Alcohol
A variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol.
Biological rhythms
Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning.
Cannabis
The hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived.
Circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.
Dissociation
A splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness.
Electroencephalograph
(EEG)
A device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of
Electromyograph (EMG)
A device that records muscular activity and tension.
Electrooculograph (EOG)
A device that records eye movements.
Hallucinogens
A diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning,
recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp.
marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience.
Hypnosis
A systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility.
Insomnia
Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep.
Latent content
According to Freud, the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in a dream.
Manifest content
According to Freud, the plot of a dream at a surface level.
Meditation
A family of mental exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus
attention in a nonanalytical way.
Narcotics
Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain.
Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons in the brain.
Non-REM (NREM) sleep
Sleep stages 1 through 4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements,
relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity.
Opiates
Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. See Narcotics.
Physical dependence
The condition that exists when a person must continue to take a drug to
avoid withdrawal illness.
Psychoactive drugs
Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning.
Psychological dependence The condition that exists when a person must continue to take a drug
in order to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug.
REM sleep
A deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves,
and dreaming.
Sedatives
Sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and
behavioral activity.
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by frequent reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep.
Slow-wave sleep (SWS)
Sleep stages 3 and 4, during which low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings.
Somnambulism (sleepwalking)
Arising and wandering about while remaining asleep.
Stimulants
Drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioral activity.
Tolerance
A progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug.
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"Consciousnessis the awareness of internal and external stimuli."
Consciousness comprises 4 basic components:
•
Awareness of external events
•
Awareness of internal sensations
•
Awareness of the self as a unique being experiencing these events
•
And awareness of your thoughts about the experiences.
It is being sentient, which means possessing the ability to have feelings and perceptions. In short, it is
your personal awareness of yourself.
But it is experienced in different levels along a continuum of awareness.
-Freud argued that people’s feelings and behavior are influenced by unconsciousneeds, wishes, and
conflicts that lie below the surface of conscious awareness. According to Freud, the stream of
consciousness has depth. Conscious and unconscious processes are different levels of awareness. Thus,
Freud was one of the first theorists to recognize that consciousness is not an all-or-none phenomenon"
-The electroencephalograph(EEG) is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain
over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp. Ultimately,
the EEG summarizes the rhythm of cortical activity in the brain in terms of line tracings called
brain waves. These tracings vary in amplitude (height) and frequency (cycles per second, abbreviated
cps)
-Human brain-wave activity is usually divided into four principal bands, based on the frequency of
the brain waves. These bands, named after letters in the Greek alphabet, are beta (13–24 cps), alpha
(8–12 cps), theta (4–7 cps), and delta (under 4 cps)."
-Biological rhythms are periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning. The existence of these
rhythms means that organisms have internal “biological clocks” that somehow monitor the passage of
time."
Circadian rhythmsare the 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species. In
humans, circadian rhythms are particularly influential in the regulation of sleep (Moore, 2006).
However, daily cycles also produce rhythmic variations in blood pressure, urine production, hormonal
secretions, and other physical functions. These cycles also affect alertness, short-term memory,
and other aspects of cognitive performance "
If you ignore your natural circadian rhythms and don’t sleep at your usual times, or if you get out of
“sync” with it by flying across time zones it can cause poor quality of sleep and what is known as “jet
lag”.
Studies have shown that shifts workers who are constantly disrupting their circadian rhythms have a
higher incidence of physical diseases, including cancer, diabetes, ulcers, high blood pressure, and heart
disease.
There is new research that suggests small doses of the hormone melatonin can help alleviate negative
effects of disruptions.
"Scientists have learned a great deal about sleep since the landmark discovery of REM sleep in
the 1950s"
" In addition to an EEG, these devices typically include an electromyograph(EMG), which records
muscular ac-tivity and tension; anelectrooculograph(EOG),which records eye movements; and
anelectrocardiograph(EKG), which records the contractions of the heart
"During sleep, people cycle through a series of five distinct stages."
