STRESS IS A PERSON’S
PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL
RESPONSE TO CHANGE.
CLASSIFICATION OF
STRESS
• POSITIVE STRESS
• NEGATIVE STRESS
• ACUTE STRESS
• CHRONIC STRESS
WHAT CAUSES STRESS ?
• LIFE EVENTS SUCH AS DIVORCE OR SEPARATION,
DEATH OF A LOVED ONE, THE BIRTH OF A CHILD,
MOVING, A MAJOR FINANCIAL SETBACK, EMPLOYMENT
CHANGES OR BECOMING THE VICTIM OF A CRIME OR
NATURAL DISASTER
• DAILY EVENTS SUCH AS TRAFFIC CONGESTION, LONG
COMMUTES, WORKING OVERTIME, DEADLINES,
PERSONAL CONFLICTS, CAR TROUBLE, JOB STRESS,
AND JUGGLING HOUSEHOLD CHORES AND CHILDCARE
• ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS SUCH AS POLLUTION,
WEATHER EXTREMES OR EXCESSIVE NOISE
• PHYSICAL STRESSORS SUCH AS PHYSICAL INJURY,
CHRONIC PAIN, TIRING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY (SUCH AS
TRAVELING), AND UNSATISFIED PHYSICAL NEEDS SUCH
AS HUNGER, THIRST OR LACK OF SLEEP
Continued….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
DEATH OF A SPOUSE
DIVORCE
MARITAL SEPARATION
IMPRISONMENT
DEATH OF A CLOSE RELATIVE
PERSONAL INJURY OR ILLNESS
MARRIAGE
FIRED FROM A JOB
MARITAL RECONCILIATION
RETIREMENT
ILLNESS OF A RELATIVE
PREGNANCY
SEXUAL PROBLEMS
BIRTH OR ADOPTION
BUSINESS READJUSTMENT
Continued…
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Change in financial status
Death of a close friend
Change to different work
Increased arguments with spouse
Mortgage or loan for major purchase
Foreclosure on mortgage or loan
Change in job responsibilities
Child leaving home
Problems with in-laws
Outstanding personal achievement
Spouse begins or stops work
Begin or end school
Change in living conditions
Changing personal habits
Problems with your boss
Continued…
31. CHANGE IN WORK
32. HOURS/CONDITIONS
33. CHANGE IN RESIDENCE OR SCHOOL
RECREATION
34. CHURCH OR SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
35. MORTGAGE OR LOAN
36. CHANGE IN SLEEPING HABITS
37. CHANGE IN FAMILY GATHERINGS
38. CHANGE IN EATING HABITS
39. VACATION
40. ANY FESTIVALS
41. MINOR LAW VIOLATION
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
FOR STRESS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
GENETIC FACTORS
INABILITY TO ADAPT
INADEQUATE RELAXATION RESPONSE
RESPONSE ACTIVITY VARIATIONS
AGE
PERSONALITY
ISOLATION
Environment
SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
•Behavioral symptoms
•Physical symptoms
BEHAVIORAL SYMPTOMS
• TOO MUCH SLEEP (HYPERSOMNIA)
OR TOO LITTLE SLEEP (INSOMNIA)
• NIGHTMARES
• NERVOUS HABITS LIKE NAILBITING OR FOOT-TAPPING
• DECREASED SEX DRIVE
• TEETH GRINDING
• IRRITABILITY OR IMPATIENCE
• CRYING OVER MINOR INCIDENTS
• DREADING GOING TO WORK OR
OTHER ACTIVITIES
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS
• MIGRAINE OR TENSION HEADACHES
• DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS LIKE
HEARTBURN OR DIARRHEA
• SHALLOW BREATHING OR SIGHING
• COLD OR SWEATY PALMS
• JAW PAIN, NECK PAIN,SHOULDER
PAIN
EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Excessive fatigue
Gastric disturbance
Withdraw from social life
Menstrual problems
Speech difficulties
More impatient
Headaches
Infertility
Ulcers
Nail biting
Grinding teeth
Low blood sugar
High blood sugar
EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS-2
14. Need more sleep
15. Tired but can't sleep
16. Sudden weight loss
17. Sudden weight gain
18. Low blood pressure
19. High blood pressure
20 .Lack of coordination
21. Repeated influenza
22. Repeated colds
23. Muscle aches
24. Hair loss
25. Chest pain
EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS-3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Forgetfulness
Nervous talking
Lower back pain
Loss of appetite
Increased appetite
High cholesterol
High triglycerides
Physical signs and symptoms of stress
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Increased heart rate
Pounding heart
Elevated blood pressure
Sweaty palms
Tightness of the chest, neck,
jaw, and back muscles
Headache
Diarrhea
Constipation
Urinary hesitancy
Trembling
Being easily startled
Chronic pain and
Dysponea
• Twitching
• Stuttering and other
speech difficulties
