nuclei of the elements and then joined with electrons to form atoms.
6
7
The neutrinos separate from the initial particle soup through the disintegration
of neutrons. Though having extremely little mass, the neutrinos might
nevertheless form the greatest part of the universe's dark matter.
Proton
FROM PARTICLES TO MATTER
Photon
Massless elemental
luminous particle
Electron
Negatively charged
elemental particle
The quarks, among the oldest particles,
interact with each other by forces
transmitted through gluons. Later protons
and neutrons will join to form nuclei.
Gluon
Responsible for
the interactions
between quarks
Graviton
It is believed to
transmit gravitation.
Quark
Light, elemental
particle
Quark
Neutron
Gluon
1
A gluon interacts
with a quark.
2
Quarks join by means
of gluons to form
protons and neutrons.
3
Protons and
neutrons unite to
create nuclei.
12 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 13
The Transparent Universe
With the creation of atoms and overall cooling, the once opaque and
dense universe became transparent. Electrons were attracted by the
protons of hydrogen and helium nuclei, and together they formed atoms.
Photons (massless particles of light) could now pass freely through the
universe. With the cooling, radiation remained abundant but was no longer the
sole governing factor of the universe. Matter, through gravitational force, could
now direct its own destiny. The gaseous lumps that were present in this
process grew larger and larger. After 100 million years, they formed even
larger objects. Their shapes not yet defined, they constituted protogalaxies.
Gravitation gave shape to the first galaxies some 500 million years after the
big bang, and the first stars began to shine in the densest regions of these
galaxies. One mystery that could not be solved was why galaxies were
distributed and shaped the way they were. The solution that astronomers have
been able to find through indirect evidence is that there exists material called
dark matter whose presence would have played a role in galaxy formation.
3
2
1
Gaseous cloud
The first gases
and dust resulting
from the Big Bang
form a cloud.
First filaments
Because of the
gravitational pull of dark
matter, the gases joined
in the form of filaments.
Filament networks
The universe has
large-scale filaments
that contain millions
and millions of galaxies.
THE UNIVERSE TODAY
Star
cluster
Star
Nebula
Irregular
galaxy
Quasar
Spiral
galaxy
Barred
spiral
galaxy
DARK MATTER
Elliptical
galaxy
The visible objects in the
cosmos represent only a
small fraction of the total
matter within the universe.
Most of it is invisible even to
the most powerful
telescopes. Galaxies and their
stars move as they do
because of the gravitational
forces exerted by this
material, which astronomers
call dark matter.
EVOLUTION OF MATTER
What can be observed in the universe today is a great
quantity of matter grouped into galaxies. But that was not
the original form of the universe. What the big bang initially
produced was a cloud of uniformly dispersed gas. Just three
million years later, the gas began to organize itself into
filaments. Today the universe can be seen as a network of
galactic filaments with enormous voids between them.
9.1 billion
Galaxy
cluster
THE EARTH IS CREATED
Like the rest of the planets, the Earth is made of
material that remained after the formation of the solar
system. The Earth is the only planet known to have life.
TIME
(in years)
380,000
500 million
9 billion
13.7 billion
TEMPERATURE
4,900° F (2,700° C)
-405° F (-243° C)
-432° F (-258° C)
-454° F (-270° C)
380,000 years after the big
bang, atoms form. Electrons
orbit the nuclei, attracted by
the protons. The universe
becomes transparent. Photons travel
through space.
Galaxies acquire their definitive
shape: islands of millions and
millions of stars and masses of
gases and dust. The stars explode
as supernovas and disperse heavier
elements, such as carbon.
Nine billion years after the big
bang, the solar system
emerged. A mass of gas and
dust collapsed until it gave rise
to the Sun. Later the planetary system was
formed from the leftover material.
The universe continues to expand. Countless galaxies
are surrounded by dark matter, which represents 22
percent of the mass and energy in the universe. The
ordinary matter, of which stars and planets are
made, represents just 4 percent of the total. The predominant
form of energy is also of an unknown type. Called dark energy, it
constitutes 74 percent of the total mass and energy.
9
8
FIRST ATOMS
NUCLEUS 1
10
11
Proton
Hydrogen and helium were the first elements to
be formed at the atomic level. They are the main
components of stars and planets. They are by far
the most abundant elements in the universe.
TIMESCALE
The vast span of time related to the history of
the universe can be readily understood if it is
scaled to correspond to a single year—a year
that spans the beginning of the universe, the
Electron
appearance of humans on the Earth, and the
voyage of Columbus to America. On January 1
of this imaginary year—at midnight—the big
bang takes place. Homo sapiens appears at
11:56 P.M. on December 31, and Columbus sets
sail on the last second of the last day of the
year. One second on this timescale is equivalent
to 500 true years.
Neutron
1
Hydrogen
An electron is attracted by
and orbits the nucleus, which
has a proton and a neutron.
2
NUCLEUS 2
Helium
Since the nucleus
has two protons,
two electrons are
attracted to it.
3
Carbon
With time, heavier and more complex elements
were formed. Carbon, the key to human life, has six
protons in its nucleus and six electrons orbiting it.
BIG BANG
occurs on the
first second of
the first day of
the year.
JANUARY
THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
is created on
August 24 of
this timescale.
COLUMBUS'S
ARRIVAL
takes place on
the last second
of December 31.
DECEMBER
14 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 15
Everything Comes to an End
T
he big bang theory helped solve the enigma of the early moments of the universe. What has yet to
be resolved is the mystery surrounding the future that awaits. To unravel this mystery, the total
mass of the universe must be known, but that figure has not yet been reliably determined. The
most recent observations have removed some of this uncertainty. It seems that the mass of the universe
is far too little to stop its expansion. If this is this case, the universe's present growth is merely the last
step before its total death in complete darkness.
Flat Universe
1
There is a critical amount of mass
for which the universe would
expand at a declining rate without
ever totally stopping. The result of this
eternal expansion would be the existence of
an ever-increasing number of galaxies and
stars. If the universe were flat, we could
talk about a cosmos born from an explosion,
but it would be a universe continuing
outward forever. It is difficult to think
about a universe with these characteristics.
1
The universe
continuously
expands and
evolves.
2
The universe's
expansion is
unceasing but
ever slower.
3
DISCOVERIES
The key discovery that led to the big
bang theory was made in the early
1920s by Edwin Hubble, who
discovered that galaxies were moving
away from each other. In the 1940s,
George Gamow developed the idea
that the universe began with a
primordial explosion. A consequence
of such an event would be the
existence of background radiation,
which Arno Penzias and Robert
Wilson accidentally detected in the
mid-1960s.
1920s
1965
1940s
GALACTIC EXPANSION
By noting a redshift toward the red end of the
spectrum, Hubble was able to demonstrate that
galaxies were moving away from each other.
GAMOW'S SUSPICION
Gamow first hypothesized the big bang,
holding that the early universe was a
“cauldron” of particles.
BACKGROUND RADIATION
Penzias and Wilson detected radio signals
that came from across the entire sky—the
uniform signal of background radiation.
Gravity is not
sufficient to bring a
complete stop to the
universe's expansion.
Self-generated
Universes
The universe
expands indefinitely.
A less widely accepted theory about
the nature of the universe suggests
that universes generate themselves.
If this is the case, universes would be
created continuously like the branches of a
tree, and they might be linked by
supermassive black holes.
3
4
Universe 1
Universe 4
Universe 3
Black
hole
Black hole
THE HAWKING UNIVERSE
Open Universe
The universe was composed originally of four
spatial dimensions without the dimension of
time. Since there is no change without time,
one of these dimensions, according to Hawking,
transformed spontaneously on a small scale
into a temporal dimension, and the universe
began to expand.
Object in three
dimensions
1
After the original
expansion, the
universe grows.
2
Expansion is
continuous and
pronounced.
3
reaches a point where
everything grows dark
and life is extinguished.
TIME
BIG BANG
Some theorists believe
that, by entering a
black hole, travel
through space to
other universes might
be possible because of
antigravitational
effects.
The most accepted theory about
the future of the cosmos says
that the universe possesses a
mass smaller than the critical value. The
latest measurements seem to indicate that
the present time is just a phase before the
death of the universe, in which it goes
completely dark.
4
Inflection point
New universe
Object that changes
with time
Universe 1
Universe 2
Universe 3
HOW IT IS MADE UP
Closed Universe
If the universe had more than
critical mass, it would expand
until reaching a point where
gravity stopped the expansion. Then,
the universe would contract in the Big
Crunch, a total collapse culminating in
an infinitely small, dense, and hot spot
similar to the one from which the
universe was formed. Gravity's pull on
the universe's excess matter would stop
the expansion and reverse the process.
BLACK HOLES
2
BIG
CRUNCH
Dark energy is hypothesized to be
the predominant energy in the
universe. It is believed to speed up
the expansion of the universe.
74%
dark energy
22%
1
The universe
expands violently.
2
The universe's
growth slows.
3
The universe collapses
upon itself, forming a
dense, hot spot.
dark matter
4%
visible matter
Baby Universes
According to this theory, universes
continuously sprout other universes. But
in this case, one universe would be
created from the death or disappearance of
another. Each dead universe in a final collapse, or
5
Big Crunch, would give rise to a supermassive
black hole, from which another universe would
be born. This process could repeat itself
indefinitely, making the number of universes
impossible to determine.
16 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 17
The Forces of the Universe
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
T
he four fundamental forces of nature are those that are not derived from basic forces. Physicists
believe that, at one time, all physical forces functioned as a single force and that during the
expansion of the universe, they became distinct from each other. Each force now governs different
processes, and each interaction affects different types of particles. Gravity, electromagnetism, strong
nuclear interactions, and weak nuclear interactions are essential to our understanding of the behavior of
the many objects that exist in the universe. In recent years, many scientists have tried with little success
to show how all forces are manifestations of a single type of exchange.
What
we see
General Theory of Relativity
NEWTON'S EQUATION
Newton's law, an accepted paradigm
until Einstein's theory of general
relativity, lies in its failure to make time
an essential component in the
interaction between objects. According
to Newton, the gravitational attraction
between two objects with mass did not
depend on the properties of space but
was an intrinsic property of the objects
themselves. Nevertheless, Newton's law
of universal gravitation was a
foundation for Einstein's theory.
Two bodies with mass attract each other. Whichever
body has the greatest mass will exert a greater force
on the other. The greater the distance between the
objects, the smaller the force they exert on each other.
F
m1
m2
d
F=G x m1 x m2
d2
Strong Nuclear Force
Real
position
The strong nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons
of atomic nuclei together. Both protons and neutrons are
subject to this force. Gluons are particles that carry the
strong nuclear force, and they bind quarks together to form
protons and neutrons. Atomic nuclei are held together by
residual forces in the interaction between quarks and gluons.
3
RY
CTO
AJE
S TR
U
INO
LUM
The biggest contribution to our comprehension of the universe's internal
workings was made by Albert Einstein in 1915. Building on Newton's
theory of universal gravitation, Einstein thought of space as linked to time. To
Newton, gravity was merely the force that attracted two objects, but Einstein
hypothesized that it was a consequence of what he called the curvature of spacetime. According to his general theory of relativity, the universe curves in the
presence of objects with mass. Gravity, according to this theory, is a distortion of
space that determines whether one object rolls toward another. Einstein's general
theory of relativity required scientists to consider the universe in terms of a nonEuclidian geometry, since it is not compatible with the idea of a flat universe.
In Einsteinian space, two parallel lines can meet.
The gravitation proposed by Newton is
the mutual attraction between bodies
having mass. The equation developed by
Newton to calculate this force states
that the attraction experienced by two
bodies is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them. Newton
represented the constant of
proportionality resulting from this
interaction as G. The shortcoming of
Positive
pole
Electromagnetism
1
Electromagnetism is the force that affects
electrically charged bodies. It is involved in the
chemical and physical transformations of the
atoms and molecules of the various elements. The
electromagnetic force can be one of attraction or repulsion,
with two types of charges or poles.
2
Quarks and gluons
The strong nuclear interaction
takes place when the gluon
interacts with quarks.
Quark
2
Force
Gluon
E=mc2
SUN
In Einstein's equation, energy and mass are
interchangeable. If an object increases its
mass, its energy increases, and vice versa.
EARTH
Attraction
Two atoms are drawn together,
and the electrons rotate
around the new molecule.
Helium
Positive
pole
Negative
pole
Gravity
1
Hydrogen
mass in space would deform the cube.
Gravity can act at great distances (just as
electromagnetism can) and always exerts a
force of attraction. Despite the many
attempts to find antigravity (which could
counteract the effects of black holes), it
has yet to be found.
Weak Nuclear Force
The weak nuclear force is not as strong as the other
forces. The weak nuclear interaction influences the beta
decay of a neutron, which releases a proton and a
neutrino that later transforms into an electron. This force takes
part in the natural radioactive phenomena associated with certain
types of atoms.
4
Nucleus
Negative
pole
1
MOLECULAR MAGNETISM
In atoms and molecules, the electromagnetic force is
dominant. It is the force that causes the attraction
between protons and electrons in an atom and the
attraction or repulsion between ionized atoms.
Hydrogen
A hydrogen atom interacts
with a weak, light particle
(WIMP). A neutron's
bottom quark transforms
into a top quark.
HELIUM ISOTOPE
Electron
Proton
HYDROGEN ATOM
Proton
2
BENDING LIGHT
The universe, if it were empty, could be
pictured in this way.
Union
Quarks join and form
nuclear protons and
neutrons.
Force
Electron
Gravity was the first force to
become distinguishable from the
original superforce. Today
scientists understand gravity in Einstein's
terms as an effect of the curvature of
space-time. If the universe were thought of
as a cube, the presence of any object with
Nucleus
The universe is deformed by the mass
of the objects it contains.
Light also bends because of the curvature of space-time.
When seen from a telescope, the real position of an object
is distorted. What is perceived through the telescope is a
false location, generated by the curvature of the light. It
is not possible to see the actual position of the object.
Electron
Neutron
WIMP
Helium
The neutron transforms
into a proton. An electron
is released, and the helium
isotope that is formed has
no nuclear neutrons.
What Is in the Universe?
ETA CARINAE NEBULA
With a diameter of more than 200 light-years, it is
one of biggest and brightest nebulae of our galaxy.
This young, supermassive star is expected to become
a supernova in the near future.
LUMINOUS 20-21
THE FINAL DARKNESS 30-31
STELLAR EVOLUTION 22-23
ANATOMY OF GALAXIES 32-33
RED, DANGER, AND DEATH 24-25
ACTIVE GALAXIES 34-35
GAS SHELLS 26-27
STELLAR METROPOLIS 36-37
SUPERNOVAE 28-29
T
he universe is populated on a
grand scale by strands of
superclusters surrounding
vacant areas. Sometimes the
galaxies collide with each
other, triggering the formation of stars.
In the vast cosmos, there are also
quasars, pulsars, and black holes.
Thanks to current technology, we can
enjoy the displays of light and shadow
that make up, for example, the Eta
Carinae Nebula (shown), which is
composed of jets of hot, fluorescent
gases. Although not all the objects in the
universe are known, it can be said
without a doubt that most of the atoms
that make up our bodies have been born
in the interior of stars.
20 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 21
SCORPIUS REGION
Luminous
Measuring Distance
When the Earth orbits the Sun, the closest stars
appear to move in front of a background of more
distant stars. The angle described by the movement of a
star in a six-month period of the Earth's rotation is called
its parallax. The parallax of the most distant stars are too
small to measure. The closer a star is to the Earth, the
greater its parallax.
F
or a long time stars were a mystery to humans, and it was only as recently
as the 19th century that astronomers began to understand the true nature
of stars. Today we know that they are gigantic spheres of incandescent
gas—mostly hydrogen, with a smaller proportion of helium. As a star radiates
light, astronomers can precisely measure its brightness, color, and temperature.
Because of their enormous distance from the Earth, stars beyond the Sun only
appear as points of light, and even the most powerful telescopes do not reveal
any surface features.
GLOBULAR CLUSTER
More than a million stars are
grouped together into a spherical
cluster called Omega Centauri.
The parallax of star B
is greater than that of
star A, so we see that
B is closer to the
Earth.
PARALLAX
Because the parallax
of star A is small, we
see that it is distant
from the Earth.
A
Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram
those with greatest intrinsic luminosity.
They include blue stars, red giants, and
red supergiants. Stars spend 90 percent
of their lives in what is known as the
main sequence.
The H-R diagram plots the intrinsic
luminosity of stars against their
spectral class, which corresponds to their
temperature or the wavelengths of light
they emit. The most massive stars are
INTRINSIC
LUMINOSITY (SUN = 1)
100,000
B
OPEN CLUSTER
The Pleiades are a formation of
some 400 stars that will eventually
move apart.
Position of
the Earth in
January
TYPE O
52,000-72,000° F
(29,000-40,000° C)
Supergiants
Spectral Analysis
TYPE B
17,500-52,000° F
(9,700-29,000° C)
Red giants
10,000
1,000
The electromagnetic waves that make up light have
different wavelengths. When light from a hot
object, such as a star, is split into its different
wavelengths, a band of colors, or spectrum, is obtained.
Patterns of dark lines typically appear in the spectrum of
a star. These patterns can be studied to determine the
elements that make up the star.
TYPE A
13,000-17,500° F
(7,200-9,700° C)
100
10
Main
sequence
1
0.1
TYPE F
10,500-13,000° F
(5,800-7,200° C)
SUN
TYPE G
8,500-10,500° F
(4,700-5,800° C)
0.01
White dwarfs
0.001
0.0001
O
B
A
F
G
K
M
SPECTRAL CLASSES
Calcium Hydrogen Hydrogen
Wavelength longest on the red side
TYPE M
4,000-6,000° F
(2,100-3,300° C)
DOPPLER EFFECT
COLORS The hottest stars are
bluish-white (spectral classes
O, B, and A). The coolest stars
are orange, yellow, and red
(spectral classes G, K, and M).
Wavelength is compressed by
the movement of the star.
Star
SIRIUS
(A0 and
dwarf star)
ALTAIR
(A7)
PROCYON
(F5 and
dwarf star)
Earth
Dark lines deviate toward the blue end of the spectrum.
PRINCIPAL STARS WITHIN 100 LY FROM THE SUN
ALPHA
CENTAURI
(G2, K1, M5)
Hydrogen
When a star moves toward or away from an observer, its
wavelengths of light shift, a phenomenon called the Doppler effect.
If the star is approaching the Earth, the dark lines in its spectrum
experience a blueshift. If it moves away from the Earth, the lines
experience a redshift.
year is a unit of distance, not time. A parsec
is equivalent to the distance between the
star and the Earth if the parallax angle is of
one second arc. A pc is equal to 3.26 lightyears, or 19 trillion miles (31 trillion km).
In measuring the great distances
between stars, both light-years (ly)
and parsecs (pc) are used. A light-year is
the distance that light travels in a year—
5.9 trillion miles (10 trillion km). A light-
Sodium
TYPE K
6,000-8,500° F
(3,300-4,700° C)
Light-years and Parsecs
SUN
(G2)
Position of
the Earth in
July
SUN
POLLUX
(K0 giant)
VEGA
(A0)
ARCTURUS
(K2 giant)
BLUESHIFT of a star moving toward the Earth.
ALIOTH
(A0 giant)
ALDEBARAN
(K5 giant)
CASTOR
(A2, A1, and M1)
CAPELLA
(G6 and G2
giants)
REGULUS
(B7 and K1)
GACRUX
(M4 giant)
MENKALINAN
(A2 and A2)
ALGOL
(B8 and K0)
LIGHT-YEARS
0
1
2
3
0
1
PARSECS
4
5
6
7
2
8
9
10 11
3
12
13
4
14
15 16
5
17
18
19
20 21 22 23
6
7
24 25 26 27 28 29
8
30 31 32
9
33 34
10
35 36 37 38 39 40
11
12
41 42
13
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
14
15
16
53
54 55 56
17
57 58 59 60 61
18
62 63 64 65 66
19
20
67 68 69
21
70
71
72 73
22
74
75
23
76 77
78 79
24
80 81
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
25
26
27
28
92
93 94 95 96
29
97 98 99 100
30
22 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 23
Stellar Evolution
3.
S
tars are born in nebulae, which are giant clouds of gas (mainly hydrogen)
and dust that float in space. Stars can have a life span of millions,
or even billions, of years. The biggest stars have the
shortest lives, because they consume their nuclear
fuel (hydrogen) at a very accelerated rate. Other
stars, like the Sun, burn fuel at a slower rate and
may live some 10 billion years. Many times, a
star's size indicates its age. Smaller stars are the
youngest, and bigger stars are approaching
their end, either through cooling or by
exploding as a supernova.
1.
Massive star
2.
4.
RED SUPERGIANT
The star swells and heats up.
Through nuclear reactions, a
heavy core of iron is formed.
SUPERNOVA When the star can no longer
fuse any more elements, its core collapses,
causing a strong emission of energy.
STAR
A star is finally born. It
fuses hydrogen to form
helium and lies along
the main sequence.
PROTOSTAR
A protostar has a
dense, gaseous
core surrounded by
a cloud of dust.
More than 8 solar masses
5.
Nebula
A CLOUD OF GAS AND DUST collapses
because of gravitational forces. In doing
so it heats up and divides into smaller
clouds. Each one of these clouds will
form a protostar.
BLACK HOLE If the star's initial
mass is 20 solar masses or more, its
nucleus is denser and it turns into a
black hole, whose gravitational force
is extremely strong.
5.
NEUTRON STAR
If the star's initial mass is between
eight and 20 solar masses, it ends up
as a neutron star.
6.
Small star
BLACK DWARF
If a white dwarf
fades out
completely, it
becomes a black
dwarf.
Less than 8 solar masses
3.
Life Cycle of a Star
The evolution of a star depends on its mass. The
smallest ones, like the Sun, have relatively long and
modest lives. Such a star begins to burn helium when its
hydrogen is depleted. In this way, its external layers
begin to swell until the star turns into a red giant. It
ends its life as white dwarfs, eventually fading away
completely, ejecting remaining outer layers, and forming
a planetary nebula. A massive star, because of its higher
density, can form elements heavier than helium from its
nuclear reactions. In the final stage of its life, its core
collapses and the star explodes. All that remains is a
hyperdense remnant, a neutron star. The most massive
stars end by forming black holes.
1.
RED GIANT The star continues to
expand, but its mass remains
constant and its core heats up.
When the star's helium is depleted,
it fuses carbon and oxygen.
5.
PROTOSTAR
A protostar is formed
by the separation of gas
and dust. Gravitational
effects cause its core to
rotate.
2.
STAR The star shines and
slowly consumes its
hydrogen. It begins to fuse
helium as its size increases.
4.
PLANETARY NEBULA When
the star's fuel is depleted, its
core condenses, and its outer
layers detach, expelling
gases in an expanding shell
of gases.
WHITE DWARF
The star remains
surrounded by
gases and is dim.
95% of stars
end their lives as white dwarfs. Other (larger)
stars explode as supernovae, illuminating
galaxies for weeks, although their brightness is
often obscured by the gases and dust.
24 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 25
Red, Danger, and Death
3
W
hen a star exhausts its hydrogen, it begins to die. The
helium that now makes up the star's core begins to
undergo nuclear reactions, and the star remains
bright. When the star's helium is depleted, fusion of
carbon and oxygen begins, which causes the star's
core to contract. The star continues to live, though its
surface layers begin to expand and cool as the star turns
into a red giant. Stars similar to the Sun (solar-type stars)
follow this process. After billions of years, they end up as
white dwarfs. When they are fully extinguished, they will
be black dwarfs, invisible in space.
SUN
1%
The scale of the
diameter of the Sun
to the diameter of
a typical red giant.