Stage 1-"in any event, stage 1 is a brief transitional stage of light sleep that usually lasts only 10–
12 minutes "
Stage 2-3: "As you descend through stages 2 and 3 of the sleep cycle, your respiration rate, heart
rate, muscle tension, and body temperature continue to decline. Stage 2 consists of light sleep and
typically lasts about 10–25 min-utes. Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and
slower in frequency as you move into stage 3 (see Figure 5.3). This stage brings a deep form of sleep
that is often referred to as slow-wave sleep because low-frequency delta waves become promi-nent
in EEG recordings. Typically, you reach slow-wave sleep in less than an hour and stay there
for roughly 20–40 minutes. "
REM Stage: "REM is the abbreviation for rapid eye movements, which are prominent during this
stage." "When researchers systematically awaken subjects from various stages of sleep to ask whether
they were dreaming, dream reports are notably more likely during the REM stage"
To summarize, REM sleep is a deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency
brain waves, and dreaming. It is such a special stage of sleep that the other three stages are often
characterized as “non-REM sleep.” Non-REM sleep consists of sleep stages 1 through 3, which are
marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity. The
three non-REM stages are often referred to as N1, N2, and N3.
The white line charts how a typical, healthy young adult moves through the various stages of sleep.
Dreams and rapid eye movements tend to coincide with REM sleep. Posture changes occur in between
REM periods.
Notice how the person cycles into REM four times, as descents into non-REM sleep get shallower and
REM periods get longer.
Thus, slow-wave sleep is prominent early in the night, while REM sleep dominates the second half of a
night’s sleep.
Although these patterns are typical, sleep patterns vary from one person to another and that they
change with age.
REM sleep is not unique to humans. Nearly all mammals and birds exhibit REM sleep. The only known
exceptions among warm-blooded vertebrates are dolphins and some whales (Morrison, 2003).
Dolphins are particularly interesting, as they sleep while swimming, resting one hemisphere of the brain
while the other hemisphere remains alert.
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Both the total amount of sleep per night and the portion of sleep that is REM sleep change with age.
Sleep patterns change most dramatically during infancy, with total sleep time and amount of REM sleep
declining sharply in the first two years of life.
After a noticeable drop in the average amount of sleep in adolescence, sleep patterns remain relatively
stable, although total sleep and slow-wave sleep continue to decline gradually with age.
It has typically been thought that culture did not have any significant effect on sleep patterns around the
world. However recent studies seem to shown that there differences in ethnic groups in the U.S., with
whites and African Americans reporting the worst quality of sleep and Asians the best.
Many countries in tropical or hotter climates adjust their sleep patterns to allow for rest during the heat
of the day. They are called “siesta cultures”.
"some studies suggest that sleep deprivation is not as detrimental as most people subjectively feel it to
be. On the other hand, evidence suggests that sleep deprivation may be a major social problem,
undermining efficiency at work and contributing to countless accidents"
Research has mostly focused on partial sleep deprivation, or sleep restriction, which occurs when
people make do with substantially less sleep than normal over a period of time. Many sleep experts
believe that much of American society suffers from chronic sleep deprivation
"Studies indicate that sleep restriction can impair individuals’ attention, reaction time, motor
coordination, and decision making and may also have negative effects on endocrine and immune
system functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2011). Sleep deprivation has also been blamed for a large
proportion"
According to William Dement, a leading researcher on the subject, “sleep deprivation is a major
epidemic in our society. Americans spend so much time and energy chasing the American dream that
they don’t have much time left for actual dreaming.”
Many traffic accidents occur because drivers get drowsy or fall asleep at the wheel.
"What are the effects of REM deprivation? The evidence indicates that it has little im-pact on daytime
functioning and task performance, but it does have some interesting effects on subjects’ patterns
of sleeping"
"Whereas most subjects normally go into REM about four times a night, REM-deprived
participants start slipping into REM every time the researchers turn around. Furthermore, when
a REM-deprivation experiment comes to an end and participants are allowed to sleep without
interruption, they experience a “rebound effect.” That is, they spend extra time in REM periods for one
to three nights to make up for their REM deprivation"
"researchers conclude that people must have specific needs for REM and slow-wave sleep—and
rather strong needs, at that. Why do we need REM and slow-wave sleep? Some influential studies
suggest that REM and slow-wave sleep contribute to firming up learning that takes place during the
day—a process called memory consolidation."
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"Accumulating evidence suggests that sleep loss can affect physiological processes in ways that may
undermine physical health. For exam-ple, sleep restriction appears to trigger hormonal changes that
increase hunger "
"just one night of sleep deprivation increased the caloric value of food purchased the next
morn-ing by 9% Consistent with these findings, studies have found a link between short sleep duration
and increased obesity, which is a risk factor for a variety of health problems (Knutson, 2012).