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Sleep disturbances
• Fatigue
• Shallow breathing
• Dryness of the mouth or
throat
• Susceptibility to minor
illness
• Cold hands
• Itching
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Emotional signs and symptoms of stress
Irritability
Angry outbursts
Hostility
Depression
Jealously
Restlessness
Withdrawal
Decreased perception of
positive
Experience opportunities
Narrowed focus
Obsessive rumination
Reduced self-esteem
emotional response reflexes
Weakened positive emotional
response reflexes
• Anxiousness
• Diminished initiative
• Feelings of unreality or
over-alertness
• Reduction of personal
involvement with others
• Lack of interest
• Tendency to cry
• Being critical of others
• Self-deprecation
• Nightmares
• Impatience
• Reduced self-esteem
• Insomnia
• Changes in eating habits
Cognitive/Perceptual Signs and Symptoms of Stress
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Forgetfulness
Preoccupation
Blocking
Blurred vision
Errors in judging distance
Diminished or exaggerated
fantasy life
Reduced creativity
Lack of concentration
Diminished productivity
Lack of attention to detail
Orientation to the past
• Decreased psychomotor
reactivity and coordination
• Attention deficit
• Disorganization of thought
• Negative self-esteem
• Diminished sense of
meaning in life
• Lack of control/need for
too much control
• Negative self-statements
and negative evaluation of
experience
Behavioral Signs and Symptoms of Stress
• Increased smoking
• Aggressive behaviors
(such as driving - road
rage, etc.)
• Increased alcohol or
drug use
• Carelessness
• Under-eating
• Over-eating
• Nervous laughter
• Compulsive
behavior
• Impatience
• Withdrawal
• Listlessness
• Hostility
• Accident-proneness
Signs of Stress in The Workplace
• Stress Arousal
Stage
• Persistent
irritability and
anxiety
• Bruxism and/or
Insomnia
• Occasional
forgetfulness
and/or inability to
concentrate
• Stress Resistance Stage
• Absenteeism or tardiness
for work
• Tired and fatigued for no
reason
• Procrastination and
indecision
• Social withdrawal with
cynicism
• Resentful, indifferent,
defiant
• Increased use of coffee,
alcohol, tobacco, etc.
Jobs and stress
• The TUC identifies four main causes:
1. Environmental (noise, overcrowding, open plan
offices, for child care facilities, for instance):
2. Contractual (low pay, shift work, excessive
overtime, job insecurity);
3. Job designed (boring work, too much/little work,
lack of job control):
4. Relationships (poor relations with colleagues, lack
of communication, impersonal treatment).
• Loss of self-esteem and a lack of control are two
very common themes.
Demands of the task
• Excessive workloads are associated with increased
rates of accidents and health problems (Mackay &
Cox, 1978). The workload for mothers is
particularly heavy because not only do they work
outside of the home but also do most of the chores
at home (Frankenhaeuser, 1991). Repetitive jobs
that under utilise the workers abilities can produce
stress. The evaluation of an employee's job or
performance is also particularly stressful for both
the supervisor and the employee (Quick and
Quick, 1984).
Responsibility for people's lives
People working in the health professions need
to take many life and death decisions
instantly and experience appalling things,
this leads to feelings of emotional
exhaustion (Maslach & Jackson, 1982). The
same applies to the police and fire fighters.
Stress can result from other
aspects of jobs:
1. The physical environment of the job. Extreme
levels of noise, temperature, humidity, or
illumination cause stress (Mackay & Cox, 1978).
2. Perceived insufficient control. People experience
stress when they have little influence over work
procedures or the pace of the work (Cottington
&House, 1987).
Stress can result from other
aspects of jobs:
3
4
Poor interpersonal relationships. Stress increases
when an employee's boss or colleague is socially
abrasive, being insensitive to the needs of others
or condescending and overly critical of the work
other individuals do (Quick and Quick, 1984).
