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Educational Theories & Philosophy in American Schools
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EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Chapter 11: Educational Theory in American Schools: Philosophy in Action Philosophy Provides the Foundation for Educational Theories Dr. Stewart EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 2 Philosophy -- Theory z Educational theory is the application of philosophy to the classroom. z Organization of Curriculum z Manner of Instruction z Character of school environment z Grading and testing (assessment) z Varies from school to school and state to state Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 3 Authoritarian / Nonauthoritarian z Idealism / EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 4 Convergent / Divergent Thinking z One Realism z Pragmatism / Existentialism Fall 2006 Fall 2006 Possible Answer z Possibility of Many Answers 5 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 6 1 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Authoritarian Authoritarian z Purpose z Attention of education is to train pupil’s minds so they can deal with intellectual concepts of life. z Mastery of facts and information z Any child can learn any subject at any level if the subject matter is properly presented z “Mastery Teaching” Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education to test scores level achievement z P.A.S.S z Accountability z More traditional teaching strategies z Convergent Thinking—One answer to question, and the teacher has it! z Grade 7 Fall 2006 Authoritarian--Idealism z Learning Focus—subject matter of physical world: math, science z Curriculum goal—Mastery of laws of the universe z Teaching method—mastery of information and skills: lecture, recitation, demonstration z Character development—rules of conduct z Aesthetic development—study of design in nature Focus—subject matter of the mind: literature, history, philosophy, religion z Curriculum goal—same education for all z Teaching method—lecture, discussion z Character development—imitation z Aesthetic development—study of masterworks, values of past heritage EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 9 Nonauthoritarian is not just a muscle to be developed (John Dewey) z Human beings are problem solvers who profit from experience z Importance of the individual and personal awareness z Interest aroused through student inquiry z Divergent thinking—possibility of multiple answers to question EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 10 Nonauthoritarian--Pragmatism z Mind Fall 2006 8 Authoritarian--Realism z Learning Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 11 z Learning Focus—social experience of new social z Curriculum goal—creation order z Teaching method—problem solving, project method and development z Character development—group decision making in light of consequences z Aesthetic development—participation in art project based on cross-culture and universal values Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 12 2 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Nonauthoritarian--Existentialism z Learning Focus—subject matter of personal choice z Curriculum goal—personal freedom and development z Teaching method—Individual exploration: discovery method z Character development—development of individual responsibility z Aesthetic development—personal view of the world, self-initiated activities Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 13 Relationship of Philosophies to Educational Theories Eight Educational Theories z Perennialism z Essentialism z Behaviorism z Positivism z Progressivism z Reconstructionism z Humanism z Constructivism Fall 2006 z Principles of knowledge are enduring -“Everlasting” z Stress the time-honored ideas, the “Great Works”, and the ability to reason z The intellect must be nourished by contact with ideas z Truth resides in the nature of the things rather than n the sensory aspects of things. z Realism – Behaviorism & Positivism z Pragmatism – Progressivism & Reconstructionism z Existentialism – Humanism & Constructivism EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 14 Perennialism-(Idealism)---Basic Basic View Perennialism--(Idealism) z Idealism – Perennialism & Essentialism Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 15 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 16 Perennialism--Curriculum Perennialism--Focus of Learning z Early schooling best directed toward preparing children for maturity--3Rs z Secondary school level directed more toward “intellectually elite” z Vocational training for less gifted z Strong use of Great Books Program z Discipline the mind z Learner assumed to be rational and spiritual person z Reading, Writing, Recitation, Computation are considered important z Stress “Higher-Order Thinking Skills” – Hutchins and Adler – Studying the works of the leading scholars of history is the best way to a general education Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 17 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 18 3 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Essentialism--Basic View Essentialism-(Idealism)---Basic Basic View Essentialism--(Idealism) z Formulated z “Back z Common z Not by William C. Bagley--1938 Core of information and skills to the Basics” so intent on transmitting underlying basic truths z Advocate teaching that will help a person live a productive life today z Therefore this “core” of information can and will change needed z Three basic principles of Essentialism – Core of information – Hard work – Teacher-centered instruction Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 19 Essentialism--Focus of Learning z Transmit z Develop cultural heritage good citizens z emphasize core of fundamental knowledge and skills z develop sound habits of mental discipline z demand respect for authority in a structured learning situation EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 21 is a place where children come to learn what they need to know, and the teacher is the person who can best instruct students in essential matters z Role of teacher is “imparter of knowledge” z Role of student is “learner” Fall 2006 22 z Truth matter of symbol and content (Idealism)—laws of nature and universal truths of the physical world z Literature, history, foreign language, religion z Lecture, required reading, memorization, recitation, examinations 23 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Essentialism--Curriculum z Subject EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 20 Essentialism--Focus of Learning Essentialism--Curriculum Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education z School z How?-- Fall 2006 Fall 2006 is defined as observable fact, therefore field trips, laboratories, A/V materials and nature studies z Subject matter is the core of education z School is the curator of knowledge Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 24 4 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Essential Schools Movement Behaviorism-(Realism)---Basic Basic View Behaviorism--(Realism) z Theodore Sizer away the nonessentials z Focus on students “using their minds well” z Does not specify what specific content is essential z Essential schools required to analyze what curriculum should be and change the curriculum to emphasize this core. z Strip Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 25 Behaviorism--Basic View z Share common belief that a student’s misbehavior can be changed and reshaped in a socially acceptable manner by directly changing the student’s environment. z All people will attempt to avoid experiences and stimuli that are not pleasing and will seek experiences that are pleasing and rewarding. Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 27 z “Control the environment and you will control the individual’s behavior” z B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) z followed Pavlov z suggested that human behavior also could be explained as responses to external stimuli Fall 2006 of Facts evidence is essential--Scientific methodology z Develop learning environments that lead to desired behaviors in students for which they are rewarded and will be motivated to continue z Empirical Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 29 26 Behaviorism--Focus of Learning z Behavior is determined by environment, not heredity z School environment highly structured z Curriculum based on behavioral objectives z Knowledge is best described as behaviors that are observable Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 28 Behaviorism--Reinforcement Behaviorism--Curriculum z Mastery EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education z Positive reinforcement z Negative reinforcement z Some believe negative reinforcement is ineffective z Punishment z “Extinguished” Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 30 5 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Positivism (Realism) Behaviorism--Reinforcement z Auguste z Not concerned about the cause of student’s problems z Discover what is happening in the classroom environment and change it to allow student’s behavior to change Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 31 Positivism—Focus of Learning Comte (kont) (1798-1857) thinking of humankind into three historical periods—each characterized by distinct way of thinking z Theological era—people explained things by reference to spirits and gods z Metaphysical era—explained by causes, essences, and inner principles z Positive period—do not attempt to go beyond observable, measurable facts z Divided Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 32 Progressivism-(Pragmatism)---Basic Basic Views Progressivism--(Pragmatism) z Acquisition of facts based on empirical observation z Schools must develop content standards that represent understandings of experts z Students are encouraged to master these understandings and to develop their own skills of observation, classification, and logical analysis z Objective testing—all tested with same objective set of criteria Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 33 z Pierce (1839-1914) founded Pragmatism--1800s z Need for people to be able to adjust to change z Alvin Toffler--”Future Shock” – First wave--agriculture – Second wave--industry – Third wave--information Fall 2006 z William James (1842-1914)--Pragmatism-theory of truth – Meaning and value of ideas only found in practical results – Satisfactory working of an idea constitutes its whole truth z John Dewey (1859-1952)--founder of Progressivism – Ideas must always be tested by experiment EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 35 34 Progressivism--Focus of Learning Progressivism--Basic Views Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education z Educational theory that emphasizes that ideas should be tested by experimentation z Learning is rooted in questions developed by the learners z Progressivists favor human experience as basis for knowledge Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 36 6 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Progressivism--Focus of Learning Progressivism--Curriculum z Encourages divergent thinking z Experience-centered curricula stresses process of learning rather than the results z Interest in an intellectual activity will generate the practice needed for learning. z Emphasize learning how to think rather than what to think z Should actively prepare students for change z Flexibility is important in curriculum design z Life experience determines content Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 37 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Progressivism 38 Progressivism z Sees the learner as an experiencing, thinking, exploring individual z Goal is to expose the learner to the subject matter of: z social experiences, z social studies, z projects, z problems, and z experiments that….. Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 39 z when studied, by the scientific method, will result in functional knowledge from all subjects. z Books are tools of learning—not a source of indisputable knowledge. Fall 2006 z Founded by Counts, Rugg, and Brameld that Progressivism had made advances beyond Essentialism in the area of teacher-pupil relations and teaching methodology z However--Progressivism fixated too heavily on needs of the child and failed to develop long-range goals for society z Calls for new social order that will fulfill basic democratic ideals z People should control institutions and resources z This can happen if international democracy of world government z Recognized EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 41 40 Reconstructionism--Basic Views Reconstructionism-(Pragmatism Reconstructionism--(Pragmatism & Existentialism)-Basic Views Existentialism)--Basic Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 42 7 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Reconstructivism--Focus of Learning Reconstructivism--Curriculum z Critical z Critically analyze world events z Explore controversial issues z Develop vision for new and better world z Promote programs of cultural renewal Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 43 – Provides students with critical thinking tools z Public Education should be the direct instrument of world reformation z Use moral dilemmas to direct attention toward social and world reform Fall 2006 Humanism--(Existentialism)-Basic Views z Based on the writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) all things good; man meddles with them and they become evil.” z Humans are born free and “good” at birth z Become enslaved by institutions EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 45 with enhancing the innate goodness of the individual z Rejects group-oriented educational system z Believe that most schools de-emphasize the individual and the relationship between the teacher and the student. Fall 2006 46 z Goal--complete should be a process of developing a free, self-actualizing person, centered on the feelings of the student. z Education does not start with great ideas, the world, or humankind, but with the individual self. 47 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Humanism--Curriculum z Education EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 44 Humanism--Basic Views Humanism--Focus of Learning Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education z Concerned z In “Émile,” Rousseau states “God makes Fall 2006 Pedagogy – Unites theory and practice autonomous person z Education should be without coercion or prescription z Students should be active and encouraged to make their own choices Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 48 8 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education Humanism School Environments Humanism--Curriculum z Instruction z “We based on student interest, abilities, and needs z Students determine rules, books, and exercises z Divergent thinking is completely honored Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education are people, not numbers!” z Nel Noddings—”an environment of caring” z A.S. Neil--Summerhill z Block Scheduling z Open classrooms z Area Vocational Centers 49 Fall 2006 Constructivism (Existentialism) EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 50 Constructivism (Existentialism) activity-based teaching & learning z Considers students as “active” learners who should be given opportunities to construct their own frames of thought. z “True” learning is the active framing of personal meaning rather that the framing of someone else’s meaning. z Encourage Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 51 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 52 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 53 Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 54 z Hands-on, development of critical thinking of big ideas rather than mastery of factual information z Teach “how to learn” rather than facts z Students learn by shaping their own understandings about their world z This does not “fit” with current school structure. z Understanding 9 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education The End Fall 2006 EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education 55 10
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