4
2
5
White Dwarf
After going through the red-giant stage, a solar-type star loses its
outer layers, giving rise to a planetary nebula. In its center remains a
white dwarf—a relatively small, very hot (360,000° F [200,000° C]), dense
star. After cooling for millions of years, it shuts down completely and
becomes a black dwarf.
6
LIFE CYCLE OF A
STAR
1
NEBULa NGC 6751
7
7
6
2
3
4
5
Red
giant
Red Giant
All stars go through a red-giant
stage. Depending on a star's
mass, it may collapse or it may simply
die enveloped in gaseous layers. The
core of a red giant is 10 times smaller
than it was originally since it shrinks
from a lack of hydrogen. A supergiant
star (one with an initial mass greater
than eight solar masses) lives a much
shorter life. Because of the high density
attained by its core, it eventually
collapses in on itself and explodes.
DIAMETER
Sun
Red supergiant. Placed
at the center of the
solar system, it would
swallow up Mars and
Jupiter.
Mercury's orbit
Venus's orbit
Earth's orbit
Mars's orbit
Red giant. Placed at
the center of the solar
system, it could reach
only the nearer planets,
such as Mercury,
Venus, and the Earth.
Hot Spots
Hot spots appear when large
jets of incandescent gas
reach the star's surface.
They can be detected on the
surface of red giants.
WHITE DWARF
After the nuclear reaction in the star's core ceases, the star
ejects its outer layers, which then form a planetary nebula.
Convection
Cells
Convection cells carry heat toward
the surface of a star. The ascending
currents of gas eventually reach
the surface of the star, carrying
with them a few elements that
formed in the star's core.
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL
When a white dwarf leaves the
red-giant stage, it occupies the
lower-left corner of the H-R
diagram. Its temperature may be
double that of a typical red giant.
A massive white dwarf can
collapse in on itself and end its
life as a neutron star.
Dust Grains
Dust grains condense in the star's outer
atmosphere and later disperse in the form of
stellar winds. The dust acquires a dark
appearance and is swept into interstellar
space, where new generations of stars will
form. The outer layer of the star may
extend across several light-years of
interstellar space.
Jupiter's orbit
Saturn's orbit
REGION OF THE CORE
1 HYDROGEN
Hydrogen continues undergoing
SPECTACULAR DIMENSIONS
On leaving the main sequence,
the star enlarges to 200 times
the size of the Sun. When the
star begins to burn helium, its
size decreases to between 10 and
100 times the size of the Sun.
The star then remains stable until
it becomes a white dwarf.
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL
When the star exhausts its
hydrogen, it leaves the main
sequence and burns helium
as a red giant (or a
supergiant). The smallest
stars take billions of years to
leave the main sequences.
The color of a red giant is
caused by its relatively cool
surface temperature of
3,600° F (2,000° C).
nuclear fusion in the exterior of
the core even when the inner
core has run out of hydrogen.
Mars Venus
Mars Venus
Sun
Mars Venus
Sun
2 HELIUM
Helium is produced by the fusion
Sun
of hydrogen during the main
sequence.
AND OXYGEN
3 CARBON
Carbon and oxygen are produced
by the fusion of helium within the
core of the red giant.
TEMPERATURE
4 As
the helium undergoes fusion,
the temperature of the core
reaches millions of degrees
Fahrenheit (millions of degrees
Celsius).
Earth Mercury
Earth Mercury
Earth
Earth
THE FUTURE OF THE SUN
Like any typical star, the Sun burns hydrogen
during its main sequence. After taking
approximately five billion years to exhaust its
supply of hydrogen, it will begin its
transformation into a red giant, doubling in
brightness and expanding until it swallows
Mercury. At its maximum size, it may even
envelop the Earth. Once it has stabilized, it will
continue as a red giant for two billion years and
then become a white dwarf.
RED GIANT
The radius of the
Sun reaches the
Earth's orbit.
26 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 27
Gas Shells
W
hen a small star dies, all that remains is an expanding
gas shell known as a planetary nebula, which has
nothing to do with the planets. In general,
planetary nebulae are symmetrical or spherical
1
objects. Although it has not been possible to
determine why they exist in such diversity, the reason
may be related to the effects of the magnetic field of the
dying central star. Viewed through a telescope, several
nebulae can be seen to contain a central dwarf star, a mere
remnant of its precursor star.
BUTTERFLY
HELIX
NGC 6542 CAT'S EYE
4
3
2
5
6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR
7
3 tons
7
6
2
3
5
4
Planetary
nebula
M2-9
The Butterfly Nebula contains
a star in addition to a white
dwarf. Each orbits the other
inside a gas disk that is 10
times larger than Pluto's
orbit. The Butterfly Nebula
is located 2,100 light-years
from Earth.
TWICE THE
TEMPERATURE OF
THE SUN
is reached at the surface of a
white dwarf, causing it to
appear white even though its
luminosity is a thousand times
less than that of the Sun.
SPIROGRAPH
is the weight of a single
tablespoon of a white
dwarf. A white dwarf is
very massive in spite of
the fact that its
diameter of 9,300 miles
(or 15,000 km) is
comparable to the
Earth's.
Concentric
circles
of gas, resembling the inside of an onion, form a
multilayered structure around the white dwarf.
Each layer has a mass greater than the combined
mass of all the planets in the solar system.
NGC 7293
The Helix is a
planetary nebula that
was created at the
end of the life of a
solar-type star. It is
650 light-years from
the Earth and is
located in the
constellation Aquarius.
White
Dwarf
The remains of the red
giant, in which the
fusion of carbon and
oxygen has ceased, lie
at the center of the
nebula. The star slowly
cools and fades.
MYCN 18
IC 418
The two rings of colored
gas form the silhouette of
this hourglass-shaped
nebula. The red in the
photograph corresponds to
nitrogen, and the green
corresponds to hydrogen.
This nebula is 8,000 lightyears from the Earth.
The Spirograph Nebula has a
hot, luminous core that
excites nearby atoms,
causing them to glow. The
Spirograph Nebula is about
0.1 light-year wide and is
located 2,000 light-years
from Earth.
CHANDRASEKHAR
LIMIT
The astrophysicist
Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar, winner of the
Nobel Prize for Physics in
1983, calculated the maximum
mass a star could have so that
it would not eventually collapse
on itself. If a star's mass exceeds
this limit, the star will eventually
explode in a supernova.
LARGER DIAMETER
Less massive white dwarf
Hydrogen
The continuously expanding
masses of gas surrounding the
star contain mostly hydrogen,
with helium and lesser amounts
of oxygen, nitrogen, and other
elements.
SMALLER DIAMETER
More massive white dwarf
DENSITY OF A WHITE DWARF
1.44 SOLAR MASSES
is the limit Chandrasekhar
obtained. In excess of this value,
a dwarf star cannot support its
own gravity and collapses.
The density of a white dwarf is a million
times greater than the density of water.
In other words, each cubic meter of a
white dwarf star weighs a million tons.
The mass of a star is indirectly
proportional to its diameter. A white
dwarf with a diameter 100 times smaller
than the Sun has a mass 70 times greater.
HOURGLASS
28 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
Supernovae
A
supernova is an extraordinary explosion of a giant star at
the end of its life, accompanied by a sudden increase
in brightness and the release of a great amount
of energy. In 10 seconds, a supernova releases 100
1
times more energy than the Sun will release in its
entire life. After the explosion of the star that gives
rise to a supernova, the gaseous remnant expands and
shines for millions of years. It is estimated that, in our Milky
Way galaxy, two supernovae occur per century.
FEBRUARY 22,
1987
This star is in its last
moments of life. Because it
is very massive, it will end
its life in an explosion. The
galaxy exhibits only its usual
luminosity.
4
3
Supernova
2
5
6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR
Explosion
Other Elements
When a star's iron core
increases in density to 1.44
solar masses, the star can
no longer support its own
weight and it collapses
The star's life ends in an immense
explosion. During the weeks
following the explosion, great
quantities of energy are radiated
that are sometimes greater than the
energy emitted by the star's parent
galaxy. A supernova may illuminate
its galaxy for weeks.
upon itself. The resulting
explosion causes the
formation of elements that
are heavier than iron, such
as gold and uranium.
7
7
6
2
3
4
5
The Twilight of a Star
The explosion that marks the
end of a supergiant's life occurs
because the star's extremely heavy
core has become incapable of
supporting its own gravity any longer.
In the absence of fusion in its interior,
the star falls in upon itself, expelling
its remaining gases, which will expand
and shine for hundreds—or even
thousands—of years. The explosion of
the star injects new material into
interstellar space and contributes
heavy atoms that can give rise to new
generations of stars.
THE END
Either a neutron star
or a black hole may
form depending on the
initial mass of the star
that has died.
Core
A star's core can be seen to
be separated into distinct
layers that correspond to
the different elements
created during nuclear
fusion. The last
element created
before the star's
collapse is iron.
FEBRUARY
23, 1987
After the supernova
explosion, increased
brightness is
observed in the
region near the star.
The mass of Eta Carinae
is 100 times greater
than that of the Sun.
Astronomers believe
that Eta Carinae is
about to explode,
but no one knows
when.
CRAB NEBULA
GAS AND DUST
BEFORE AND AFTER
The image at left shows a sector of
the Large Magellanic Cloud, an
irregular galaxy located 170,000 light-
ETA CARINAE
SUPERMASSIVE
years from the Earth, depicted before
the explosion of supernova 1987A. The
image at right shows the supernova.
Gas and dust that have
accumulated in the two visible lobes
absorb the blue light and ultraviolet
rays emitted from its center.
FUSION
The nuclear
reactions in a
dying star occur
at a faster rate
than they do in a
red giant.
Stellar Remnant
Supergiant
The diameter of the star may
increase to more than 1,000
times that of the Sun. Through
nuclear fusion, the star can
produce elements even heavier
than carbon and oxygen.
DENSE
CORE
GASEOUS FILAMENTS
Gaseous filaments are ejected
by the supernova at 620 miles
(1,000 km) per second.
When the star explodes as a supernova, it
leaves as a legacy in space the heavy
elements (such as carbon, oxygen, and iron) that
were in the star's nucleus before its collapse. The
Crab Nebula (M1) was created by a supernova
seen in 1054 by Chinese astronomers. The Crab
Nebula is located 6.5 light-years from Earth and
has a diameter of six light-years. The star that
gave rise to the Crab Nebula may have had an
initial mass close to 10 solar masses. In 1969, a
pulsar radiating X-rays and rotating 33 times per
second was discovered at the center of the
nebula, making the Crab Nebula a very powerful
source of radiation.
30 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 31
The Final Darkness
T
he last stage in the evolution of a star's core is its
transformation into a very dense, compact stellar body.
Its particulars depend upon the amount of mass
involved in its collapse. The largest stars become black
holes, their density so great that their gravitational
forces capture even light. The only way to detect these
dead stars is by searching for the effects of their
gravitation.
Neutron Star
3
4
2
Black hole
5
6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR
1
7
Neutron star
7
5
4
Strong Gravitational
Attraction
The gravitational force of the black hole attracts
gases from a neighboring star. This gas forms a
large spiral that swirls faster and faster as it gets
closer to the black hole. The gravitation field that
it generates is so strong that it traps objects that
pass close to it.
Discovery of Black Holes
X-rays. The black hole, by exerting such
powerful gravitational force, attracts everything
that passes close to it, letting nothing escape.
Since even light is not exempt from this
phenomenon, black holes are opaque and
invisible to even the most advanced telescopes.
Some astronomers believe that
supermassive black holes might have
a mass of millions, or even
billions, of solar masses.
When a star's initial mass is between
10 and 20 solar masses, its final mass
will be larger than the mass of the Sun.
Despite losing great quantities of matter
during nuclear reactions, the star finishes
with a very dense core. Because of its intense
magnetic and gravitational fields, a neutron
star can end up as a pulsar. A pulsar is a
rapidly spinning neutron star that gives off a
beam of radio waves or other radiation. As
the beam sweeps around the object, the
radiation is observed in very regular pulses.
6
2
3
The only way of detecting the presence of
a black hole in space is by its effect on
neighboring stars. Since the gravitational force
exerted by a black hole is so powerful, the gases
of nearby stars are absorbed at great speed,
spiraling toward the black hole and forming a
structure called an accretion disk. The friction
of the gases heats them until they shine
brightly. The hottest parts of the accretion disk
may reach 100,000,000° C and are a source of
1
X-RAYS
As gases enter the
black hole, they are
heated and emit X-rays.
LOSS OF MASS
Toward the end of
its life, a neutron
star loses more than
90 percent of its
initial mass.
RED GIANT
A red giant leaves
the main sequence.
Its diameter is 100
times greater than
the Sun's.
4
2
DENSE CORE
The core's exact
composition is
presently unknown.
Most of its
interacting particles
are neutrons.
SUPERGIANT
A supergiant grows
and rapidly fuses
heavier chemical
elements, forming
carbon, oxygen, and
finally iron.
1 billion
3
EXPLOSION
The star's iron core
collapses. Protons
and electrons
annihilate each other
and form neutrons.
tons is what one tablespoon of a
neutron star would weigh. Its small
diameter causes the star to have a
compact, dense core accompanied by
intense gravitational effects.
Pulsars
CURVED SPACE
The theory of relativity suggests
that gravity is not a force but a
distortion of space. This distortion
creates a gravitational well, the
depth of which depends on the
mass of the object. Objects are
attracted to other objects through
the curvature of space.
LIGHT RAYS
Accretion Disk
An accretion disk is a gaseous accumulation
of matter that the black hole draws from
nearby stars. In the regions of the disk
very close to the black hole, X-rays are
emitted. The gas that accumulates
rotates at very high speeds. When
the gases from other stars
collide with the disk, they
create bright, hot spots.
Total escape
Rays of light that
pass far from the
center of a black
hole continue
unaffected.
STRUCTURE OF A PULSAR
1
2
Close to the limit
Since the rays of light
have not crossed the
event horizon, they
still retain their
brightness.
Darkness
Rays of light that
pass close to the
core of a black hole
are trapped.
ACCRETION
DISK
HOT
GASES
4
X-RAYS
BLACK
HOLE
3
A NEUTRON STAR
attracts objects at
speeds approaching half
the speed of light. The
gravitational well is even
more pronounced.
A WHITE
DWARF
generates a
deeper
gravitational
well, drawing
in objects at a
higher speed.
Bright gases
Since the accretion disk is fed by gases
spinning at high speed, it shines
intensely in the region closest to its core
but at its edges is colder and darker.
Magnetic field
ENTRANCE
Possible
solid core
Neutron
star
BLACK HOLE
The objects that approach
the black hole too closely
are swallowed by it. The black hole's
gravitational well is infinite and traps
matter and light forever. The event
horizon describes the limit of what is,
and is not, absorbed. Any object that
crosses the event horizon follows a spiral
path into the gravitational well. Some
scientists believe in the existence of socalled wormholes—antigravity tunnels,
through which travel across the universe
is hypothesized to be possible. By taking
advantage of the curvature of space, scientists
think it could be possible to travel from the
Earth to the Moon in a matter of seconds.
Rotation axis
THE SUN forms a shallow
gravitational well.
EXIT
CROSS SECTION
The first pulsar (a neutron star radiating
radio waves) was discovered in 1967.
Pulsars rotate approximately 30 times per second
and have very intense magnetic fields. Pulsars
emit radio waves from their two magnetic poles
when they rotate. If a pulsar absorbs gas from a
neighboring star, a hot spot that radiates X-rays
is produced on the pulsar's surface.
Radio-wave beam
WORMHOLE
Devouring gas from
a supergiant
Located within a binary system, the pulsar can
follow the same process as a black hole. The pulsar's
gravitational force causes it to absorb the gas of
smaller, neighboring stars, heating up the pulsar's
surface and causing it to emit X-rays.
32 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 33
MILKY WAY
Anatomy of Galaxies
Seen from its side, the Milky Way looks like a
flattened disk, swollen at the center. Around
the disk is a spherical region, called a halo,
containing dark matter and globular clusters
of stars. From June to September, the Milky
Way is especially bright, something that
would make it more visible viewed from above
than from the side.
G
alaxies are rotating groups of stars,
gas, and dust. More than 200 years ago,
philosopher Immanuel Kant postulated
that nebulae were island-universes of distant
stars. Even though astronomers now know that
galaxies are held together by gravitational force,
they have not been able to decipher what reasons
might be behind galaxies' many shapes. The various
types of galaxies range from ovals of old stars to spirals
with arms of young stars and bright gases. The center of a
galaxy has the greatest accumulation of stars. The Milky Way
Galaxy is now known to be so big that rays of light, which travel at
186,000 miles (300,000 km) per second, take 100,000 years to cross
from one end to the other.
ngc 6205 hercules
CLASSIFYING GALAXIES ACCORDING TO HUBBLE
ELLIPTICAL
These galaxies are elliptical in
shape and have little dust and
gas. Their masses fall within a
wide range.
SPIRAL
In a spiral galaxy, a nucleus of
old stars is surrounded by a flat
disk of stars and two or more
spiral arms.
IRREGULAR
Irregular galaxies have no defined
shape and cannot be classified.
They contain a large amount of
gases and dust clouds.
Galactic Clusters
SUBCLASSIFICATIONS
Galaxies are subdivided into
different categories according to
their tendency toward round
shape (in the case of elliptical
galaxies), as well as by the
presence of an axis and the length
of their arms (in the case of spiral
and barred spiral galaxies). An E0
galaxy is elliptical but almost
circular, and an E7 galaxy is a
flattened oval. An Sa galaxy has a
large central axis and coiled arms,
and an Sc galaxy has a thinner axis
and more extended arms.
Galaxies are objects that tend to form groups or clusters.
Acting in response to gravitational force, they can form
clusters of galaxies of anywhere from two to thousands of
galaxies. These clusters have various shapes and are thought to
expand when they join together. The Hercules cluster, shown here,
was discovered by Edmond Halley in 1714 and is located
approximately 25,100 light-years from Earth. Each dot represents
a galaxy that includes billions of stars.
Star Cities
The first galaxies formed 100 million years
after the big bang. Billions of these great
conglomerates of stars can be found throughout
space. The two most important discoveries
concerning galaxies are attributed to the
astronomer Edwin Hubble. In 1926, he pointed out
that the spots, or patches, of light visible in the
COLLISION
300 million light-years
from the Earth, these
two colliding galaxies
form a pair. Together
they are called “The
Mice” for the large tail
of stars emanating
from each galaxy. With
time, these galaxies will
fuse into a single, larger
one. It is believed that
in the future the
universe will consist of
a few giant stars.
night sky were actually distant galaxies. Hubble's
discovery put an end to the view held by astronomers
at the time that the Milky Way constituted the
universe. In 1929, as a result of various observations
of the spectrum of light radiated by the stars in the
galaxies, Hubble noted that the light from the galaxies
showed a redshift (Doppler effect). This effect
indicated that the galaxies were moving away from
the Milky Way Galaxy. Hubble concluded that the
ngc 4676
1
1.2 BILLION
YEARS
ago, the Antennae
(NGC 4038 and
NGC 4039) were
two separate
spiral galaxies.
2
300 MILLION
YEARS
later, the
galaxies
collided at
great speed.
universe is expanding. But the expansion of the
universe does not imply that galaxies are growing in
numbers. On the contrary, galaxies can collide and
3
300 MILLION
YEARS
go by until the
collision takes
place and the
shapes of the
galaxies are
distorted.
merge. When two galaxies collide, they can distort
each other in various ways. Over time, there are fewer
and fewer galaxies. Some galaxies exhibit very peculiar
4
300 MILLION
YEARS
later, the
stars in the
spiral arms
are expelled
from both
galaxies.
shapes. The Sombrero Galaxy, shown in the center of
the page, has a bright white core surrounded by thin
spiral arms.
5
NOW
two jets of
expelled
stars stretch
far from the
original
galaxies.
34 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 35
Active Galaxies
A
small number of galaxies differ from the rest by emitting high amounts of
energy. The energy emission might be caused by the presence of black holes in
its core that were formed through the gravitational collapse accompanying the
death of supermassive stars. During their first billion years, the galaxies might have
accumulated surrounding gaseous disks with their corresponding emissions of radiation. It
is possible that the cores of the first galaxies are the quasars that are now observed at very
great distances.
GAS
As two jets are expelled from
the core, radio waves are
emitted. If the waves
collide with clouds of
intergalactic gas, they
swell and form
gigantic clouds that
can emit radio
waves or X-rays.
Galaxy Formation
CLASSIFICATION
The classification of an active galaxy depends
upon its distance from Earth and the perspective
from which it is seen. Quasars, radio galaxies, and
blazars are members of the same family of objects
and differ only in the way they are perceived.
A theory of galaxy formation
associated with active galaxies
holds that many galaxies, possibly
including the Milky Way, were formed
from the gradual calming of a quasar
at their core. As the surrounding
gases consolidated in the formation of
stars, the quasars, having no more
gases to absorb, lost their energetic
QUASARS The most
powerful objects in the
universe, quasars are so distant
from Earth that they appear to us
as diffuse stars. They are the
bright cores of remote galaxies.
GASEOUS CLOUDS
Gaseous clouds appeared from the
gravitational collapse of immense masses
of gas during the early stages of the
universe. Later, in the clouds' interior,
stars began to form.
RADIO GALAXIES Radio galaxies are
Energetic Activity
Astronomers believe that active galaxies are
a direct legacy from the beginning of the
universe. After the big bang, these galaxies would
have retained very energetic levels of radiation.
Quasars, the brightest and most ancient objects in
the universe, make up the core of this type of
galaxy. In some cases, they emit X-rays or radio
waves. The existence of this high-energy activity
helps support the theory that galaxies could be
fury and became inactive. According
to this theory, there is a natural
progression from quasars to active
galaxies to the common galaxies of
today. In 1994, astronomers studying
the center of the Milky Way
discovered a region that may contain
a black hole and could be left over
from early galactic activity.
the largest objects in the universe. Jets of
gases come out from their centers that
extend thousands of light-years. The cores
of radio galaxies cannot be seen.
born from a supermassive black hole with a
quasar that became inactive as stars formed and
it was left without gas to feed it. This process
of formation might be common to many
galaxies. Today quasars represent the
limit of what it is possible to see,
even with specialized
telescopes. Quasars are
small, dense, and bright.
INCREASING
GRAVITY
BLAZARS Blazars may be
active galaxies with jets of gas
that are aimed directly toward
Earth. The brightness of a blazar
varies from day to day.
3
4
The strong
gravitational force of
the disk attracts and
destroys stars.
1
2
As the gases
move inward,
their temperature
increases.
Dark clouds of gas
and dust on the
outer edge of a
black hole are
gradually
swallowed up.
The center of the
black hole radiates
charged particles.
CENTRAL RING
The core of an active
galaxy is obscured
by a ring of dust
and gas that is
dark on the
outside and
bright within.
It is a powerful
source of
energy.
1
100
MILLION DEGREES
Celsius is the temperature that the
core of a black hole can reach.
2
The Force
of Gravity
The Quasar
in the Core
Gravitational force begins to
unite vast quantities of hot,
gaseous clouds. The clouds
attract one another and collide,
forming stars. A large amount of
gas accumulates at the center of
the galaxy, intensifying
gravitational forces until a
massive black hole comes into
being in the galaxy's core.
The quasar in the core ejects two
jets of particles that reach
speeds approaching the speed of
light. The quasar stage is thought
to have been the most violent
stage in the formation of
galaxies. The gases and stars
arising from the jets are
introduced as spirals into the
black hole, forming a type of
accretion disk known as a quasar.
3
Black Hole
A black hole swallows the gas that begins to
surround it. A hot, gaseous spiral forms,
emitting high-speed jets. The magnetic field
pours charged particles into the region around
the black hole, and the exterior of the disk
absorbs interstellar gas.
ACCRETION
DISK
Formed by interstellar
gas and star remnants,
the accretion disk can
radiate X-rays because of
the extreme temperature of
its center.
PARTICLES
ejected from the black hole
have intense magnetic fields.