Perceived inadequate recognition or
advancement. Workers feel stress when they do
not get the recognition or promotions they
believe they deserve (Cottington et al, 1986).
Stress can result from other
aspects of jobs:
5 Job loss. The sense of job insecurity is
stressful, particularly if the employee has
little prospect of finding another job
(Cottington et al, 1986). Unemployment is
associated with stress, such as in people's
loss of self-esteem and heightened blood
pressure (Olafsson & Svensson, 1986).
Retirement
• Retirement can be stressful because retired people
have lost opportunities for social interaction and
an important part of their identity. They may miss
the power and influence they once hand, the
structure and routines of a job, and the feeling of
being useful and competent (Bohm & Rodin,
1985). In addition retired people often live on low
incomes, which again produces stress.
Life transitions
• Life transitions tend to be stressful (Moos and
Schaefer, 1986). Changing from one phase to
another in life is called a transition; examples
include:
• Starting school
• Moving home
• Reaching puberty
• Starting college, especially away from home
• Starting a career
• Getting married
Langer and Rodin (1976)
• A study carried out by Langer and Rodin
(1976) attempted to discover the effects of
giving people a greater sense of personal
control. They compared two different wards in
a nursing home for elderly people in
Connecticut, USA. The residents in the two
wards were of similar age, health and
socioeconomic status, and they had been
resident in the home for the same period of
time on average (residents who were too
uncommunicative or bedridden to take part
were excluded from the study).
Langer and Rodin (1976)
• Both groups of residents were given a talk, but
the issue of personal responsibility was strongly
stressed with one of them and not the other.
Furthermore, residents in this first group were
offered a plant each for their rooms and were
asked where they wanted it placed.
Additionally, they were allowed to choose
which night to go and watch a film. Residents
in the other group were simply given the plant
and told which night to go and see the film.
Langer and Rodin (1976)
• Even this fairly minimal manipulation of
personal control seemed to have a dramatic
effect. Residents who were given a greater sense
of personal control were happier, more active,
more alert and, when the researchers returned
after eighteen months, were in better health
and fewer had died. This study implies that
having a greater sense of personal control
actually helps to reduce stress.
Commentary
• • There are methodological and ethical
criticisms that can be made of Langer and
Rodin’s study. The sample was very limited
(elderly Americans living in a particular care
home). On the other hand, Langer and Rodin
took care to avoid demand characteristics by
not informing the residents, nurses or research
assistants (who collected the data) of the
purpose of the study. Controlled experiments
on the damaging effects of stress in human
beings can be very unethical.
Commentary
• In this case, Langer and Rodin would argue
that they did not harm anyone’s health, but
actually improved it for those residents who
were given a greater sense of control. On the
other hand, when the experiment was over, we
do not know whether the situation reverted to
what it had been before, and it may be that
being given a sense of control for three weeks,
then having it removed again, did more harm
than good in the long term.
Commentary
• There are clear implications of this study for
the way people are treated in residential homes.
There is also a lesson to be learnt when
developing therapy to help people suffering
from extreme stress. If it is true that a low
sense of personal control (that is, having a very
external locus of control) can lead to stress,
then in cases where this applies it may be
beneficial for therapy to focus on shifting
people’s locus of control from external to
internal.
Sources within the person
• Approach/approach conflict
• This is the conflict produced when the choice is
between two good strategies. For example needing
to follow a diet and wanting to eat a fattening
cake. These conflicts are easily resolved but the
more important the decision seems to be, the more
difficult it is for the person to solve the conflict.
Sources within the person
• Avoidance/Avoidance conflict
• This is the conflict produced when the choice is
between two bad strategies. For example, the
choice between two equally harrowing treatments
for an illness. Patients often delay making a choice
and might easily change their minds repeatedly.
Patients might even change their doctor in the
hope that they will be given an easier choice. They
might even get somebody else to make the
decision for them. This conflict is difficult to
resolve and very stressful.
Sources within the person
• Approach/Avoidance conflict
• This is when a single goal has good points
and bad points. For example giving up
smoking might mean a gain in weight.
Sources in the family
• Interpersonal conflict can arise from
financial problems, from inconsiderate
behaviour, and from opposing goals.
Overcrowded conditions increases conflict
over privacy and the use of family
resources, such as the Bathroom. Major
sources of stress in the family are the
addition of a new family member, illness,
infirmity, and death in the family.