Researchers have also found that sleep loss leads to impaired immune system functioning (Motivala &
Irwin, 2007) and increased inflammatory responses ,which are likely to heighten vulnerability to a
variety of diseases."
" people who consistently sleep less than 7 hours exhibit an elevated mortality risk, but so do
those who routinely sleep more than 8 hours. In fact, mortality rates are especially high among
those who sleep more than 10 hours"
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There are a wide variety of sleep disorders.
The most common is Insomnia. " Insomnia refers to chronic problems in getting adequate sleep that
result in daytime fatigue and impaired functioning"
It occurs in three basic patterns:
•
difficulty falling asleep
•
difficulty staying asleep
•
and persistent early-morning awakening.
It is seen in about 30 to 35% of adults, and is more prevalent in women and seems to increase with
aging.
Other disorders include:
•
Narcolepsy – a disease marked by sudden and irresistible
waking periods
•
Sleep Apnea – which involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and
disrupts sleep, and is accompanied by loud snoring
•
Somnambulism – as depicted in this cartoon – is sleep walking, and occurs when a person arises
and wanders about while remaining asleep. It is seen in about 15% of children and 3% of adults.
onsets of sleep during normal
. "REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)is marked by potentially troublesome dream enactments
during REM periods. People who exhibit this syndrome may talk, yell, gesture, flail about, or leap out of
bed during their REM dreams. "RBD occurs mostly in men, who typically begin experiencing this problem
in their 50s or 60s. "
Although there is evidence that dreaming occurs in all stages of sleep, for the most part the most vivid
dreams occur in the REM sleep stage.
Certain themes tend to be more common in dreaming, which can be seen in the chart on page 156 of
your text.
They include being nude in public, being chased, being late as in missing a train, and the feeling of
falling. It is a common myth that if you don’t awaken before you hit the ground you will actually die, but
since people who have died in their sleep can’t actually tell us if they were dreaming of falling, we can’t
really verify that.
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Theories of dreaming
1-"Sigmund Freud (1900), who analyzed clients’ dreams in therapy, believed that the prin-cipal purpose
of dreams is wish fulfillment. He thought that people fulfill unmet needs from waking hours
through wishful thinking in dreams. For example, if you were feeling unconscious guilt about being rude
to a friend, you might dream about the incident in a way that renders you blameless."
2-"Other theorists, such as Rosalind Cartwright, have proposed that dreams provide an opportunity to
work through everyday problems and emotional issues"
" According to her problem-solving/mood-regulation view,dreams allow people to reflect on recent
emotional experiences and regulate their emo-tional tone. She asserts that dreaming contributes to
improvements in mood when people awaken"
"Research showing that REM sleep can enhance learning has added new credibility to the problemsolving view of dreams"
3-"J. Allan Hobson and colleagues argue that dreams are simply the by-product of bursts of activity
emanating from subcortical areas in the brain. Their activation-synthesis model(Hobson & McCarley,
1977; McCarley, 1994) and its more recent revisions propose that dreams are side effects of the
neural activation that produces the beta brain waves during REM sleep that are associated with
wakefulness."
" In contrast with the theories of Freud and Cartwright, this theory obviously downplays the role of
emotional factors as determinants of dreams. Like other theories of dreams, the activation-synthesis
model has its share of critics. They point out that the model has a hard time explaining the fact that
dreaming occurs outside REM sleep, that damage to the pons does not eliminate dreaming, "
……………………………
Hypnosis has a long and checkered history. It all began with a flamboyant 18th-century Austrian by the
name of Franz Anton Mesmer
"Hypnosisis a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility.
It may also lead to passive relaxation, narrowed attention, and enhanced fantasy."
"Many in-teresting effects can be produced in people who are susceptible to hypnosis. Some of the
more prominent hypnotic phenomena include:
"1. Anesthesia. Drugs are more reliable, but hypnosis can be surprisingly effective in the treatment of
both acute and chronic pain
2. Sensory distortions ; people may hear sounds or see things that they aren’t there or fail to hear or see
stimuli that are present
"3. Disinhibition. Hypnosis can sometimes reduce inhibitions that would normally prevent subjects
from acting in ways they would see as immoral or unacceptable. In experiments, hypnotized
subjects have been induced to throw what they believed to be nitric acid into the face of a research
assistant."