The jets of particles travel at
speeds approaching the speed of
light when they leave the core.
4
Stable Galaxy
Nine billion years after its formation, with a
supermassive black hole at its core, the galaxy
drastically slows its energetic activity, forming a lowenergy core. The stabilization of the galaxy allowed
the formation of stars and other heavenly bodies.
36 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE 37
Stellar Metropolis
F
or a long time, our galaxy (called the Milky Way because of
its resemblance to a stream of milk in the night sky) was a
true enigma. It was Galileo Galilei who, in 1610, first pointed
a telescope at the Milky Way and saw that the weak whitish strip
was composed of thousands and thousands of stars that appeared
to almost touch each other. Little by little, astronomers began to
realize that all these stars, like our own Sun, were part of the enormous
ensemble—the galaxy that is our stellar metropolis.
Structure of the Milky Way
Central Region
Large
Magellanic Cloud
MILKY WAY
Small
Magellanic
Cloud
Andromeda
Galaxy
Triangle
Galaxy
Because the Milky Way is full of clouds of dust and rock
particles, its center cannot be seen from outside the galaxy.
The Milky Way's center can be seen only through telescopes
that record infrared light, radio waves, or X-rays, which can
pass through the material that blocks visible light. The
central axis of the Milky Way contains ancient stars, some 14
billion years old, and exhibits intense activity within its
interior, where two clouds of hot gas have been found:
Sagittarius A and B. In the central region, but outside the
core, a giant dark cloud contains 70 different types of
molecules. These gas clouds are associated with violent
activity in the center of our galaxy and contain the heart of
the Milky Way within their depths. In general, the stars in
this region are cold and range in color from red to orange.
SAGITTARIUS B2
The largest dark cloud in
the central region of the
Milky Way, Sagittarius B2
contains enough alcohol to
cover the entire Earth.
HOT GASES
The hot gases originating
from the surface of the
central region may be the
result of violent explosions
in the accretion disk.
BRIGHT STARS
Bright stars are
born from gas that
is not absorbed by
the black hole. Most
of them are young.
BLACK HOLE
Many astronomers believe that
a black hole occupies the
center of the Milky Way. Its
strong gravitational force
would trap gases in
orbit around it.
MAGNETISM
The center of the Milky
Way is surrounded by
strong magnetic fields,
perhaps from a rotating
black hole.
GASES SWIRL
outward because of forces in the
Sagittarius A region. Because the
gas rotates at high speed but
remains concentrated, it could be
trapped by gravitational forces
exerted by a black hole.
ROTATION
The Milky Way, containing more than 100 billion stars, has two spiral arms
The speeds of the rotation of the various parts of the
rotating around its core. The Sagittarius arm, located between the Orion arm
Milky Way vary according to those parts' distances from
the core of the galaxy. The greatest number of stars is
and the center of the Milky Way, holds one of the most luminous stars in the galaxy,
concentrated in the region between the Milky Way's
Eta Carinae. The Perseus arm, the main outer arm of the Milky Way, contains young
core and its border. Here the speed of rotation is much
stars and nebulae. The Orion arm, extending between Perseus and Sagittarius,
greater because of the attraction that the objects in this
houses the solar system within its inner border. The Orion arm of the Milky
region feel from the billions of stars within it.
Way is a veritable star factory, where gaseous
interstellar material can give birth to
billions of stars. Remnants of
stars can also be found
120 miles per hour (200 km/h)
within it.
00
140 miles per hour (220 km/h)
The Exact Center
The core of the Milky Way galaxy is marked
by very intense radio-wave activity that
might be produced by an accretion disk
made up of incandescent gas surrounding a
massive black hole. The region of Sagittarius
A, discovered in 1994, is a gas ring that
rotates at very high speed, swirling within
several light-years of the center of the
3600
300
galaxy. The speed of its rotation is an
indication of the powerful gravitational
force exerted from the center of the Milky
Way, a force stronger than would be
produced by the stars located in the region.
The hot, blue stars that shine in the center
of the Milky Way may have been born from
gas not yet absorbed by the black hole.
150 miles per hour (240 km/h)
er hour (250 km/h)
155 miles p
A Diverse Galaxy
Central
protuberance
600
2700
OUTER RING
A ring of dark clouds of dust and
molecules that is expanding as a
result of a giant explosion. It is
suspected that a small object in
the central region of the Milky
Way might be its source.
900
The brightest portion of the Milky Way
that appears in photographs taken with
optical lenses (using visible light) is in the
constellation Sagittarius, which appears to lie in
the direction of the center of the Milky Way. The
bright band in the nighttime sky is made up of
stars so numerous that it is almost impossible to
count them. In some cases, stars are obscured
by dense dust clouds that make some regions of
the Milky Way seem truly dark. The objects that
can be found in the Milky Way are not all of one
type. Some, such as those known as the halo
population, are old and are distributed within a
sphere around the galaxy. Other objects form a
more flattened structure called the disk
population. In the spiral arm population, we find
the youngest objects in the Milky Way. In these
arms, gas and interstellar dust abound.
2400
THE MILKY WAY IN VISIBLE LIGHT
1200
Eta
Carinae
Eagle
Nebula
THE CONSTELLATION
SAGITTARIUS
Close to the center of
the Milky Way,
Sagittarius shines
intensely.
SOLAR SYSTEM
Cassiopeia A
1500
Orion
Nebula
6,000 light-years
2100
100,000
LIGHT-YEARS
Crab
Nebula
1800
The diameter of the Milky Way is
large in comparison with other
galaxies but not gigantic.
SECTORS
Many different
sectors make up the
Milky Way.
DARK REGIONS
Dark regions are
produced by dense
clouds that obscure
the light
of stars.
STARS
So many
stars
compose the
Milky Way that it
is impossible for us
to distinguish them all.
OLYMPUS MONS, ON MARS
Olympus Mons is the largest
volcano of the solar system. It
is about two-and-a-half times
as high as Mount Everest.
The Solar System
ATTRACTED BY A STAR 40-41
JUPITER, GAS GIANT 50-51
PLUTO: NOW A DWARF 58-59
A VERY WARM HEART 42-43
THE LORD OF THE RINGS 52-53
DISTANT WORLDS 60-61
MERCURY, AN INFERNO 44-45
URANUS WITHOUT SECRETS 54-55
CONSTRUCTION DEBRIS:
ASTEROIDS AND METEORITES 62-63
VENUS, OUR NEIGHBOR 46-47
NEPTUNE: DEEP BLUE 56-57
THOSE WITH A TAIL 64-65
RED AND FASCINATING 48-49
A
mong the millions and
millions of stars that form the
Milky Way galaxy, there is a
medium-sized one located in
one of the galaxy's arms—the
Sun. To ancient peoples, the Sun was a
god; to us, it is the central source of
energy that generates heat, helping life
exist. This star, together with the planets
and other bodies that spin in orbits
around it, make up the solar system,
which formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
The planets that rotate around it do not
produce their own light. Instead, they
reflect sunlight. After the Earth, Mars is
the most explored planet. Here we see a
photo of Olympus Mons, the largest
volcano in the entire solar system. It is
almost two-and-a-half times as high as the
tallest peak on the Earth, Mount Everest.
40 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 41
Attracted by a Star
P
lanets and their satellites, asteroids and other rocky
objects, and an incalculable number of cometlike objects,
some more than 1 trillion miles (1.6 trillion km) from the
Sun, make up the solar system. In the 17th century, astronomer
Johannes Kepler proposed a model to interpret the dynamic
properties of the bodies of the solar system. According to this
interpretation, the planets complete elliptical trajectories, called
orbits, around the Sun. In every case, the movement is produced
by the influence of the gravitational field of the Sun. Today, as
part of a rapidly developing field of astronomy, it is known that
planet or planetlike bodies also orbit other stars.
ORBITS
Outer Planets
In general, the
planets orbit in one
common plane
called the elliptic.
Planets located outside the asteroid belt. They are enormous gas spheres with
small solid cores. They have very low temperatures because of their great
distance from the Sun. The presence of ring systems is exclusive to these planets. The
greatest of them is Jupiter: 1,300 Earths could fit inside of it. Its mass is 2.5 times as
great as that of the rest of the planets combined.
Earth's
orbit
Venus's
orbit
Mercury's
orbit
Mars's
orbit
Main
belt
NEPTUNE
DIAMETER 30,775 MILES (49,528 KM)
MOONS
13
Triton
Proteus
Nereid
URANUS
DIAMETER 31,763 MILES (51,118 KM)
MOONS
27
Titania
Oberon
Umbriel
Jupiter's
orbit
Ariel
Miranda
Saturn's
orbit
Uranus's
orbit
Neptune's
orbit
Puck
The rotation of most planets around their own
axes is in counterclockwise direction. Venus and
Uranus, however, revolve clockwise.
SATURN
DIAMETER 74,898 MILES (120,536 KM)
MOONS
50+
Titan
Rhea
Iapetus
Tethys
BUILDING PLANETS
Early ideas suggested that the planets formed gradually,
beginning with the binding of hot dust particles. Today
scientists suggest that the planets originated from the
collision and melding of larger-sized bodies called
planetesimals.
JUPITER
DIAMETER 88,846 MILES (142,984 KM)
MOONS
60+
1
ORIGIN
Ganymede
Callisto
Io
Remains from the
formation of the Sun
created a disk of gas
and dust around it,
from which the
planetesimals formed.
Europa
2
COLLISION
Through collisions
among themselves,
planetesimals of
different sizes joined
together to become
more massive objects.
Asteroid Belt
The border between the outer and inner
planets is marked by millions of rocky
fragments of various sizes that form a band
called the asteroid belt. Their orbits are
influenced by the gravitational pull exerted on
them by the giant planet Jupiter. This effect also
keeps them from merging and forming a planet.
3
HEAT
The collisions
produced a large
amount of heat that
accumulated in the
interior of the planets,
according to their
distance from the Sun.
Phobos Deimos
DIAMETER 4,217 MILES
(6,786 KM)
2
MOONS
Inner Planets
Planets located inside the asteroid
belt. They are solid bodies in which
internal geologic phenomena, such as
volcanism, which can modify their surfaces,
are produced. Almost all of them have an
appreciable atmosphere of some degree of
thickness, according to individual
circumstances, which plays a key role in
the surface temperatures of each planet.
MARS
EARTH
MOON
DIAMETER 7,926 MILES
(12,756 KM)
1
MOONS
VENUS
MERCURY
DIAMETER 7,520 MILES
(12,103 KM)
0
MOONS
DIAMETER 3,031 MILES
(4,878 KM)
0
MOONS
S
U
N
SOLAR
GRAVITY
The gravitational pull of the
Sun upon the planets not
only keeps them inside
the solar system but
also influences the
speed with which
they revolve in their
orbits around the Sun.
Those closest to the Sun
revolve in their orbits much
faster than those farther
from it.
42 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 43
A Very Warm Heart
Surface and Atmosphere
T
he Sun at the center of the solar system is a source of light and
heat. This energy is produced by the fusion of atomic hydrogen nuclei,
which generate helium nuclei. The energy that emanates from the
Sun travels through space and initially encounters the bodies that
populate the solar system. The Sun shines thanks to thermonuclear
fusion, and it will continue to shine until its supply of hydrogen
runs out in about six or seven billion years.
SUNSPOTS
are regions of gases that are
generally colder (7,232° F [4,000°
C]) than the photosphere (10,112° F
[5,600° C]). For that reason, they
appear dark.
Very Gassy
1.
CONVECTIVE ZONE
extends from the base of the
photosphere down to a depth of
15 percent of the solar radius.
Here energy is transported up
toward the surface by gas
currents (through convection).
CHARACTERISTICS
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA
Proton
Average distance 93 million miles
from Earth
(150 million km)
Equatorial
diameter
Orbital
speed
864,000 miles
(1,391,000 km)
7,456 miles per
second (12,000 km/s)
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
332,900
28
0.81 ounce per cubic
inch (1.4 g per cu cm)
Average
temperature
9,932° F
(5,500° C)
Atmosphere
Dense
Moons
NUCLEAR COLLISION
Two hydrogen nuclei (two
protons) collide and remain
joined. One changes into a
neutron, and deuterium
forms, releasing a neutrino,
a positron, and
a lot of energy.
RADIATIVE ZONE
This portion of the Sun is
traversed by particles coming
from the core. A proton can take
a million years to cross this zone.
Neutron
10,112º F
(5,600º C)
CORE
The core occupies only 2 percent
of the total volume of the Sun,
but in it is concentrated about
half the total mass of the Sun.
The great pressures and
temperatures in the core produce
thermonuclear fusion.
CHROMOSPHERE
Above the photosphere, and of less density,
lies the chromosphere, a layer 3,110 miles
(5,000 km) thick. Its temperature ranges
from 8,100° F (4,500° C) to 900,000° F
(500,000° C) with increasing altitude. The
temperature of the corona can reach
1,800,000° F (1,000,000° C).
900,000º F
(500,000º C)
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
OF THE CHROMOSPHERE
SPICULES
Vertical jets of gas that spew from the chromosphere, usually
reaching 6,200 miles (10,000 km) in height. They originate in
upper convection cells and can rise as high as the corona.
Neutrino
MACROSPICULES
This type of vertical eruption is similar to a
spicule, but it usually reaches up to 25,000
miles (40,000 km) in height.
27,000,000º F
14,400,000º F
Deuterium
(15,000,000º C)
(8,000,000º C)
CORONA
None
*In both cases, Earth = 1
Photon
NUCLEAR FUSION
OF HYDROGEN
The extraordinary temperature of
the nuclear core helps the hydrogen
nuclei join. Under conditions of
lower energy, they repel each other,
but the conditions at the center of
the Sun can overcome the repulsive
forces, and nuclear fusion occurs.
For every four hydrogen nuclei, a
series of nuclear reactions produce
one helium nucleus.
3.
Positron
The visible surface of the Sun, a boiling tide,
is thick with gases in a plasma state. In its
uppermost layer, its density decreases and its
transparency increases, and the solar radiation
escapes from the Sun as light. The
spectrographic study of this layer has allowed
scientists to confirm that the main components of
the Sun are hydrogen and helium.
PENUMBRA
Peripheral region. It is
the hottest and brightest
part of the Sun.
UMBRA
Central region.
It is the
coldest and
darkest
part.
PHOTOSPHERE
The Sun is a giant ball of gases with very high density and
temperature. Its main components are hydrogen (90%) and
helium (9%). The balance of its mass is made up of trace elements,
such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, among others. Because of the
conditions of extreme temperature and pressure on the Sun, these
elements are in a plasma state.
toward its outermost region. Above the
photosphere lies the solar atmosphere—the
chromosphere and the corona. The energy
generated at the core moves through the surface of
the photosphere and solar atmosphere for
thousands of years in search of an exit into space.
The visible portion of the Sun is a sphere of
light, or photosphere, made of boiling gases
emanating from the solar core. The gas flares form
plasma, which passes through this layer. Later the
gas flares enter a vast gas layer called the solar
atmosphere. The density of this layer decreases
HELIUM NUCLEI
The group of two protons
and a neutron collides with
another such group. A
helium nucleus forms, and a
pair of protons is released.
2.
Deuterium 1
HELIUM
NUCLEUS
Deuterium 2
Proton 1
Proton 2
PHOTONS
The deuterium formed
collides with a proton.
This collision releases one
photon and gamma rays.
The high-energy photon
needs 30,000 years to
reach the photosphere.
Located above the
chromosphere, it extends
millions of miles into space and
reaches temperatures nearing
1,800,000° F (1,000,000° C).
It has some holes, or lowdensity regions, through which
gases flow into the solar wind.
SOLAR PROMINENCES
Clouds and layers of gas from
the chromosphere travel
thousands of miles until they
reach the corona, where the
influence of magnetic fields
causes them to take on the
shape of an arc or wave.
SOLAR FLARES
These eruptions come out of the solar
atmosphere and can interfere with radio
communications on Earth.
1,800,000º F
(1,000,000º C)
THE TEMPERATURE IN THE CORONA
SOLAR WIND
Consists of a flux of ions emitted by the solar
atmosphere. The composition is similar to that of
the corona. The Sun loses approximately 1,800
pounds (800 kg) of matter per second in the
form of solar wind.
44 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 45
Mercury, an Inferno
Composition and Magnetic Field
M
ercury is the planet nearest to the Sun and is therefore the one that has to
withstand the harshest of the Sun's effects. Due to its proximity to the Sun, Mercury
moves at great speed in its solar orbit, completing an orbit every 88 days. It has almost no
atmosphere, and its surface is dry and rugged, covered with craters caused by the impact of
numerous meteorites; this makes it resemble the Moon. Numerous faults, formed during the cooling of
the planet when it was young, are also visible on the surface. Constantly baked by its neighbor, the
Sun, Mercury has an average surface temperature of 333° F (167° C).
22%
Sodium
Hydrogen
6%
Helium
43%
Others
CRUST
Made of silicate rocks,
Mercury's crust is similar
to the crust and mantle
of the Earth. It has a
thickness of 310 to 370
miles (500-600 km).
EXTREMELY THIN ATMOSPHERE
Mercury's atmosphere is almost nonexistent and consists
of a very thin layer that cannot protect the planet either
from the Sun or from meteorites. During the day, when
Mercury is closer to the Sun, the planet's temperature can
surpass 842° F (450° C). At night, temperatures can
plummet to -297° F (-183° C).
During the night, the
heat of Mercury's
rocks is lost rapidly,
and the planet's
temperature drops.
During the
day, the Sun
directly heats
the rock.
-297º F
883º F
(-183º C)
(473º C)
CHARACTERISTICS
les
0 mi )
2,24
0 Km
(3,60
The surface of Mercury is very similar to that of the Moon. It is possible to find
craters of varying sizes. The largest one has a diameter of some 810 miles (1,300
km). There are also hills and valleys. In 1991, radio telescopes were able to detect
possible evidence of the presence of frozen water in Mercury's polar regions,
information that Mariner 10 had been unable to gather. Mariner 10, the only
mission sent to Mercury, flew by the planet three times between 1974 and 1975.
The polar ice was found at the bottom of very deep craters, which limit the
ice's exposure to the Sun's rays. The spacecraft Messenger, launched in
2004, is scheduled to orbit the planet Mercury in 2011 and is expected to
provide new information about Mercury's surface and magnetic field.
29%
iles
310 m Km)
(500
A Scar-Covered Surface
Like the Earth, Mercury has a magnetic field, although a much
weaker one. The magnetism results from its enormous core
made of solid iron. The mantle that surrounds the core is believed to
be a fine layer of iron and sulfur.
CORE
Dense, large, and made
of iron, its diameter
may be as great as
2,240 to 2,300 miles
(3,600-3,800 km).
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance 36,000,000 miles
from the Sun
(57,900,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Mercurian year)
88 days
00 hours
Equatorial
diameter
Orbital speed
CALORIS CRATER
The largest impact crater in the
solar system, it has a diameter
of 810 miles (1,300 km).
3,032 miles
(4,880 km)
29.75 miles per
second (47.87 km/s)
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
The crater
was
flooded
with lava.
0.06
0.38
3.14 ounces per cubic
inch (5.43 g/cu cm)
Average temperature 332° F (167° C)
Atmosphere Almost nonexistent
Lunas
When the projectile that formed the
crater struck, Mercury was still
forming. The extensive waves that
extended from the site of impact
formed hills and mountains ranges.
333º F
MANTLE
Made up mostly of
silica-based rocks
(167º C)
Baked by its neighbor the Sun, Mercury is the planet with
the greatest thermal fluctuations in the solar system. Its
average temperature is 333° F (167° C), but when it gets
closer to the Sun, the temperature can climb to 842° F
(450° C). At night, it drops to -297° F (-183° C).
*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION
0.1°
One rotation
lasts 59 days.
Rotation and Orbit
Mercury rotates slowly on its axis and takes approximately 59
Earth days to complete a turn, but it only needs 88 days to
travel in its orbit. To an observer in Mercury, these two combined
motions would give a combined interval of 176 days between two
BEETHOVEN
is the second largest crater on
Mercury. It is 400 miles (643
km) in diameter. Its floor was
flooded by lava and later
marked by meteorite impacts.
ORBIT OF MERCURY
AROUND THE SUN
Missions to Mercury
The space probe Mariner 10 was the first to reach Mercury. Between
1974 and 1975, the craft flew by the planet three times and came
within about 200 miles (320 km) of the surface. Messenger, a space probe
scheduled to study Mercury between 2008 and 2011, was launched in 2004.
Mariner 10
Messenger
The probe will pass
by Mercury twice in
2008 and once
again in 2009
before beginning to
orbit the planet.
3
sunrises. A person observing the sunrise from position 1 would have to
wait for the planet to make two orbits around the Sun and make three
rotations on its own axis before seeing the next sunrise.
VIEW FROM
MERCURY
the zenith
3 Reaches
(noon) and stops
2
4
1
SUN
its original
6 Resumes
path toward the
horizon
5
6
Each number
corresponds to a position
of the Sun in the sky as
seen from Mercury.
4 Recedes
a bit
7
7
5
Decreases toward
the sunset
Stops
again
and
2 Rises
increases its size
1
HORIZON OF MERCURY
The Sun
rises.
46 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 47
Venus, Our Neighbor
VENUS'S PHASES
V
enus is the second closest planet to the Sun. Similar in size to the Earth, it
has a volcanic surface, as well as a hostile atmosphere governed by the effects of carbon
dioxide. Although about four billion years ago the atmospheres of the Earth and Venus were
similar, the mass of Venus's atmosphere today is 100 times greater than the Earth's. Its thick
clouds of sulfuric acid and dust are so dense that stars are invisible from the planet's surface.
Viewed from the Earth, Venus can be bright enough to be visible during day and second only to the
moon in brightness at night. Because of this, the movements of Venus were well-known by most
ancient civilizations.
As Venus revolves around the
Sun, its solar illumination varies
as is seen from the Earth
depending upon its position in
relation to the Sun and the
Earth. Thus Venus has phases
similar to the Moon's. During its
elongations, when Venus is
farthest from the Sun in the sky,
Venus appears at its brightest.
VENUS'S PHASES
AS SEEN FROM
EARTH
WAXING
CRESCENT
FIRST
QUARTER
WAXING
GIBBOUS
SUN
EARTH
WANING
GIBBOUS
LAST
QUARTER
WANING
CRESCENT
THE NEW AND FULL
PHASES ARE NOT
VISIBLE FROM EARTH.
VENUS
Surface
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance
from the Sun
67,000,000 miles
(108,000,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Venusian year)
224 days
17 hours
Equatorial
diameter
7,520 miles
(12,100 km)
Orbital speed
22 miles per second
(35 km/s)
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
The overwhelming presence of carbon dioxide in the
Venusian atmosphere induces a greenhouse effect,
increasing the surface temperature to 864° F (462° C). Because
of this, Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Venus is
ATMOSPHERE
Venus's glowing appearance
is caused by the planet's thick,
suffocating atmosphere,
which is made up of carbon
dioxide and sulfuric clouds
that reflect sunlight.
50 miles
(80 km)
IS THE THICKNESS OF
THE ATMOSPHERE.
0.8
0.9
3.03 ounces per cubic
inch (5.25 g/cu cm)
Average temperature
860° F (460° C)
Atmosphere
Very thick
Moons
None
farther from the Sun and reflects all but 20 percent of the Sun's
light. The surface temperature of Venus is relatively constant,
averaging 860° F (460° C). The atmospheric pressure on Venus is
90 times greater than that on the Earth.
MANTLE
Made of molten rock, it
constitutes most of the
planet. It traps the solar
radiation and is between
37 and 62 miles (60 and
100 km) thick.
CORE
It is believed that Venus's core is
similar to the Earth's, containing
metallic elements (iron and
nickel) and silicates. Venus has no
magnetic field—possibly because
of its slow axial rotation.