An addition to the family
• Obviously the mother will experience much stress
during pregnancy and after the birth. But the
father may also worry over money, or his wife's
and baby's health, or fear that his relationship with
his wife may deteriorate.
• Parents may experience stress from their
relationship with the baby. Each baby comes into
the world with certain personality dispositions,
which are called temperaments (Buss & Plomin,
1975). There are easy babies and difficult ones.
Babies react differently to feeding, cuddling,
bathing, and dressing.
An addition to the family
• Difficult babies tend to cry a great deal. They
resist new foods, routines, and people, and their
patterns of Sleep, hunger, and bowel movements
are hard to predict. About 10% of babies are
classified as difficult displaying most of these
traits fairly consistently, many others show some
of these traits occasionally. Longitudinal studies
have shown that children's temperaments are
stable across time. Many traits continue for many
years, although many difficult children show
changes toward the development of easy traits
(Carey & McDevitt, 1978).
An addition to the family
• The arrival of a new baby can also be stressful to
other children in the family (Honig, 1987). Much
stress can be experienced in children aged two or
three years old who do not want to share their
parents with the new brother or sister. These
children often show increased clinging to the
mother and their sleeping and toileting problems
also increase. Older children experience stress
from the changes in the pattern of family
interaction, such as when the parents introduce
new rules.
Family illness, disability, and
death
• A working mother with a sick child will
experience much stress. When children have a
serious chronic illness, their families have to cope
with stress over a long period. The amount of time
needed to care for the child conflicts with other
activities. The family also needs to make difficult
decisions. They need to learn about the illness and
how to care for their child. There is much expense
and other children begin to feel left out.
Family illness, disability, and
death
• Adult sickness can also produce much stress in the
family. If a principal breadwinner is ill there will
be a strain on the family's financial resources. The
family's time and personal freedom are curtailed
producing changes in interpersonal relationships.
• If an elderly person who is ill or disabled must live
with and be careful by relatives, the stress for
those in the household can be severe, especially if
the person requires constant care and shows
mental deterioration (Robinson & Thurner, 1986).
Family illness, disability, and
death
• If a parent dies children under about five
years of age seem to grieve for the lost
parent less strongly and for a shorter time
than older children and adolescents do
(Garmezy, 1983). Children's concept of
death changes between four and eight years
of age (Lonetto, 1980). Young children
think death is reversible: the person will
come back eventually.
Family illness, disability, and
death
• An adult whose child or spouse dies suffers
a tremendous loss. Bereaved mothers
reported that they had lost important hopes
and expectations for the future (Edelstein,
1984). A mother who loses her only child
loses her identity and role as a mother too.
The loss of a spouse is especially stressful
in early adult (Ball, 1976-77).
Child abuse
• The stress caused by long-lasting psychological
effects of sexual abuse in childhood has been
found to increase the likelihood of certain diseases
in old age. Women who were assaulted in their
teens appeared to run greater risk of developing
arthritis and breast cancer in later life, while Male
victims are more likely to develop diseases of the
thyroid than men who were not abused as
children. 1,300 elderly middle-class participants
were studied 12% of the women and 5% of the
men reported unwanted sexual contact for
childhood.
Child abuse
• Breast cancer and arthritis were relatively
common amongst participants who had suffered
sexual abuse; the more sustained the abuse the
higher the risk of developing the diseases.
However those abused were less likely to suffer
from hypertension, but this was probably due to
survivor bias, in other words, people with
hypertension tend to die younger, so do not feature
in studies of elderly people. Stein and BarrettConnor (2000).
Environmental stress
• Crowded conditions can be stressful for three
reasons:
1. Lack of control over interpersonal interaction, as
when other people can overhear your
conversation.
2. The restricted ability to move about freely or
reduced access to resources, such as seats.
3. Intrusion into personal space (Sarafino, 1987).
Environmental stress
• People exposed to hazardous substances in their
environment worry for years about what will
happen to them (Baum, 1988).
• People who lived near the three mile Island power
plant in Pennsylvania, where a nuclear accident
had happened suffered more stress more than a
year after the accident than other residents near a
similar facility (Fleming et al., 1982).
Stressors and stress response
• Stressors - produce stress
Source of stressors can be Family (as when
trying to cope with a newborn baby or when
looking after a sick relative), Work or the
Environment.
• Stress response - response to stresssor
Stressors and stress response
• Stressors - external - e.g. heat, crowding,
noise, difficulties with a loved one or
contact with a hated one.