"4. Posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia. Suggestions made during hypnosis may influ-ence a
participant’s later behavior (Cox & Bryant, 2008). The most common posthypnotic suggestion is the
creation of posthypnotic amnesia. That is, subjects who are told that they will remember nothing
that happened while they were hypnotized do indeed usually remember nothing."
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". The failure to find changes in brain activity that are consistently associated with hypnosis has led
some theorists to conclude that hypnosis is a normal state of consciousness that is characterized by
dramatic role playing"
"The role-playing view asserts that hypnosis produces a normal mental state in which suggestible
people act out the role of a hypnotic subject and behave as they think hypno-tized people are supposed
to "
1-"Two lines of evidence support the role-playing view. First, many of the seemingly amazing
effects of hypnosis have been duplicated by nonhypnotized subjects or have been shown to be
exaggerated "
2-"The second line of evidence involves demonstrations that hypnotized participants are often
acting out a role. For example, Martin Orne (1951) regressed hypnotized sub-jects back to their sixth
birthday and asked them to describe it."
"The most influential explanation of hypnosis as an altered state of awareness has been offered by
Ernest Hilgard (1986, 1992). According to Hilgard, hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness.
Dissociation is a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of
awareness. In other words, Hilgard theorizes that hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams: one
stream is in communication with the hypnotist and the external world, while the other is a difficultto-detect “hidden observer.”
"One appealing aspect of Hilgard’s theory is that divided consciousness is a common, normal experience.
For example, people will often drive a car a great distance, responding to traffic signals and other cars,
with no recollection of having consciously done those specific actions."
"Interestingly, this common experience has long been known as highway hypnosis. In summary,
Hilgard presents hypnosis as a plausible variation in consciousness that has continuity with everyday
experience"
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"Meditationrefers to a family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental
processes under greater voluntary control. In North America, the most widely practiced approaches
to meditation are those associated with yoga, Zen, and transcendental meditation (TM). All three
are rooted in Eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism). However, meditation has been
practiced throughout history as an element of all religious and spiritual traditions, including Judaism and
Christianity"
"The drugs that people use recreationally are termed psychoactive. Psychoactive drugs are
chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning.Not all
psychoactive drugs produce effects that lead to recreational use. Generally, users prefer drugs that
elevate their mood or produce other pleasurable alterations in consciousness. "
"The six categories of psychoactive drugs that we will focus on are narcotics, sedatives, stimulants,
hallucinogens, cannabis, and alcohol."
1-"Narcotics,oropiates,are drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain.The main
drugs in this category are heroin and morphine, "
2-"Sedativesare sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation
and behavioral activity. Historically, the most widely abused sedatives have been the barbiturates."
3-"Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioral
activity. Stimulants range from mild, widely available drugs, such as caffeine and nicotine, to stronger,
carefully regulated ones, such as cocaine and amphetamines. "
4-"Hallucinogensare a diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional
functioning, marked most notably by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience. The principal
hallucinogens are LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. These drugs have similar effects, although they
vary in potency. Hallucinogens produce euphoria, increased sensory awareness, and a distorted sense of
time."
5-"Cannabisis the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived. Marijuana is a
mixture of dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds taken from the plant, while hashish comes
from the plant’s resin. Smoking is the usual route of ingestion for both marijuana and hashish.
6-"Alcohol encompasses a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol, such as beers, wines, and
distilled spirits."
"A drug’s effects can also change as the person’s body develops a tolerance to the chemical. Tolerance
refers to a progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug as a result of continued use.
Tolerance usually leads people to consume larger and larger doses of a drug to attain the effects they
desire"
The neural circuits shown here in blue make up the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. Axons in this
pathway run from an area in the midbrain through the medial forebrain bundle to the nucleus
accumbens and on to the prefrontal cortex. Recreational drugs affect a variety of neurotransmitter
systems, but theorists believe that heightened dopamine activity in this pathway—especially the portion
running from the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens—is responsible for the reinforcing effects of most
abused drugs.
The health risks of marijuana have generated considerable debate in recent years.
Most studies agree that chronic use increases the risk of respiratory and pulmonary disease, and some
have indicated a connection to lung cancer also exists. There have even been links found between
psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia.
Although most agree the dangers are real, they think the dangers are exaggerated, and contrary to
popular reports it appears there is no meaningful reduction to the immune system or significant effects
on male smokers’ fertility or sexual functioning.