14,400º F
Carbon
dioxide
Nitrogen and
traces of
other gases
97%
3%
The surface of Venus is
rocky and dry. Most of
the planet is formed by
volcanic plains and
other, elevated regions.
(8,000º C)
3,70
(6,0 0 miles
00
km)
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
3,70
(6,0 0 miles
00
km)
Composition
CHARACTERISTICS
The Venusian surface has not remained the same throughout its life. The
current one is some 500 million years old, but the rocky landscape visible
today was formed by intense volcanic activity. Volcanic rock covers 85
percent of the planet. The entire planet is crisscrossed by vast plains
and enormous rivers of lava, as well as a number of mountains. The
lava flows have created a great number of grooves, some of which
are very wide. The brightness of Venus's surface is the result of
metallic compounds.
MAGELLAN
Venus was explored by the
Magellan spacecraft
between 1990 and 1994. The
probe was equipped with a
radar system to observe the
surface through its dense
atmosphere.
*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION
117°
Rotates on its
own axis every
243 days
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Only 20 percent of the Sun's
light reaches the surface of
Venus. The thick clouds of
dust, sulfuric acid, and carbon
dioxide that constitute Venus's
atmosphere reflect the
remaining light, leaving Venus
in permanent darkness.
SOLAR RADIATION
Venus is kept hot by its thick
atmosphere, which retains the
energy of the Sun's rays.
864º F
(462º C)
INFRARED RAYS
The surface of Venus radiates
infrared radiation. Only 20 percent
of the Sun's rays pass through
Venus's thick clouds of sulfuric acid.
ISHTAR TERRA
One of the raised plateaus of Venus, it
is similar in size to Australia and is
located close to Venus's north pole. It
has four main rocky mountain ranges
called Maxwell Montes, Freyja Montes,
Akna Montes, and Dam Montes.
SULFURIC
ACID
Venus lacks water. A U.S.
robot probe sent to Venus in
1978 found some evidence
that water vapor could have
existed in the atmosphere
hundreds of millions of years
ago, but today no trace of
water remains.
CRUST
Made up of
silicates, it is
thicker than the
Earth's crust.
APHRODITE TERRA
Larger than Ishtar Terra, it is the size
of South America. Aphrodite Terra
lies near the equator and consists
mostly of mountainous regions to the
east and west, which are separated
by a low-lying region.
48 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 49
Red and Fascinating
Surface
M
Martian Orbit
-220º F
Composition
Because Mars's orbit is more
elliptical than that of Earth,
Mars's distance from the Sun varies
widely. At its perihelion, or closest
approach to the Sun, Mars receives
45 percent more solar radiation than
at its aphelion, or farthest point.
Temperatures on Mars range from
-220° F to 62° F (-140° C to 17° C).
(-140º C)
Mars, a rocky planet, has an iron-rich core. Mars
is almost half the size of the Earth and has a
similar period of rotation, as well as clearly evident
clouds, winds, and other weather phenomena. Its thin
atmosphere is made up of carbon dioxide, and its red
color comes from its soil, which is rich in iron oxide.
EARTH
62º F
MARS
SUN
(17º C)
MANTLE
It is made of
molten rock of
greater density
than the Earth's
mantle.
Olympus
Mons
Moons
CHARACTERISTICS
ns
Mo
s
i
rs
Tha
ris
Valle
s
hours at an altitude of 14,627 miles (23,540 km),
and Phobos orbits Mars in eight hours at an
altitude of 5,840 miles (9,400 km). Astronomers
believe that the moons are asteroids that
were captured by Mars's gravity.
PHOBOS
DEIMOS
DIAMETER
DISTANCE
FROM MARS
The canyon system of the
Valles Marineris was likely
caused naturally, primarily
by water erosion.
2,000 miles
(3,294 km)
CRUST
is thin and made up of
solid rock. It is 31
miles (50 km) thick.
17 MILES
(27 KM)
DISTANCE 5,840 MILES
FROM MARS (9,400 KM)
rra
Te
h
Sout
1965 MARINER 4
The first mission sent
to Mars, it made only
brief flyovers.
1969 MARINER 6
AND 7 studied the
southern hemisphere
and equator of Mars.
1971 MARINER 9
photographed the
Olympus volcano
for the first time.
1973 MARS 4, MARS 5,
MARS 6, AND MARS 7
Russian spacecraft
successfully sent to Mars
1976 VIKING 1 AND 2
searched for traces of life.
They were the first spacecraft
to land on Martian soil.
Nitrogen
2.1%
1997 MARS
PATHFINDER was
the third successful
Mars landing.
Equatorial
diameter
4,222 miles
(6,794 km)
Orbital
speed
15 miles per
second (24 km/s)
0.107
0.38
2.27 ounces per cubic
inch (3.93 g/cu cm)
Average
temperature
-81° F
(-63° C)
Atmosphere
Very thin
2
AXIS INCLINATION
e
Pol
25.2°
One rotation
lasts 1.88 years.
Oxygen, carbon monoxide,
water vapor, and other gases
1997 MARS GLOBAL
SURVEYOR took more
than 100,000 photos
of the planet.
1.88 years
*In both cases, Earth = 1
2.6%
After our own Moon, Mars has been a more attractive target for
exploratory missions than any other object in the solar system.
Solar orbit
(Martian year)
Moons
Carbon
dioxide
MISSIONS TO MARS
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average
141,600,000
distance from
miles
the Sun
(227,900,000 km)
Density
95.3%
um
Siren
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
Mass*
Gravity*
is Lacus
S ol
ATMOSPHERE
Thin and continuously
thinning as solar winds
diminish atmosphere
DIAMETER
9 MILES (15 KM)
14,627 MILES
(23,540 KM)
OLYMPUS
72,200 FEET
(22,000 METERS)
VALLES MARINERIS
CORE
Small and likely
composed of iron
IN SUMMER
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos.
Both have a lower density than Mars and
are pitted with craters. Phobos has a diameter of
17 miles (27 km), and Deimos has a diameter of
nine miles (15 km). Deimos orbits Mars in 30
EVEREST
29,000 FEET
(8,848 METERS)
Ma
rin
e
IN WINTER
It is a place of geologic extremes, shaped by
volcanic activity, meteorite bombardment,
windstorms, and floods (though there is little or no
water on Mars today). Mountains dominate the
southern hemisphere, but lowlands are common in
the northern hemisphere.
1,000 miles
(1,700 km)
ars is the fourth planet from the Sun. Of all the planets, Mars most
closely resembles the Earth. It has polar ice caps, and the tilt of its axis,
period of rotation, and internal structure are similar to those of the Earth. Known as the
Red Planet because of the reddish iron oxide that covers its surface, Mars has a thin atmosphere
composed essentially of carbon dioxide. Mars does not have water, though it did in the past, and
there is evidence some water might exist underground. Many spacecraft have been sent to explore
Mars, in part because it is the planet other than Earth most likely to have developed some form of
life, and it will probably be the first planet humans leave the Earth to visit.
OLYMPUS MONS
This gigantic, inactive volcano is not only the
largest on Mars but also in the solar system.
2001 MARS ODYSSEY
mapped the mineralogy
and morphology of
Mars's surface.
2003 MARS EXPRESS
Orbiting probe. First
spacecraft sent by the
European Space Agency.
2004 SPIRIT AND
OPPORTUNITY
surveyed many square
miles of the surface.
2006 MARS RECONNAISSANCE
ORBITER made a detailed study
of the Martian surface while
orbiting the planet.
50 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 51
Jupiter, Gas Giant
J
upiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 11 times that
of the Earth, and its mass is 300 times as great. Because the speed of Jupiter's rotation
flattens the planet at its poles, its equatorial diameter is greater than its polar diameter.
Jupiter rotates at 25,000 miles per hour (40,000 km/hr). One of the most distinctive elements
of Jupiter's atmosphere is its so-called Great Red Spot, a giant high-pressure region of
turbulence that has been observed from the Earth for more than 300
years. The planet is orbited by numerous satellites and has
a wide, faint ring of particles.
The Moons of Jupiter
Jupiter has more than 60 moons. Many of
them have not been officially confirmed and do
AMALTHEA
iles
00 m
23,0 0 km)
0
(37,0
Jupiter is a giant ball of
hydrogen and helium
that have been compressed
into liquid in the planet's
interior and into metallic rock
in its core. Not much is known
about Jupiter's core, but it is
believed to be bigger than the
Earth's core.
ATMOSPHERE
measures 620
miles (1,000 km).
THEBE
1 radius 2
CHARACTERISTICS
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
483,000,000
miles
(778,000,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Jovian year)
Equatorial
diameter
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
88,700 miles
(142,800 km)
8 miles per
second (13 km/s)
318
2.36
0.77 ounce per cubic
inch (1.33 g/cu cm)
Average
temperature
-184° F
(-120° C)
Atmosphere
Moons
Very dense
More than 60
*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION
3.1°
One rotation
lasts 9 hours
and 55 minutes.
5
6
7
8
9
Enlarged
region
26
LEDA
HIMALIA LYSITHEA ELARA
ANANKE
160/63/67
CARME
54,000º F
(30,000º C)
OUTER MANTLE
Made of liquid
molecular hydrogen.
The outer mantle
merges with the
atmosphere.
GANYMEDE
3,270 MILES
(5,268 KM)
15
PASIPHAE
SINOPE
IO
2,264 MILES
(3,643 KM)
CALISTO
2,986 MILES
(4,806 KM)
302 322 335/8
16,160
miles
(26,000 km)
GREAT RED SPOT
RINGS
Jupiter's rings are made of dust from the planet's four
inner moons. These rings were first seen in 1979 by the
space probe Voyager 1 and later by Voyager 2.
OUTER GOSSAMER RING
INNER GOSSAMER RING
MAIN RING
11 years
312 days
Orbital speed
4
The winds on Jupiter blow in contiguous bands
and opposing directions. The bands' small
differences in temperature and chemical composition
give the planet its multicolored appearance. Jupiter's
inclement environment, in which winds blow at more
than 370 miles per hour (600 km/h), can cause large
storms, such as the Great Red Spot in the southern
hemisphere of the planet. The Great Red Spot, which is
16,155 miles (26,000 km) long, is believed to be
composed mainly of ammonia gas and clouds of ice.
les
0 mi
9,00 0 km)
0
(14,0
Average
distance from
the Sun
3
CORE
Its size is similar to that
of the Earth's core.
ESSENTIAL DATA
EUROPA
2,000 MILES
(3,200 KM)
EUROPA
METIS
RADIUS
38,470 MILES
(61,911 KM)
Of Jupiter's 63 moons, four are visible from Earth with
binoculars. These are called the Galilean moons in honor
of their discoverer, Galileo Galilei. Astronomers believe
that Io has active volcanoes and that Europa has an
ocean underneath its icy crust.
GANYMEDE
IO
Winds
les
0 mi
17,00 0 km)
0
(27,0
INNER MANTLE
Surrounds the core. It is made of
liquid metallic hydrogen, an element
only found under hot, high-pressure
conditions. The inner mantle is a
soup of electrons and nuclei.
not even have names. Jupiter's rotation is gradually
slowing because of the moons' tidal effects.
ADRASTEA
CALLISTO
Composition
GALILEAN MOONS
RING MATERIAL
HALO
JUPITER'S MAGNETISM
ATMOSPHERE
surrounds the inner
liquid layers and the
solid core. It is 620
miles thick (1,000 km).
89.8%
Hydrogen
10.2%
Helium
With traces
of methane
and ammonia
Jupiter's magnetic field is 20,000 times stronger
than the Earth's. Astronomers believe the field is
caused by the electrical currents that are created
by the rapid rotation of metallic hydrogen. Jupiter
Jupiter's magnetosphere is
the largest object in the solar
system. It varies in size and
shape in response to the solar
wind, which is composed of
the particles continuously
radiated from the Sun.
400,000,000
miles
(650,000,000 km)
is surrounded by a huge magnetic bubble, the
magnetosphere. The magnetosphere's tail reaches
more than 370,000,000 miles (600,000,000
km)—beyond the orbit of Saturn.
52 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 53
The Lord of the Rings
Surface
S
aturn is the solar system's second largest planet. Like Jupiter, it is a large
ball of gas surrounding a small, solid core. Saturn was the most distant planet
discovered before the invention of the telescope. To the naked eye, it looks like a yellowish star, but
with the help of a telescope, its rings are clearly visible. Ten times farther from the Sun than the Earth,
Saturn is the least dense planet. If an ocean could be found large enough to hold it, Saturn would float.
Like Jupiter, Saturn
has a surface of clouds
that form bands because of
the planet's rotation.
Saturn's clouds are less
turbulent and less colorful
than Jupiter's. The higher,
white clouds reach
temperatures of -220° F
(-140° C). A layer of haze
extends above the clouds.
Rings
RINGS G
AND E
310
m
(500 iles
km)
ENCKE DIVISION
A small gap that separates
ring A into two parts
F RING
The farthest
visible ring
CASSINI DIVISION
3,100 miles (5,000 km) wide, it is
located between the A and B rings.
A RING
Saturn's
outer ring
B RING
Saturn's
brightest and
widest ring
D RING
The closest ring to the
surface of Saturn—so
near that it almost
touches the planet
C RING
Saturn's only
transparent
ring
WHITE
CLOUDS
DEEP AND
ORANGE CLOUDS
BLUISH
CLOUDS
CHARACTERISTICS
Saturn and Jupiter differ very little in their composition. Both
are gaseous balls surrounding solid cores. What sets Saturn
apart are its rings, formed by clustered pieces of ice that range in
size from small particles to large chunks. Each particle in a ring is a
satellite orbiting Saturn. From the Earth, the massed debris seems
to form large structures, but each discrete piece actually has its
own orbit.
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
ATMOSPHERE
<1%
2%
97%
Sulfur gives it a
yellowish appearance.
Helium
Hydrogen
WINDS
Saturn's winds generally
reach speeds of about 220
miles per hour (360 km/h),
causing strong storms.
5,30
(8,500 miles
0 km
)
9,30
(15, 0 miles
000
km)
Saturn has more than 45 moons, making Saturn's
family of moons one of the largest in the solar system.
The sizes of the moons vary from Titan's 3,200 miles (5,150 km)
to tiny Calypso's 10 miles (16 km).
MIMAS
METHONE
PALLENE
ATLAS
RADIUS =
37,500 MILES
(60,300 KM)
Enlarged
region
1 radius 2
HYPERION
25
IAPETUS
61
3
POLYDEUCES
RHEA
5
6
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
95
0.92
0.4 ounce per cubic
inch (0.7 g/cu cm)
Average temperature
-193° F (-125° C)
Very dense
More than 45
26.7°
One rotation
lasts 10 hours
and 39 minutes.
7
8
PHOEBE
220
INNER MANTLE
It is made up of liquid
metallic hydrogen.
CORE
Composed of rock and
metallic elements, such as
silicates and iron
21,600ºF
TITAN
3,200 MILES
(5,150 KM)
DIAMETER
DIONE
HELENE
4
6 miles per second
(10 km/s)
ATMOSPHERE
Mainly hydrogen
and helium
9,30
(15, 0 miles
000
km)
The Moons of Saturn
PAN
DAPHNIS
Orbital speed
74,940 miles
(120,600 km)
*In both cases, Earth = 1
2,20
(3,50 0 miles
0 km
)
THICKNESS
AND WIDTH
Although Saturn's
rings are very
wide, their
thickness
is sometimes less
than 33 feet
(10 m).
ENCELADUS
TETHYS
TELESTO
CALYPSO
Equatorial
diameter
OUTER MANTLE
This layer is formed
by liquid molecular
hydrogen.
10,9
0
(17,5 0 miles
00 k
m)
EPIMETHEUS
JANUS
29 years
154 days
Moons
15,8
0
(25,5 0 miles
00 k
m)
PROMETHEUS
The main
components of
Saturn's atmosphere
are hydrogen (97%)
and helium (2%).
The rest is composed
of sulfur, methane,
and other gases.
Solar orbit
(Saturnine year)
AXIS INCLINATION
9,10
0
(14,6 miles
00 k
m)
PANDORA
COMPONENTS
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance 887,000,000 miles
from the Sun
(1,427,000,000 km)
Atmosphere
15,5
0
(25 0 mile
,000
s
km)
Saturn's rings, the brightest rings in the solar
system, are made of rock and ice and orbit
Saturn's equator. The rings are probably remains of
destroyed comets that were trapped by Saturn's
gravitational field.
HAZE
Gaseous Exterior
(12,000º C)
20
Titan has a larger
diameter than
Mercury. It has an
atmosphere that is
mostly made of
nitrogen.
54 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 55
Uranus Without Secrets
EPSILON
T
GAMMA
ETA
BETA
ALPHA
Satellites
5
6,2
0
(10 0 MIL
,00
E
0K S
M)
Some scientists suggest
that Uranus's anomalous
magnetic field may indicate
that the convection of
Uranus's core has stopped
because of cooling—or,
perhaps, that the planet is
currently undergoing a
magnetic inversion, as
has happened on the
Earth.
Cusp
Capture region
Magnetic
envelope
1986U2R
DESDEMONA
JULIET
PORTIA
ROSALIND
BELINDA
CRESSIDA
BIANCA
OPHELIA
CORDELIA
MIRANDA
ARIEL
UMBRIEL
OBERON
TITANIA
PUCK
RADIUS=
15,882 MILES
(25,559 KM)
10,6
(17, 00 MI
000 LES
KM
)
Magnetopause
Shakespeare and Alexander Pope, a naming convention that
distinguishes them from the other moons in the solar
system. Some of Uranus's moons are large, but most
measure only dozens of miles.
Uranus has 27 moons. The first four were discovered
in 1787, and another 10 were identified in 1986 by
the space probe Voyager 2. Uranus's moons were named in
honor of characters from the works of William
4
6
Uranus generates a magnetic
field 50 times more powerful
than Earth's. This field is not
centered on the planet, but is
offset and tilted 60 degrees
from Uranus's axis. If this were
the case on Earth, the magnetic
north pole would be located in
Morocco. Unlike other planets,
Uranus's magnetic field
originates in the planet's mantle,
not its core.
Like all giant planets of the solar system, Uranus has a ring
system, but it is much darker than Saturn's and more difficult
to see. The planet's 11 rings, which orbit the planet's equator, were
discovered in 1977. In 1986, they were explored by Voyager 2.
DELTA
o the unaided eye, Uranus looks like a star at the limit of visibility. It is the
seventh farthest planet from the Sun and the third largest planet in the solar system.
One peculiarity distinguishing it from the other planets is its anomalous axis of
rotation, tilted nearly 98 degrees around the plane of its orbit, so that one or the other of
Uranus's poles points toward the Sun. Astronomers speculate that, during its formation,
Uranus may have suffered an impact with a protoplanet, which could have altered Uranus's
tilt. Uranus's orbit is so large that the planet takes 84 years to completely orbit the Sun.
Uranus's period of rotation is 17 hours and 14 minutes.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Rings
LAMBDA
1 radius 2
Enlarged
region
3
4
2001U3
(FRANCISCO)
5
CALIBAN
169
STEPHANO
6
7
TRINCULO
8
9
2003U3
(MARGARET)
SYCORAX
283 314 339
16
482
580
21
PROSPERO
SETEBOS
654 698
Composition
CHARACTERISTICS
ESSENTIAL DATA
Equatorial
diameter
Orbital speed
Mass*
Gravity*
Miranda, only 293 miles
(472 km) in diameter, is
the smallest of Uranus's
five main moons. It has
an irregular surface
with grooves and a
bright mark.
84 years
4 days
32,200 miles
(51,800 km)
4 miles per
second (7 km/s)
14.5
0.89
0.8 ounce per cubic inch
(1.3 g/cu cm)
Average temperature
-346° F (-210° C)
Atmosphere
Moons
* In both cases, Earth = 1
97.9°
One rotation
lasts 17 hours
and 14 minutes.
Less dense
27
UMBRIEL
730 MILES
(1,170 KM)
MIRANDA
293 MILES
(472 KM)
OBERON
946 MILES
(1,522 KM)
ARIEL
720 MILES
(1,158 KM)
OUTER MANTLE
Composed primarily of
hydrogen and helium, as well
as a small amount of methane
Density
AXIS INCLINATION
Uranus has small, dark moons, discovered by Voyager 2, as well as bigger
moons, such as Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Oberon, and Titania. These last
two are approximately 930 miles (1,500 km) in diameter.
1,780,000,000 miles
(2,870,000,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Uranian year)
TITANIA
980 MILES
(1,578 KM)
MOONS
INNER MANTLE
Probably icy water, methane,
and ammonia. (According to
some models, the materials of
the mantle and core do not
form layers.)
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
Average distance
from the Sun
CORE
Made up
of silicates
and ice
6,2
0
(10 0 MI
L
,00
0 K ES
M)
Uranus's core is made of
abundant amounts of silicates
and ice. The planet is almost four
times larger than the Earth, and its
atmosphere is made up of hydrogen,
helium, and methane. Uranus has an
almost horizontal tilt, causing it to
have very long seasons.
Surface
ATMOSPHERE
Uranus's atmosphere is made up
of hydrogen, methane, helium,
and small amounts of acetylene
and other hydrocarbons.
-346° F
85%
(-210° C)
3%
12%
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
Methane
Helium
Hydrogen
For a long time, Uranus
was believed to have a
smooth surface. The Hubble
Space Telescope, however,
showed that Uranus is a
dynamic planet that has the
solar system's brightest
clouds and a fragile ring
system that wobbles like an
unbalanced wheel.
REFRACTION OF RAYS
1.
In Uranus, sunlight is reflected by a
curtain of clouds that lie underneath
a layer of methane.
ATMOSPHERE
URANUS
SUNLIGHT
2.
When sunlight passes through this layer, the methane
absorbs the red light waves and lets the blue light
waves pass through, producing the planet's hue.
ATMOSPHERE
URANUS
SUNLIGHT
56 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 57
Neptune: Deep Blue
Surface
S
een from our planet, Neptune appears as a faint, blue point invisible to
the naked eye. Images sent to Earth by Voyager 2 show the planet as a
remarkably blue sphere, an effect produced by the presence of methane in the outer part
of Neptune's atmosphere. The farthest of the gaseous planets, Neptune is 30 times farther from
the Sun than the Earth is. Its rings and impressive clouds are noteworthy, as is its resemblance
to Uranus. Neptune is of special interest to astronomers because, before its discovery, its
existence and location were predicted on the basis of mathematical calculations.
Ascending
winds
White methane clouds surround Neptune,
circulating at some of the fastest speeds in
the solar system. Neptune's winds reach 1,200
miles per hour (2,000 km/h) from east to west,
swirling against the direction of the planet's
rotation.
THE GREAT SPOT
This giant storm, called
the Great Dark Spot, was
first seen on the surface
of Neptune in 1989 and
was as large as the Earth.
By 1994, it had
disappeared.
Descending
winds
Moons
Neptune has 13 natural satellites, nine of which are
named. Triton and Nereid were the first moons
observed by telescope from Earth. The 11 remaining moons
THALASSA
DESPINA
NAIAD
GALATEA
were observed from space by the U.S. space probe Voyager 2.
All the names of Neptune's satellites correspond to ancient
Greek marine deities.
PROTEUS
TRITON
Hard Heart
According to some models, Neptune has a rocky silicate core, covered by a
mantle of icy water, ammonia, hydrogen, and methane. According to some
models, however, the materials of the mantle and core do not form layers.
NEREID
LARISSA
1 radius 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TRITON
9
10
11
12
13
14
-391° F
Its diameter is 1,681 miles
(2,706 km). Triton orbits
Neptune in a direction
opposite that of the other
moons. Its surface has dark
stripes formed by the
material spewed from its
geysers and volcanoes.
is its temperature, making
Triton one of the coldest
bodies in the solar system.