• internal - e.g. pain, thoughts, feelings.
• But not straightforward - heat can be
relaxing and crowds can be exciting.
Individual differences.
Other factors
• Other factors
• Event
– negative - Divorce (-ve), Marriage (+ve)
– Controllable or predictable
– ambiguous - not sure what is happening. e.g.
stuck on underground train without being
informed.
Lundberg (1976)
• Using urine samples
Commuters on crowded trains more stressed than
in empty trains
• but those that had been on the train since the start,
showed less stress, even though they had been
exposed to the crowded condition longer.
• Being able to choose seat, control the situation,
reduced the stress.
Post - traumatic stress disorder
and 'The Herald of Free
Enterprise'.
• 1) Re-experiencing phenomena.
• Most of the children reported intrusive thoughts
and some experienced full-blown flashbacks.
• 2) Avoidance or numbing reactions.
• Detached from others
Avoided not only ferry travel, but also the sea.
Immediate aftermath - avoided shower or bath.
Cyclical - reappear and disappear.
Onset can be several months later.
Just as severe.
Ambiguity
• Ambiguity can cause stress. Two types of
ambiguity are:
1.Role ambiguity
2.Harm ambiguity.
Role ambiguity
• Role ambiguity can occur in the
workplace, for instance when there are
no clear guidelines, standards for
performance and no clear consequences.
Role ambiguity is stressful because
people are uncertain about what actions
and decisions to make.
Harm ambiguity
• Harm ambiguity occurs when people are not
sure what to do to avoid harm. Stress will
depend upon the person's personality, beliefs
and general experience (Lazarus and Folkman,
1984). A person who is seriously ill and has no
clear information might draw hope from this
ambiguity, believing that they will get well.
Another person in the same situation may
believe that people are deliberately giving
ambiguous information because the prognosis
is poor.
Controllability
• Controllability is another factor that will
affect the perception of stress. People tend
to appraise uncontrollable events as being
more stressful than controllable events
(Miller, 1979). There are two types of
control:
1.Behavioural
2.Cognitive.
Controllability
• Behavioural control means performing some
action. For example, being unable to take a
tablet for a headache will make experiencing a
headache less stressful.
• In the case of cognitive control, we can affect
the impact of the events by using some mental
strategy, such as distraction or by developing a
plan to overcome the problem.
Link between stress and arousal
OUR BODY’S REACTION TO STRESS
(GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS))
• ALARM REACTION
• RESISTANCE OR ADAPTATION
• EXHAUSTION
ALARM REACTION
• MUSCLES TENSE
• HEART BEATS FASTER
• THE BREATHING AND
PERSPIRATION INCREASES
• THE EYES DILATE
• THE STOMACH MAY CLENCH
RESISTANCE OR ADAPTATION
• FATIGUE
• CONCENTRATION LAPSES
• IRRITABILITY AND LETHARGY
EXHAUSTION
• DECREASED STRESS TOLERANCE
• PROGRESSIVE MENTAL AND
PHYSICAL EXHAUSTION
• ILLNESS AND COLLAPSE
Severe Exhaustion Stage
• Chronic sadness or depression
• Chronic mental and physical fatigue
• Chronic stress related illnesses
(headache, stomach ache, bowel
problems, etc.)
• Isolation, withdrawal, self-destructive
thoughts
Figure 9.1 The General Adaptation System
Evaluation of GAS
• A problem for GAS is that some stressors
elicit a stronger emotional response than
others do. The theory does not take account
of psychosocial processes. A sudden
increase in temperature, for example, would
produce more emotion than a gradual
increase.
Evaluation of GAS
• Another problem for GAS is that cognitive
appraisal is not taken account of. A study by
Katherine Tennes and Maria Kreye (1985) found
that intelligent schoolchildren experienced more
stress on the day of an exam than unintelligent
schoolchildren. Cortisol levels were measured in
urine samples taken on regular school days and on
days when tests were given. Intelligence test
scores were obtained from school records. The
results suggest that brighter children are more
concerned about academic achievement.
Evaluation of GAS
• To summarise, the GAS incorrectly
assumes that all stressors produce the same
physiological reactions and fails to take
account of psychosocial factors in stress.
Even so the GAS is basically a valid model
of stress.
Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory
Selye assumed
that stress
depended only
on the intensity
of the stressor.
Stressor
Appraisal
Lazarus proposed
that a mental
process determines
whether stress
occurs.