LE VERRIER
OUTER MANTLE
Composed primarily of
hydrogen and helium, as well
as a small amount of methane
ATMOSPHERE
Neptune's rings are dark,
like those of Uranus and
Jupiter. Their composition
is unknown, and they are
believed to be unstable.
Liberty, which makes up
part of the outer ring,
could vanish before the
22nd century.
miles
4,500 m)
k
(7,200
COMPOSITION
Located 39,000 miles (63,000 km) from
the planet's core, this ring has three
prominent arcs, or sections, named
Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality.
INNER MANTLE
Probably icy water,
methane, and ammonia
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance
from the Sun
2,800,000,000 miles
(4,500,000,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Neptunian year)
164 years
264 days
Equatorial
diameter
30,800 miles
(49,500 km)
Orbital speed
ARAGO
ADAMS
/h)
m
k
0
0
(2,0
miles
8,700 km)
0
(14,00
LASSELL
CHARACTERISTICS
per h
GALLE
Uranus has faint rings of dust. When they
were discovered from the Earth,
astronomers thought the rings formed
incomplete arcs. The ring names
honor the first scientists
to study Neptune.
CORE
Made up of
silicates and ice
es
l
i
m
0
1,20 our
(-235° C)
Rings
222
miles
3,700 km)
0
(6,00
NEPTUNE'S
RADIUS=
15,388 MILES
(24,764 KM)
Banded, like the atmospheres
of the other gas giants,
Neptune's atmosphere forms a
cloud system at least as active
as Jupiter's.
3.4 miles per second
(5.5 km/s)
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
17.2
1.12
1 ounce per cubic inch
(1.6 g/cu cm)
Average temperature
Atmosphere
Moons
89.8%
*In both cases, Earth = 1
Hydrogen
AXIS INCLINATION
10.2%
Helium
28.3°
One rotation lasts
16 hours and 36
minutes.
-330° F (-200° C)
Dense
13
58 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 59
Pluto: Now a Dwarf
P
Pluto stopped being the ninth planet of the solar system in 2006 when
the International Astronomical Union decided to change the classification of cold, distant Pluto to
that of dwarf planet. This tiny body in our solar system has never had an imposing profile, and it
has not yet been possible to study it closely. All that is known about Pluto comes through observations
made from the Earth or Earth orbit, such as those made by the Hubble Space Telescope. Despite the lack
of information gathered about Pluto, it is notable for its unique orbit, the tilt of its axis, and its location
within the Kuiper belt. All these characteristics make Pluto especially intriguing.
Scientific calculations have deduced that 75
percent of Pluto consists of a mixture of rocks and
ice. This frozen surface is made up of 98 percent
nitrogen, as well as traces of solidified carbon monoxide
and methane. Recently scientists have concluded that
Pluto and its largest satellite,
Charon, have a very special
relationship. They have been called
double planets—the diameter of Charon
is about that of Pluto. One theory
hypothesizes that Charon was formed
from ice that was torn from Pluto when
another object collided with the dwarf
planet.
Surface
PLUTO
ROTATION
AXIS
CHARON
Only a little is known about Pluto,
but the Hubble Space Telescope
showed a surface covered by a frozen
mixture of nitrogen and methane. The
presence of solid methane indicates that
its temperature is less than -333° F
(-203° C), but the dwarf planet's
temperature varies according to its
place in orbit, ranging between 30 and
50 astronomical units from the Sun.
Pluto's very thin atmosphere freezes and
falls to the dwarf planet's surface as
Pluto moves toward its aphelion.
98%
CRUST
The crust of this
dwarf planet is
made of methane
and water frozen
on the surface.
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance 3,700,000,000 miles
from the Sun
(5,900,000,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Plutonian year)
247.9 years
Equatorial
diameter
1,400 miles
(2,247 km)
Orbital speed 3
miles per second
Mass*
Gravity*
Density
(4.8 km/s)
0.002
0.067
1.2 ounces per cubic inch
(2.05 g/cu cm)
Average temperature -380° F (-230° C)
2%
Atmosphere
Methane
Very thin
Moons
With some
traces of carbon
monoxide
* In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION
122°
One rotation
lasts 6.387
Earth days.
s
mile
270 km)
(434
SYNCHRONIZED ORBITS
The orbital arrangement of Pluto and Charon is unique. Each
always faces the other, making the two seem connected by an
invisible bar. The synchronization of the two bodies is such that
Pluto is an object that belongs to the Kuiper belt, a group
of objects left over from the formation of the outer
planets. In addition to large amounts of frozen nitrogen,
Pluto has simple molecules containing hydrogen and
oxygen, the building blocks of life.
ATMOSPHERE
Nitrogen
A Double World
CHARACTERISTICS
Composition
CORE
The core is
made of iron,
nickel, and
silicates.
an observer on one side of Pluto would be able to see Charon,
but another observer standing on the other side of the planet
could not see this moon due to the curvature of the planet.
MANTLE
The mantle is
a layer of
frozen water.
s
mile
570 km)
0
(92
BEST VIEW OF PLUTO
AVAILABLE
Moons
In addition to Charon, which was
discovered in 1978, Pluto is orbited by
two additional moons, Nix and Hydra, first
observed in 2005. Unlike the surface of Pluto,
which is made of frozen nitrogen, methane,
and carbon dioxide, Charon appears to be
covered with ice, methane, and carbon
dioxide. One theory holds that the matter that
formed this satellite was ejected from Pluto
as a result of a collision, an origin similar to
that ascribed to Earth's moon.
DENSITY
Charon's density is between
0.7 and 0.8 ounce per cubic
inch (1.2 and 1.3 g/cu cm),
indicating that its composition
does not include much rock.
NEW HORIZONS MISSION
The first space probe to be sent
to Pluto was launched on January 19,
2006. It is to reach the dwarf planet
in July 2015 and achieve the first
flyby of Pluto and Charon.
A PECULIAR ORBIT
730 miles
(1,172 km)
Charon's diameterΩhalf
of Pluto's
Pluto's orbit is noticeably elliptical, and it is tilted 17°
from the plane of the planets' orbits. The distance
between Pluto and the Sun varies from 2,500,000,000
to 4,300,000,000 miles (4,000,000,000 to
7,000,000,000 km). During each 248-year orbit, Pluto
orbits closer to the Sun than Neptune for nearly 20
years. Although Pluto appears to cross paths with
Neptune, it is impossible for them to collide.
6,387
terrestrial days is the time
Pluto takes to complete
one rotation.
3
60 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 61
Distant Worlds
Comparable Sizes
F
arther even than Neptune, the eighth planet, we find frozen
bodies smaller than the Earth's Moon—the more than 100,000
objects forming the Kuiper belt, the frozen boundary of our solar system.
Recently astronomers of the International Astronomical Union decided to reclassify Pluto as
a dwarf planet because of its size and eccentric orbit. Periodic comets (comets that appear
at regular intervals) originate in the Kuiper belt. Nonperiodic comets, on the other hand,
come from the Oort cloud, a gigantic sphere surrounding the entire solar system.
The discovery of Quaoar in 2002
allowed scientists to find the link
they had long looked for between the
Kuiper belt and the origin of the solar
system. Quaoar's almost circular orbit
helped prove that some objects both belong
to the Kuiper belt and orbit the Sun. At the
official meeting of the International
Astronomical Union, on August 24, 2006,
Pluto was reclassified from a planet to a
dwarf planet. For the time being, any
further objects discovered in the Kuiper belt
will be classified in the same category.
QUAOAR
has a diameter
of 810 miles
(1,300 km).
SEDNA
Its diameter is
estimated at 1,000
miles (1,600 km).
PLUTO
possesses a
diameter of 1,400
miles (2,300 km).
200
SATURN'S
ORBIT
URANUS'S
ORBIT
NEPTUNE'S
ORBIT
PLUTO'S
ORBIT
ERIS
THE FARTHEST ONE
Kuiper Belt
Extending outward from the orbit of Neptune are many frozen worlds similar in some ways to
planets but much smaller. They are located in the Kuiper belt, the frozen boundary of our solar
system. So far, almost a thousand objects have been cataloged, including Quaoar, which has a
diameter of 810 miles (1,300 km). The Kuiper belt, estimated to contain more than 100,000 bodies of
ice and rock larger than 60 miles (100 km) in diameter (including Pluto), spreads out in the shape of a
wide ring. Many of the comets that approach the Sun come from the Kuiper belt.
1,410 miles
(2,274 km)
is the diameter of Pluto—750 miles (1,200
km) smaller than the Earth's Moon. Because
of its size and orbit, Pluto is considered a
dwarf planet instead of a planet.
Eris is 97 astronomical units
(9,040,000,000 miles [14,550,000,000
km]) from the Sun, making it the most
distant object observed in the solar
system. This dwarf planet follows an
oval, eccentric orbit that takes 560 years
to complete. The dwarf planet measures
about 1,900 miles (3,000 km) in
diameter, and traces of methane ice have
been detected on its surface.
ERIS
Larger than Pluto, its
diameter is about 1,900
miles (3,000 km).
OR MORE, POSSIBLE
EXTRASOLAR PLANETS
HAVE BEEN DETECTED.
62 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 63
Construction Debris:
Asteroids and Meteorites
E
ver since the formation of the solar system, the melting, collision, and rupture of
various materials played an essential role in the formation of the planets. Remnants
of this process remain in the form of rock debris, which serves as witnesses to the
formation of the solar system. These objects are also associated with episodes that
influenced subsequent evolutionary processes on Earth. They are a possible cause of the
mass extinction of dinosaurs more than 60 million years ago.
15%
Asteroids
The percentage of the
total mass of the
asteroids compared with
the mass of the Moon
Also called minor planets, they are the millions of rock and
metal fragments of various shapes and sizes that orbit the
Sun. They are mostly located in a belt between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter, but a few, such as those that belong to the Amor,
Apollo, and Aten asteroid groups, orbit closer to Earth.
HIDALGO
completes a solar orbit
every 14 Earth years.
ATEN
AMOR
APOLLO
Extraterrestrial
TYPES OF METEORITES
One of the main goals of scientist who study meteorites is
to understand their nature. Meteoric material holds
extraterrestrial solids and gases. Scientific tests have confirmed
that some meteorites are from the Moon or Mars, but most
meteorites are associated with asteroids. The samples obtained
from meteorites are analyzed and classified by their composition.
STONY
meteorites contain
silicate minerals.
They are subdivided
into chondrites and
achondrites.
The Trojans trace an orbit
similar to Jupiter's, one
group in front of the planet
and another behind it.
Mars's
Orbit
TYPES OF ASTEROIDS
A HUGE METEORITE STRIKES
Jupiter's
Orbit
More than a million asteroids at least a
mile in diameter are distributed in the
main asteroid belt. Ceres was the first asteroid
discovered (in 1801). It is the largest known
asteroid, with a diameter of 580 miles (932 km).
KIRKWOOD
The Kirkwood gaps
are the open areas
in the main asteroid
belt that are devoid
of asteroids.
Despite a great variety in size and shape, three types of
minor planets, or asteroids, are known. Classified by
their composition, they are grouped as siliceous,
carbonaceous, and metallic.
A meteorite is an object from space that does not completely
vaporize as it penetrates the Earth's atmosphere. Larger
meteorites can form a crater when they strike the Earth. Shown is
the impact of an exceptionally large meteorite, such as the one
that many scientists believed might have led to the
extinction of dinosaurs and many other species
about 65 million years ago.
1.
MAIN ASTEROID BELT
Tighten Your Belt
IRON
meteorites contain a
high percentage of
iron and nickel
compounds. They are
created in the rupture
of asteroids.
EXPLOSION
The friction created as a
meteorite falls through the air
increases its temperature.
This is how an ignition
process is started.
IDA
An asteroid 35 miles
(56 km) long, its surface
is marked by collisions
with other bodies.
MESOSIDERITES
contain similar
quantities of iron,
nickel, and silicates.
(12 km/s) IMPACT VELOCITY
43
(70 mil
km es p
/s) er s
ec
on
d
7 miles per second
2.
DIVISION
The fragmentation of
a meteorite causes a
visual effect called a
shooting star.
3.
IMPACT
The collision of the
meteorite compresses
and excavates the
ground, leaving a crater.
Ferrous-type rocks
dominate its
composition.
64 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE 65
Those with a Tail
THE HEAD
C
The head of a comet
can measure 62,000
miles (100,000 km) or
more in diameter.
omets are small, deformed objects a few miles in diameter that are
normally frozen and dark. Made of dust, rock, gases, and organic
molecules rich in carbon, comets are usually found in orbits beyond that
of Neptune in the Kuiper belt or in the Oort cloud. Occasionally a comet, such as
Halley's comet, veers toward the interior of the solar system, where its ice is
heated and sublimates, forming a head and long, spectacular tails of gases and dust.
Types of Comets
Comets with short periods
have orbits around the Sun
that are shorter than 200 years.
Those with a period of more than
200 years travel tens or hundreds
of times farther from the Sun
than Pluto.
LONG-PERIOD
COMET
SHORTPERIOD
COMET
KUIPER
BELT
OORT
CLOUD
SOLAR
SYSTEM
Periodic comets
2.
1.
The trail of suspended
gases generates a lowintensity, luminous region
with a bluish color. The gas
molecules lose an electron
and therefore have an
electrical charge.
Comets that leave their original
orbits and approach the Sun
generally settle into new trajectories.
Halley's comet, for example, completes
its elongated orbit in 76 years.
HEAD
Formed by the nucleus
and the coma. The
front part is called the
impact front.
Deep Impact Mission
On January 12, 2005, as part of the
Discovery program, NASA launched
the space probe Deep Impact, which, in
turn, sent a projectile on a collision course
toward the comet 9P/Tempel 1, where it
obtained samples to be studied on Earth.
ION TAIL
COMA
Envelops the nucleus.
It is formed by the
gases and dust that
it releases.
PROBE LAUNCH
Deep Impact launches the
770-pound (350-kg)
copper projectile that will
collide with the comet.
DUST TAIL
The suspended dust
particles trail behind the
comet, reflecting sunlight
and making the luminous
tail visible.
NUCLEUS
Frozen water,
methane, carbon
dioxide, ammonia,
rock, and dust
The projectile
searches the
impact front.
IN POSITION
By means of
infrared cameras
and spectrometers,
the ship follows the
comet to analyze
the impact on the
nucleus.
AR
SOL D
N
WI
NUCLEUS
22,370
3.
miles per hour
(36,000 km/h)
VELOCITY OF THE
COMET IMPACT
PREVIOUS MISSIONS
NASA has sent other unmanned missions to
comets. The first was the international craft
ISEE-3/ICE. Launched in 1978, its mission
ended after crossing the tail of the GiacobiniZinner comet in September 1985.
IMPACT WITH THE COMET
took place on July 4, 2005.
The projectile generated a
crater the size of a football
field and seven stories deep.
FORMATION OF THE TAIL
AND HEAD
GIOTTO
DEEP SPACE
STARDUST
Launched in 1986,
it passed the nucleus
of Halley's comet at a
distance of 310 miles
(500 km) in 1992.
The NASA spacecraft
approached the
comet Borrelly
in 2001.
In 2004, it took
samples of the
comet Wild 2
and sent them
to Earth.
Because of the effects of solar radiation and
the solar wind, gases and dust are released
from an accelerating comet. The dust
particles tend to form a curving trail, which
is less sensitive to the pressure of the solar
wind. As the comet leaves the confines of
the solar system, its tails coincide once
more, but they disappear as the nucleus
cools down and ceases releasing gases.
As the comet
moves away from
the Sun, its tails
disappear.
Close to the Sun,
the tails reach
maximum length.
Sun
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Comet orbit
The Earth and the Moon
AERIAL VIEW OF THE EARTH
In this partial image of the Earth, we can see
Bora-Bora, an island that forms part of the
Leeward Islands, located in French Polynesia.
THE BLUE PLANET 68-69
THE MOON AND TIDES 76-77
JOURNEY TO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH 70-71
ECLIPSES 78-79
ONCE UPON A TIME 72-73
MOVEMENTS AND COORDINATES 74-75
I
n the beginning, the Earth was an
incandescent mass that slowly
began to cool, allowing the
continents to emerge and acquire
their current form. Although
many drastic changes took place during
these early eras, our blue planet has still
not stopped changing. It must be
recognized that life on Earth would be
impossible without the presence of the
atmosphere—the colorless, odorless,
invisible layer of gases that surrounds
us, giving us air to breathe and
protecting us from the Sun's harmful
radiation. Although the atmosphere is
approximately 435 miles (700 km) thick,
it has no clear boundary and fades into
space until it finally disappears.
68 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 69
The Blue Planet
AXIS
INCLINATION
T
he Earth is known as the blue planet because of the color
of the oceans that cover two thirds of its surface. This planet,
the third planet from the Sun, is the only one where the right
conditions exist to sustain life, something that makes the Earth
special. It has liquid water in abundance, a mild temperature, and
an atmosphere that protects it from objects that fall from
outer space. The atmosphere also filters solar radiation
thanks to its ozone layer. Slightly flattened at its poles
and wider at its equator, the Earth takes 24 hours to
revolve once on its axis.
The Phenomenon of Life
Water, in liquid form, makes it possible for life to
exist on the Earth, the only planet where
temperatures vary from 32° F to 212° F (0° C to 100° C),
allowing water to exist as a liquid. The Earth’s average
distance from the Sun, along with certain other factors,
allowed life to develop 3.8 billion years ago.
23.5°
This is the inclination of the
Earth’s axis from the
vertical. As the Earth orbits
the Sun, different regions
gradually receive more or
less sunlight, causing the
four seasons.
ROTATION
AXIS
NORTH
POLE
3.
PRECIPITATION
The atmosphere loses
water through
condensation. Gravity
causes rain, snow, and
hail. Dew and frost
directly alter the state of
the surface they cover.
CHARACTERISTICS
Density
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
Average
temperature
3.2 ounces per cubic
inch (5.52 g/cu cm)
59° F (15° C)
*In both cases, Earth = 1
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance 93 million miles
to the Sun
(150 million km)
Revolution around
the Sun (Earth year) 365.25 days
7,930 miles
Diameter at
(12,756 km)
the equator
Orbiting
speed
17 miles per second
(27.79 km/s.)
Mass*
Gravity*
1
1
AXIS INCLINATION
23.5°
One rotation
lasts 23.56
hours.
Magnetism and Gravity
The Earth’s magnetic field originates in the planet’s outer core,
where turbulent currents of molten iron generate both electric and
magnetic fields. The orientation of the Earth’s magnetism varies over
time, causing the magnetic poles to fluctuate.
70%
Magnetic
force
The Earth’s
core works as
a magnet.
of the Earth’s surface
is water. From space,
the planet looks blue.
Solid core
Mantle
2.
-76° F
32° to 212° F
Above 212° F
(-60° C)
(0° to 100° C)
(100° C)
3 STATES
On the Earth, water is
found in all three of its
possible states.
ONLY STEAM
On Mercury or Venus, which
are very close to the Sun,
water would evaporate.
ONLY ICE
Mars is so far from
the Sun that all its
water is frozen.
The Earth moves,
orbiting the Sun and
rotating on its own axis.
SUN
ROTATION: The Earth
revolves on its axis in 23
hours and 56 minutes.
The Earth’s winds transport
moisture-laden air until
weather conditions cause the
water vapor to condense into
clouds and eventually fall to the
ground as rain or other forms
of precipitation.
The Earth’s magnetic
field is created by
convective currents
in its outer core.
WHAT IT DOES
1.
EARTH MOVEMENTS
CONDENSATION
The magnetic field
protects the Earth
from the radiation
of the solar wind.
The liquid
outer core is
in constant
motion.
Some particles are
attracted to the poles.
Van Allen belt
EVAPORATION
Because of the Sun’s
energy, the water
evaporates, entering the
atmosphere from oceans
and, to a lesser extent,
from lakes, rivers, and
other sources on the
continents.
Solar wind
Magnetic
field lines
Magnetosphere
The Van Allen belts trap
the particles from the solar
wind, causing phenomena
like the auroras.
Axis
Earth
Magnetic field tail
93,500,000
miles
(149,503,0
00 km)
REVOLUTION: It takes the Earth 365
days, 5 hours, and 57 minutes to travel
once around the Sun.
The Moon, our only natural
satellite, is four times smaller
than the Earth and takes
27.32 days to orbit the Earth.
SOUTH
POLE
GRAVITY AND
WEIGHT
Weight is the force of
the gravity that acts
on a body.
(11 kg)
(70 kg)
(177 kg)
24 pounds
154 pounds
390 pounds
ON THE MOON
The Moon has less mass
than the Earth and, as a
result, less gravity.
ON EARTH
The object is drawn
toward the Earth’s center.
ON JÚPITER
Jupiter has 300 times more
mass than the Earth and
therefore more gravity.
70 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 71
Journey to the Center
of the Earth
W
EXOSPHERE
e live on the Earth, but do we know what we are
standing on? The planet is made up of layers of
various materials, such as solid and molten
rock, which in turn are composed of such elements
as iron, nickel, and silicon. Our atmosphere is the
layer of gases surrounding our planet. One
of these gases, oxygen, does a very special
job—it permits life to exist.
THERMOSPHERE
es
mil
435 km)
0
(70
We live on a rocky surface similar to a shell. The
rocks we live with are made mostly of oxygen and
silicon, but underneath them is the mantle, made of much
heavier rocks. The mantle also surrounds the inner and
outer cores with a region of constantly boiling liquid metals,
creating the convective currents that generate the Earth’s
magnetic field. The inner core, solid because of the great
pressure put upon it, is the densest part of the planet.
Oceanic
penetration
620 miles
(1,000 km)
TROPOSPHERE
It fades into outer space.
OUTER MANTLE
INNER MANTLE
The solid, intermediate
layer between the core
and the crust. Hightemperature S and P
waves pass through it
because of its contact
with the core.
km)
,270
s (2
mile
Continental
penetration
The existence of life on our planet would be
impossible without the atmosphere that provides
the air we breathe and the water we drink; it also
protects us from the Sun’s harmful radiation, while
simultaneously maintaining mild temperatures by
retaining the Sun’s warmth. The atmosphere is about
435 miles thick (700 km) but lacks defined limits.
STRATOSPHERE
0
1,41
HOW FAR HUMANS HAVE GONE
Above the Surface
MESOSPHERE
km)
00
(2,9
iles
0m
1,80
Internal Structure
Mount Everest
5.5 miles
(8.85 km)
WITH ATMOSPHERE
The sunlight filters into
the atmosphere. Winds
distribute the heat,
cooling the tropics and
warming the poles.
As a result of the high
temperatures, the materials
dilate and produce a
continuous ascending
movement that generates
convection currents and the
forces that cause the
changes to the Earth’s crust.
Hydrosphere and
Lithosphere
370 miles
(600 km)
The lithosphere includes the
crust and the upper portion
of the mantle, and the
hydrosphere includes liquid
water, covering 71 percent of
the Earth’s surface in lakes,
rivers, and five oceans.
Orbit of an artificial
satellite
50 miles
(80 km)
Air is very rarefied.
(12 km)
INNER CORE
is made of the same
metals as the outer core,
but, despite its high
temperature, its center is
solid because of the
enormous pressure that
compresses it.
km)
,216
s (1
mile
755
(1.7 km)
The outer layer of the core is
liquid, consisting of molten iron
and nickel. Its temperature is
lower than that of the inner
core and it is under less
pressure. The motion of the
molten material produces the
geomagnetic field.
S
LE
MI M)
5
K
6
3,9 ,380
(6
3,965 miles
(6,380 km)
from the Earth’s surface to
its center.
7 miles
(11 km)
Vegetable and animal
life.
0 miles
(0 km)
Lithosphere and Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere, the liquid part of the Earth,
includes the oceans, lakes, rivers, underground
waters, snow, and ice. It almost completely covers the
crust, surrounds the shores of the continents, and covers
71 percent of the Earth’s surface. The lithosphere
is a superficial, elastic region that is 4 to 7 miles
(6 to 11 km) thick under the oceans and up to 43
miles (70 km) thick under mountain ranges.
TOTAL VOLUME OF WATER
WATER AND EARTH
ES
IL )
M
0 0 KM
2
6 00
(1,
30 miles
(50 km)
The ozone layer, located
here, absorbs the Sun’s
ultraviolet rays.
OUTER CORE
1 mile
7.5 miles
WITHOUT
ATMOSPHERE
Direct solar radiation.
Differences in
temperature between
the equator and the
poles would be far
more pronounced.
FRESHWATER
1.7 %
29.2%
soil
70.8%
94 %
6%
water
salt
water
fresh
water
4.3 %
underground
ice
0.03%
surface and
atmosphere
72 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 73
Once Upon a Time
Origin of the Earth
T
he Earth probably formed from material in the solar nebula—the cloud of gas and dust
that led to the formation of the Sun. This material gradually grew into a larger and larger
body that became a red-hot ball of rock and metal. Later the rocky crust formed, its
surface cooling enough to allow the continents to appear. Even later the oceans arrived, as well
as the tiny organisms that released oxygen into the atmosphere. Although much of this gas was
initially consumed in chemical reactions, over time, it allowed the development of multicellular
organisms and an explosion of life that took place at the start of the Paleozoic
Era, 542 million years ago.
The Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago from a
cloud of dust and gas. In the beginning, it was a
molten, constantly active, mass. As time passed, the Earth
began to cool, and the atmosphere began to clear as rain
fell, creating the oceans.
A
EURASIA
INDIA
LAURASIA
AFRICA
Continental Drift
We live on the continents, which are part of movable plates that
drift across the Earth’s surface at the rate a fingernail grows. 250
million years ago, India, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica were part
of the same continent. When tectonic plates rub against each
other, land and oceanic crust earthquakes occur. Where the
plates separate, a rift forms. The mid-ocean ridges that
run beneath the oceans are formed by lava that
emerges from the rifts between tectonic plates. Where
plates collide, a process called subduction takes
place, in which the rocks of the oceanic floor are
drawn under the continent and melt, reemerging in
the form of volcanoes.
AMERICA
AFRICA
LAURASIA
SOUTH
AMERICA
4
Tethys Sea
GONDWANA
3
60 MILLION YEARS AGO
The northern Atlantic Ocean slowly
separated, completing the formation of
Europe and North Africa.
163 MILLION YEARS AGO
Gondwana split, forming Africa and South
America as the southern Atlantic Ocean
was created.
PANGEA
The planet cooled
The atmosphere
was created as the
planet cooled and
began to emit
gases and steam.
C
The crust forms
Lava poured across
the surface of the
Earth. As it cooled,
it formed the
Earth’s crust.
D
Water appeared on the
Earth 3.9 billion years
ago. Water-rich Earth is
the only planet in the
solar system known to
have life.
Chronology
Geology is the study of rocks in the Earth’s
crust. It divides the Earth’s history into
different eras, periods, and epochs lasting millions
of years. Geology also helps us catalog the
processes of evolution—changes in generations as
species adapt to their environment and their
competitors.
Through the study of fossils—remains of creatures
buried in the Earth’s various sedimentary layers
and consequently at different times in the past–
geology helps us trace the timeline of evolutionary
history.
HOMO
SAPIENS
LARGE
MAMMAL
SMALL
MAMMAL
DINOSAUR
MARINE REPTILE
2
1
B
ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA
Panthalassa
AUSTRALIA
INDIA
Ball of fire
The Earth was
created from small
particles that
coalesced in the
solar nebula.
250 MILLION YEARS AGO
The Tethys Sea slowly split Pangea,
creating two continents, known as
Laurasia and Gondwana.
CONIFERS
ICYTHYOSTEGA
(amphibian)
290 MILLION YEARS AGO
The supercontinent called Pangea
formed. An immense ocean called
Panthalassa surrounded it.
COOKSONIA
(plant)
A
OIC ER
CENOZ
CRINOID
(sea animal)
TRILOBITE
A
OIC ER
MESOZ
UNICELLULAR
ORGANISM
FOSSILS
are remains of living beings preserved in
the rocks as a record of the Earth’s history.
Water
RA
ZOIC E
PALEO
THE EARTH IN ONE DAY
If the Earth’s history were compressed into
a normal day, Homo sapiens would appear
at just one minute to midnight.
TIME
MBRIC
PRECA
Tectonic Plates
The surface of the Earth is shaped by tectonic
plates. There are eight major plates, some of
which even encompass entire continents. The plates’
borders are marked by ocean trenches, cliffs, chains
of volcanoes, and earthquake zones.
Soft
sediment
Hard
sediment
Metamorphic
rocks
The majority
are marine
shells.
At a certain
depth, the
pressure
destroys
the fossils.
74 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 75
Movements and Coordinates
Y
es, it moves. The Earth rotates on its axis while simultaneously orbiting the Sun. The
natural phenomena of night and day, seasons, and years are caused by these movements.
To track the passage of time, calendars, clocks, and time zones were invented. Time
zones are divided by meridians and assigned a reference hour according to their location. When
traveling east, an hour is added with each time zone. An hour is subtracted
during west-bound travel.
23.5º
December 21 or 22
Winter solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere and summer solstice in
the Southern Hemisphere.
TILT OF THE
EARTH’S AXIS
Solstices exist because of the tilt of the
Earth’s axis. The length of the day and the
height of the Sun in the sky are greatest in
summer and least in winter.
Geographic Coordinates
93
The Earth’s Movements
Night and day, summer and winter, new year and
old year result from the Earth’s various movements
during its orbit of the Sun. The most important motions
are the Earth’s daily rotation from west to east on its own
axis and its revolution around the Sun. (The Earth follows
an elliptical orbit that has the Sun at one of the foci of the
ellipse, so the distance to the Sun varies slightly over the
course of a year.)
N
23º
ROTATION
1 DAY
The Earth revolves
once on its axis in 23
hours and 56 minutes.
We see this as day
and night.
S
(149 MILLION KM)
Every year, around June 21, the Northern Hemisphere reaches
its maximum inclination toward the Sun (a phenomenon
referred to as the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere
and the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere). The North
Pole receives sunlight all day, while the South Pole is covered in
darkness. Between one solstice and another the equinoxes
appear, which is when the axis of the Earth points toward the
Sun and the periods of daylight and darkness are the same all
over our planet.
June 20 or 21
Summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere
and winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.
Solstices exist because of the tilt of the Earth’s axis.
The length of the day and the height of the Sun in the
sky are greatest in summer and least in winter.
0°
GREENWICH
MERIDIAN
THE EARTH’S
ORBIT
About 365 days
March
20 or 21
Spring equinox
in the Northern
Hemisphere
and autumn
equinox in the
Southern
Hemisphere.
1 YEAR
The Earth’s orbit
around the Sun lasts
365 days, 5 hours,
and 57 minutes.
Northern
Hemisphere
PARALLELS
66.5° N Arctic Circle
Temperate
zone
1 day
23.5° N Tropic of Cancer
THE DAYS
Period of time it takes
the Earth to rotate on
its axis
0 ° EQUATOR
SUN
The Sun passes
directly above the
equator, and day
and night have the
same length.
REVOLUTION
Thanks to the grid formed by the lines of latitude and longitude, the
position of any object on the Earth’s surface can be easily located by
using the intersection of the Earth’s equator and the Greenwich meridian
(longitude 0°) as a reference point. This intersection marks the midpoint
between the Earth’s poles.
MILLION MILES
Equinox and Solstice
Tropical
zone
About 30 days
23.5° S Tropic of Capricorn
66.5° S Antarctic Circle
Polar
zone
THE MONTHS
Each period of time,
between 28 and 31
days, into which a year
is divided
Southern
Hemisphere
Time Zones
The Earth is divided into 24 areas, or time
zones, each one of which corresponds to
an hour assigned according to the Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC), using the Greenwich,
England, meridian as the base meridian. One
hour is added when crossing the meridian in
an easterly direction, and one hour is
subtracted when traveling west.
12:00
A.M.
WEST
EAST
3:00 A.M.
9:00 P.M.
JET LAG
3º
47º
NUTATION
18.6 YEARS
is a sort of nod made
by the Earth, causing
the displacement of
the geographic poles
by nine arc seconds.
September
21 or 22
PRECESSION
The Sun passes directly above
the equator, and day and
night have the same length.
25,800 YEARS
A slow turning of the
direction of the Earth’s
axis (similar to that of
a top), caused by the
Earth’s nonspherical
shape and the
gravitational forces of
the Sun and the Moon
APHELION
The point in the
Earth’s orbit where it
is farthest from the
Sun (94 million miles
[152 million km]). This
occurs at the
beginning of July.
Autumn equinox in the
Northern Hemisphere
and spring equinox in the
Southern Hemisphere.
The human body’s biological clock responds to the rhythms of light and dark based on the
passage of night and day. Long air flights east or west interrupt and disorient the body’s
clock, causing a disorder known as jet lag. It can cause fatigue, irritability, nausea,
headaches, and difficulty sleeping at night.
Northern
Hemisphere
12:00 A.M.
Departure
time
6:00 A.M.
12:00 P.M.
Arrival time
N
9:00 A.M.
3:00 P.M.
MEASUREMENT OF TIME
Months and days are charted by calendars and clocks,
but the measurement of these units of time is neither a
cultural nor an arbitrary construct. Instead, it is
derived from the natural movements of the Earth.
PERIHELION
The point where the orbiting Earth
most closely approaches the Sun
(91 million miles [147 million km])
12:00
15:00 18:00
21:00
0:00
3:00
6:00
9:00
6:00 P.M.
12:00
P.M.
76 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 77
The Moon and Tides
The ejected material
scattered into space
around the Earth, and
over time, it coalesced
into the Moon.
CHARACTERISTICS
INNER STRUCTURE
(3,476 km)
2,160 miles
The diameter of the Moon is one
fourth of the Earth’s.
Mare Imbrium
is 3.85 billion
years old.
ROCKY
MANTLE
Less than half
the thickness
of the Earth’s
mantle
Aristarchus
Brightest spot
on the Moon
Invisible from the Earth, this
side of the Moon was a mystery
until 1959, when the Russian probe
Luna 3 managed to photograph the
hidden zone. Because of the
greater thickness of the Moon’s
crust on this side, it has
fewer seas.
Moon
Earth
Hidden
face
Lunar orbit
The Tides
1
The water on the side of the Earth
closest to the Moon feels the Moon’s
gravitational pull most intensely, and vice
versa. Two tides are formed, and they track
the Moon in its orbit around the Earth.
However, they precede the Moon instead of
being directly in line with it.
Lunar orbit
KEY
Gravitational
pull of the Moon
AXIS INCLINATION
One rotation
lasts 27.32
Earth days.
Mare
Nubium
The Lunar Landscape
Observing the Moon, the ancient astronomers
decided that, as on the Earth, its plainly visible dark
spots must be seas. These dark regions of the Moon
contrast against the bright ones, the highlands with the
most impact craters.
Humboldt
Crater named in
honor of the
German naturalist
MOUNTAIN
RANGES
When a meteorite strikes
the lunar surface, a
mountain range forms
from the material ejected
during the cratering
process.
Montes Apenninus
One of the most
notable mountain
ranges
CRATERS
can be from 40 inches (1 m)
to 620 miles (1,000 km) in
diameter and are formed by
meteorites that strike the
Moon’s surface with
incredible force.
Schickard
4
Influence on
the tide by the
gravitational
pull of the Sun
Influence on
the tide by the
gravitational
pull of the
Moon
Rupes Altai
Mountain chain
5,900 feet
(1,800 m) high
Tycho
100 million
years old
Earth
orbit
Gravitational
pull of the Sun
Maguinus
Copernicus
60 miles
(93 km) in
diameter
The Sun’s gravity
also influences
the tides.
SEAS
cover almost 16 percent of
the Moon’s surface and
were formed by flowing
lava. Today the Moon has
no volcanic activity.
THE PHASES OF THE MOON
46,6 %
Sun
0.02
5.14°
FULL MOON
SPRING TIDE
The Sun and the Moon
align once again, and the
Sun augments the Moon’s
gravitational pull, causing
a second spring tide.
THIRD QUARTER
NEAP TIDE
The Moon and the Sun
again form a right
angle, causing a
second neap tide.
0,01
0,17
2 ounces per cubic
inch (3.34 g/cu cm)
Volume*
Grimaldi
Moon
0.6 miles per
second (1.02 km/s)
CRUST
Surface made of rocks, such as granite, covered
by 65 feet (20 m) of lunar dust called regolith
FIRST QUARTER
NEAP TIDE
The Moon and the Sun are at
right angles to the Earth,
producing the lowest high tides
and the highest low tides.
3
Mass*
Gravity*
27.3 days
2,160 miles
(3,476 km)
Orbiting speed
INNER
CORE
Central
temperature
of 2,730° F
(1,500° C)
Mare
Morum
2
Diameter at
the equator
Temperature 302° F (150° C) (day)
-148° F (-100° C) (night)
Gassendi
NEW MOON
SPRING TIDE
When the Sun and the Moon
are aligned, the highest high
tides and lowest low tides
are produced.
Revolution
around the Earth
Density
VISIBLE FACE
Spotted with dark
areas, it always
faces the Earth.
ESSENTIAL DATA
Average distance 226,400 miles
from the Earth
(364,400 km)
*Earth = 1
Oceanus
Procellarum
The largest sea,
it is not well
preserved.
HIDDEN
FACE
Mare
Tranquillitatis
The seas are
flatlands with few
craters.
100 km
Visible face
SIDEREAL MONTH
It takes 27.32 days
to orbit the Earth.
LUNAR MONTH
It takes 29.53
days to complete
its phases.
Mare Crisium
Measures 280
miles by 370
miles (450 km
by 563 km)
and has large
craters.
OUTER
CORE
Partially
melted
THE MOON’S MOVEMENTS
As the Moon orbits the
Earth, it revolves on its own
axis in such a way that it
always shows the Earth the
same side.
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
Various seismic analyses of the Moon suggest that its
core is solid or semisolid.
1000 km
R
omance and terror, mystery and superstition–all these
emotions are responses to the Moon, the Earth’s one natural
satellite, which always hides one of its two faces. However,
whatever symbolic meanings are attributed to the Moon, its
gravitational pull has a concrete effect on the Earth—it is a cause of
the tides. Depending on the distance of the Moon from the Earth, the
gravitational pull exerted by the Moon varies in strength and so can
high tides and low tides. To reach full height, tides need large open
areas of ocean. For this reason, tides in closed or small bodies of
water are much lower.
ORIGIN OF THE MOON
The most widely accepted
theory of the Moon’s origin
suggests that an object the size
of Mars collided with the Earth
during its formation.
Unique
New
Moon
Waxing
crescent
First
quarter
Waxing
gibbous
Full
Moon
Waning
gibbous
Third
quarter
Waning
crescent
The Moon is the Earth’s
only natural satellite.
78 THE EARTH AND THE MOON
UNIVERSE 79
Eclipses
Lunar Eclipse
T
ypically four times a year, during the full or new
moon, the centers of the Moon, the Sun, and the
Earth become aligned, causing one of the most
marvelous celestial phenomena: an eclipse. At these times,
the Moon either passes in front of the Sun or passes through
the Earth’s shadow. The Sun—even during an eclipse—is not
safe to look at directly, since it can cause irreparable damage
to the eyes, such as burns on the retina. Special highquality filters or indirect viewing by projecting the Sun’s
image on a sheet of paper are some of the ways in which
this celestial wonder can be watched. Solar eclipses
provide, in addition, a good opportunity for astronomers to
conduct scientific research.
TOTAL LUNAR
ECLIPSE, SEEN
FROM THE EARTH
The orange color comes from
sunlight that has been refracted
and colored by the Earth’s
atmosphere.
When the Earth passes directly between the
full Moon and the Sun, a lunar eclipse (which
could be total, partial, or penumbral) occurs.
Without the Earth’s atmosphere, during each lunar
eclipse, the Moon would become completely invisible
(something that never happens). The totally eclipsed
Moon’s characteristic reddish color is caused by light
refracted by the Earth’s atmosphere. During a partial
eclipse, on the other hand, part of the Moon falls in
the shadow cone, while the rest is in the penumbra,
the outermost, palest part. It is not dangerous to
look at a lunar eclipse directly.
TYPES OF ECLIPSES
ALIGNMENT
Sun
Earth Moon
During an eclipse, the Moon is not completely
black but appears reddish.
PENUMBRAL
The Moon is in
the penumbral
cone.
PARTIAL
The Moon is
only partially
inside the
shadow cone.
TOTAL
The Moon is
completely in
the shadow
cone.
FULL
MOON
TOTAL
ECLIPSE
Shadow
cone
ANNUAL ECLIPSE
OF THE SUN, SEEN
FROM THE EARTH
Lunar
orbit
Solar Eclipse
Solar eclipses occur when the Moon
passes directly between the Sun and the
Earth, casting a shadow along a path on the
Earth’s surface. The central cone of the shadow
is called the umbra, and the area of partial
shadow around it is called the penumbra.
Viewers in the regions where the umbra falls on
the Earth’s surface see the Moon’s disk
completely obscure the Sun—a total solar
eclipse. Those watching from the surrounding
areas that are located in the penumbra see the
Moon’s disk cover only part of the Sun—a
partial solar eclipse.
ALIGNMENT
Sun
PARTIAL
ECLIPSE
TYPES OF ECLIPSES
Moon
Earth
During a solar eclipse, astronomers take
advantage of the blocked view of the Sun in
order to use devices designed to study the
Sun’s atmosphere.
TOTAL
The Moon is
between the Sun
and the Earth and
creates a coneshaped shadow.
ANNULAR
The Sun appears
larger than the
Moon, and it
remains visible
around it.
PARTIAL
The Moon does
not cover the Sun
completely, so the
Sun appears as a
crescent.
PENUMBRAL
ECLIPSE
Shadow
cone
Penumbra
cone
NEW
MOON
EARTH
TOTAL
ECLIPSE
Earth
orbit
THE ECLIPSE CYCLE
T
GH
NLI
SU
OBSERVATION FROM EARTH
Eclipses repeat every 223 lunations—18 years and 11 days.
These are called Saros periods.
ECLIPSES IN A YEAR
ECLIPSES IN A SAROS
2
41 29 70
7
4
Minimum Maximum Average
of the
Sun
of the
Moon
A black, polymer filter, with
an optical density of 5.0,
produces a clear orange image
of the Sun.
Prevents
retinal burns
Total
SOLAR ECLIPSES
LUNAR ECLIPSES
are different for each
local observer.
are the same for all
observers.
MAXIMUM DURATION
MAXIMUM DURATION
8 minutes
100 minutes
ECLIPSES IN 2006 AND BEYOND
SUN’S APPARENT SIZE
400
times larger
than the
Moon
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN TO
THE EARTH
400
times greater than
the distance from the
Earth to the Moon
OF THE
SUN
3/29
Total
9/22 3/19
Total Partial
2006
OF THE
MOON
3/14 9/07
Partial Partial
9/11 2/07
Partial Total
2007
3/03
Total
2008
8/28
Total
2/21
Total
1/26
Total
2009
8/16
Partial
7/22
Total
1/15 7/11
Total Total
2010
2/9
7/7
Partial Partial
1/4 11/25
Partial Partial
2011
6/26 12/21
Partial Total
2012
6/15
Total
12/10
Total
5/20 11/13
5/10 11/3
Annular Annular Annular Hybrid
2013
6/4 12/28
Partial Partial
4/29 10/23
Annular Partial
2014
4/25 10/18
Partial Partial
3/20 9/13
Total Partial
2015
4/15
Total
10/08
Total
2016
4/4
Total
9/28
Total
Observing the Universe
STONEHENGE
Located in Wiltshire (England), it was built in several
phases over some 600 years—between 2200 and
1600 BC. The placement of most of its large stones
has a relationship to the Moon and the Sun.
ASTRONOMICAL THEORIES 82-83
SPRINKLED WITH STARS 84-85
CELESTIAL CARTOGRAPHY 86-87
FROM THE HOME GARDEN 88-89
A FOUR-EYED GIANT 90-91
A
stronomy was born out of
humankind's need to measure
time and seasons, marking the
best times to plant. In ancient
times, the study of the stars
was mixed with superstition and ritual.
The megalithic monument Stonehenge,
found in southern England, is an example
of this. Today, thanks to advances in new
technologies, such as the giant telescopes
installed in various locations around the
planet, we have discovered many new
things about the universe. The VLT (Very
Large Telescope), astronomy's new
monster telescope located in Chile, is
part of an attempt to find planets
beyond the solar system, because
many astronomers suspect that life is
not exclusive to the Earth.
82 OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE 83
Astronomical Theories
Heliocentric Model
In 1543, a few months before his death,
Nicolaus Copernicus published the book De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium, inaugurating
what is now known as the Copernican
Revolution. The Polish astronomer
developed the heliocentric theory
(from helios, the Greek word for “the
Sun”), which contradicted the
geocentric theory. Copernicus’s
new postulate inverted the
traditional relationship of
the Sun and the Earth,
identifying the Sun as
the center of the
universe and the
Earth as one of
many solar
satellites.
Copernicus
F
or a long time, it was believed that the Earth was
stationary. The Sun, the Moon, and the planets were
thought to orbit it. To study the sky and calculate
its movements, people began to build instruments, such
as the astrolabe, armillary sphere, and telescope. The
telescope revolutionized the conception of the
universe. Instead of the Earth being at the center
of the universe, it was suggested that the Earth
and other planets travel around the Sun. The
Roman Catholic Church opposed the idea and,
for a time, persecuted dissident astronomers
and banned their theories.
argued that spheres moved in endless, circular orbits. Since
the universe and all the celestial bodies were thought to be
spherical, he argued that their movements must also be
circular and uniform (the Ptolemaic system considered the
planets’ circuits to be irregular). Copernicus reasoned that,
since the movements of the planets appeared to be
irregular, the Earth must not be the center of the universe.
These discoveries were contrary to the views promulgated
by the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, both
Roman Catholics and
Protestants suppressed
any writings
advocating these beliefs.
When Galileo Galilei was
brought to trial by the Roman
Catholic Church for
advocating the Copernican
theory, he was forced to
renounce his views.
Geocentric Model
Before telescopes,
binoculars, and modern
observatories existed, little was
known about the Earth. Many
believed that the Earth was fixed
and that the Sun, the Moon, and
the five known planets orbited it in
circles. This geocentric model was
promoted by the Egyptian
astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, who
in the 2nd century AD compiled
the astronomical ideas of the
ancient Greek astronomers (in
GALILEO’S TELESCOPE
particular, those of Aristotle, who
had proposed the Earth as the
center of the universe, with the
celestial objects revolving around
it). Although other ancient
astronomers, such as Aristarchus
of Samus, proposed that the Earth
was round and rotated around the
Sun, Aristotle’s ideas were
accepted as true for 16 centuries,
and at times Aristotle’s ideas were
defended and preserved by the
Roman Catholic Church.
The telescope is thought to have been invented in
1609 by the Dutch optician Hans Lippershey but
had no real scientific application until Galileo
Galilei improved and adapted it to observe
celestial bodies. Galileo’s first telescope, made of a
leather tube covered by a lens at each end (one
lens convex and the other concave), magnified
objects up to 30 times. Using the telescope, Galileo
discovered that the Sun’s surface had imperfections
(sunspots), that the Moon had mountains and
craters, and that there were four moons, or
satellites, that traveled around Jupiter.
MEASUREMENTS
Noticing that the Sun, the Moon, and the stars
moved in cycles, ancient civilizations found they
could use the sky as both a clock and a calendar.