G. A. S.
Healthy Adaptation or Illness
Lazarus and Folkman’s Theory
Stressor
Primary Appraisal: Is Stressor Negative?
Can be negative if it involves harm or loss,
threat, or challenge (chance to grow).
Yes
No
Secondary Appraisal: Can I Control the
Situation?
If coping resources are adequate, then
consider options: problem-focused or
emotion-focused coping strategies.
No
Stress
Lazarus and Folkman’s Theory
The Stress Response
• Physiological component: Arousal, hormone
secretion.
• Emotional Component: Anxiety, fear, grief,
resentment, excitement (if stress is from
challenge).
• Behavioral Component: Coping strategies (both
behavioral and mental)—problem focused
and/or emotion-focused.
The level of stress we experience depends
mainly on the adequacy of our resources for
coping and how much they will be drained by
the stressful situation.
Cognitive appraisal
• Lazarus and Folkman (1984) propose a model that
emphases the transactional nature of stress. Stress
is a two way process; the environment produces
stressors and the individual finds ways to deal
with these.
• Cognitive appraisal is a mental process by which
people assessed two factors:
1. Whether a demand threatens their well being
2. Whether a person considers that they have the
resources to meet the demand of the stressor
Cognitive appraisal
• There are two types of appraisal:
1.Primary
2.Secondary.
Primary appraisal
• During the primary appraisal stage a person
will be seeking answers as to the meaning
of the situation with regard to their well
being. One of three types of appraisals
could be made:
1.It is irrelevant
2.It is good (benign-positive)
3.It is stressful.
Primary appraisal
• Imagine there was a snow blizzard. You might
consider that the blizzard would not affect you, as
you do not have to go to work the following day.
You might consider the blizzard a blessing
because this means that your college exam would
be postponed or you can go skiing! The situation
could be stressful because you have few supplies
and you need to get to the shops and driving
would be hazardous.
Primary appraisal
• Further appraisal is made with regard to 3
implications:
1.Harm-loss
2.Threat
3.Challenge.
Harm-loss
• Harm-loss refers to the amount of
damage that has already occurred. There
may have been an injury. The seriousness
of this injury could be exaggerated
producing a lot of stress.
Threat
• Threat is the expectation of future harm,
for example the fear of losing one's job
and income. Much stress depends on
appraisals that involve harm-loss and
threat.
Challenge
• Challenge is a way of viewing the stress
in a positive way. The stress of a higherlevel job could be seen as an opportunity
to expand skills, demonstrate ability, and
make more money.
Primary appraisal
• The stress transaction can be vicarious.
Empathising with others who are in stress. An
example of vicarious stress is a study, which
involved showing college-student subjects a film,
called "Sub-incision" (Speisman et al, 1964). The
film showed a right of passage for young
adolescent boys in a primitive society in which the
underside of the penis is cut deeply from the tip to
the scrotum using a sharp stone.
Primary appraisal
• The subjects were divided into four groups. One
group saw the film with no sound. Another group
heard a soundtrack with a "trauma" narrative
emphasising the pain, danger, and primitiveness of
the operation. A third group heard a "denial"
narration that denied the pain and potential harm
to the boys, describing them as willing participants
in a joyful occasion who "look forward to the
happy conclusion of the ceremony."
Primary appraisal
• The fourth group heard a " scientific" narration
that encouraged viewers to watch in a detached
manner-for example, the narrator commented, "as
you can see, the operation is formal and the
surgical technique, while crude, is very carefully
followed." Physiological and self-report measures
of stress were taken. The physiological measure
was of the heart rate during the viewing of the
film. The self-report measures were questionnaires
that evaluated feelings of stress immediately after
the film was shown.
Primary appraisal
• Those who heard the trauma narration
reacted with more stress than the control
group (no sound); those who heard the
denial and scientific narrations reacted with
less stress than the control group.
• Male Circumcision (Africa)
Secondary appraisal
• Secondary appraisals occur at the same time as
primary appraisals. A secondary appraisal can
actually cause a primary appraisal. Secondary
appraisals include feelings of not being able to
deal with the problem such as:
• I can't do it-I know I'll fail
• I will try, but my chances are slim
• I can do it if I get help
• If this method fails, I can try a few others.
• I can do it if I work hard.
• No problem-I can do it.