However, ancient astronomers had
difficulties performing the complex
calculations needed to predict the
positions of stars accurately
enough to create a truly precise
calendar. A useful tool developed
to perform this task was the
astrolabe. Its engraved plates
reproduce the celestial sphere in
two dimensions, allowing the
elevations of the celestial bodies
to be measured.
THE TRAVELERS
After many years and great advancements in
technology, scientists decided that space
observation conducted only from the Earth’s
surface was insufficient. In 1959, the first space
probe was launched, an automatic vehicle that
flew to the Moon and photographed its hidden
face. The space probes Voyager 1 and 2
explored the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune, a milestone in space exploration.
In 2005, Voyager 1 reached the region called
Termination Shock, the frontier of the solar
system, representing the farthest region explored
by humanity. Both probes carried with them golden
discs, named Sounds of Earth, containing sounds and
images portraying the diversity of life on Earth.
TIME
This
astrolabe was
used by ancient
Persians. To them,
astronomy
functioned as a kind
of agricultural
calendar.
COSMIC CHARACTERS
2nd Century
16th Century
17th Century
17th Century
17th Century
20th Century
Claudius Ptolemy
Nicolaus Copernicus
Johannes Kepler
Galileo Galilei
Isaac Newton
Edwin Hubble
100-170
1473-1543
1571-1630
1564-1642
1642-1727
1889-1953
Resurrected and compiled the
works of great Greek
astronomers into two
books. His postulates held
undisputed authority for
centuries.
In his De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium, the Polish
astronomer postulated that the
Sun—not the Earth—was the
center of the universe. This
concept is the foundation
of our own astronomy..
The German astronomer, believer
in Copernicus’s heliocentric model,
formulated three famous laws of
planetary movement, which
encouraged Galileo to publish
his research.
Built the first telescope, a
primitive device with which he
discovered sunspots, four of
Jupiter’s moons, the phases
of Venus, and craters on the
Moon’s surface.
He built upon the ideas of Galileo and
developed the theory of universal
gravitation, asserting that the
movements of the Earth
and the celestial bodies are
governed by the same
natural laws.
In 1929, he began to investigate
the expansion of the galaxies,
allowing scientists to obtain
an idea of the true scale of
the universe as well as refine
the big bang theory.
84 OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE 85
Chi1 Orionis
Sprinkled with Stars
C
onstellations are groups of stars thought to represent
different animals, mythological characters, and other figures.
Constellations were invented by ancient civilizations to serve
as reference points in the Earth’s sky. There are 88 of these
collections of stars. Although each star in a constellation appears
related to the others, it is actually very far from them. Not
all the constellations are visible at the same time from
any one place on the Earth.
Mythological Characters
Xi Orionis
Mu Orionis
The history of western culture’s
constellations begins with the
first astronomical observations
made by ancient
Mesopotamian peoples.
Because we inherited the
constellations from GrecoRoman culture, most of the
constellations are named after
figures in classical mythology.
All of the earliest constellations
were named by the 16th
century. Constellations
discovered more recently bear
names drawn from science or
technology or from exotic
fauna discovered in various
places across the globe.
Pi2 Orionis
Betelgeuse
SCORPIUS
Bellatrix
Pi3 Orionis
The Earth takes one year to orbit the
Sun. As the planet advances in its orbit,
the nighttime sky changes, allowing different
parts of it to be seen. This is why some
constellations can only be seen during certain
seasons of the year. In addition, different
constellations can be seen from different
latitudes. Only near the equator is it possible
to see all 88 constellations.
23.5°
In antiquity, each culture recognized certain
constellations that other civilizations did not. The
Chinese see smaller, more detailed patterns in the stars,
allowing for more precise positional information.
Various cultures also tend to use varied names for the
same constellation. Scorpius is recognized by the people
of Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Mesoamerica, and
Oceania—under different names.
Heka
The Sky Changes
ORIGIN
Different Cultures
Omicron
Orionis
Since ancient times, animal figures have been
seen represented in the sky by groups of
stars. The constellation of Taurus takes its name
from its resemblance to a bull. Orion, Cassiopeia,
Andromeda, and Perseus were named after
characters of Greek tragedies.
Pi4 Orionis
URSA MAJOR
THE MYSTERY
OF GIZA
The alignment of the three
pyramids at Giza in Egypt
appears to be related to
the alignment of the three
stars of Orion’s belt.
The bear represented by
this constellation is
unusual because of its
long tail. The
constellations’ shapes
rarely agree perfectly
with their namesakes.
Pi5 Orionis
Pi6 Orionis
Star
background
THE CENTAUR
is a creature from Greek
mythology, half man and
half horse. The centaur
accompanied Orion
during his quest to
recover his sight.
Mintaka
88
In Greco-Roman
mythology, Orion and
Scorpius are closely
linked. Orion is the giant,
handsome, seductive
hunter.
Earth
Sun
Alnilam
Alnitak
Earth’s
orbit
constellations
Babylon
13
The Babylonians conceived of the zodiac
2,000 years ago as a way of measuring
time, using it as a symbolic calendar.
OPHIUCHUS
Saiph
LEO
CANCER
The brightest stars are
those of the head and back.
Regulus is prominent.
is the least notable
of the zodiac’s
constellations.
The Constellations of the Zodiac
The 13 constellations located within the elliptical plane—
through which the Sun passes as seen from Earth—are
called the constellations of the zodiac. Twelve of these
constellations have long formed the foundation of astrology, but
Ophiuchus, the 13th, is ignored by astrologers as a new addition.
GEMINI
ARIES
The stars Castor and
Pollux form the head of
the twins.
has only one very
bright star,
Hamal, the Arabic
word for “sheep.”
TAURUS
is visible even without
binoculars. The brightest star,
Aldebaran, is red.
Rigel
Although it is the 13th constellation of
the zodiac, Ophiuchus is not a part of
the zodiac. When astrology began
3,000 years ago, the constellation
was far from the zodiac.
LIBRA
was at one
point, part of
Scorpius.
SAGITTARIUS
is located at the center of
the Milky Way and is full of
nebulae and star groups.
PISCES
Not a very
noteworthy
constellation, it has
no very bright stars.
OBSERVING THE CONSTELLATIONS
Observers in both hemispheres can see the
constellations of the zodiac. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the southern constellations, such as
Scorpius, are difficult to see, and in the Southern
Hemisphere, northern constellations, such as
Gemini, are difficult to study.
VIRGO
AQUARIUS
CAPRICORN
SCORPIUS
has globular clusters
and nebulae visible with
binoculars.
is one of the least
prominent
constellations.
lies in the direction of
the Milky Way and
its brightest star is Antares.
is a constellation
with several bright
stars.
86 OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE 87
Celestial Cartography
Stellar Movements
HOW TO READ A MAP OF THE SKY
Astronomers divide the celestial sphere into sections,
allowing them to study the sky in detailed, systematic
ways. These maps can show a particular region observed
from a certain place at a certain time, or they can
merely concentrate on a specific location. To specify the
position of a point on the surface of the Earth, the
geographic coordinates called latitude and longitude are
used. With the celestial sphere, declination and right
ascension are used instead. Observers located
at the equator see the celestial equator
pass directly over their heads.
A
s on the Earth, so in heaven. Just as terrestrial maps help us find locations on the
surface of the planet, star charts use a similar coordinate system to indicate various
celestial bodies and locations. Planispheres, or star wheels, are based on the idea of
a celestial sphere (an imaginary globe on
which the stars appear to lie and that
surrounds the planet). Two
common types are polar and
bimonthly star maps.
Star
magnitudes
The visible regions of the celestial sphere
and the ways in which stars move
through the sky depend upon the observer’s
latitude. As an observer moves north or south,
the visible portion of the celestial sphere will
change. The elevation of the north or south
celestial pole above the horizon determines the
apparent motion of the stars in the sky.
Constellations
Milky Way
AT THE POLES
At the North Pole, the stars
appear to rotate around the
observer’s head. The effect is
the same at the South Pole
but in the opposite direction.
PO
H
RT
O
N
R
A
BIG DIPPER
THE SQUARE
OF PEGASUS
ST
Once a star or constellation has been
located in the sky, hands and arms can
serve as simple measuring tools. A single
extended finger, shown in the first
illustration, can form a one-degree angle
from the observer’s line of sight and is useful
for measuring short distances between stars.
The closed palm of the hand forms a 10°
angle, and the open hand measures 20°.
P
MA
E
FULL MOON
T
L
AT THE EQUATOR
stars can be seen
throughout the year,
rising in the east and
setting in the west.
TH
Measuring Distances
OF
HE
ST
E
L
OF
The celestial sphere is imagined to
extend around the Earth and forms
the basis for modern star
cartography. The sphere is divided into
a network of lines and coordinates
corresponding to those used on the Earth,
allowing an observer to locate constellations
on the sphere. The celestial equator is a
projection of the Earth’s equator, the north and
south celestial poles align with the axis of the Earth,
and the elliptic coincides with the path along which
the Sun appears to move.
P
THE CELESTIAL
SPHERE
MA
LE
IN MIDDLE
LATITUDES
some stars can be seen
all year long, but others
are only visible during
certain months.
E
LL
A
R
SO
UT
H
PO
LE
Different Types of Charts
Throughout the year, different constellations are visible
because the Earth moves along its orbit. As the Earth’s
place in its orbit changes, the night side of the planet faces
different regions of space. To compensate for this shifting
perspective, there are various kinds of planispheres: north and
south polar maps and bimonthly equatorial maps.
ONE FINGER
CLOSED HAND
OPEN HAND
POLAR
The celestial
sphere is generally
divided into two
polar maps: north
and south.
EQUATORIAL
Six bimonthly maps depict all 88
constellations, which can be seen
over the course of the year.
88 OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE 89
From the Home Garden
Observable Objects
The sky is a very busy place. Not only are there stars
and planets, but there are also satellites, airplanes,
comets, and meteorites. Fortunately all become recognizable
by their appearance as well as their movement.
S
targazing is not difficult. After learning to locate celestial objects, many
people find the hobby very gratifying. With the aid of a star map, you can
recognize galaxies, nebulae, star clusters, planets, and other objects. Some
of these treasures of the universe are visible with the unaided eye, but others
require binoculars or even more sophisticated telescopes. Familiarity with the
night sky is useful in many ways.
Basics
VENUS
can generally be seen
above the horizon at
dusk or dawn.
SHOOTING STARS
Very short flashes of
light lasting only a
fraction of a second
MOON
The illuminated face of
the Moon can always be
seen at some time during
the night, at least
partially, except around
the new moon.
SATELLITES
The bigger ones are
brighter than some stars.
Some take a while to cross
the sky.
COMETS
visible to the naked eye
appear every one to two
years and are visible for
weeks or even months.
BARREL
Before stepping out to observe the night sky, make sure you have everything you need.
If you collect all your supplies beforehand, you will avoid having to expose your eyes to
bright light once they have adjusted to darkness. In addition to binoculars, star maps, and a
notebook, you should bring warm clothes, a comfortable seat, and something to drink.
Flat Perspective
OBJECTIVE
A constellation is a group of stars that, when
viewed from a certain angle, seem to assume a
specific shape. However, these stars that seem closely
joined together are, in fact, separated by great distances.
OPTIC
TUBE
Planisphere
Compass
17,000
Flashlight with
red cellophane
LIGHT-YEARS FROM EARTH
OMEGA
TRIPOD
ADAPTER
How to Look at the Moon
Under various degrees of magnification, the Moon and stars
take on different appearances. In some cases, you can make
observations of the Moon with the unaided eye as well as
with binoculars or a telescope.
PRISM
4.2
FOCUSING
WHEEL
LIGHT-YEARS
FROM EARTH
Measurement methods
Normal
view
THE MOTION OF
CONSTELLATIONS
The Earth’s rotation makes the
planets and stars appear to
move through the nighttime
sky in a general east-to-west
direction. When the southern
constellation Orion, visible from
November through March, is
viewed from the Northern
Hemisphere, it appears to move
from left to right.
View with
telescope
View with
binoculars
JÚPITER
A planisphere is a circular star chart that is used to
locate celestial bodies in the celestial sphere. To identify
a particular object, your own arms and body can be used to
measure its direction and altitude in relation to the horizon.
MEASUREMENT OF ELEVATION
ADJUSTMENT
SCREW
12:00 A.M.
9:00 P.M.
FOCUSING
EYEPIECE
50 TO 100
TIMES LARGER
10 TIMES
LARGER
Moon
CENTAURI
90º
MEASURING DIRECTION
45º
90º
45º
The planisphere indicates the
principal direction of a star.
Place the arms at 90º, using
north or south as the base.
A star to the southwest could
be located with your arms at
45°. Combine the directional
angles with your hand
measurements for elevation.
3:00 A.M.
Horizon
ORIÓN
EAST
SOUTH
WEST
Starting at the horizon,
extend one of your arms
until it is perpendicular to
the other.
To measure a 45° angle, move
your arm halfway up from the
horizon.
90 OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE 91
Telescope
units
A Four-Eyed Giant
Cerro Paranal Observatory
MELIPAL
T
he Paranal Observatory, one of the most advanced in the world, is located in the
region of Antofagasta, Chile. It uses four identical telescopes to obtain enough lightgathering power that it could see the flame of a candle on the surface
of the Moon. This sophisticated collection
of digital cameras, reflecting mirrors,
and other instruments is mounted in
the interior of four metallic
structures weighing hundreds of
tons. The Very Large Telescope
(VLT) is operated by a scientific
consortium drawn from eight
European countries. One of their
stated objectives is to discover
new worlds orbiting other stars.
KUEYEN
ANTU
DOME
Its protective cover
perceives changes
in the weather by
means of thermal
sensors.
YEPUN
Light
tunnels for
interferometry
AUXILIARY
TELESCOPE (AT)
There are four, each 5.9 feet
(1.8 m) in diameter. They
assist with interferometry.
Rails to
transport
the AT
10.9
(750)
The main feature of the VLT is its
revolutionary optical design. By
using adaptive and active optics, it achieves
resolution similar to that possible from space.
ADAPTIVE OPTICS
Air density
FAHRENHEIT (CELSIUS)
Average temperature
ADAPTIVE OPTICS
Light
enters
Reflected
light beam
Uncorrected
vision
Mechanical
structure
150-piston cell
(0.96)
LB PER CU FT (KG/M3)
(-8–25°)
To prevent the primary mirror from deforming because of
gravitational effects, the VLT has an adaptive optics system
that maintains the mirror in optimal shape, with
150 supporting pistons that continually adjust
the shape of the mirror.
3.9-foot(1.2-m-)
diameter
secondary
mirror
0.06
Air pressure
18–77°
7,759 FEET
(2,365 M) ABOVE SEA LEVEL
ACTIVE OPTICS
LB PER SQ IN (MBAR)
215,000 SQ FT
(20,000 SQ M) TOTAL SURFACE
The Telescope
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Cerro Paranal is located in the driest part of the
Atacama desert, where the conditions for
astronomical observation are extraordinarily
favorable. It is an 8,645-foot- (2,635-m-) tall
mountain that has about 350 cloudless nights a year.
The ESO’s Very Large Telescope is located to the north
of the Atacama desert, on Cerro Paranal. Completed in
2006, it has four 26.9-foot- (8.2-m-) wide reflector telescopes
capable of observing objects four billion times fainter than those
visible to the unaided eye. It also has three 5.9-foot- (1.8-m-)
wide movable auxiliary telescopes that are used in conjunction
with the larger ones to simulate the light-gathering power of a
52-foot- (16-m-) wide mirror (with the resolution of a 656-foot[200-m-] long telescope). This is enough to see an astronaut on
the Moon. The above technique is called interferometry.
5 to 20
VLT
Humidity
Very Large Telescope
Curved
mirror
Corrected
vision
ACRONYM FOR
PERCENT
ARMILLARY
SPHERE
Invented by
Eratosthenes in the
year 225 BC, it was
used as a teaching
aid and became
especially popular in
the Middle Ages
thanks to Danish
astronomer Tycho
Brahe.
2500–2000 BC
STONEHENGE
435–455 BC
CARACOL
1726
JAIPUR
1888
LICK
1897
YERKES
1979
MAUNA KEA
Located in Wiltshire, England, it
is an observatory temple dating
from the Neolithic Period.
It is located in the ruins of the
Mayan city of Chichén Itzá. The
structure was used for venerating
the Sun, the Moon, and Venus.
Located in India, it was built
by the maharajah Sawai Jai
Singh and has a large sextant
and a meridional chamber.
Located on 4,265-foot- (1,300m-) high Mount Hamilton. It
was the first observatory to
be located on a mountain.
Located in Wisconsin, it
contains the largest
refracting telescope in
the world.
An international complex
located in Hawaii, with large
British, French-American, and
American observatories
92 GLOSSARY
UNIVERSE 93
Glossary
Annihilation
interactions of galaxies, stars, planets, moons,
comets, asteroids, and other celestial bodies.
Total destruction of matter in a burst of energy,
as when it encounters antimatter.
Atmosphere
Antigravity
Hypothesized force, equal to gravity and
diametrically opposed to it.
Layer of gas retained around a planet by its
gravity. It is also the outer layer of matter in a
star, where the energy produced in the star's
interior is emitted in the form of radiation.
formed by material that falls into the central
region of the galaxy. Its mass can be a billion
times that of the Sun.
Carbon
One of the most common elements in the
universe, produced by stars. All known life is
carbon-based.
a meteorite on the surface of a natural satellite
or a planet.
Element
General Relativity
Rocky layer of the surface of a planet or natural
satellite.
A basic substance of nature that cannot be
diminished without losing its chemical
properties. Each element (such as hydrogen,
helium, carbon, oxygen) has its own
characteristics.
Curvature of Light
Elliptical Orbit
Orbit shaped like a flattened circle. All orbits are
elliptical. A circle is a special form of an ellipse.
Theory formulated by Albert Einstein in 1915. In
part, it holds that gravity is a natural
consequence of the curvature of space-time
caused by the presence of a massive body. In
general relativity, the phenomena of classical
mechanics (such as the orbit of a planet or the
fall of an object) are caused by gravity and are
represented as inertial movements within
space-time.
Crust
Antimatter
Atom
Chromosphere
Distortion of light rays when passing through
regions with strong gravitation.
Matter formed from subatomic particles with
shared properties. Its electrical charge is
opposite that of normal matter.
The smallest part of an element that partakes of
all the element's properties. It is generally
composed of three subatomic particles: the
neutron, the proton, and the electron.
The lowest layer of the Sun's atmosphere. It
emits a pinkish-red light that can be seen only
when the brighter photosphere is obscured
during a total eclipse.
Decay
Energy
The capacity to do work.
Aurora
Circumpolar Star
Process by which radioactive elements and
unstable particles become stable substances.
Also the way in which black holes eventually
disappear.
Luminous phenomenon, with red and green
layers, visible in the skies of the polar regions.
The auroras are caused by the collision of solar
particles with the Earth's atmosphere.
Any star always visible to an observer on the
Earth as it rotates about the celestial pole.
Austral
Object made of ice and rock dust. When a comet
approaches the Sun, the growing heat causes
the ice to evaporate, forming a gaseous head
and a tail of dust and gas pointing away from
the Sun.
Aperture
Diameter of the main mirror of a telescope or
eyepiece. The larger the aperture, the more light
the device receives.
Aphelion
The point in a celestial body's orbit farthest
from the Sun. The Earth reaches aphelion on or
about July 4, when it is 95,000,000 miles (152,
600,000 km) from the Sun.
Related to the Southern Hemisphere.
Big Bang
Apogee
The farthest position from the Earth reached by
the Moon or any of the artificial satellites that
orbit the planet.
Cosmological theory asserting that the universe
began to exist as a result of a great explosion
that occurred some 14 billion years ago.
Big Crunch
Asteroids
Minor bodies of the solar system, formed by
rock, metal, or a mixture of both. Most asteroids
orbit the Sun between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter. Their size ranges from dozens of feet to
hundreds of miles.
Astrolabe
Ancient astronomical instrument for measuring
both the positions and the movements of
celestial objects.
Astronomy
Science that studies the universe. It is
concerned with the physical characteristics,
movements, distances, formation, and
Comet
Constellation
Group of stars in the sky. Constellations tend to
bear the names of mythological characters or
creatures. To astronomers, the constellations
demarcate regions of the sky.
The edge of a black hole.
Density
Degree of solidity of a body (its mass divided by
its volume).
Force
Visual concealment of one celestial body by
another. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon
passes into the Earth's shadow, and a solar
eclipse takes place when the Earth passes into
the Moon's shadow.
Something that changes the motion or shape of
a body.
Temperature increase caused by gases (such as
carbon dioxide and methane) that prevent the
surface heat of a planet from escaping into
space.
Galactic Filament
Heliosphere
Structure formed by superclusters of galaxies
stretching out through great portions of space.
Filaments are the largest structures in the
universe and are separated by great voids.
The region of space around the Sun in which its
effects are evident. It extends some 100
astronomical units around the Sun.
Ecliptic
Imaginary line around the sky along which the
Sun moves during the year. The orbits of the
Earth and the other planets generally lie along
the ecliptic.
Black Hole
Electrical Charge
Corona
Property of particles causing them to either
attract or repel each other because of electrical
forces. Electrical charges are either positive or
negative.
Black hole produced by the explosion of a
massive star as a supernova. Its mass is
typically about 10 times that of the Sun.
Cosmos
Another name for the universe.
Black Hole, Supermassive
Black hole located at the center of a galaxy and
Crater
Circular depression formed by the impact of
Attractive force between bodies, such as
between the Earth and the Moon.
Eclipse
In a planet, a solid, high-pressure central mass;
in a star, the central region undergoing nuclear
fusion; in a galaxy, the innermost light-years.
Upper atmosphere of the Sun. It is visible as a
pearly halo during a total solar eclipse.
Gravity
Greenhouse Effect
Core
Black Hole, Stellar-Mass
Extraterrestrial
Waves in space that travel at the speed of light
and are produced by the movements of very
massive bodies.
Foreign to the Earth.
Cosmological theory asserting that the universe
would undergo a final, complete collapse if it
were to begin to contract.
Celestial body so dense that not even light can
escape its gravity.
Event Horizon
Gravitational Wave
Electromagnetic Radiation
Radiation composed of magnetic and electric
fields moving at the speed of light. It
encompasses radio waves (long wavelengths),
visible light, and gamma rays (very short
wavelengths).
Galaxy
Helium
Collection of billions of stars, nebulae, dust, and
interstellar gas held together by gravity.
The second most common and second lightest
element in the universe. It is a product of the
big bang and of nuclear fusion of stars.
Galaxy Cluster
Hubble Constant
Group of galaxies linked together by gravity.
Number that measures the rate of expansion of
the universe. It is expressed in kilometers per
second per millions of parsecs. It is currently
estimated at 70 km/s/Mpc.
Gamma Rays
Form of electromagnetic radiation with
greatest energy and shortest wavelength. It is
generated by only the most powerful
phenomena in the universe, such as supernovae
or the fusion of neutron stars.
Hydrogen
The most common and lightest element in the
universe; the main component of stars and
galaxies.
94 GLOSSARY
UNIVERSE 95
Hypernova
year. Equivalent to 6,000,000,000,000 miles
(10,000,000,000,000 km).
Destruction of a massive star, which emits a
wave of gamma rays extending great distances
across the universe.
Lunar Mare
Implosion
Collapse of a body upon itself in response to
great external pressure.
The large, dark regions of the surface of the
Moon. They were originally thought to be seas,
but they are actually great depressions covered
by lava.
Magnetic Field
Infrared Radiation
Heat radiation, with a wavelength between
visible light and radio waves.
Intergalactic Space
Space between galaxies.
Interstellar Space
The area near a magnetic body, electric
current, or changing electric field. Planets,
stars, and galaxies have magnetic fields that
extend into space.
Magnetosphere
Sphere that surrounds a planet with a magnetic
field strong enough to protect the planet from
the solar wind.
Moon
The Earth's natural satellite is called the Moon.
The natural satellites of other planets are
commonly known as moons and have their own
proper names.
Nebulae
Clouds of gas and dust in space. Nebulae can be
seen when they reflect starlight or when they
obstruct light from sources behind them.
Neutron
Electrically neutral subatomic particle. It makes
up part of an atom's nucleus (with the exception
of ordinary hydrogen).
Neutron Star
Region of the Earth's atmosphere that is
electrically charged and is located between 30
and 370 miles (50 and 600 km) from the
Earth's surface.
Kuiper Belt
Region of the solar system that is home to
millions of frozen objects, such as comets. It
stretches from the orbit of Neptune to the inner
limit of the Oort cloud.
Nova
Layer that lies between the crust and the core
of a planet.
Star that increases greatly in brightness for
several days or weeks and then slowly fades.
Most novae probably occur in binary-star
systems in which a white dwarf draws in matter
from its companion star.
Measure of the amount of matter in an object.
Matter
The substance of a physical object, it occupies
a portion of space.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear reaction in which relatively light
elements (such as hydrogen) form heavier
elements (such as helium). Nuclear fusion is the
source of energy that makes stars shine.
Meteorite
Light
Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
visible to the human eye.
Rocky or metallic object that strikes the
surface of a planet or satellite, where it can
form a crater.
Light Pollution
Milky Way
Brightness of the sky originating in street
illumination and other artificial lighting, which
impedes the observation of dim celestial objects.
The galaxy to which the Sun and the solar
system belong. It is visible as a pale band of
light that crosses our night sky.
Light-Year
Molecule
Standard astronomical measurement unit
equivalent to the distance traveled by light, or
any form of electromagnetic radiation, in one
Smallest unit of a pure substance that has the
composition and chemical properties of the
substance. It is formed by one or more atoms.
Elemental particle responsible for
electromagnetic radiation. Photons are the most
common particles in the universe.
Planet
Roughly spherical object made of rocks or gas
orbiting a star. A planet cannot generate its
own light but reflects the light of its parent star.
Polestar
Polaris, a star that lies near the celestial north
pole. Polaris is commonly called the North Star.
Over thousands of years, other stars will
become the polestar.
Proton
Mantle
Mass
Photon
Collapsed star consisting mostly of neutrons.
Space between the stars.
Ionosphere
January 4, when it is 92,000,000 miles
(147,500,000 km) from the Sun.
Oxygen
Chemical element vital to life and to the
expansion of the universe. Oxygen makes up 21
percent of the Earth's atmosphere.
Particle
In particle physics, a tiny, individual component
of matter with characteristic mass, electrical
charge, and other properties.
Perihelion
The point in a celestial body's orbit closest to the
Sun. The Earth reaches perihelion on or about
Subatomic particle with positive electrical
charge. It forms part of the nucleus of an atom.
Radio Galaxy
dimensions and time acts as the fourth.
Unstable
Spectral Analysis
Tendency to change from one state into another
less energetic one. Radioactive elements decay
into more stable elements.
Study of spectral lines that provide information
about the composition of stars or galaxies and
their redshifts.
Spectrum
Space occupied by little or no matter.
The result of dispersing the electromagnetic
radiation of an object so that the wavelengths
of which it is composed can be seen.
Dark lines that originate from elements that
are present and punctuate the spectrum at
specific wavelengths reveal the composition
of the object.
Van Allen Belt
Speed of Light
The distance traveled by light in a vacuum in
one second (approximately 186,000 miles, or
300,000 km). No object can move faster than
the speed of light.
Star
Enormous sphere of gas (generally hydrogen)
that radiates light and heat. The Sun is a star.
Active galaxy emitting energy as both radio
waves and light. Most of the radio emission
originates at the core of the galaxy.
Star Cluster
Solar Flare
Group of stars linked together by gravity. Open
clusters are scattered groups of several hundred
stars. Globular clusters are dense spheres of
several million old stars.
Immense explosion produced on the surface of
the Sun by the collision of two loops of the solar
magnetic field.
Solar Mass
Standard unit of mass against which other
objects in the universe can be compared.
The Sun has 333,000 times as much mass as
the Earth.
Sunspots
Dark, relatively cool spots on the surface of the
Sun. They tend to be located on either side of
the solar equator and are created by the solar
magnetic field.
Supernova
Space
Explosion of a massive star at the end of its life.
The medium through which all celestial bodies
move.
Tide
Space-Time
The effect of the gravitational pull of one
astronomical object upon the surface of
another. Ocean tides on Earth are an example.
Four-dimensional conception of the universe in
which length, width, and height constitute three
Vacuum
Radiation zone surrounding the Earth, where
the Earth's magnetic field traps solar particles.
Wavelength
Distance between the peaks of any wave of
electromagnetic radiation. Radiation with a
short wavelength (such as X-rays) has more
energy than radiation with a longer wavelength
(such as radio waves).
Zenith
Point in the sky 90° above the horizon (that is,
immediately above an observer).
Zodiac
Twelve constellations through which the Sun,
the Moon, and the planets appear to move.
96 INDEX
UNIVERSE 97
Index
A
B
accretion disc, 30, 34, 35, 37
active galaxy, 34-35
adaptive optics system, 91
annular solar eclipse, 78
Antennae (NGC 4038 and NGC 4039),
galactic collisions, 32-33
anti-gravity, 15, 16
antimatter, 10
antiparticle, 10, 11
aphelion, 75
Aristarchus of Samus, 82
Aristotle, 82
armillary sphere, 82, 90
asteroid (minor planet), 5, 63
asteroid belt, 40, 41, 63
astrolabe, 82
astrology, zodiac, 84-85
astronomy, 40, 80-91
big bang theory, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 32, 34, 83
geocentric model, 82
heliocentric model, 83
Roman Catholic Church opposition, 82, 83
See also space exploration; stargazing
atmosphere
Earth, 46, 66, 68, 70, 71
Jupiter, 50
lunar eclipse, 79
Mars, 49
Mercury, 45
Neptune, 57
Pluto, 59
Saturn, 53
solar, 42
thickness, 71
Uranus, 54, 55
Venus, 46
atom, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 31
attraction, forces of nature, 16, 17, 31
baby universe, 15
Babylon, 85
background radiation, 11, 15
big bang theory, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 32, 34, 83
Big Crunch, 14, 15
bimonthly star map, 86
black dwarf (star), 23
black hole, 4, 15, 19
active galaxies, 34
anti-gravity, 15, 16
discovery, 30
formation, 22, 23, 29, 30
gravitational force, 30, 31
Milky Way, 37
temperature, 35
blazar (galaxy), 35
blueshift, Doppler effect, 21
Butterfly Nebula (M2-9), 26
C
calendar, 5, 74, 82
carbon, 12, 24
Cassini division, rings of Saturn, 52
Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6542), 26-27
celestial cartography, 86-87
See also star chart
celestial equator, 86, 87
celestial sphere, 86, 87
Ceres (asteroid), 63
Cerro Paranal Observatory: See Paranal
Astronomical Observatory
Chandrasekhar limit, stellar collapse, 26
Charon (moon of Pluto), 58
chromosphere, 43
clock, 74, 82
closed universe, 14
color, stars, 20-21
comet, 5, 64-65, 89
formation, 65
Gacobini-Zinner, 64
Halley's, 64
Kuiper belt, 6, 60, 64
missions to, 64
parts, 64, 65
types, 64
condensation, 69
Cone Nebula, 4
constellation, 5, 84-85
Andromeda, 9, 85
Aquarius, 85, 87
Aries, 84, 86
Cancer, 74, 86
Capricorn, 85, 87
Cassiopeia, 85
celestial sphere, 86-87
Centaur, 85
cultural interpretations, 85
discovery, 84
flat perspective, 89
Gemini, 74, 86
Leo, 84, 86
Libra, 85, 87
locating, 86, 88-89
measuring distances, 86
motion, 88
mystery of Giza, 85
mythological characters, 85
naming, 84
near equator, 84
number, 84
observing, 84, 88-89
Ophiuchus, 85
origin, 84
Orion, 85, 88
Perseus, 85
Pisces, 84, 86
Sagittarius, 37, 85, 87
Scorpius, 85, 87
sky changes, 84
Taurus, 74, 85, 86
Ursa Major, 85
Virgo, 85, 87
zodiac, 84-85, 86-87
continental drift, 72-73
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 75
Copernican Revolution, 83
Copernicus, Nicholas, 5, 82
corona (Sun), 43
cosmic inflation theory, 10, 11
cosmic void, 8
cosmos: See universe
Crab Nebula (M1), 29
crater
Earth, 62
Mercury, 44
Moon, 77
creation, 10-11
big bang theory, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 32, 34, 83
cosmic inflation, 10, 11
time and temperature, 10-13
critical mass, 14, 15
curvature of space-time, 16, 31
D
dark energy, 13, 14
dark matter, 4, 6-7, 11, 12, 13
declination, 87
dew, 69
dinosaur, mass extinction, 62
Doppler effect, 21, 32
double planet, 58
dwarf planet, 5, 57, 58, 60, 61
See also Pluto
E
E=mc2 (equation), 16
Earth, 39, 41, 66-75
aerial view, 66-67
aphelion, 75
atmosphere, 46, 66, 68, 70, 71
axis inclination, 69, 74, 75
center of universe, 4, 5, 82
chronology, 73
comparison to Mars, 48
composition, 70
continental drift, 72
continental penetration, 70
cooling, 73
distance from Sun, 68
eclipses, 78-79
equinox and solstice, 74, 75
essential data, 69
evolutionary process, 62
formation, 13, 72-73
geographical coordinates, 75
gravity, 69
hydrosphere, 71
internal structure, 70-71
lithosphere, 71
magnetic field, 69, 70
magnetic inversion, 54
moon and tides, 68, 76-77
movements, 74-75
night sky, 84-85, 88-89
nutation, 74
oceanic penetration, 70
oceans, 68, 73
one day, 72
orbit, 75
origin, 8, 73
ozone layer, 71
perihelion, 74
revolution, 68, 74
rotation, 21, 68, 74
solar radiation, 71
thermosphere, 71
tides, 76
time zones, 75
water, 68-69, 71, 73
earthquake, 72
eclipse, 78-79
lunar, 79
observation from Earth, 79
solar, 78
Einstein, Albert, 16
electromagnetism, 11, 16, 17, 69
electron, 10, 11, 12
elliptical galaxy, 33
energy, 16, 34, 42
Enke division, 52
equinox, autumn and spring, 74
Eris, Kuiper belt objects, 61
Eta Carinae Nebula, 18-19, 29, 36
evaporation, 68
event horizon, black holes, 31
evolution, timeline, 72-73
extrasolar planet, discovery, 61
F
filament, 9, 12, 29
flat perspective, 89
flat universe, 14, 16
forces of nature, 16-17
electromagnetism, 11, 16, 17, 69
gravity, 11, 14, 16, 69, 76
nuclear interactions, 11, 16, 17
unified, 11, 16
fossil, 73
frost, 69
G
Gacobini-Zinner comet, 64
galactic cluster, 33
galaxy, 8, 9
active, 34-35
anatomy, 32-33
classification, 33, 35
clusters, 33
collision, 19, 32-33
energy emission, 34
expansion, 8, 83
formation, 12, 32, 33, 35
galactic clusters, 33
Mice, The, 32
Milky Way, 5, 8, 32, 33, 36-37
number, 9
shape, 12, 32
98 INDEX
stabilization, 35
subclassification, 33
superclusters, 9, 19
total number, 9
types, 32
Galileo Galilei, 5, 36, 51, 83
Gamow, George, 15
gas, 12, 34, 37
general theory of relativity, 16, 31
geocentric model (astronomical theory), 82
geology, 73
Gliese (star), extrasolar planet, 61
globular cluster, 21
gluon, 10, 11, 17
graviton, 10
gravity (gravitation), 11, 12, 14, 16, 17
black holes, 30, 31
dark matter, 7
Earth, 69
galaxy formation, 12, 34, 35
Jupiter and asteroid belt, 41
Milky Way, 37
moon, 76
Newton's theory, 16, 17
precipitation, 69
Sun, 40, 41
tides, 76
weight, 69
Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 57
Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 50, 51
greenhouse effect, Venus, 46
Greenwich meridian, 75
Guth, Alan, 11
H
hail, 69
Halley, Edward, 33
Halley's comet, 64
Hawking, Stephen, 5, 14
heliocentric model (astronomical theory), 83
helium, 11, 12, 17, 20, 22, 24, 42, 57
Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), 27
UNIVERSE 99
Hercules Cluster (NGC 6205), 33
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (H-R diagram),
20, 24, 25
Homo sapiens, first appearance, 13, 72, 73
Hourglass Nebula (MYCN 18), 27
Hubble, Edwin, 15, 32, 33, 83
Hubble Space Telescope, 55, 58
hydrogen, 11, 12, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 42, 57
life, existence of, 5, 8, 12, 68, 72-73, 83
light
bending, 17
spectral analysis, 20, 21
light-year, 8, 20
longitude, 75, 87
luminosity, stars, 20-21, 24, 25
lunar eclipse, 79
I
M
Ida (asteroid), 63
impact crater, 44, 62, 77
inner planet, 41
interferometry, 91
International Astronomical Union, 57, 60
intrinsic luminosity, stars, 20
iron meteorite, 62
irregular galaxy, 33
macrospicule, 43
magnetic field, 37, 45, 51, 54, 69
magnetic inversion, 54
magnetosphere, 51
main sequence, stellar life cycle, 20
map, celestial cartography, 86-87
Mars, 39, 41, 48-49
exploration, 48-49
Olympus Mons, 38-39, 49
mass, 16, 17
matter, 10, 11, 12, 13, 30
Mercury, 41, 44-45
mesosiderite (meteorite), 62
meteorite, 62-63
See also asteroid
methane, 58
Mice, The (NGC 4676), galactic collision, 32
Milky Way, 5, 8, 32, 33, 35, 36-37
moon
Earth: See Moon
Galilean, 51
Jupiter, 51
Mars, 48
Neptune, 56
Pluto, 58
Saturn, 52
Uranus, 55
Moon (Earth's), 68, 76-77, 89
eclipses, 79
landscape, 77, 83
looking at, 88
mythology, constellations, 85
J
jet lag, 75
Jupiter, 41, 50-51
missions to, 51, 83
K
Kant, Immanuel, 32
Kepler, Johannes, 40, 82, 83
Kirkwood gap, asteroid belt, 63
Kuiper belt, 5, 59, 60-61, 64
L
Large Magellanic Cloud (galaxy), 28, 36
latitude, 75, 87
N
neap tide, 76
nebula, 22
Butterfly, 26
Cat's Eye, 26-27
Cone, 4
Crab, 29
Eta Carinae, 18-19, 29, 36
Helix, 27
Hourglass, 27
NGC 6751, 25
planetary, 3, 22, 23, 25, 26
solar, 72
Spirograph, 26
Neptune, 40, 56-57
missions to, 56, 83
orbit, 60-61
neutrino, 11, 17, 42
neutron, 11, 17, 42
neutron star, 22, 23, 29, 31
Newton, Isaac, 16, 17, 83
NGC 6751 (nebula), 25
1987a supernova, 28
nuclear interaction, 11, 16, 17
O
observation: See stargazing
observatory
Caracol, 90
Jaipur, 90-91
Lick, 90
Mauna Kea, 90
Paranal, 90
Stonehenge, 80-81, 90-91
Yerkes, 90
ocean, creation, 73
Olympus Mons (Mars), 38-39, 49
Omega Centauri (star cluster), 21
Oort cloud (region of Solar System), 60, 64
open cluster, 21
open universe, 15
orbit, 40
Earth, 75
Eris, 60-61
Mars, 48
Mercury, 44, 45
Neptune, 60
Pluto, 58, 59, 60-61
Saturn, 60
Uranus, 60
outer planet, 40
ozone layer, 68, 71
P
parallax, 21
parallels, geographical coordinates, 75
Paranal Astronomical Observatory, 90, 91
See also Very Large Telescope
parsec, 20
partial eclipse
lunar, 79
solar, 78
penumbra, 43, 78, 79
penumbral lunar eclipse, 79
Penzias, Arno, 15
perihelion, 74
phase
Moon, 77
Venus, 47
photon, 10, 12, 42
photosphere, Sun, 43
planet, 5, 40-41
extrasolar discovery, 61
formation, 41, 62
inner, 41
irregular movement, 83
observation, 89
orbits, 40
outer, 40
remnant materials, 62
revolution, 40
See also under specific name, for example
Earth; Mars
planetary nebula, 1, 22, 23, 25, 26
planetesimal, 41
planisphere (star wheel), 86, 88, 89
plasma, 43
plate tectonics, Earth, 73
Pleiades, The (star formation), 21
Pluto, 5, 58-59
diameter, 60, 61
orbit, 58, 59, 60-61
polar star map, 86
Pope, Alexander, 55
positron, 11, 42
precipitation, 69
protogalaxy 12
proton, 11, 12, 17, 42
protostar, 22
Ptolemy, Claudius, 4, 5, 82
pulsar, 19, 29, 31
Q
Quaoar, Kuiper belt objects, 60, 61
quark, 10, 11, 17
quasar, 19, 34, 35
R
radiation, 10, 11, 12, 29
background, 11, 15
solar, 41, 67, 71, 76
radio galaxy, 35
rain, 69
red giant (star), 23, 24, 25, 31
red planet: See Mars
red supergiant (star), 23, 24
redshift, Doppler effect, 21, 32
relativity, general theory of, 16, 31
repulsion, forces of nature, 17
rift, 72
right ascension, 87
100 INDEX
ring system
Jupiter, 51
Neptune, 56
Saturn, 52
Uranus, 55
S
Sagittarius A and B (gas clouds), 37
Saros period, eclipses, 79
satellite, 5, 55, 56, 59
See also moon
Saturn, 40, 52-53
missions to, 83
orbit, 60-61
Scorpius (region of space), 20-21
Sedna, diameter, 61
self-generated universe, 15
Shakespeare, William, 55
shooting star, 62, 89
snow, 69
solar eclipse, 78-79
solar flare, 43
solar nebula, 72
solar prominence, 43
solar radiation, 41, 67, 71, 76
Solar System, 5, 38-65
components, 39, 40-41
Earth, 39, 41, 66-67
Eris, 61
formation, 13
inner planets, 41
Jupiter, 40, 41, 50-51
Mars, 39, 41, 48-49
Mercury, 41, 44-45
Neptune, 40, 56-57
origin, 60
outer planets, 40
Pluto, 5, 58-59
Saturn, 40, 52-53
“Termination Shock” region, 83
Uranus, 40, 54-55
Venus, 41, 46-47
UNIVERSE 101
solar wind, 43, 49, 51, 69
solstice, summer and winter, 74, 75
Sombrero Galaxy, 32-33
Sounds of Earth (Voyager recording), 83
space exploration, 44, 47, 48, 49, 55, 56, 64,
76, 83
space-time, 16
spatial dimension, 14
spectral class, stars, 20
spectrum, 21
spicule, 43
spiral galaxy, 32, 33
Spirograph Nebula (IC 418), 26
spring tide, 76
star, 84-85
black dwarf, 23, 24
blue, 20
brightness, 20
calendar, 5, 82
celestial sphere, 86-87
chart: See star chart
color, 20
composition, 12, 20, 21, 29
constellations, 37, 74, 84-85, 88
convection cells, 24
core, 24, 28, 31
death, 24-25, 28, 29
distance from Earth, 20, 21
Doppler effect, 21
dust grains, 25
end, 29
final darkness, 30-31
formation, 12, 22-23, 28, 34
gas shells, 26-27
groups, 5, 21
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 20, 24, 25
hot spots, 25
life cycle, 22-23, 24-25, 26, 28, 30
luminosity, 20-21, 24, 25
main sequence, 20
maximum mass, 26
navigation, 5
near, 8
origin, 22-23
parallax, 21
planetary nebulae, 26
principal, within 100 light-years from Sun,
20-21
red giant, 20, 23, 24, 25, 31
red supergiant, 20, 23, 24
reference points, 84
shooting, 62
size, 22, 24, 26
stellar movement, 87
stellar remnant, 29
study, 80
supergiant, 24, 28, 31
supernovae, 28-29
superstition and ritual, 80
temperature, 20, 24
white dwarf, 23, 24, 25, 26-27, 31
See also Sun
star chart
celestial sphere, 86
equatorial, 87
measuring distances, 86
observer's latitude, 87
polar, 87
reading a map of the sky, 87
stellar movements, 87
stellar north pole, 86
stellar south pole, 87
types, 87
star wheel (planisphere), 86, 88, 89
stargazing, 88-89
auxiliary telescope, 90
basics, 88
binoculars, 88
comets, 89
flat perspective, 89
history, 82-83
instruments for, 82
measuring direction, 89
moon, 88, 89
motion of constellations, 88
night sky, 88
observable objects, 88
observatories, 80-81, 90-91
recognizing objects, 88, 89
satellites, 89
shooting stars, 89
supplies, 88
telescope, 88
unaided eye, 88
Venus, 89
Very Large Telescope, 90-91
stellar map, 5, 86-87
stellar wind, 25
Stonehenge (United Kingdom), 80-81, 90-91
stony meteorite, 62
strong nuclear force (strong nuclear
interaction), 11, 16, 17
subatomic particle, 10
subduction, 72
Sun (Earth's), 22, 42-43
ancient peoples, 38
astronomical theories, 82, 83
convective zone, 42
core, 43
corona, 43
distance to earth, 78
eclipses, 78-79
essential data, 42
formation, 13, 72
future, 25
gravitational pull, 31, 40, 41
luminosity, 20
photosphere, 43
radiation, 41, 67, 71, 76
radiative zone, 42
size, 31, 78
surface and atmosphere, 43
sunspot, 43, 83
supercluster (galaxy), 9, 19
supergiant (star), 28, 31
supernova, 12, 19, 22, 23, 26, 28-29
T
tectonic plate, 72, 73
telescope, 4, 82
auxiliary, 90
early, 81
Galileo, 5, 36, 83
Hubble Space Telescope, 55
object position, 17
parts, 88-89
Very Large Telescope, 90-91
visible matter, 5, 12, 20, 30, 34, 52, 56
temperature
black holes, 35
stars, 20, 24
temporal dimension, 14
Termination Shock (solar system region), 83
thermonuclear fusion, 42
tide, 51, 76
time, 16, 17
curvature of space-time, 16, 31
Greenwich median, 75
measurement, 74, 82
zone, 75
total eclipse
lunar, 79
solar, 78
transparent, 12-13
Uranus, 40, 54-55
missions to, 55, 83
orbit, 60-61
U
water, 44, 46, 48, 61, 68, 71
weak, light particle (WIMP), 17
weak nuclear force (weak nuclear
interaction), 11, 16, 17
weight, relation to gravity, 69
white dwarf (star), 23, 25, 26-27, 31
Wilson, Robert, 15
wind, 51, 53
WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe) project, 11
wormhole, 31
umbra, 43, 78
universal gravitation, theory of, 16, 17
universe
background radiation, 11, 15
composition, 8-9, 14
cooling, 12
creation, 10-11
curvature of space-time, 16
defined, 6-7, 18-19
expansion, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 32, 83
expansion theories, 14-15
forces, 11, 16-17
future, 14
geocentric model, 82
heliocentric model, 83
history, 13
observation, 80-81, 90-91
secrets, 4-5
size/immensity, 8
V
Valles Marineris canyon, Mars, 49
Van Allen belts, Earth, 69
Venus, 41, 46-47, 89
Very Large Telescope (VLT), 81, 90-91
auxiliary telescope, 90
dome, 90
optics, 90, 91
photograph, 90-91
volcanism, 41, 47, 49, 77
W
X-Z
X-ray, black holes, 30
zero time, 10
zodiac, constellations, 84-85
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