Secondary appraisal
• Stress can occur without appraisal such as
when your car is involved in an accident
and you haven't had time to think about
what has happened. Accidents can often
cause a person to be in shock. It is difficult
for people to make appraisals whilst in
shock as their cognitive functioning is
impaired.
Eustress and Distress
• Eustress
– The pleasurable stress that accompanies
positive events. For example, a person may
receive a $10,000 bonus and experience stress
in deciding how to spend the money.
• Distress
– The unpleasant stress that accompanies
negative events.
Individual Differences and Stress
• Hardiness
– Is a person’s ability to cope with stress.
– People with hardy personalities have an internal locus
of control, are strongly committed to the activities in
their lives, and view change as an opportunity for
advancement and growth.
• Optimism
– Is the extent to which a person sees life in relatively
positive terms.
– “Is the glass half empty or half full?”
– In general, optimistic people tend to handle stress
better than pessimistic people.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
• Type a
1.Competitive, achievements orientation.
Self-critical. No joy in accomplishments.
2.Time urgency. Impatient. Always on the
go. Do several things at once.
3.Anger/hostility easily aroused to anger,
which may be overt or covert.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
Type b
• Low levels of competitiveness, time
urgency and hostility. Easy going philosophical.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
An experiment by Glass et al (1980) had
participants playing a computer game
against a confederate. The game was
rigged so that it could not be won. A
prize was offered. A structured
interview determined whether
participants were type a or type b.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
Half of each type were harassed by the
confederate the other half played with
that the confederate in silence. Several
physiological measures were taken.
Both type a and type b participants
showed increases in stress. In the
harassment condition type a showed
more stress than type b.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
Factors that play a part in producing type a
behaviour are:
• Intrapersonal. Behaviour is produced
as a result of controlling personal stress.
• Interpersonal. They are more
competitive and when insulted are more
likely to be aggressive.
Type a/type b (Friedman and
Rosenman, 1974)
3 Institutional. The is limited opportunity
for promotion and therefore more
competition. A demanding boss or
teacher.
4 Cultural. The work ethic. The
importance of having expensive status
symbols.
Suzanne Kobasa (1979)
•
I.
II.
III.
People who can handle stress possess
'hardiness'.
There are three components
Control - can you control events? (See Locus
of control)
Commitment - Sense of purpose, involvement.
Challenge - problems seen as an opportunity
for personal growth.
Suzanne Kobasa (1979)
•
Kobasa (1979) - High stress executives
2 groups - high illness Vs low illness.
Using questionnaire, the low illness
group had more hardiness.
Suzanne Kobasa (1979)
•
I.
II.
III.
Problems
People vary with their personality. Unlikely to
be one type of person all of the time.
Only looked at white professional American
men - may not be true of other groups.
Hardiness and social support correlate so what
is attributed to hardiness could really be the
effect of social support (Blaney & Ganellen,
1990).
Figure 9.2
Causes and
Consequence
s of Stress
Common Causes of Stress:
Organizational Stressors
• Task Demands
– Stressors associated with the specific job a person
performs. Some occupations are by nature more
stressful than others.
• Physical Demands
– Stressors associated with the job’s physical setting,
such as the adequacy of temperature and lighting.
Figure 9.3 Workload, Stress, and Performance
Common Causes of Stress:
Organizational Stressors
• Role Demands
– Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to
play.
• Role ambiguity arises when a role is unclear.
• Role conflict occurs when the messages and cues constituting a role
are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive.
• Role overload occurs when expectations for the role exceed the
individual’s capacity.
• Interpersonal Demands
– Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and
personality conflicts.
Consequences of Stress: Individual
Consequences
• Behavioral Consequences
– The behavioral consequences of stress, such as alcohol
abuse, may harm the person under stress or others.
• Psychological Consequences
– Psychological consequences relate to a person’s mental
health and well-being.
• Medical Consequences
– Medical consequences affect a person’s physical wellbeing.
– Heart disease and stroke, among other illnesses, have been
linked to stress.
Consequences of Stress:
Organizational Consequences
• Performance
– One clear organizational consequence of too much
stress is a decline in performance.
• Withdrawal
– The most significant forms of withdrawal behavior
are absenteeism and quitting.
• Attitudes
– Stress can have a negative effect on job
satisfaction, morale, organizational commitment,
and motivation to perform at high levels.
Consequences of Stress: Burnout
• Burnout
– Is the general feeling of exhaustion that
develops when an individual
simultaneously experiences too much
pressure and has too few sources of
satisfaction.
The end